the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
However, after a good run of results to start their Division 2 campaign, Campbell and the Ross County board decided to part company on 2 October 2007.
Derek Adams (son of George Adams) took over as caretaker, and was confirmed as permanent manager a month later, after the side's good form continued.
Irn-Bru is a carbonated drink made by Barrs in Scotland, United Kingdom.
It was invented in Glasgow in 1901.
It is a bright orange colour, and is nicknamed "Scotland's other national drink" – a reference to whisky.
One notable advertising slogan was "Made in Scotland from Girders".
Although not made from girders, Irn-Bru does actually contain iron: it has an ammonium ferric citrate content of 0.002%.
In 1999, Irn Bru was included in the book Oxford Companion to Food along with caviar, quail and smoked salmon as one of the world's great foods.
The drink's inclusion was because it is "important for its symbolic value as well as its refreshing qualities".
Irn-Bru is a sponsor of the Scottish Football League.
It currently sponsors the Scottish First Division, Scottish Second Division and the Scottish Third Division.
The  Irn-Bru Scottish Football League First Division (or Scottish First Division) is a professional football competition in Scotland.
It is found on the second level of the Scottish football system, below the Scottish Premier League.
It is the top level of the Scottish Football League.
The club who wins the Scottish First Division is promoted to the Scottish Premier League (SPL), if they meet stadium criteria.
They must have at least 6,000 seats in their stadium.
The team who finishes last in the SPL is relegated to the Scottish First Division.
The bottom club in the First Division is relegated to the Second Division.
While the second bottom club goes to a play-off with the second, third and fourth placed clubs from the Second Division.
Dunfermline Athletic
Greenock Morton
1890 establishments in the United Kingdom
A rain gauge is an instrument used by meteorologists and hydrologists to measure  liquid precipitation (rain) in a certain amount of time.
It is usually measured in millimetres and inches.
Rain gauge is a meteorological instrument for determining the depth of precipitation (usually in mm) that occurs over a unit area (usually one metre square) and thus measuring rainfall amount.
One millimetre of measured precipitation is the equivalent to one litre of rainfall per metre square.
Usually a tapering funnel of copper or polyester of standard dimension allows the rain water to collect in an enclosed bottle or cylinder for subsequent measurement.
The gauge is set in open ground with the funnel rim up to 30 cm above the ground surface.
Some gauges are calibrated to allow the amount of rainfall to be read directly; with others it must be calculated from the depth of water in the container and the dimensions of the funnel.
The second type of rain gauge is the autographic gauge which can be either of the tilting-siphon type or the tipping-bucket type.
The recording chart on an autographic rain gauge is mounted on a drum which is driven by clockwork and typically rotates round a vertical axis once per day.
For a tilting-siphon rain gauge, the rainwater in a collector displaces a float so that a marking pen attached to the float makes a continuous trace on the paper.
The two buckets in a tipping-bucket rain gauge rest on a pivot so that when one bucket has received 0.2 (or 0.5 mm) of rain it tips by gravity, empties the rainwater and allows the other bucket to start collection.
During the tip, an electrical switch is closed and triggers a nearby autographic recorder to register each 'tilt', thus giving a fairly continuous record of precipitation and, in a more sophisticated form, even rainfall intensity.
Rain gauges must be sited in as representative a location as possible, but the choice of location is difficult, since many precipitation events are highly aggregate.
King Sejong the Great was the man who introduced rain gauge to the world.
There are advantages and disadvantages of this instrument.
Zürich S-Bahn (German S-Bahn Zürich) is a suburban rail system that links Zürich to its metropolitan area.
The system started in 1990, when it was the first suburban rail system to begin operating in Switzerland.
Mid 2008, there were 380 kilometres of railway track, 171 stations and 28 lines.
In 2007, about 355’653 passengers used the system every day.
Since 2002, there are also 7 lines that run at night during weekends, in the nights Friday-Saturday, and Saturday-Sunday.
Usually, there is one train per hour.
Some lines only have one train every two hours.
There are also some bus lines.
Usually, traveling with these night lines requires an extra fare, which has to be bought in addition to the normal ticket.
Between 75 and 80 million people use the system every year.
About 70% of the people living in the area use the system.
Plans include gradually introducing 4 trains per hour on most lines, and to extend the offer to 4 trains per hour between Zürich and Winterthur during the whole day, and not just during rush hour.
A new tunnel was built in Zürich main station.
This tunnel allows a direct connection from Zürich main station to Oerlikon and the airport, without a change of direction.
While TFK had rap influences, obvious with Trevors vocals in earlier TFK albums, "The Flame In All Of Us" and "Welcome To the Masquerade" have moved away from that, and used a more rock based sound.
But "The End Is Where We Begin" returns to the band's Rap roots.
The band is known for a lot of touring.
They usually do 200 concerts in a year.
Spring 2008 (march to may) is when TFK went on the comatose Tour (see Concert) and performed in over 30 cities.
They have toured with bands such as skillet.
About the band
The name Thousand Foot Krutch came from the belief that God is a crutch you can lean on, even if your problems pile a thousand feet high.
What they mean is, you can ask God for help even if you have very serious or many problems in your life.
They have gone through certain line-up changes.
For example, Steve Augustine has not always been a part of the band, and Christian Harvey was their original drummer.
