the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The most distinctive tool of erectus was the Acheulean hand axe, first invented 1.8 million years ago (mya).
This hand axe was made by chipping a suitable stone with a hammer stone.
Later, the neanderthals used a soft hammer made of deer antler bone to make better tools.
The Acheulean hand axe lasted for over a million years as the main tool.
Its main use was for butchering meat.
This we know because different uses leave different micro-wear on the hand axe surfaces.
Descendants and subspecies
Homo erectus remains one of the most successful and long-lived species of the Homo genus.
It is generally considered to have given rise to a number of descendant species and subspecies.
The oldest known specimen of the ancient human was found in southern Africa.
Homo erectus:
Homo ergaster,
Homo erectus pekinensis,
Other related species:
Homo antecessor,
Homo cepranensis,
Homo floresiensis,
Homo heidelbergensis,
Homo neanderthalensis,
Homo rhodesiensis,
Homo sapiens,
Individual fossils
Some of the major Homo erectus fossils:
Indonesia (island of Java): Trinil 2 (holotype), Sangiran collection, Sambungmachan collection, Ngandong collection
China: Lantian (Gongwangling and Chenjiawo), Yunxian, Zhoukoudian, Nanjing, Hexian
India: Narmada (taxonomic status debated!)
Kenya: WT 15000 (Nariokotome), ER 3883, ER 3733
Tanzania: OH 9
Vietnam: Northern, Tham Khuyen, Hoa Binh
Republic of Georgia: Dmanisi collection
Turkey: Kocabas fossil
Recent research
Fossil H. erectus skulls found in Java in the 1930s have recently been redated.
There are 12 skullcaps (top part of skull) and two lower leg bones.
The recent research shows that on Java, H. erectus survived to about 100,000 years ago.
The research gives a definitive age of between 117,000 and 108,000 years ago.
That is much a much longer survival than in any other part of the world, so far as is known.
This means, says the report, that H. erectus was still around when our own species was [elsewhere] walking the Earth.
Java is an island, and presumably it had not yet been discovered by Neanderthals or our own species.
Remains suggest that our own species  did not reach Java until about 39,000 years ago.
MNSU
Homo erectus at Stanford University
Possible co-existence with Homo Habilis - BBC News
John Hawk's discussion of the Kocabas fossil
Paramilitary is a way to describe forces that are organised like military forces, but not part of the Armed Forces.
Examples for such forces would be police forces guarding the borders of a country.
There are paramilitary groups that are run by a country, and others that are not.
The name comes from Greek para (which means beside) and Latin miles (which means soldier).
Military compared to paramilitary
Though a paramilitary is not a military force, it is usually equivalent to a military's light infantry force in terms of intensity, firepower, and organizational structure.
A paramilitary may also commonly fall under the command of a military, even despite not being part of the military or play an assisting role for the military in times of war.
Paramilitary forces can also include private military company missions.
Quasi-military compared to Paramilitary
Although similar, a quasi-military organisation has more near-identical to military aspects (i.e., militia, private army, etc.)
whereas a paramilitary is its own (i.e., internal security, SWAT, etc.).
Examples of Paramilitary Organizations
Police departments of many countries are organized in a manner similar to military forces.
SWAT teams of some American police departments: trained to handle high-risk situations that regular police officers are not as qualified to handle such as hostage rescue, counter-terrorism missions, and arresting particularly dangerous criminals.
Government Agencies
Special Activities Center of the Central Intelligence Agency: a unit of the CIA whose missions often require a great deal of secrecy and carefulness.
Most members of this unit are recruited from special forces units from all over the United States military.
Their main mission is to collect intelligence on countries hostile to the United States; most CIA operatives killed in the line of duty have been members of the Special Activities Division.
The SS and SA of Nazi Germany: the SS was the successor to the SA, but for the most part, both groups handled the same responsibilities.
They were originally bodyguards to Adolf Hitler, but as the war heated up, they were assigned to oversee concentration camps as guards and administrators.
While not an official part of Germany's military, the SS had an armed branch that was trained as a regular military unit.
Champagne is a town and commune of the Ardèche département, in the southern part of France.
Champis is a commune in the Ardèche département in southeast France.
Chandolas is a town and commune of the Ardèche département, in the southern part of France.
Chanéac is a town and commune of the Ardèche département, in the southern part of France.
Charmes-sur-Rhône is a town and commune of the Ardèche département, in the southern part of France.
Charnas is a town and commune of the Ardèche département, in the southern part of France.
About 715 or 722 people lived there in 2008.
The Palaeolithic (or Paleolithic) was a period of prehistory when humans made stone tools.
It was the first and longest part of the Stone Age.
It began around 3.3 million years ago and ended around 11,650 years ago.
About 99% of human history happened in the Palaeolithic.
The Palaeolithic began when hominids (early humans) started to use stones as tools for bashing, cutting, and scraping.
All members of the genus Homo made stone tools, starting with relatively crude tools made by Homo habilis and Homo erectus.
In Europe, the large-brained Neanderthal Man (Homo neanderthalensis) made tools of high quality.
Our own species, Homo sapiens, made even higher-quality tools.
These tools are the first cultural products which have survived to modern times.
The oldest stone tools ever found are about 3.3 million years old.
