the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
This one was done by an American team, lead by James Whittaker.
Another notable success was in 1982, when a Japanese team climbed from the harder Chinese side of the mountain.
The previous successes had been from the Pakistan side.
The expedition was lead by Isao Shinkai and Masatsugo Konishi.
Three members of the team made it to the summit on 14 August.
One of them, however, died on when coming down.
Four other members made it to the summit the next day, on 15 August.
The first person to reach the summit twice was Czech climber Josef Rakoncaj.
He was part of a 1983 Italian expedition that made the summit.
Then three years later he made the summit again as part of an international expedition.
The first woman to reach the summit was Polish climber Wanda Rutkiewicz in 1986.
Two other women reached the summit later that same day, but died when coming down.
Climbing difficulty
Even though the summit of Everest is higher, K2 is a much more difficult and dangerous climb.
This is in part due to its worse weather.
It is believed by many to be the world's most difficult and dangerous climb.
This is what lead to the nickname "the Savage Mountain".
Only about 300 people have made it to the top.
This is much less than the 5,600 who have made it to the top of Everest.
At least 80 (as of September 2010) people have died attempting the climb.
Map of K2
'K2: The Killing Peak' Men's Journal November 2008 feature
Story of the 1902 K2 expedition by Aleister Crowley, who was in the group
The climbing history of K2 from the first attempt in 1902 until the Italian success in 1954.
Mountains of Asia
Respiration is the process in which nutrients are converted into useful energy in a cell.
During respiration, energy is released in a form that can be used by cells.
All living things respire.
Both plant and animal cells use the process of respiration to release energy from glucose.
There are two types of respiration.
One is aerobic respiration and the other is anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen.
Here, oxygen is utilized to break down food (glucose) to release high amounts of energy.
Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen.
During respiration in yeast and bacteria, oxygen is not involved in the oxidation of food.
Food (glucose) is broken down into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide this is called anaerobic respiration.
Animals obtain carbohydrates, such as starch and sugars, by eating them.
Some heat is released by these chemical reactions in cells, and it is this we experience as body heat.
Plants make their own carbohydrates during photosynthesis.
They get carbon dioxide from the environment and their energy from the sun.
Some use oxygen to break down glucose completely into CO2 (Carbon dioxide) and H2O (Water).
Sir Kingsley William Amis (16 April 1922 – 22 October 1995) was an English novelist, poet, critic, and teacher.
He wrote more than twenty novels, three collections of poetry, short stories, radio and television scripts, and books of social and literary criticism.
He was the father of the British novelist Martin Amis.
Kingsley Amis was born in Clapham, South London, England.
He went to school at the City of London School and St. John's College, Oxford.
At Oxford, he met Philip Larkin and became friends.
Amis served in the Royal Corps of Signals in the Second World War.
Amis was a fan of jazz music.
He liked the American musicians Sidney Bechet, Henry "Red" Allen and Pee Wee Russell.
His first novel Lucky Jim was very successfull.
The novel won the Somerset Maugham Award for fiction.
Lucky Jim was the first English novel that focused on an ordinary man as anti-hero.
As a poet, Amis was a part of The Movement (anti-romantic poetry).
As a young man, Kingsley Amis was a member of the Communist Party.
He left them when the Soviet Union invaded Hungary in 1956.
After that, Amis became anti-communist, and conservative.
He talks about his political change in the essay "Why Lucky Jim Turned Right" (1967).
Amis was an atheist.
Novels such as The Green Man and The Anti-Death League were about the personality of a divine being.
They were also about its relationship to death and dying.
Amis's novel The Old Devils won the Booker Prize in 1986.
He received a knighthood in 1990.
Amis was married.
The first time in 1948 to Hilary Bardwell and then to novelist Elizabeth Jane Howard in 1965.
He divorced Howard in 1983.
Amis spent his last years living with his first wife and her third husband.
He had two sons and a daughter.
His younger son was novelist Martin Amis.
Martin wrote about his father's life and decline in his memoir Experience.
Amis' interest in science fiction led to New Maps of Hell (1960).
It was about how he felt about science fiction in literature.
He liked the stories of Frederik Pohl and C.M. Kornbluth.
With the Sovietologist Robert Conquest, Amis produced the science fiction series Spectrum I–IV.