That's What People Do - 1997
Set it Off - 2001
Phenomenon - 2003
The Art of Breaking - 2005
The Flame in All of Us - 2007
Welcome To The Masquerade - 2009
The End Is Where We Begin - 2012
Made In Canada: The 1998-2010 Collection - 2013
Oxygen: Inhale - 2014
Exhale - 2016
Christian music bands
Rosh Hashanah (, literally "head of the year," Biblical: , Israeli: , Yiddish: ) is a Jewish holiday commonly referred to as the "Jewish New Year."
It is observed on the first day of Tishrei, the seventh month of the Hebrew calendar.
The festival lasts for two days.
Rosh Hashanah is the first of the High Holidays or Yamim Noraim (), or Asseret Yemei Teshuva (The Ten Days of Repentance) which are days specifically set aside to focus on repentance that conclude with the holiday of Yom Kippur.
The story of Rosh Hashanah is about Abraham and his belief in God when he was told to sacrifice his son.
5778 = 2017-2018
5779 = 2018-2019
5780 = 2019-2020
5781 = 2020-2021
5782 = 2021-2022
In linguistics, a mass noun is a common noun that refers to an amount, not an item or unit.
Common mass nouns are water, chocolate, meat, time, and space.
Mass nouns are always singular and uncountable.
The set of uncountable nouns and mass nouns is not identical.
There are uncountable nouns, such as scissors which refer to an item, are plural, and are not mass nouns.
In some languages like English, mass nouns have different grammar than countable nouns.
Their requirements for determiners, for example differ.
Other languages, such as Japanese, do not treat mass nouns in any special way.
Dianthus is a genus of about 300 species of flowering plants in the family Caryophyllaceae, found mainly in Europe and Asia, with a few species found south to north Africa, and one species (D. repens) in Arctic North America.
Common names include carnation (D. caryophyllus), pink (D. plumarius and related species) and sweet william (D. barbatus).
The name Dianthus is from the Greek words dios ("god") and anthos ("flower"), and was mentioned by the Greek botanist Theophrastus.
Many migrants, people who come to America from other countries, come to America because they hope for a better life.
America is attractive to migrants, because often there is more freedom to become rich or famous than the country that they leave.
The standard icon of the American Dream is the Statue of Liberty.
To Live Freely
The American Dream is also a main theme in the book by John Steinbeck, Of Mice and Men.
The two friends George and Lennie dream of their own piece of land with a ranch, so they can "live off the fatta the lan'" and just enjoy a better life.
But the symbolism shows this is futile due to the fact that it will never happen, and Lennie ends up being shot in the back of the head as a mercy killing, like Candy's dog.
This shows that not everyone can achieve the American dream, thus proving by contradiction it is not possible.
Although it is possible to achieve the American dream for few.
A lot of people follow the American dream to achieve a greater chance of becoming rich.
This was easier in the 1900s and now it is really hard to achieve the American dream because of all the competition and hard work required to achieve this dream.
This is also shown in The Great Gatsby.
Jason Upton (born December 15, 1973) is an independent Christian worship leader and musician.
He has a large underground following.
Key of David (2000)
Faith (2001)
Jacob's Dream (2002)
Dying Star (2002)
Remember (2003)
Trusting the Angels (2004)
Great River Road (2005)
Open Up the Earth (2005)
Beautiful People (2007)
Between Earth and Sky (2007)
1200 FT Below Sea Level (2008)
On the Rim of the Visible World (2009) w/ the Good Land Band
Singers from Minneapolis, Minnesota
Richard Dean Anderson (born January 23, 1950, in Minneapolis, Minnesota) is an American television actor.
He is best known for his role as the title character in the television series MacGyver, and for his role as Jack O'Neill in the television series Stargate SG-1.
Michael Garrett Shanks (born December 15, 1970, Vancouver, British Columbia) is a Canadian actor, writer and director.
He became famous for his role as Dr. Daniel Jackson on the television series Stargate SG-1.
He also provided the voice of the character Thor for this show.
He is a film and television actor.
Michael Shanks Online - The Official Michael Shanks Website
Michael Shanks TV Guide Blog
Mycobacterium leprae is a bacteria.
It causes the disease, leprosy, also known as Hanson's Disease.
The bacterium was discovered in 1873 by a Norwegian doctor named Gerhard Armauer Hansen.
M. leprae is a gram-positive, aerobic rod surrounded by the characteristic waxy coating unique to Mycobacteria.
In size and shape, it closes resembles  M. tuberculosis.
Due to its thick, waxy coating, stains with carbol-fuchsin are used, rather than with the traditional Gram staining method.
"Smells Like Teen Spirit" is a song by the American grunge band, Nirvana, from their second album Nevermind.
It is their most famous song, and one of the most famous songs ever.
Many people thought the song represented the ideas of the people in Generation X (people born in the United States between 1965 and 1980.)
Writing the song
The song was written by all three members of Nirvana.
It was written to sound like a song that the Pixies (a band that Kurt Cobain enjoyed) wrote.
It was originally a much faster song than the final version was.
The title "Smells Like Teen Spirit" came from when Cobain's friend Kathleen Hanna spray painted "Kurt Smells Like Teen Spirit" on his wall. "
Teen Spirit" was the name of the deodorant that Cobain's girlfriend Tobi Vail wore.
But Cobain thought it was a symbol for a "revolutionary" song or a "punk rock anthem."
People's opinions of the song
Smells Like Teen Spirit was released in 1991.
It was the first single from Nevermind.
Nirvana expected the song to not become very famous.
They expected the next single, "Come as You Are", to be their big hit.
However, radio stations in Seattle played Smells Like Teen Spirit, and it became a hit.
Come as You Are was not as popular.
Many people who listened to the song were not able to understand what Kurt Cobain was singing.