Archaeologists found these tools in the Great Rift Valley of Africa.
Australopithecines probably made them.
Archaeologists have found stone tools in continental Europe from about one million years ago, and in Britain from about 700,000 years ago.
During the Palaeolithic Age, humans grouped together in small bands.
They made tools out of wood and bone as well as stone.
They probably also used leather and vegetable fibers, but these do not last as long as stone and have not survived to modern times.
The Palaeolithic ended around 11,650 years ago, when humans began to make smaller, finer tools.
In Western Europe, this was the beginning of the Mesolithic period.
In warmer climates like Africa, the Epipaleolithic period came after the Palaeolithic.
The Pleistocene geological epoch (also called the Ice Age) happened at the same time as the Palaeolithic.
In some areas, like Western Europe, this ice age affected the way people lived.
In the Middle East, people began to switch from hunting and gathering to agriculture.
Both the Palaeolithic and the Pliestocene ended around the same time.
Oldowan
Hominids began to make Oldowan tools around 2.6 million years ago.
They continued to make these tools until about 1.7 million years ago.
After that, hominids began to make more sophisticated tools, which archaeologists call Acheulean.
Oldowan tools are named after Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, where Oldowan tools were first found.
The archaeologist Louis Leakey made this discovery in the 1930s.
For a long time after that, archaeologists thought that the Oldowan were the earliest tools ever made.
Now they know that hominids made stone tools much earlier in history - about 3.3 million years ago.
This was before the genus Homo had evolved.
Archaeologists do not know for sure which species actually created and used Oldowan tools.
The use of these tools reached its peak with early species of Homo, such as H. habilis and H. ergaster.
Archaeologists think that early Homo erectus inherited Oldowan technology, then refined it into the Acheulean industry beginning about 1.7 million years ago.
Oldowan tools are sometimes called pebble tools, because the blanks chosen for their production already resemble, in pebble form, the final product.
They are sometimes subdivided into types, such as choppers, scrapers and pounders, based on their main uses.
Acheulean
Around 1.7 million years ago, Homo habilis began to make oval- and pear-shaped hand axes.
Archaeologists call these tools Acheulean.
They were more sophisticated than Oldowan tools, and had more uses.
Early humans made these tools in Africa, western Asia, and Europe during the Lower Palaeolithic era.
They are usually found with Homo erectus remains.
Acheulean tools were the dominant technology for most of human history.
More than a million years ago, Acheulean tool users left Africa to colonize Eurasia.
Although it developed in Africa, the Acheulean industry is named after the type site of Saint-Acheul, where archaeologists first found Acheulean tools in the 19th century.
This area is now a suburb of Amiens in northern France.
John Frere was the first to suggest in writing that hominids started making Acheulean tools during "a very ancient period."
In 1797, Frere sent two examples of Acheulean tools to the Royal Academy in London from Hoxne in Suffolk.
He had found them in prehistoric lake deposits, along with the bones of extinct animals.
He concluded that they were made by people "who had not the use of metals" and said they belonged to a "very ancient period indeed, even beyond the present world".
However, other archaeologist still held a pre-Darwinian view of human evolution, and they ignored Frere's ideas.
Dating the Acheulean
Based on radiometric dating (often potassium-argon dating), hominids began to use Acheulean techniques around 1.65 million years ago, and continued to use these tools until about 100,000 years ago.
Archaeologists found the oldest known Acheulean tools in the West Turkana region of Kenya.
These tools are 1.65 million years old.
Some archaeologists think that hominids began to use Acheulean techniques earlier, around 1.8 million years ago.
In individual regions, scientists can use radiometric dating to determine the age of a tool much more precisely.
For example, Acheulean methods did not reach Europe until around 400,000 years ago.
In smaller study areas, scientists can narrow down a tool's age even more.
However, numerical dates can be misleading.
It is common to associate examples of this early human tool industry with one or more glacial or interglacial periods, or with a particular species of early human.
The earliest user of Acheulean tools was Homo ergaster, who first appeared about 1.8 million years ago.
Some researchers prefer to call these hominids early Homo erectus.
Later forms of early humans also used Acheulean techniques.
There is considerable time overlap in early prehistoric stone-working industries.
In some regions, Acheulean tool-using groups were contemporary with other, less sophisticated industries such as the Clactonian.
Then, later, Acheulean tools occur at the same time as the more sophisticated Mousterian.
The Acheulean was not a neatly defined period, but a tool-making technique which flourished especially well in early prehistory.
It was a basic method for making stone tools which was shared across much of the Old World.
Clactonian
In Europe, early humans began to make flint tools during the early part of the interglacial period, around 400,000 years ago.
Archaeologists call these Clactonian tools.
Homo erectus made Clactonian tools; modern humans did not.
Early, crude flint tools from other regions, made using similar methods, are either called Clactonian tools or core & flake technology.
These tools are named after Clacton-on-Sea in the English county of Essex.
There, in 1911, archaeologists found Clactonian artifacts along with the remains of a giant elephant and hippopotamus.
These artifacts included flint chopping tools, flint flakes, and the tip of a worked wooden shaft.
Archaeologists have found other Clactonian tools at sites in Swanscombe, Kent, and Barnham in Suffolk.
Evidence shows that early humans made this type of tool throughout Northern Europe.