This series got a lot of its ideas from the 1950s magazine Astounding Science Fiction.
He wrote three science fiction novels.
The Alteration was an alternate history novel set in a twentieth-century Britain.
Russian Hide-and-Seek was an alternate history where Russia had conquered Britain after the Second World War.
He also wrote the supernatural-horror novel The Green Man which the BBC adapted for television.
Amis wrote books about Ian Fleming's James Bond.
He wrote the popular James Bond Dossier.
Later, he wrote, The Book of Bond, or, Every Man His Own 007.
It was a tongue-in-cheek how-to manual about being a spy like Bond.
He wrote it under the name "Lt Col.
William 'Bill' Tanner".
Tanner was M's Chief of Staff in many of the Bond novels.
Guardian Books "Author Page", with profile and links to further articles.
The Paris Review interview, with downloadable PDF
The Year of the Four Emperors: After Nero's death, Galba, Otho and Vitellius all serve as emperor for a short time each before Vespasian takes over.
January 15 – Otho seizes power in Rome, proclaims himself Roman Emperor, and survives three months before committing suicide.
First Jewish-Roman War – Vespasian lays siege to Jerusalem, which was captured by Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus after Vespasian became Emperor.
April 2– Galba, governor of Spain, names himself legatus senatus populique Romani, breaking the line of Roman emperors begun with Caesar and Augustus.
He was assassinated by the Praetorian Guards in favor of Marcus Salvius Otho.
April 14 – First Battle of Bedriacum: Vitellius defeats Otho's legions, Otho commits suicide.
April 17 – After the First Battle of Bedriacum, Vitellius becomes Roman Emperor.
October 24 – Second Battle of Bedriacum: Flavians under Antonius Primus defeats Vitellians.
December 21 – Vespasian becomes emperor.
The Batavians, under the leadeship of Gaius Julius Civilis, revolt (Batavian rebellion).
Legio I Macriana liberatrix is disbanded.
Saint Polycarp of Smyrna
January – Locusta
January 15 – Galba
April 15 – Otho
December 22 – Vitellius killed by the army of Vespasian
Sack of Rome by the Visigoths under Alaric
Britain lost from the Roman Empire
The 340s decade ran from January 1, 340, to December 31, 349.
Ulfilas missionary to the Goths
Constans, Roman Emperor
Flavius Philippus, praetorian prefect of the East, consul
Hypatia of Alexandria
Ferdinand II the Catholic (, 10 March 1452 – 23 January 1516) was king of Aragon (1479–1516), Castile, Sicily (1468–1516), Naples (1504–1516), Valencia, Sardinia and Navarre and Count of Barcelona.
His marriage to Isabella of Castile unified most of the Iberian Peninsula as Spain and started its move to become a great power.
Ferdinand was the son of John II of Aragon by his second wife, the Aragonese noblewoman Juana Enriquez.
He married Infanta Isabella, the sister by a different mother of Henry IV of Castile, on 19 October 1469 in Ocaña.
He became Ferdinand V of Castile when Isabella succeeded her brother as Queen of Castile in 1474.
The two young monarchs had to begin with a civil war against Juana, princess of Castile (also known as Juana la Beltraneja), who claimed to be the daughter of Henry IV.
Ferdinand succeeded his father as King of Aragon in 1479.
This meant the Crown of Castile and the various territories of the Crown of Aragon were united in a personal union.
For the first time since the 8th century this created a single political unit which might be called Spain, although the various territories were not properly administered as a single unit until the 18th century.
The first decades of Ferdinand and Isabella's joint rule were taken up with the conquest of the Kingdom of Granada, the last Muslim enclave in the Iberian peninsula.
This was completed by 1492 and then the Jews were expelled from both Castile and Aragon.
The royal couple sent Christopher Columbus  on his expedition which discover the New World.
By the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, the extra-European world was split between the crowns of Portugal and Castile by a north-south line through the Atlantic Ocean.
Ferdinand was busy in the last decades of his life with the so-called Italian Wars.
He was fighting with the Kings of France for control of Italy.
In 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy and expelled Ferdinand's cousin, Alfonso II, from the throne of Naples.
Ferdinand's alliance with various Italian princes and with Emperor Maximilian I, expelled the French by 1496 and installed Alfonso's son, Ferdinand, on the Neapolitan throne.