This was because he mumbled throughout the song, and the lyrics did not make sense to them.
Because of this, "Weird Al" Yankovic made a parody of the song called "Smells Like Nirvana".
1991 songs
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a bacterium that causes tuberculosis.
M. tuberculosis was first described on 24 March 1882 by Robert Koch.
The bacterium was first called the "tubercle bacillus", and is now also known as Koch's bacillus.
This disease is spread by the air and from getting coughed or sneezed on by an infected patient.
Tuberculosis used to kill over half the people who were infected.
The bacterium was almost wiped out by antibiotics, but is now a threat again because strains have appeared which are resistant to all the usual antibiotics.
Billabong started in the Gold Coast in 1973 when surfing culture in Australia was popular.
Surfers Gordon and Rena Merchant wanted to create board shorts that were strong enough to withstand the weather conditions of surfing.
The name Billabong comes from the Wiradjuri word 'bilaban', which means a creek that runs during the rainy season.
Sand a finely divided rock found on beaches
George Sand (1804–1876), a French novelist
Sand, Shetland, a settlement on the Shetland Islands
Ebbe Sand (born 1972), a Danish former professional football (soccer) player
Amandine Aurore Lucile Dupin, later Baroness (French:baronne) Dudevant (1 July 1804 – 8 June 1876), best known by her pseudonym George Sand (), was a French novelist and feminist.
Sand's father, Maurice Dupin, was the grandson of the Marshall General of France, Maurice, Comte de Saxe.
He was also a distant relative of Louis XVI.
Her mother, Sophie-Victoire Delaborde was a common woman.
Sand was born in Paris.
She spent much of her childhood with her grandmother, Marie Aurore de Saxe, Madame Dupin de Franceuil.
Her grandmother lived in  her  estate, Nohant, in the French region of Berry.
She later used the setting in many of her novels.
In 1822, at age 19, she married Baron Casimir Dudevant (1795–1871), illegitimate son of Jean-François.
She and Dudevant had two children: Maurice  (1823–1889) and Solange (1828–1899).
In early 1831 she left her prosaic husband and entered upon a four- or five-year period of "romantic rebellion."
In 1835 she was legally separated from Dudevant.
How other people who lived at the time saw her
Sand started to wear men's clothes in public.
This harmed her reputation.
She said that men's clothes were tougher, and also less expensive to buy than women's.
The clothes she wore were comfortable, and they also allowed her to go around Paris more freely than the other women, even those of her own social standing.
Sand also smoked in public.
This led to a scandal.
At her time, women were not supposed to smoke, not even those of her standing.
Franz Liszt had a relationship with a woman called Marie D'Agoult, who did this as well.
D'Argoult smoked large cigars.
These and other behaviors were exceptional for a woman of the early and mid-19th century, when social codes–especially in the upper classes–were very important.
Poet Charles Baudelaire was a contemporary critic of George Sand: "She is stupid, heavy and garrulous.
Her ideas on morals have the same depth of judgment and delicacy of feeling as those of janitresses and kept women.... The fact that there are men who could become enamoured of this slut is indeed a proof of the abasement of the men of this generation."
Sand had affairs with several men.
Some lasted longer, others shorter.
These men included Jules Sandeau (1831), Prosper Mérimée, Alfred de Musset (summer 1833 – March 1834), Louis-Chrystosome Michel, Charles Didier, Pierre-François Bocage, Félicien Mallefille and Frédéric Chopin (1837–47).
Later in life, she wrote letters to Gustave Flaubert.
Despite their obvious differences in temperament and aesthetic preference, they eventually became good friends.
In Majorca one can still visit the (then abandoned) Carthusian monastery of Valldemossa, where she spent the winter of 1838–39 with Chopin and her children.
This trip to Majorca was described by her in Un Hiver à Majorque (A Winter in Majorca), published in 1855.
A liaison with the writer Jules Sandeau heralded her literary debut.
They published a few stories in collaboration, signing them "Jules Sand."
She consequently adopted, for her first independent novel, Indiana (1832), the pen name that made her famous – George Sand.
Her first published novel, Rose et Blanche (1831), was written in collaboration with Jules Sandeau.
Drawing from her childhood experiences of the countryside, she wrote the rural novels  La Mare au Diable (1846), François le Champi (1847–1848), La Petite Fadette (1849), and Les Beaux Messieurs Bois-Doré (1857).
A Winter in Majorca described the period that she and Chopin spent on that island in 1838-9.
Her other novels include Indiana (1832), Lélia (1833), Mauprat (1837), Le Compagnon du Tour de France (1840), Consuelo (1842–1843), and Le Meunier d'Angibault (1845).
Further theatre pieces and autobiographical pieces include Histoire de ma vie (1855), Elle et Lui (1859) (about her affair with Musset), Journal Intime (posthumously published in 1926), and Correspondence.
Sand often performed her theatrical works in her small private theatre at the Nohant estate.
In addition, Sand authored literary criticism and political texts.
Her most widely used quote being, "There is only one happiness in life, to love and be loved."
She was known well in far reaches of the world, and her social practices, her writings and her beliefs prompted much commentary, often by other luminaries in the world of arts and letters.
A few excerpts demonstrate much of what was often said about George Sand:
"She was a thinking bosom and one who overpowered her young lovers, all Sybil — a Romantic."
V.S. Pritchett (writer)
"What a brave man she was, and what a good woman."
Ivan Turgenev (novelist)
"The most womanly woman."