To make Clactonian tools, early humans struck thick, irregular flakes from a core of flint.
They used the flint core as a chopper, and used the flakes as crude knives or scrapers.
Archaeologists have found Clactonian tools which were notched, implying that they were attached to a handle or shaft.
The Clactonian and Acheulean industries might have existed at the same time.
However, in 2004, archaeologists excavated a butchered Pleistocene elephant near Dartford, Kent.
They found many Clactonian flint tools, but no hand axes.
Since hand axes would have been more useful than choppers to dismember an elephant carcass, this is evidence that the Clactonian was a separate industry.
Flint of sufficient quality was available in the area, so archaeologists think the people who carved up the elephant did not know how to make hand axes.
Mousterian
The Mousterian is an industry of stone tools associated with Neanderthal Man (Homo neanderthalensis).
Early humans started making these tools around 300,000 years ago, and continued to make them until about 30,000 years ago.
There are up to thirty types of Mousterian tools, compared to about six in the Acheulean style.
The Mousterian was named after the type site of Le Moustier, a rock shelter in the Dordogne region of France.
Archaeologists have found similar flintwork all over unglaciated Europe, as well as the Near East and North Africa.
Mousterian hand axes usually had long blades and points.
Overall, these tools are finished more perfectly than any previous style of toolmaking.
To make Mousterian tools, early humans used the Levallois technique.
This is a prepared-core technique: the toolmaker works on the core of the stone for so that they can strike off a long, fine blade.
For this quality of work, early humans had to use a 'soft' hammer made of something like deer antler, not a stone hammer.
Neanderthals had larger brains than humans; this may have helped them develop Mousterian technology.
All cultures of modern humans, Homo sapiens, used the Mousterian style.
It is characteristic of our species to produce many more tools, all specialised for particular tasks.
There are at least 100 types of tools in the Upper Palaeolithic, compared to a maximum of 30 tools in the Mousterian.
Chronology of Palaeolithic and following periods
Lower Palaeolithic (c2.6 or 2.5 million years ago–100,000 years ago)
Middle Palaeolithic (c300,000–30,000 years ago)
Upper Palaeolithic (c45,000 or 40,000–10,000 years ago).
The Mesolithic and Neolithic eras followed the Palaeolithic.
The Neolithic ended around 1900 BC.
At this time, the Stone Age ended and the Bronze Age began.
Later, when the Bronze Age ended, the Iron Age began.
Overview of the main features of these periods
Venus figurines may be some of the first pieces of art ever made.
These are very small statues of women, mostly pregnant with visible breasts.
Archaeologists have found them in areas of Western Europe, stretching to Siberia.
Most of the Venus figurines that archaeologists have found are between 20,000 and 30,000 years old.
However, they have found two figurines that are much older.
The Venus of Tan-Tan, found in Morocco, is 300,000 to 500,000 years old.
The Venus of Berekhat Ram, found on the Golan Heights, is between 200,000 and 300,000 years ago.
These may be the some of the earliest things that show the human form.
Early humans used different kinds of stone, bones, and ivory to make these figurines.
They also made Venus figurines out of clay, then hardened the clay by heating it in a fire.
This is one of the earliest known uses of ceramics.
Archaeologists do not know what these figurines meant to the people who made them.
There are two basic theories:
They may be representations of human fertility, or they may have been made to help increase fertility.
They may represent (fertility) goddesses.
Scientists know that these figurines were not linked to the fertility of fields, because agriculture had not been discovered when the figurines were made.
The two older Venus figurines may have formed mostly through natural processes.
The Venus of Tan-Tan was covered with a substance that could have been some kind of paint.
The substance contained traces of iron and manganese.
The figurine of Berekhat Ram has traces of tool marks.
A study done in 1997 states that nature alone could not have left these traces.
Cave paintings
Cave paintings have been found in about 350 caves in Europe.
Many were done in the Palaeolothic Age, between about 15,000 and 30,000 years ago.
Some of the most famous are in the Cave of Altamira in Spain and the Lascaux Cave in France.p545 Usually, cave paintings show animals, like aurochs, bisons or horses.
Nobody knows why these paintings were done.
However, archaeologists know that people did not create cave paintings just to decorate their living spaces.
Usually, there are no signs that humans ever lived in the caves where people painted.
The oldest known cave paintings are in the Chauvet Cave in France.
There are two groups of paintings in this cave.
The first group was painted 33,000 to 30,000 years ago.
The second group was done 26,000 to 27,000 years ago.p546 We know this because scientists did radiocarbon dating of "black from drawings, from torch marks and from the floors".
By 1999, scientists had dated 31 samples from the cave.
The oldest were from 33,390-32,410 years ago.
Some archaeologists say this timeline is incorrect.
Christian Züchner studied the style of the Chauvet paintings and compared it to paintings done at other caves.
He thought one group of paintings was done between 28,000 and 23,000 years ago.
He said the other group was between 18,000 and 10,000 years old.
Pettitt and Bahn also think the Chauvet painting styles do not match the dates identified through radiocarbon dating.
People from the Palaeolithic era drew well.
They knew about perspective, and they knew of different ways to draw.
They were able to observe the behaviour of animals they painted.
Some of the paintings show how the animals behaved.
The paintings may have been important for rituals.