In 1501, following the death of Ferdinand II of Naples and his succession by his uncle Frederick, Ferdinand of Aragon signed an agreement with Charles VIII's successor, Louis XII.
Louis had just successfully asserted his claims to the Duchy of Milan, and they agreed to partition Naples between them, with Campania and the Abruzzi, including Naples itself, going to the French and Ferdinand taking Apulia and Calabria.
The agreement soon fell apart, and over the next several years, Ferdinand's great general Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba conquered Naples from the French, by 1504.
Another less famous "conquest" took place in 1502, when Andreas Paleologus, de jure Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, left Ferdinand and Isabella as heirs to the empire, thus Ferdinand became de jure Roman Emperor.
After Isabella's death, her kingdom went to her daughter Joanna.
Ferdinand served as the latter's regent during her absence in the Netherlands, ruled by her husband Archduke Philip.
Ferdinand attempted to retain the regency permanently, but was rebuffed by the Castilian nobility and replaced with Joanna's husband, who became Philip I of Castile.
After Philip's death in 1506, with Joanna mentally unstable, and her and Philip's son Charles of Ghent only six years old, Ferdinand resumed the regency, ruling through Francisco Cardinal Jimenez de Cisneros, the Chancellor of the Kingdom.
In 1508, war resumed in Italy, this time against Venice.
All the other powers on the peninsula, including Louis XII, Ferdinand, Maximilian, and Pope Julius II joined together against as the League of Cambrai.
Although the French were victorious against Venice at the Battle of Agnadello, the League soon fell apart, as both the Pope and Ferdinand became suspicious of French intentions.
Instead, the Holy League was formed, in which all the powers now joined together against France.
In November 1511 Ferdinand and his son-in-law Henry VIII of England signed the Treaty of Westminster, pledging mutual aid between the two against France.
Earlier that year, Ferdinand had conquered the southern half of the Kingdom of Navarre, which was ruled by a French nobleman, and annexed it to Spain.
At this point to reinforce his claim to the kingdom, Ferdinand remarried with the much younger Germaine of Foix (1490–1538), a granddaughter of Queen Leonor of Navarre.
The Holy League was generally successful in Italy, as well, driving the French from Milan, which was restored to its Sforza dukes by the peace treaty in 1513.
The French were successful in reconquering Milan two years later, however.
Ferdinand died in 1516 in Madrigalejo, Cáceres, Extremadura.
He had made Spain the most powerful country in Europe.
The succession of his grandson Charles, who inherited not only the Spanish lands of his maternal grandparents, but the Habsburg and Burgundian lands of his paternal family, would make his heirs the most powerful rulers on the continent.
Charles succeeded him in the Aragonese lands, and was also granted the Castilian crown jointly with his insane mother, bringing about at long last the unification of the Spanish thrones under one head.
Ferdinand and Isabella had 5 children, Isabella of Asturias, Juan of Aragon, Joanna of Castile, Maria of Aragon, and Catherine of Aragon.
Joanna and Catherine married with several European dynasties, setting the bases for the huge heritage of their grandson Charles V. His granddaughter was Queen Mary I of England.
Ferdinand is entombed in the Capilla Real of Granada, alongside his wife, his daughter Joanna and her husband Philip, and his grandson Miguel.
During his joint reign with Queen Isabella, they used the motto "Tanto monta, monta tanto, Isabel como Fernando" ("They amount to the same, Isabel and Ferdinand").
This was used to imply their equal power in both of their domains, as such an arrangement was uncommon in those times.
Some scholars argue that Ferdinand, and not the unfortunate Cesare Borgia, was the true inspiration for Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, in which he is frequently mentioned.
1516 deaths
People from Aragon
To people who use the Internet, wikis and blogs are Web 2.0.
Web 2.0 is mostly about user-generated and interactive content.
Before Web 2.0, Internet users could just read information on web pages.
With Web 2.0, users can interact with the site and add information.
In Web 1.0, the previous version, information was only written by the website author.
Some people think that Wikipedia is a great example of "Web 2.0".
Many other famous websites, such as Facebook and Youtube, are considered Web 2.0 Websites.
The Broons is a comic strip in the Scottish newspaper The Sunday Post.
It is about a Scottish family with 11 members.