Alfred de Musset (poet)
George Sand died at Nohant, near Châteauroux, in France's Indre département on 8 June 1876, at the age of 71 and was buried in the grounds of her home there.
In 2004, controversial plans were suggested to move her remains to the Panthéon in Paris.
Frequent literary references to George Sand can be found in Possession (1990) by A. S. Byatt.
The American poet Walt Whitman cited Sand's novel Consuelo as a personal favorite and the sequel to this novel La Comtesse De Rudolstady contains at least a couple of passages that appear to have had a very direct influence on him.
Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861), the English poet, produced two poems "To George Sand: A Desire" and "To George Sand: A Recognition".
The character, Stepan Verkhovensky, in Dostoevsky's novel The Possessed took to translating the works of George Sand in his periodical, before the periodical was subsequently seized by the ever-cautious Russian government of the 1840s.
George Sand is referenced a number of times in the play Voyage, the first part of Tom Stoppard's The Coast of Utopia trilogy.
And, in the first episode of the "Overture" to Swann's Way - the first novel in Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time sequence - a young, distraught Marcel is calmed by his mother as she reads from François le Champi, a novel which it is explained was part of a birthday package from his grandmother which also included La Mare au Diable, La Petite Fadette, and Les Maîtres Sonneurs.
As with many episodes involving art in À la recherche du temps perdu, this reminiscence includes commentary on the work.
In music, movie, TV
A Song to Remember (1945), directed by Charles Vidor, starring Cornel Wilde as Chopin and Merle Oberon as George Sand.
Notorious Woman (1974), a 7-part BBC miniseries starring Rosemary Harris as George Sand and George Chakiris as Chopin.
In 1976, the band Ambrosia recorded the song "Danse With Me, George (Chopin's Plea)", based on Sand and Chopin's romance.
It appeared on Ambrosia's Album "Somewhere I've Never Travelled."
Impromptu (1991), starring Judy Davis as George Sand and Hugh Grant as Chopin.
Les Enfants du siècle (1999), starring Juliette Binoche as George Sand and Benoît Magimel as Alfred de Musset
Chopin (2002), directed by Jerzy Antczak starring Danuta Stenka as George Sand and Piotr Adamczyk as Chopin.
In 2007, Céline Dion recorded a song based on a love letter sent from George Sand to Alfred de Musset for her album D'Elles.
The band Meg & Dia have a song based on Sand's novel Indiana
Jean-Albert Bédé, "Sand, George," Encyclopedia Americana, 1986 ed.,
218–19.
Correspondence (letters) by George Sand and her contemporaries (see "Writings by George Sand" link below — some of these letters are available in English translation); Autobiographical writings as mentioned above (several of these also available from Gutenberg website).
Dictionnaire Encyclopédique de la Langue Française 3ième édition
Works by George Sand at Internet Archive
George Sand, her work in audio version
Military of Chile
The Nuremberg Laws is the name for three (historically: two laws) that were set into practice in Germany in 1935, and that were valid until 1945.
They are named after the city of Nuremberg where the legislative assembly met.
Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre (Often called Blutschutzgesetz, law concerning the protection of German blood and honour).
This law made it illegal for Jews to marry non-Jews.
It also made it illegal for these people to have sex with each other.
The law provided for long prison terms for men who did not obey it.
Women could go away without prison term (if they told about it).
This law also forbade Jews to show the national flag, and guaranteed their right to show Jewish symbols.
Reich Citizenship Law : This law basically said that only people of German or closely-related blood could become citizens - in other words: Jews (and some others) could not.
All Jews employed by the government had to quit their job.
They also lost their right to vote and to be in the army.
Reichsflaggengesetz Strictly speaking this flag law is not one of the Nuremberg Laws, but it was published with the others.
It made the swastika the official flag of Germany.
Thrice is an American experimental rock band formed in 1998.
They are always changing their sound from different albums.
The four members in Thrice are the same four people as when they started 10 years ago.
In 2004, the band released a DVD about the band.
In the DVD, it talks about the members.
They talk about experiences with touring and being in the band.
They also talk about their ideas about the future direction of the music.
Most recently, Thrice have released a four disc album titled The Alchemy Index (volumes Earth, Fire, Water and Air).
At the end of each disc, there is a song written in a similar poem style.
The  last line in that song is always sung in the same way.
First Impressions (1999)
Identity Crisis (2001)
The Illusion of Safety (2002)
The Artist in the Ambulance (2003)
Vheissu (2005)
The Alchemy Index, volumes: Fire and Water (2007)
The Alchemy Index, volumes: Earth and Air (2008)
Pavement redirects here.
For the American rock band, see Pavement (band).
A sidewalk is a path for pedestrians that runs along the side of a road.
It is called a sidewalk in American English, but can also be called a pavement (mainly British English and  South African English), a footpath (Australian English, Irish English, Indian English and New Zealand English) or footway (Engineering term).
Pedestrians use sidewalks to keep them safe from vehicles on the road.
Sidewalks can be made of bricks or from tarmac.
Transport infrastructure
Bayerische Motoren Werke AG (BMW, ) is a German automobile and motorcycle maker founded on 7 March 1916.
It is one of the most famous automobile makers in the world.
The headquarters is in Munich, Bavaria.
BMW is part of the "German Big 3" luxury automobile manufacturers, along with Audi and Mercedes-Benz.