Diet and nutrition
Paleolithic hunter-gatherers ate leafy vegetables, fruit, nuts, insects, meat, shellfish, and other types of fish.
Because there is little direct evidence, it is almost impossible to determine how much of their diet was plant food and how much was meat.
Even the idea that most humans of a given period shared the same diet is problematic.
The Paleolithic was an extended period of time.
During that time, there were many technological advances, many of which had impact on human dietary structure.
For example, until the Middle Palaeolithic, humans probably did not have control of fire, or the tools needed to do extensive fishing.
On the other hand, archaeologists generally agree that both of these technologies were widely available to humans by the end of the Paleolithic. (
This allowed humans in some regions of the planet to rely heavily on fishing and hunting.)
In addition, in the Palaeolithic, human populations spread across a wide geographical area.
Archaeologists think that during the Lower Paleolithic, ancestors of modern humans lived only in Africa east of the Great Rift Valley.
During the Middle and Upper Paleolithic, humans greatly expanded their area of settlement, reaching ecosystems as diverse as New Guinea and Alaska.
The needed to adapt their diets to the local resources that were available.
Anthropologists have different opinions about the proportions of plant and animal foods consumed.
Just as with still existing hunters and gatherers, there were many varied "diets" - in different groups -of fruit and vegetables.
The relative proportions of plant and animal foods in the diets of Paleolithic people often varied between regions; in colder regions, more meat was necessary.
These regions were not populated by anatomically modern humans until 30,000-50,000 BP.
It is generally agreed that many modern hunting and fishing tools, such as fish hooks, nets, bows, and poisons, were not introduced until the Upper Palaeolithic and possibly even Neolithic.
The only hunting tools widely available to humans during any significant part of the Paleolithic period were hand-held spears and harpoons.
There's evidence of Paleolithic people killing and eating seals and elands as far as 100,000 years BP.
On the other hand, buffalo bones found in African caves from the same period are typically of very young or very old individuals, and there's no evidence that pigs, elephants or rhinos were hunted by humans at the time.
Another view is that until the Upper Paleolithic, humans were frugivores (fruit eaters) who supplemented their meals with carrion, eggs, and small prey such as baby birds and mussels.
Only on rare occasions did they manage to kill and consume big game such as antelopes.
Chimpanzees are the closest to humans genetically.
They share more than 96% of their DNA code with humans, and their digestive tract is functionally very similar.
Chimpanzees are primarily frugivores, but they could and would consume and digest animal flesh, given the opportunity.
In general, their actual diet in the wild is about 95% plant-based, with the remaining 5% filled with insects, eggs, and baby animals.
In some ecosystems, however, chimpanzees are predatory, forming parties to hunt monkeys.
Some comparative studies of human and higher primate digestive tracts do suggest that humans have evolved to obtain greater amounts of calories from sources such as animal foods, allowing them to shrink the size of the gastrointestinal tract relative to body mass and to increase the brain mass instead.
Paleolithic peoples suffered less famine and malnutrition than the Neolithic farming tribes that followed them.
This was partly because Paleolithic hunter-gatherers accessed to a wider variety natural foods, which allowed them a more nutritious diet and a decreased risk of famine.
Many of the famines experienced by Neolithic (and some modern) farmers were caused or amplified by their dependence on a small number of crops.
It is thought that wild foods can have a significantly different nutritional profile than cultivated foods.
The greater amount of meat obtained by hunting big game animals in Paleolithic diets than Neolithic diets may have also allowed Paleolithic hunter-gatherers to enjoy a more nutritious diet than Neolithic agriculturalists.
It has been argued that the shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture resulted in an increasing focus on a limited variety of foods, with meat likely taking a back seat to plants.
It is also unlikely that Paleolithic hunter-gatherers were affected by modern diseases of affluence such as Type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease and cerebrovascular disease, because they ate mostly lean meats and plants and frequently engaged in intense physical activity, and because the average lifespan was shorter than the age of common-onset of these conditions.
Large-seeded legumes were part of the human diet long before the Neolithic agricultural revolution, as evident from archaeobotanical finds from the Mousterian layers of Kebara Cave, in Israel.
There is evidence suggesting that Paleolithic societies were gathering wild cereals for food use at least as early as 30,000 years ago.
However, seeds, such as grains and beans, were rarely eaten and never in large quantities on a daily basis.
Recent archeological evidence also indicates that winemaking may have originated in the Paleolithic, when early humans drank the juice of naturally fermented wild grapes from animal-skin pouches.
Paleolithic humans consumed animal organ meats, including the livers, kidneys and brains.
Upper Paleolithic cultures appear to have had significant knowledge about plants and herbs and may have, albeit very rarely, practiced rudimentary forms of horticulture.
In particular, bananas and tubers may have been cultivated as early as 25,000 BP in southeast Asia.
Late Upper Paleolithic societies also appear to have occasionally practiced pastoralism and animal husbandry, presumably for dietary reasons.
For instance, some European late Upper Paleolithic cultures domesticated and raised reindeer, presumably for their meat or milk, as early as 14,000 BP.
Humans also probably consumed hallucinogenic plants during the Paleolithic period.
The Australian Aborigines have been consuming a variety of native animal and plant foods, called bushfood, for an estimated 60,000 years, since the Middle Paleolithic.