Granpaw
The Bairn
Fictional families
20th-century establishments in Scotland
The Roman Republic was a phase in history of the Ancient Roman civilization.
According to legend, the city of Rome was founded by Romulus in .
It was a kingdom until 510 BC, when the last King, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was overthrown.
This began the Roman Republic.
The Roman Republic was a civilization ahead of its time and very advanced.
The Roman people elected Consuls, who ruled for about a year.
Many of the ideas of the Roman Republic are still used today.
The Republic got most of its wealth from trading and taxation.
The Republic had few enemies but it was constantly on war with the Gauls, who were conquered by Caesar later.
The Punic Wars against Carthage were fought all over the Mediterranean coasts, mainly because of Sicily and trade disputes.
The third enemy being the Germanic tribes or simply barbarians (uncivilized people).
The end of the Republic is still a matter of dispute; different scholars will give different dates for it.
Usually, the dates of the start of the First Triumvirate or the Second Triumvirate are given. (
The Triumvirates were groups of three men who had much power)
The end of the Republic is often said to be when Gaius Julius Caesar was appointed as dictator (single ruler) by the Roman Senate.
This happened after a series of civil wars that lasted from about 49 BC to the year 44 BC.
Some people say the Republic ended with the naval Battle of Actium between Marcus Antonius and Octavian.
They both had been in the Second Triumvirate.
It was fought on 2 September 31 BC.
Octavian won.
Later on, he was proclaimed Roman Emperor.
The end date could also be when Octavian was given the title of the first Augustus by the Senate.
This was on 16 January 27 BC.
These are modern views though.
In the view of the early emperors, the Res Publica (Republic, literally "Thing of the People") still existed.
It was simply "under their protection".
They promised that some day that the Republic would restored to its original form.
This never happened, and so scholars divide the Roman Empire and the Roman Republic as two different, distinct periods of the history of Rome.
509 BC establishments
The First Triumvirate is the name most historians give to the political alliance between Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey).
They made it in 60 BC to give each other power.
Each person helped the others to be more powerful.
Caesar was able to gain money from Crassus to finance his public works campaign.
He also gained military power from Pompey's loyal legions.
Crassus, who was much envied and hated for his wealth and the means he used to attain it, was also able to gain popularity from Pompey as well as Caesar who had a loyal following in the plebeian class.
Pompey was grateful to Caesar for his support against slander in the senate.
Caesar's speeches in the senate were in favor of giving the newly conquered land to Pompey's returned legions.
Pompey and Crassus ended their old grudge that dated back to the Third Servile War because they realised the advantages they allowed each other.
To cement the Triumvirate, Crassus told Caesar's numerous debt holders that he would pay Caesar's loans if Caesar defaulted.
Pompey married Caesar's only child, Julia.
The Triumvirate lasted until Crassus' death in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.
Caesar and Pompey started fighting.
Caesar won at the Battle of Pharsalus.
Caesar became dictator in the year 44 BC.
The Second Triumvirate was an alliance between Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus.
It was formed to punish the conspirators who assassinated Julius Caesar.
The Triumvirate lasted from 43 BC to 33 BC.
It ended the effort by Marcus Tullius Cicero to make the Senate once again the top body of the Republic.
From then on Rome was ruled by an Emperor.
The Triumvirate army, led by Octavian and Mark Antony, defeated the Conspirators' army led by Cassius and Brutus.
The war ended with the Battle of Philippi in Roman Macedonia in 42 BC.
Cassius and Brutus committed suicide and the remainder of their army joined the Triumvirate forces.
de:Triumvirat#Das Zweite Triumvirat
ja:三頭政治#第二回三頭政治
Occam's razor (or Ockham's razor) is a principle from philosophy.
Suppose an event has two possible explanations.
The explanation that requires the fewest assumptions is usually correct.
Another way of saying it is that the more assumptions you have to make, the more unlikely an explanation.
Occam's razor applies especially in the philosophy of science, but also appears in everyday life.
William of Ockham, a Franciscan friar who studied logic in the 14th century, first made this principle well known.
In Latin it is sometimes called lex parsimoniae, or "the law of briefness".
William of Ockham supposedly (see below) wrote it in Latin:
Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem.
More things should not be used than are necessary.
This means if there are several possible ways something might have happened, the way which uses the fewest guesses is probably the correct one.