BMW 1 Series (2004–present)
BMW 2 Series (2014–present)
BMW 3 Series (1975–present)
BMW 4 Series (2014–present)
BMW 5 Series (1972–present)
BMW 6 Series (1976–present)
BMW 7 Series (1977–present)
BMW 8 Series (2018–present)
BMW X1 (2009–present)
BMW X2 (2017–present)
BMW X3 (2004–present)
BMW X4 (2014–present)
BMW X5 (1999–present)
BMW X6 (2008–present)
BMW X7 (2019–present)
BMW Z4 (1989–present)
BMW M2 (2016–present)
BMW M3 (1986–present)
BMW M4 (2014–present)
BMW M5 (1984–present)
BMW M8 (2019–present)
BMW i3 (2013–present)
BMW i4 (2021–present)
1916 establishments in Europe
Mazda Motor Corporation is a car manufacturer or maker based in Hiroshima, Japan.
Mazda is the 15th largest car maker in the world, and 12th largest in U.S. sales.
The company was started in 1920.
Today it has about 44,000 employees.
Sales are 2,057,614,000,000 yen.
In 1920,Toyo Koruku Kogyo was established.
In 1984, it changed its name to Toyora Motor Corporation.
The company is unique in using rotary engines in some of its cars.
A rotary engine has more power for its weight than ordinary engines.
In 1991, the Mazda 787B (which had a rotary engine) won the 24 Heures du LeMans.
From 1979 to 2010, Mazda had a partnership with Ford Motor Company.
At one point, Volkswagen owned 1/3 of Mazda's stock.
Since 2000, Mazda has grown, especially in Europe and North America, and it is now completely separate from Ford.
In 2015, Mazda and Toyota agreed to work together.
Mazda produces cars only in Japan and Mexico, but 80% of its sales are outside of Japan.
Mazda is the only company that produces cars which have rotary engines (but most of its cars do not have rotary engines).
The cars are popular in Australia and Europe, especially Germany and U.K. Nowadays, Mazda's slogan is ZOOM-ZOOM.
It is famous for the movie Only Strong.
ZOOM-ZOOM comes from English-speaking children calling cars ZOOM-ZOOM.
Mazda's company name is derived from Matsuda Jujirou who was the founder of this company, and the Zoroastrian god, Ahura Mazda.
Ahura Mazda is a symbol of wisdom, reason, and harmony.
Mazda Global Web Site - includes links to Mazda operations worldwide
Mazda Dealerships  - North America
1920 establishments in Asia
Animal testing, also known as animal experimentation and animal research is the use of animals for experiments.
Escherichia coli, Fruit flies, and mice are often used for animal testing.
About 50 to 100 million vertebrate animals and many more invertebrate animals are used around the world every year.
The source of the animals are different according to the country and species.
Most animals used for experiments are bred for this purpose.
But others may be caught from the wild or bought from people who buy them from animal shelters.
Animals are used for experiments inside universities, medical schools, farms, large companies and other places that provide animal-testing services.
People who support animal testing argue that almost every medical discovery in the 20th century used animals in some way.
They say that even complex computers cannot model connections between molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organisms, and the environment.
Many important discoveries were made because of animal testing.
But some scientists and animal rights organizations such as PETA do not support animal testing.
They say that it is cruel, poorly done, and costly.
Others argue that animals have the right not to be used for experiments, and that model organisms are different from humans.
The limits to animal testing is different in various countries.
The words animal testing, animal experimentation, animal research, in vitro testing, and vivisection have similar meanings,differently. "
tatiosion" means to "cut up" a living animal.
It was used only in experiments that dissected live animals.
The word "vivisection" is sometimes used negatively about any experiment with live animals.
For example, the Encyclopædia Britannica described "vivisection" as: "Operation on a living animal for experimental rather than healing purposes; more broadly, all experimentation on live animals".
However, dictionaries note that the wider definition is "used only by people who are opposed (dislike) to such work".
The word makes people think of torture, pain, and death.
People who dislike animal testing often use the word "vivisection", while scientists usually use the expression "animal experimentation" instead.
The earliest mention of animal testing is in the writings of the Greeks in the second and fourth centuries BCE.
Aristotle (Αριστοτέλης) (384 – 322 BCE) and Erasistratus (304 – 258 BCE) where some of the first people to try out experiments on living animals.
Galen, a doctor in second-century Rome who was known as the "father of vivisection", dissected pigs and goats.
Avenzoar, an Arabic doctor in twelfth-century Spain, tested out surgical processes on animals before applying them to humans.
Animals have often been used in the history of scientific study.
In the 1880s, Louis Pasteur showed the germ theory of medicine by putting anthrax in sheep.
In the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning.
On November 3, 1957, a Russian dog, Laika, became the first animal to orbit the earth.
In the 1970s, antibiotic treatments and vaccines for leprosy were made using armadillos, then given to humans.
In 1974, Rudolf Jaenisch produced the first genetically changed mammal.
He put DNA from a virus into the genome of mice.
Genetic study grew quickly after that.
In 1996, Dolly the sheep was born—the first cloned mammal.
In the 20th century, toxicology testing became important.
In the 19th century, laws about drugs were less strict.
Drugs did not have to be checked for safety.
But in 1937, a drug called Elixir Sulfanilamide  killed more than 100 people.
They caused great and long lasting pain, vomiting, and fits.
After that, the U.S. congress made laws that said that drugs had to be tested on animals before they could be sold.
Other countries passed similar laws.
Even back in the 17th century, people disagreed about animal testing.
In 1655, Edmund O'Meara said that "the miserable torture of vivisection places the body in an unnatural state."
O'Meara and others said that animals could be affected by pain during vivisection, making results unreliable.
Others also disliked animal testing because they felt that animals should not be hurt for humans.