People during the Middle Paleolithic, such as the Neanderthals and Middle Paleolithic Homo sapiens in Africa, began to catch shellfish for food as revealed by shellfish cooking in Neanderthal sites in Italy about 110,000 years ago and Middle Paleolithic Homo sapiens sites at Pinnacle Point, in Africa around 164,000 BP.
Although fishing only became common during the Upper Paleolithic, fish have been part of human diets long before the dawn of the Upper Paleolithic and have certainly been consumed by humans since at least the Middle Paleolithic.
For example, the Middle Paleolithic Homo sapiens in the region now occupied by the Democratic Republic of the Congo hunted large -long catfish with specialized barbed fishing points as early as 90,000 years ago.
The invention of fishing allowed some Upper Paleolithic and later hunter-gatherer societies to become sedentary or semi-nomadic, which altered their social structures.
Example societies are the Lepenski Vir as well as some contemporary hunter-gatherers such as the Tlingit.
In some instances (at least the Tlingit) they developed social stratification, slavery and complex social structures such as chiefdoms.
Anthropologists such as Tim White suggest that cannibalism was common in human societies prior to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, based on the large amount of “butchered human" bones found in Neanderthal and other Lower/Middle Paleolithic sites.
Cannibalism in the Lower and Middle Paleolithic may have occurred because of food shortages.
However, it may have been for religious reasons, and would coincide with the development of religious practices thought to have occurred during the Upper Paleolithic.
Nonetheless, it remains possible that Paleolithic societies never practiced cannibalism, and that the damage to recovered human bones was either the result of ritual post-mortem bone cleaning or predation by carnivores such as saber tooth cats, lions and hyenas.
Christopher Boehm 1999. "
Hierarchy in the forest: the evolution of egalitarian behavior" page 198 Harvard University Press.
Leften Stavros Stavrianos 1991.
A global history from prehistory to the present.
New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall.
Bahn, Paul 1996.
The atlas of world archeology.
The Brown Reference Group PLC.
Early voices: the leap to language, by Nicolas Wade
Human Evolution, Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007  © 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation.
Contributed by Richard B. Potts.
Stone Age, Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007  © 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation.
Contributed by Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth.
Middle and Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherers the emergence of modern humans: the Mesolithic
Map of Earth during the late Upper Paleolithic, by Christopher Scotese
Bolas (from Spanish bola, "ball", also known as boleadoras) are a throwing weapon made of weights on the ends of interconnected cords, designed to capture animals by entangling their legs.
They are used by the gauchos in South America today, but have been found in excavations of pre-Hispanic settlements, especially in Patagonia, where indigenous peoples used them to catch guanaco and ñandu.
Gauchos use boleadoras to capture running cattle or game.
The thrower gives the balls momentum by swinging them and then releases the boledoras.
The weapon is usually used to entangle the animal's legs, but when thrown with enough force might even break the bone.
There is no uniform design; most bolas have two or three balls, but there are versions of up to 8 or 9 balls.
Some bolas have balls of equal weight,othes vary the knot and cord.
Gauchos use bolas made of leather cords with wooden balls or small leather sacks full of stones in the ends of the cords.
Perdida (1 weight)
Avestrucera or ñanducera (2 weights)
Boleadora (3 weights)
Ka-Lum-Ik-Toun (Inuit name for bolas with 10 or more weights)
Inuit Bolas
Cable, in electronics, such as power cord or extension cord
Twine, string or rope
Cord (band),  a British rock group
Cord (movie), a 2000 movie starring Daryl Hannah and Jennifer Tilly
Cord (sewing), a trimming made of multiple strands of yarn twisted together
cord (unit of volume), used to measure firewood
Cord Automobile, a former American car marque founded by Errett Lobban Cord
Mycelial cord, a structure, used by fungi to transfer nutrients over larger distances
spinal cord
Umbilical cord, a tube that connects a developing embryo or fetus to its placenta
Howard Robard Hughes, Jr. (December 24, 1905 – April 5, 1976), was an American businessman and movie producer.
During his life, he was one of the richest people in the world.
He was born in Humble, Texas to a rich family.
He went to Hollywood and became a movie producer and aviator.
Hughes broke several world records for flying aeroplanes.
He created his own air company, which was later bought by TWA.
Many people now think Hughes may have had OCD or obsessive compulsive disorder.
This is because later in life, he kept himself away from the outside world.
He lived in a hotel suite at The Desert Inn in Las Vegas as a recluse.
He never left his room.
He also did not cut his hair or fingernails.
He had a group of doctors and other people to help take care of him.
In 1972, a man named Clifford Irving claimed to have co-written the autobiography of Hughes.
It was later shown to not be real.
Hughes died in Houston while being moved to a hospital in Mexico.
After he died, there was an argument over his will.
Tarzan is a main fictional character.
He appeared in many books by Edgar Rice Burroughs.
Burroughs first wrote about Tarzan in 1914.
The book was called Tarzan of the Apes.
Tarzan's father was an English lord who died in the African jungle.
The baby Tarzan was left alone in the jungle.
Giant apes found the baby Tarzan and took care of him.
Tarzan has also appeared in other media including movies, movie serials, comic books, and television programs.
Books with jungle settings
Surfer Rosa is the first music album by the Pixies.