However, Occam's razor only applies when the simple explanation and complex explanation both work equally well.
If a more complex explanation does a better job than a simpler one, then you should use the complex explanation.
Further ideas
A problem with Occam's razor is that the sentence is not really about things (entia = entities), but about explanations or hypotheses.
Other thinkers have come up with other versions:
"We consider it a good principle to explain the phenomena by the simplest hypothesis possible".
Ptolemy.
Not only is Ptolemy earlier than Occam, but Occam's supposed wording cannot be found in any of his existing works.
"We are to admit no more causes of natural things other than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances.
Therefore, to the same natural effects we must, so far as possible, assign the same causes".
Isaac Newton.
"Whenever possible, substitute constructions out of known entities for inferences to unknown entities".
Example: Two trees have fallen down during a windy night.
Think about these two possible explanations:
The wind has blown them down.
Two meteorites have each taken one tree down and, after striking the trees, hit each other removing any trace of themselves.
Even though both are possible, several other unlikely things would also need to happen for the meteorites to have knocked the trees down, for example: they would have to hit each other and not leave any marks.
In addition, meteorites are fairly rare.
Since this second explanation needs several assumptions to all be true, it is probably the wrong answer.
Occam's razor tells us the wind blew the trees down, because this is the simplest answer therefore probably the right one.
Example: A person is standing on the top of a roof and dropping a feather.
In calculating how long it takes for the feather to reach the ground, to make the maths simpler, one might make an assumption: that the effect of air resistance can be ignored.
This assumption makes the problem simpler, but is unlikely to lead to a good prediction as to the time it will take for the feather to fall.
Thus, making the assumption that air resistance can be ignored is in this case not the "simplest" in concept, but the simplest in other respects (in this case, the maths).
Not making the assumption here is the "simplest" in concept because it involves making fewer assumptions.
Occam's razor also comes up in medicine.
When there are many explanations for symptoms, the simplest diagnosis is the one to test first.
If a child has a runny nose, it probably has the common cold rather than a rare birth defect.
Medical students are often told, "When you hear hoof beats, think horses, not zebras".
Rio Grande do Sul is a Brazilian state.
It is in Southern Brazil.
It has common borders with Uruguay to the south, and Argentina to the west.
It has a very high standard of living.
Its capital city is Porto Alegre.
About 10 million people live in the state.
The surface area of Rio Grande do Sul is about 282,000 square kilometres.
Turbofolk or Pop-folk is a style of music from the Balkans that was invented in the early 1990s.
It mostly comes from Greece, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, but it is also popular in other nearby countries.
It sounds like a mix of Arabic-style singing (in the Serbian language) with electronic music and rock music.
Bérurier Noir are a French punk band which formed in Paris in 1983.
It is made up of Loran (guitar), François (vocals) and Dede (drum machine).
In 1985 Masto joined, playing the saxophone.
They sing about French politics and anarchism.
They are one of the most famous French punk bands.
1983: Macadam massacre
1985: Concerto pour détraqués
1987: Abracadaboum
1989: Souvent fauché, toujours marteau
1990: Viva Bertaga (Live 1989)
1995: Carnaval des agités (Best Of/Live 1983-1989)
1998: La bataille de Pali-Kao (Best Of 1983-1989)
2003: Même pas mort (DVD+CD Best Of+News)
2005: L'Opéra des Loups (DVD+CD Live 16 titles or DVD only)
2006: Chant des Meutes (Live 13 titles)
2006: Invisible
http://www.fzm.fr/
Roman Britain (Britannia) was the part of Great Britain in the Roman Empire from AD 43 to 409 or 410.
The first invasion was led by Julius Caesar, in the days of the Roman Republic.
He defeated the dominant Catuvellauni tribe in 54 BC near Wheathampstead in Hertfordshire.
Their capital was taken over by the Romans.
Trouble in Gaul (mainly modern France & Belgium) prevented Caesar from staying in Britain.
The full conquest of Britain was delayed for almost a century.
In 43 AD, the Emperor Claudius sent an invasion force, led by Aulus Plautius, a distinguished senator.
He was given four legions, totalling about 20,000 men, plus about the same number of helpers The legions were:
Legio II Augusta
Legio XIV Gemina
Legio XX Valeria Victrix
The II Augusta was commanded by the future emperor Vespasian.