Others opposed animal testing for different reasons: many believed that animals were not as good as humans and that they were so different that results of animal testing would not work on humans.
Supporters had different views.
They argued that experiments on animals were necessary for knowledge.
Claude Bernard, the "prince of vivisectors" and the father of physiology famously wrote in 1865 that "the science of life is a superb and dazzlingly (brightly) lighted hall which may be reached only by passing through a long and ghastly kitchen".
He declared that "experiments on  entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of  effects of these substances are the same on man as on animals, save for differences in degree".
Because of Bernard, animal testing became a regular scientific method.
Surprisingly, though, his wife, Marie Françoise Martin, began the first anti-vivisection society in France in 1883.
In 1896, Dr. Walter B. Cannon said, “The antivivisectionists are the second of the two types Theodore Roosevelt described when he said, ‘Common sense without conscience may lead to crime, but conscience without common sense may lead to folly, which is the handmaiden (servant) of crime.’ ”
The public first began giving its attention to the supporters and opposers of animal testing during the brown dog affair in the early 1990s.
In the brown dog affair, hundreds of medical students and anti-vivisectionists and police argued over a memorial to a vivisected dog.
Conn, P. Michael and Parker, James V (2008).
The Animal Research War, Palgrave Macmillan,
Guerrini, Anita (2003).
Experimenting with humans and animals: from Galen to animal rights.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. .
Campylobacter is a genus of bacteria.
It is found in the intestines of many types of animal.
Campylobacter is the most common bacterial cause of diarrhea and food poisoning.
It is spiral shaped, and moves by using its flagella.
Campylobacteriosis is a gastrointestinal tract infection caused by Campylobacter.
It causes inflammation, sometimes bloody diarrhea, cramps, fever, and pain.
Campylobacteriosis is more common during the summer months.
It also appears to be more common in males than females.
It is caused by eating contaminated food or drinking contaminated water.
Eating raw meat or undercooked poultry, and raw dairy products are common causes.
In January 2013, the UK's Food Standards Agency warned that two-thirds of all raw chicken bought from UK shops was contaminated with Campylobacter.
It affects about half a million people annually and kills about 100.
was the 123rd emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession.
His reign started in 30 July 1912 and ended with his death in 1926.
Emperor Taishō (meaning "Great Justice") was the name given to Yoshihito at the time of his coronation.
Emperors of Japan receive a new name at the time of their coronation, and people start using the new name, both to refer to the emperor himself and the name of the era during which he reigned.
Events of Taishō's life
1879 (Meiji 12): A son called Harunomiya (also named Yoshihito) is born to Emperor Meiji
1900 (Meiji 33): Prince Yoshihito marries Kujō Sadako, who becomes Empress Teimei.
1901 (Meiji 34): Prince Michinomiya (also named Hirohito) is born.
1912 (Taishō 1):  Prince Yoshihito became emperor; also, the Japanese era name becomes the first year of Taishō.
1914-1918 (Taishō 3-7): World War I
1921 (Taishō 10): Taishō's son Prince Hirohito became regent.
1923 (Taishō 12): Great Kantō earthquake
1926 (Taishō 15): The emperor dies and the responsibility of the throne passes to Crown Prince Hirohito; also, the era name became the first year of Shōwa.
Young, Arthur Morgan. (
Japan under Taisho Tenno: 1912-1926.
OCLC 2158641
was the 122nd emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession.
His reign lasted from 1867 until his death.
Events of Meiji's life
1852 (Kaei 5): A son called Sachinomiya is born to Emperor Kōmei
1860 (Ansei 7): Sachinomiya becomes official heir and his personal name (imina) becomes Mutsuhito.
1867 (Keiō 3): Kōmei dies and the responsibility of the throne passes to Crown Prince Mutsuhito.
1868 (Meiji 1): Official beginning of the emperor's reign and Japanese era name becomes the first year of Meiji.
1869 (meiji 2): Marriage to Ichijo Haruko, who becomes Empress Shoken.
1879 (meiji 12): Prince Yoshihito (the future Taisho Tenno) is born.
1889 (Meiji 22): Meiji Constitution is proclaimed
1894 (Meiji 27): Sino-Japanese War
1904–1905 (Meiji 37-38):: Russo-Japanese War
1912 (Meiji 45): The emperor dies
He died in Tokyo.
A detailed account of the state funeral in the New York Times concluded with an observation: "The contrast between that which preceded the funeral car and that which followed it was striking indeed.
Before it went old Japan; after it came new Japan."
The spirits of Emperor Meiji and his wife are honored at the  in Tokyo.
Order of the Garter, 1906
Jansen, Marius. (
The Emergence of Meiji Japan.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ; ;
OCLC 31515308
Keene, Donald. (
Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852–1912.
New York: Columbia University Press. ;
OCLC 46731178
Trivium is a heavy metal band from Orlando, Florida.
They started in 1999 and became very successful.
The members are: Matt Heafy (vocals, guitars), Corey Beaulieu (guitars), Paolo Gregoletto (bass) and Alex Bent (drums).