It was released by a record label called 4AD in March 1988.
Surfer Rosa at Last.fm
Surfer Rosa at Google Music
1988 albums
OK Go is a rock band from Chicago.
The band members are Damian Kulash (lead vocals and guitar), Tim Nordwind (bass guitar and backing vocals), Dan Konopka (drums and percussion) and Andy Ross (keyboards, guitar and backing vocals).
Their best known song is "Here It Goes Again".
The death zone is the name used by mountain climbers for high altitude where there is not enough available oxygen for humans to breathe.
This is usually above 8,000 metres (26,247 feet).
Fourteen mountains have peaks that are in the death zone; Those mountains are in Asia, and they are part of the Himalaya and Karakoram.
"People are advised not to stay in the death zone for more than 16 to 20 hours", media said; Shorter stays can also be deadly.
Most of the 200+ climbers who have died on Mount Everest  have died in the death zone.
Due to the inverse relationship of atmospheric pressure to altitude, at the top of Mount Everest the average person takes in about 30% of the oxygen in the air that they would take in at sea level; a normal human person used to breathing air at sea level could only be there for a few minutes before they became unconscious.
Most climbers have to carry oxygen bottles to be able to reach the top.
Visitors become weak and have inability to think clearly and make decisions, especially under stress.
Since helicopters also perform poorly in thin air, many bodies of dead visitors are left on the mountain.
Alive in the death zone for more than one night
In 2008, Pemba Gyalje stayed in K2's Death Zone for 90 hours.
Before that, in 2006, climber Lincoln Hall, who was left for dead on Everest on May 25, 2006, managed to survive.
Lack of oxygen in his blood made it easier for him to get frostbite.
He also had headaches, nausea, vomiting and hallucinations.
He said later this was caused by cerebral edema – or swelling of the brain.
This is caused at high altitude when blood leaks into the brain itself and that can kill a person if the brain becomes too compressed.
Hall was left for dead when his breathing and heartbeat stopped.
He was found the next morning by a team of four led by U.S. climber Daniel Mazur.
Hall was sitting cross-legged near a ten-thousand foot cliff's edge, without his gloves, hat, or oxygen, with his climbing suit unzipped.
Mazur later reported that Hall seemed lucid, and his first words were, "I imagine you're surprised to see me here."
A massive rescue operation was assembled, and Hall was rescued.
He survived for an additional seven years, speaking and writing books about his experiences on Everest, before his death in 2012 from mesothelioma.
George Fitzgerald Smoot III (born February 20, 1945) is an American professor of astrophysics and cosmology.
In 2006 he won a Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on COBE with John C. Mather.
That work made it possible to measure black holes and cosmic radiation much more exactly than was possible before.
This work gave new evidence for the big-bang idea that the universe was once a big explosion.
This work was completed using the Cosmic Background Explorer Satellite (COBE).
Professor Smoot works for the University of California, Berkeley Department of Physics.
In 2003 he was awarded the Einstein Medal.
Professor Smoot was born in Yukon, Florida.
He went to Upper Arlington High School in Upper Arlington, Ohio until 1962.
He studied mathematics for some time before going to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he was awarded two bachelor's degrees for mathematics and physics in 1966, and a Ph.D. in particle physics in 1970.
Smoots cousin, Oliver R. Smoot, also studied at MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), and was made famous for the Smoot measurement of the Harvard Bridge between Cambridge and Boston.
The "Smoot" length was marked in paint over 360 times on the bridge and is repainted there every year.
Oliver later worked as the Chairman of the American National Standards Institute.
Early research
He then took up an interest in the microwaves in cosmic radiation which had been discovered by Arno Allan Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964.
This work gave new evidence of what the universe is made of.
Some researchers thought that the universe was rotating, which would mean that temperature of microwaves would seem different when measured from different angles.
With the help of Alvarez and Richard A. Muller, Professor Smoot developed a radiometer to measure the difference in temperature from two angles 60 degrees apart.
The radiometer was put on top of a Lockheed U-2 plane, but the measurements seemed to show that the universe was not rotating.
It did, however, detect another difference in the microwave temperature on one side of the sky.
They called this a dipole pattern and a Doppler effect of the Earth's motion.
A doppler effect happens because the Sun, and the Milky Way are moving at nearly 600 km/s.  They think this is caused by gravity from the Great Attractor.
COBE
The measurements from the radiometer showed that one side of the sky was different to the other but this was surprising because it was expected that many differences would be found all over the sky.
Smoot was working on finding these smaller differences in the late 1970s when he gave NASA an idea to make a satellite with a detector that was similar to the one mounted on the Lockheed aeroplane.
This detector would be much more powerful and it would not be affected by the atmosphere.
NASA spent US$160  million on the satellite and named it the COBE.
The COBE satellite was delayed after the Space Shuttle Challenger was destroyed, but was launched successfully on November 18, 1989.
After more than two years, on 21 April 1992, the COBE research team claimed that the satellite had detected the small differences they were looking for.
This was very important in the study of the early universe.
The study was "evidence for the birth of the universe".
Professor Smoot said: "If you're religious, it's like looking at God."
More than 1,000 researchers, engineers and other workers helped to make the COBE.
John Mather was in control of the whole project and the experiments that made the COBE possible.