The other three legions were also led by high-ranking men.
The invasion was one of the most significant events in British history.
After the revolt of Boudica there was usually peace and a process of full "romanization" started successfully in southeast Britain.
The Romans considered Britannia as a single territory and administratively they divided the huge island in five provinces: Britannia prima (capital London), Britannia secunda, Flavia Caesariensis, Maxima Caesariensis and Valentia.
It seems that they have created also a sixth province -during Agricola conquest- in Caledonia, called Vespasiana.
Roman legions left in 410 AD after almost four centuries, and the administration of the country was taken over by prominent local chieftains.
This was known as Sub-Roman Britain, with a Romano-British culture and the people may have used a Latin-based language.
It lasted for more than two centuries but gave way to an increasingly Anglo-Saxon England by the start of the seventh century.
Roman technology made its impact in road building and the construction of villas, forts and cities.
During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads.
They were used in later centuries, and many are still followed today.
The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and sewage systems.
Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans.
There was no writing in Britain before the Romans.
They introduced it and, when they left, writing only survived with the help of religion.
The British were skilled in the arts, and produced ornamental jewellery and pottery which was exported to Europe.
They built defensive structures such as hill forts.
They were proficient in warfare with spears, bows and arrows.
Small round stones found in such sites indicate the use of slings or catapults.
To keep Roman control, forts and garrisons were built throughout Britain, and the existing roads improved.
The local people had to maintain the  Roman roads in Britain, and got tax relief for their efforts.
Roman roads allowed for troop movements and the distribution of supplies.
The forts and garrisons needed food and other services.
Vast areas produced these goods.
For example, the often flooded Somerset levels was like a huge market garden that provided supplies for the garrisons at Exeter, Gloucester, Bath and the forts in between.
Local fishermen supplied fresh fish, and farmers reared sheep, pigs, cattle and poultry for the garrisons.
Missionaries from Gaul began to introduce Christianity to the West country.
Before the end of the first century AD they had a Church of Celtic Christianity.
This spread such that by the mid second century much of Cornwall, Devon, Western Dorset, and South Somerset had adopted Christianity.
The spread of Christianity continued eastward and strongly northward into Wales through the next two centuries, especially after the adoption of Christianity by Rome.
The Romans had built shrines and temples to their pagan gods and continued to patronize these, even after the adoption of Christianity by Rome.
5th-century disestablishments
Establishments in the United Kingdom
Disestablishments in the United Kingdom
January 1 – Kievan Rus' adopts the Julian calendar.
Construction of the Al-Hakim Mosque begins in Cairo.
The Pax Ecclesiae, an edict by the church in southern France attempting to outlaw acts of war against non-combatants and the clergy, is promulgated.
Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor (approximate)
Edmund II of England, (approximate)
Mieszko II of Poland, king of Poland from 1025 to 1031, duke from 1032 to 1034.
Yorimichi, regent to the Japanese emperor from 1017 to 1020 and from 1020 to 1068.
Johannes Skotus, Bishop of Mecklenburg (approximate)
Kaneie, regent to the Japanese emperor from 986 to 990.
Al-Uqlidisi, Middle-East mathematician.
Dunash ben Labrat
April 22 – Pope Gregory VII (Cardinal Hildebrand) succeeds Pope Alexander II as the 155th pope.
Emperor Shirakawa ascends the throne of Japan
Rabbi Yitchaki Alfassi finishes writing the Rif, an important work of Jewish law.
John IX bar Shushan ends term as Syrian Patriarch of Antioch
Beginning of Sviatoslav II's reign as ruler of Kievan Rus
Seljuk Turks conquer Ankara
David the Builder, King of Georgia
Margrave Leopold III of Austria
April 21 – Pope Alexander II
June 15 – Emperor Go-Sanjō of Japan (b. 1034)
Zhou Dunyi – Neo-Confucian philosopher in Song Dynasty China
Bixente Lizarazu (born 9 December 1969) is a former French football player.
He is one of the most successful football players in the world.
He won the FIFA World Cup in 1998 and the European Football Championship in 2000.
He has also won the UEFA Champions League (2001) and was champion of the Bundesliga (both with Bayern Munich) five times in a six-year period (1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005).