Matt Heafy – guitars (1999–present); lead vocals (2000–present); backing vocals (1999–2000)
Corey Beaulieu – guitars, harsh backing vocals (2003–present)
Paolo Gregoletto – bass, clean backing vocals (2004–present)
Alex Bent – drums, percussion (2017–present)
Brad Lewter – bass, lead vocals (1999–2000)
Jarred Bonaparte – guitars (1999–2000); bass (2000–2001)
Travis Smith – drums, percussion (1999–2009)
Brent Young – guitars (2000–2001); bass (2001–2004); backing vocals (2000–2004)
Nick Augusto – drums, percussion (2009–2014)
Mat Madiro – drums, percussion (2014–2015)
Ember to Inferno (2003)
Ascendancy (2005)
The Crusade (2006)
Shogun (2008)
In Waves (2011)
Vengeance Falls (2013)
Silence In The Snow (2015)
The Sin And The Sentence (2017)
What the Dead Men Say (2020)
In the Court of the Dragon (2021)
Trivium EP (2003)
Emily Jane Browning (born 7 December 1988) is an Australian movie actress and singer.
Browning made her movie start in the Australian television movie The Echo of Thunder.
Later, she played recurring roles in Australian television shows Blue Heelers and Something in the Air.
Her breakthrough role was in the 2002 horror movie Ghost Ship, which introduced her to a wider audience.
In 2005, Browning won the Australian Film Institute International Award for Best Actress for her portrayal of Violet Baudelaire in the comedy movie Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events (2004).
Browning is also known for her roles in the horror movie The Uninvited (2009), the action movie Sucker Punch (2011), and the independent movie Sleeping Beauty (2011).
Her role in Sleeping Beauty was highly praised and in 2011 was named the Breakthrough performer of the year by Hamptons International Film Festival.
The word trivium, from Latin, is made of two parts.
The first part tres meant "three" and the second part vía meant "way".
In antiquity and the High Middle Ages, there were different ways of teaching young men at the university.
The trivium was three simplest ways to study the world, and so young men learned them first.
After the trivium, they studied the quadrivium.
Together, these subjects were called the seven liberal arts.
The most difficult, and final subject studied was theology.
The three subjects were related to talking about the world.
These subjects were grammar, logic and rhetoric.
They were ways of preparing for the quadrivium, which includes arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy.
One way of studying the world is to look at the form of the words.
Grammar is the mechanics of the language.
The word "grammar" has a more limited meaning now than it did before now.
Many subjects, such as syntax and phonetics were part of grammar.
One way of studying the world is to look at the meaning of words.
Logic is the mechanics of thought and analysis.
Logic is the study of how meanings are related to each other, and how to make good decisions.
A fallacy is when someone does not draw a conclusion according to the rules of logic.
An old name for logic was dialectics.
One way of studying the world is to look at communicating with words.
Rhetoric is the mechanics of discourse.
Discourse is the process of two or more people communicating about an idea.
Young men studied rhetoric in order to learn how to instruct and to persuade.
es:Artes liberales#Las siete artes: Trivium et Quadrivium
pl:Siedem sztuk wyzwolonych#Trivium
Ancient Greek boxing is a very old sport.
It has been practiced at least since the eighth century BC.
Homer wrote about it in his poem Iliad.
At that time, Greece was made of many city-states that were independent.
Each city state seems to have had its own version of the sport.
Today, most of the sources that talk about Greek boxing are either legends, or they are fragmentary.
When a source is fragmentary, this means that part of the text has been lost, or is missing.
This makes it difficult to find the rules, or where and how the activity was done.
Several details are missing, but it seems boxing with gloves was an important part of the Greek athletic culture of the time.
The activity was called pyx or pygme in Ancient Greek.
Archeologists have found evidence that this activity was probably done by the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures.
Many legends tell about the origins of boxing in Greece.
One legend says that the heroic ruler Theseus invented a type of boxing where two men sat face to face and beat each other with their fists until one of them was killed.
Later, the boxers began to fight while standing.
They also started to wear gloves (with spikes) and wrappings on their arms below the elbows.
In Ancient Greece, most sports were done naked, boxing too.
According to Iliad, Mycenaean warriors included boxing in their competitions.
They did this to honor those who had died.
It is possible that Homer told about what the Greeks did, at a later time.
Boxing was one of the contests held in memory of Achilles' friend Patroclus, who was killed toward the end of the Trojan War.
To commemorate Patroclus the Greeks later introduced boxing (pygme / pygmachia) to the Olympic Games in 688 BC.
People taking part trained on punching bags (called a korykos).
Fighters wore leather straps (called himantes) over their hands, wrists, and sometimes chest, to protect themselves from injury.
The straps also left the fingers free.
Philostratus was a scholar and an historian.
According to him, boxing was originally developed in Sparta, in order to harden warriors’ faces for battle.
The early Spartans believed helmets were unnecessary and boxing prepared them for when they were hit on the head in battle.
However, Spartans never took part in the competitive version of boxing.
They thought it was dishonorable to be defeated that way.
Until around 500 BC himantes were used as protection for the knuckles and hand.
They were thongs of ox hide between 3 and 3.7 meters long.
The himantes were wrapped around the hands and knuckles many times.
Around 400 BC sphairai were introduced.
The sphairai were very similar to himantes.
The biggest difference was that the inside was padded when they were wrapped around the hands.
The outside of the thong was more rigid too.
Soon after the saphirai had been introduced, they were replaced by oxys used for boxing.
Oxys were made of several thick leather bands that were wrapped around the hand, wrist, and forearm.
A band of fleece was placed on the forearm to wipe away sweat.
Leather braces extended up the forearm to give greater support when punching.
The knuckles were reinforced with leather as well.
Korykos were the equivalent to modern punching bags.
They were used for practice in the Palaestra and were filled with sand, flour, or millet.
The rules currently used for the sport are based on the old rules.
As pointed out above, there are only incomplete sources for the rules.