George Smoot was in control of measuring the small differences in the temperature of the radiation.
Smoot worked with the San Francisco Chronicles journalist, Keay Davidson, to write a book called Wrinkles in Time, all about the team's work.
In the book The Very First Light,  John Mather and John Boslough write more of the COBE story.
Mathers book says that Professor Smoot was giving news of COBE to the press before NASA did.
This made problems between Smoot and Mather in the past.
After COBE, Smoot helped with another experiment with a stratospheric balloon called the MAXIMA experiment.
This ballon took some better measurements than the COBE.
Smoot has continued studying cosmic radiatin and now works on the third generation COBE satellite Planck.
He is also working on the design of a Supernova/Acceleration Probe (SNAP), a satellite which is to measure dark energy.
He has also assisted in analyzing data from the Spitzer Space Telescope in connection with measuring far infrared background radiation.
George Smoot official website at UC Berkeley
George Smoot biography at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
George Smoot curriculum vitae at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Smoot Group Cosmology official website at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Low gravity phase separator U.S. Patent 4027494 at the United States Patent Office
Nobel Prize announcement at the Nobel Foundation
Contemplating the birth of the universe
Soundgarden was an American rock band.
They began in Seattle, Washington, in 1984.
Soundgarden helped create the sound of  grunge music.
This is a genre of alternative rock that first became popular in Seattle.
They were first signed to a local record label Sub Pop.
Later, they were the first grunge band to sign to a major label, A&M Records, in 1988.
Soundgarden became well known with the 1994 album Superunknown.
It debuted at number one on the Billboard charts.
Two singles won Grammy Awards; "Black Hole Sun" and "Spoonman".
VH1 has ranked Soundgarden at number 14 in their special 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock.
In 1997, the band broke up because they could no longer agree on the sound of their musical future.
The members worked on other projects for more than ten years.
Soundgarden got back together in 2010.
Two years later, they released their sixth studio album, King Animal.
On May 17, 2017, frontman Chris Cornell was found dead in his Detroit hotel room, the night after a concert at the city's Fox Theatre.
Police are treating it as suspected suicide.
Soundgarden will almost certainly not continue.
Early band history
Soundgarden began in 1984.
They first had three members: singer and drummer Chris Cornell, lead guitarist Kim Thayil, and bassist Hiro Yamamoto.
The band named themselves after a wind-channeling pipe sculpture, "A Sound Garden".
The art work is in Magnuson Park, in Seattle.
At first, Cornell played drums while singing, but in 1985 the band hired Scott Sundquist so that Cornell could just sing.
The band's first recordings were three songs on a compilation album for C/Z Records named Deep Six.
Also appearing on the album were early grunge artists Green River, Skin Yard, Malfunkshun, The U-Men and the Melvins.
In 1986, Sundquist left the band.
He was replaced by Matt Cameron, who had been the drummer for Skin Yard.
A Seattle radio station DJ, Jonathan Poneman, liked Soundgarden after seeing them perform.
He later said, "I saw this band that was everything rock music should be".
Poneman offered to pay for a record to be made by the band.
Teaming up with Bruce Pavitt, Poneman also contributed $20,000 to the financially struggling Sub Pop.
This helped turn Sup Pop into a popular, successful record label that attracted more success with grunge bands.
Sub Pop then released Soundgarden's Screaming Life EP in 1987, and the Fopp EP in 1988.
A combination of the two was issued as Screaming Life/Fopp in 1990.
Though major labels were asking Soundgarden to sign with them, in 1988 the band chose a small independent label, SST Records.
SST released their debut album, Ultramega OK.
The album was nominated for a Grammy for Best Metal Performance in 1990.
The band's first music video, "Flower", became popular; airing regularly on MTV's 120 Minutes.
In 1989, Soundgarden promoted Ultramega OK with a tour of the United States and then went to Europe.
This was their first overseas tour.
Major labels
In 1989, Soundgarden released their first album for a major label, A&M Records.
Louder Than Love became the band's first to chart on the Billboard 200.
It reached number 108 on the chart in 1990.
The band supported the album with tours of North America and Europe.
A month before touring for Louder Than Love began, bassist Hiro Yamamoto left to go back to college.
Yamamoto was unhappy because he felt he was not important enough to the band.
Former Nirvana bassist Jason Everman took his place for the tour.
Everman was fired immediately after Soundgarden got back from Europe in mid-1990.
An EP Loudest Love and the video compilation Louder Than Live, were both released in 1990.
The video shows five live tracks made during the Louder Than Love tour.
Badmotorfinger: 1990–1993
Bassist Ben Shepherd joined Soundgarden in 1990.
Their next album, Badmotorfinger  was released in 1991.
It had some success, reaching number 39 on the album charts.
But it got less attention because of the surprise success of Nirvana's Nevermind, released the same month as Badmotorfinger.
Two singles got popular airplay on alternative radio stations and MTV.
The first single from Badmotorfinger, "Jesus Christ Pose", got negative attention when MTV banned its music video in 1991.
Many listeners were outraged by the song and its video, calling it anti-Christian.
The band received death threats while on tour in the United Kingdom in support of the album.
Badmotorfinger was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1992.
After a tour of North America in 1991, the band opened for Guns N' Roses in North America on the band's "Use Your Illusion Tour".