Lizarazu was born in Saint-Jean-de Luz, a small village in Basque region of France, in 1969.
His first club was Eglantins Hendaje (1977-1989).
He then went to Girondins Bordeaux (1989-1996).
After playing for Bordeaux, he played for the Spanish club Athletic Bilbao (1996-1997) before he went to Bayern Munich (1997-2005).
For a six months, he played for Olympique Marseille (2004).
He ended his career in 2005.
|1988/89||rowspan="8"|Girondins Bordeaux||rowspan="8"|Division 1||16||0
|1989/90||38||2
|1990/91||35||2
|1991/92||33||0
|1992/93||35||4
|1993/94||32||9
|1994/95||32||2
|1995/96||23||3
|1996/97||Athletic Bilbao||La Liga||16||0
|1997/98||rowspan="7"|Bayern Munich||rowspan="7"|Bundesliga||11||0
|1998/99||18||2
|1999/00||22||1
|2000/01||15||0
|2001/02||25||1
|2002/03||26||3
|2003/04||26||1
|2004/05||Olympique Marseille||Ligue 1||14||0
|2004/05||rowspan="2"|Bayern Munich||rowspan="2"|Bundesliga||13||0
|2005/06||18||0
|1998||13||1
Total||97||2
The islands are between the Faroe Islands and the Orkney Islands.
They are about 50 miles to the northeast of the Orkney Islands.
They are about 100 islands in the group.
People live on 16 of them.
The largest islands of the group are Mainland, Yell, Unst, Fetlar, Whalsay, and Bressay.
In general, the climate of the group is subarctic, and rather bleak.
They used to be called Hjaltland or Zetland.
Today, the islands are part of Scotland.
The administrative centre is Lerwick.
The economy of the islands is largely based on agriculture.
The sheep are known for their fine wool.
Other well-known exports are the Shetland ponies and Shetland Sheepdog.
Scandinavian colonisation
Shetland was colonised by Norsemen in the 9th century.
The fate of the native population is unknown.
The colonisers established their laws and language.
That language evolved into the West Nordic language Norn, which survived into the 19th century.
After Harald Finehair took control of all Norway, many of his opponents fled, some to Orkney and Shetland.
From the Northern Isles they continued to raid Scotland and Norway, prompting Harald Hårfagre to raise a large fleet which he sailed to the islands.
In about 875 he and his forces took control of Shetland and Orkney.
Ragnvald, Earl of Møre received Orkney and Shetland as an earldom from the king as reparation for his son's being killed in battle in Scotland.
Ragnvald gave the earldom to his brother Sigurd the Mighty.
Shetland was Christianised in the 10th century.
In the Treaty of Perth in 1266 the Norwegian king surrendered his furthest British islands to Scotland.
They included the Hebrides, and the Isle of Man.
In return, the Scots recognised Norwegian sovereignty over Orkney and Shetland.
The islands did not become Scottish until the 15th century, and were  ratified by an Act of Parliament in 1669.
For three centuries the Shetlanders sold their fish (salted cod) through the German Hanseatic League, a trading organisation.
This arrangement lasted from 1400 to 1700 AD.
In WWII Shetland was active in covert operations against the Germans in Norway.
The 'Shetland Bus' (fishing vessels) sailed in covert operations between Norway and Shetland.
They carried intelligence agents, refugees, instructors for the resistance, and military supplies.
Many people on the run from the Germans, and much important information on German activity in Norway, were brought back to the Allies this way.
In the early 1970s, oil and gas were found off Shetland.
The East Shetland Basin is one of the largest petroleum sedimentary basins in Europe.
Sullom Voe terminal opened in 1978 and is the largest oil export harbour in the United Kingdom with a volume of 25 million tons per year.
Shetland has been populated since at least 3400 BC.
The early people subsisted on cattle-farming and agriculture.
During the Bronze Age, around 2000 BC, the climate cooled and the population moved to the coast.
During the Iron Age, many stone fortresses were erected, some ruins of which remain today.
A Salt evaporation pond (or saltern pond) is a man-made shallow pond.
Usually it is located near the sea.
The ponds can be filled with salt water.
The water is then left to evaporate.
The salt is left behind, and can be harvested.
Such ponds also provide a habitat for several kinds of animals.
Most of these animals are birds.