The rules needed to be deduced from old texts and images:
No holds or wrestling
Any type of blow with the hand was allowed but no gouging with the fingers
No ring was used
There were no rounds or time limits
The winner was decided when one fighter gave up or could not move
No weight-classes, opponents were selected by chance
Judges enforced the rules by beating offenders with a switch
Fighters could opt to exchange blows undefended if the fight lasted too long
The London School of Economics and Political Science (more commonly London School of Economics or LSE) is a college of the University of London in Westminster.
The college opened in 1895.
It joined the University of London in 1900.
Today it is one of the leading universities for Law, Economics and Political Sciences.
QS ranked it as the second best university in the world for social science in 2013.
John Fitzgerald Kennedy
Friedrich August von Hayek
In 2011 17,654 people applied for 1,271 undergraduate places.
This means there were 13.8 applicants for every place.
Over half of LSE's students are postgraduates.
16 Nobel Prize winners have been LSE students or staff.
It has the highest percentage of students from another country in the world and 46% of staff are from other countries.
Friedrich August von Hayek, CH (8 May 1899 – 23 March 1992) was an Austrian-British economist and political philosopher.
He became known because he strongly defended liberalism and free-market capitalism.
He was against too much central control of the economy and society.
He thought that forms of government like socialism were not good for the economy, and damaged freedom of the individual.
Hayek's signature work, The Road to Serfdom, refers to the consequences of socialism.
He was one of the most important economists and political philosophers of the 20th century.
He was one of the most important members of the Austrian School of economics.
He also had many ideas in the fields of jurisprudence and cognitive science.
He shared the 1974 Nobel Prize in Economics with his rival Gunnar Myrdal.
The award was for their work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations; also for their analysis of the inter-dependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena.
He also received the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1991.
He is thought to be one of the major causes of change from the Keynesian policies of the first part of the 20th century.
Instead of governments handling the details of the economy, they went back towards classical liberalism in the 1980s and later.
This happened most clearly in the 1980s in the U.S.A. (under Ronald Reagan) and the U.K. (under Margaret Thatcher).
Main books
Profits, interest and investment: and other essays on the theory of industrial fluctuations, 1939.
The road to serfdom, 1944.
Individualism and economic order, 1948.
The counter-revolution of science: studies on the abuse of reason, 1952.
Law, legislation and liberty (3 volumes)
Volume I. Rules and order, 1973.
The mirage of social justice, 1976.
Volume III.
The political order of a free people, 1979.
The fatal conceit: the errors of socialism, 1988.
The Ancient Olympic Games were a series of athletic competitions held between the city-states of Ancient Greece.
They used to be called the Olympic Games (; Olympiakoi Agones) until the modern day Olympic Games started.
The Ancient Olympic Games began in 776 BC in Olympia, Greece.
They ran until 393 AD.
Then the stadium got buried by landslides and other natural disasters.
Prizes at the games were olive wreaths, palm branches and woollen ribbons.
The ancient Olympics were played in the honour of the God Zeus.
Famous athletes
from Athens:
Aurelios Zopyros (Junior boxing)
from Sparta:
Acanthus of Sparta (Running: diaulos)
Chionis of Sparta (Running: stadium, diaulos.
Long and Triple Jump)
Cynisca of Sparta (first woman to be listed as an Olympic victor)
from Rhodes:
Diagoras of Rhodes (Boxing 79th Olympiad, 464 BCE) and his sons Akusilaos and Damagetos (Boxing and Pankration)
Leonidas of Rhodes (Running: stadium, diaulos and hoplitodromos)
from Croton:
Astylos of Croton (Running: stadium, diaulos and hoplitodromos)
Milo of Croton (wrestling)
Timasitheos of Croton (wrestling)
from other cities:
Koroibos of Elis (Stadion)
Orsippus of Megara (Runner: diaulos)
Theagenes of Thasos (Pankration)
non-Greek:
Tiberius (steerer of a four-horse chariot)
Nero (steerer of a ten-horse chariot)
Varastades, Prince and future King of Armenia, (last known Ancient Olympic victor (boxing) during the 291st Olympic Games in the fourth century.
The Ancient Olympic Games Virtual Museum (requires registration)
Ancient Olympics (General and detailed information)
The Ancient Olympics (A special exhibit)
The Real Story of the Ancient Olympic Games
The Origin of the Olympics
The Original Olympic Movement Since 776 B.C.
List of Macedonian Olympic winners (in Greek)
Webquest The ancient and modern Olympic Games
Manhattan is a 1979 American romantic comedy-drama movie by director Woody Allen.
The movie is set in New York City.
The movie is about Issac Davis (played by Allen), a divorced 42-year old dating a 17-year-old girl.
His ex-wife is openly lesbian.
The movie was nominated for two Academy Awards: Best Supporting Actress (Mariel Hemingway) and Best Writing, Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen.
It also won the BAFTA Award for Best Film and was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay.
The movie was #46 on American Film Institute's "100 Years...100 Laughs".
In 2001, the United States Library of Congress said the movie was "culturally significant" and selected it to keep in the National Film Registry.
Woody Allen as Isaac Davis
Diane Keaton as Mary Wilkie
Michael Murphy as Yale Pollack
Mariel Hemingway as Tracy
Meryl Streep as Jill
Anne Byrne as Emily
Michael O'Donoghue as Dennis
Wallace Shawn as Jeremiah
Karen Ludwig as Connie
Charles Levin, Karen Allen, and David Rasche as Television actors
Mark Linn-Baker and Frances Conroy as Shakespearean actors