After several tours to promote the album, they rejoined Guns N' Roses in the summer of 1992 in Europe as part of the Use Your Illusion Tour with another opening act, Faith No More.
The band took part in the 1992 Lollapalooza tour with the Red Hot Chili Peppers, Pearl Jam, and Ministry.
The band later released a video compilation Motorvision.
It was made in 1992 at the Paramount Theatre.
Also that year, they appeared in the movie Singles.
They were show performing "Birth Ritual".
The song appeared on the soundtrack, as did a Chris Cornell solo song, "Seasons".
Superunknown: 1994–1995
Soundgarden released Superunknown in 1994.
It became the band's best-selling album, partly because of the popular singles "Black Hole Sun", "Spoonman", "My Wave", and "Fell on Black Days".
Upon its release in March 1994, Superunknown debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart.
The lyrics of the songs were dark and sad; much of them seem to be talking about substance abuse, suicide, and depression.
Reviewer J.D. Considine of Rolling Stone said Superunknown "demonstrates far greater range than many bands manage in an entire career."
He also stated, "At its best, Superunknown offers a more harrowing depiction of alienation and despair than anything on In Utero."
The music video for "Black Hole Sun" received the MTV Video Music Award for "Best Rock Video|Best Metal/Hard Rock Video" award in 1994.
Soundgarden won two Grammy Awards in 1995; "Black Hole Sun" received the award for Best Hard Rock Performance and "Spoonman" received the award for Best Metal Performance.
Down on the Upside: 1996–1997
After a worldwide tour to promote Superunknown, the band members began working on what would become their last studio album for more than 15 years.
It was released in 1996.
Four singles were released from the album: "Pretty Noose", "Blow Up the Outside World", "Burden in My Hand", and "Ty Cobb".
The music was less heavy metal and grunge sounding than the group's previous albums.
The band members said that they wanted to experiment with other sounds.
In a review, David Browne of Entertainment Weekly said, "Few bands since Led Zeppelin have so crisply mixed instruments both acoustic and electric."
However, the writing and recording of the album was stressful for the group.
Thayil and Cornell seemed to not agree on a change from the heavy guitar riffs that had become the band's trademark.
The album got favorable reviews, but did not sell as well as Superunknown.
The band played on the 1996 Lollapalooza tour with Metallica, who had asked for them to appear.
After Lollapalooza, the band left for a world tour.
Tensions continued to increase during the tour.
When asked if the band hated touring, Cornell said, "We really enjoy it to a point and then it gets tedious, because it becomes repetitious.
You feel like fans have paid their money and they expect you to come out and play them your songs like the first time you ever played them.
That's the point where we hate touring."
At the tour's final stop in Honolulu, Hawaii on February 9, 1997, Shepherd threw his bass guitar into the air in frustration after his equipment failed.
He then stormed off the stage.
The band then also left the stage, but Cornell returned to play a solo as an encore.
Breakup and reunion
On April 9, 1997, the band announced they were breaking up.
Thayil said, "It was pretty obvious from everybody's general attitude over the course of the previous half year that there was some dissatisfaction."
A best-of album named A-Sides, was released in November 1997 through A&M Records.
After almost 13 years, on January 1, 2010, Chris Cornell wrote on his Twitter, "The 12-year break is over and school is back in session.
Sign up now.
Knights of the Soundtable ride again!"
The message linked to a website for fans to enter their e-mail addresses to get updates on the reunion.
Chris Cornell - vocals, rhythm guitar (1984 – 1997)
Kim Thayil - lead guitar  (1984 - 1997)
Ben Shepherd - bass (1990 – 1997)
Matt Cameron - drums (1986 - 1997)
1990s disestablishments in Washington (state)
21st-century establishments in Washington (state)
2017 disestablishments in the United States
Musical groups disestablished in the 2010s
21st-century disestablishments in Washington (state)
The Book of Judges is the seventh book in both the Christian Bible (Old Testament), and the Hebrew Tanakh.
It was originally written in Hebrew, to the people in Israel.
The Hebrew word for the book is Shaptiym, which means, 'people of judgment.'
The book contains the stories of many "judges" who were leaders who typically led the people in battle and then served as a civil leader.
While not kings, these men were respected and they sometimes decided cases.
That is why they were called Judges.
One of the Judges was Samson who was a very strong man.
He fought against the Philistines.
After his girl friend, Delilah, tricked him by cutting his hair, he was made a slave.
At his death, he destroyed many enemies by pulling down a building on them.
Gideon was another famous judge.
He defeated an army of Midianites  with only 300 men.
Another famous judge was Deborah, possible the most powerful woman in the Bible.
She was a military, civil and religious leader.
In the book, there is a pattern which repeats.
The people turn from God, and he allows their enemies to harm them.
Then they pray to God.
He sends them a new judge.
This judge helps the people and defeats their enemies.
The people are happy for a time, but soon they again turn from God.
The cycle repeats itself.
In those days there was no king in Israel: every man did that which was right in his own eyes (21:25)
IVP New Bible Commentary
Judges (NIV)
Judges (KJV)
Black people is a term that is used for a racial group of people with a dark skin color.
The meaning of the word is mainly used for people of Sub-Saharan African descent, but also includes certain groups in Oceania and Southeast Asia.