The color tells how much salt there is left in the water.
Green colors come from special algae.
These algae are there in low to mid salinity ponds (ponds with little salt in the water).
In middle to high salinity ponds, an alga called Dunaliella salina shifts the color to red.
Millions of tiny brine shrimp create an orange cast in mid-salinity ponds.
Other bacteria such as Stichococcus also contribute tints.
These colors are especially interesting to airplane passengers or astronauts passing above due to their somewhat artistic formations of shape and color.
NASA page on salt ponds
Information on the San Francisco Bay salt ponds
Interactive satellite view
Salinity is a scientific term.
Scientists use it to tell how much salt there is in water.
Salinity is measured by the amount of sodium chloride found in 1,000 grams of water, if there is 1 gram of sodium chloride in 1,000 grams of water solution it is 1 part per thousand.
This is written as 1‰.
Fresh water contains less than 0.1% of salt .
This is the usual case for rivers and lakes.
Brackish water contains between 0.1% and 3% of salt.
This environment is usually found at estuaries where a river flows into the sea.
Saline water contains between 3% and 5% of salt (per volume).
Usually, there is about 3.5% salt in the water of the oceans.
Water that has more than 5% salt in it, is called brine.
Some lakes and bodies of water have that much salt in them.
The Dead Sea has about 15% salt (150‰) on the surface.
Food preservation is about the ways and means which help to preserve food.
Food spoils from bacteria if it is not treated.
For thousands of years, humans have used methods of preserving food, so that they can store food to eat later.
The simplest methods of preserving food, such as drying strips of fish or meat in the hot sun have been used for thousands of years, and they are still used today by indigenous peoples.
The other ancient method is to use salt, and often drying and salting are done together.
Food is spoiled because microorganisms change it.
There are five basic techniques which make food last longer:
Killing the microorganisms, or preventing them from multiplying
Contact of microoganisms with food is prevented
Certain additives prevent or slow the growth of microoganisms; this is often called curing
Methods of preserving food
Heating the food or baking it (a hard corn-flour biscuit stays edible much longer than a bowl of fresh corn)
Pasteurization: Louis Pasteur found that simply heating food kills most microorganisms and makes it last longer.
Liquids such as milk are commonly pasteurized.
However, the heating has to be done precisely according to a procedure
Converting the food into a longer-lasting form (for example, fresh goat's milk can be converted into cheese or yogurt, which lasts much longer than fresh milk)
Pickling: putting vegetables, meat, or fish in salty water (brine).
Salting the food:  Covering it with dry salt
Putting the food in a jar with alcohol (ethanol) or vinegar, also called pickling
Putting large amounts of sugar into the food (for example, as with jam or fruit jarred in sugar and water)
Drying in the sun or in an oven
Smoking the food with the smoke from burning wood.
Usually, this is done to food that was salted first.
Keeping the food cold or frozen, including freeze-drying
Adding other preservatives such as sorbates (sorbic acid), sulfites and nitrites.
Many common methods use several of these approaches at the same time.
For example, pickles preserved in a jar are heated then put in a mixture of vinegar and brine.
Fruit jams and jellies are heated and mixed with a large amount of sugar.
Some preserved fruit is heated and then mixed with alcohol (for example, Brandy) and a large amount of sugar.
Smoked hams are cured in brine and then exposed to the smoke from burning wood chips.
Clapham Junction railway station is a train station in Battersea in the London Borough of Wandsworth.
It is on St. John's Hill in the south west of Battersea.
The services
All services to Waterloo and many services to Victoria and Croydon stations pass through the junction; these include South West Trains, Gatwick Express and Southern services.
Services from Clapham Junction also head north along the West London line, through West Brompton and Kensington (Olympia), on to Willesden Junction and Watford Junction - services (to Willesden Junction) are operated by London Overground.
27 London Waterloo
22 London Victoria
1 Alton
1 stopping to Basingstoke
2 Brighton
2 Caterham
2 Chessington South
1 Dorking (via Sutton)
2 Dorking (via Wimbledon)
1 East Croydon (via Norbury)
2 East Grinstead
1 Epsom Downs
2 Epsom (via Hackbridge)
1 Epsom (via Norbury)
2 Guildford (via Cobham)
2 Guildford (via Epsom)
2 Hampton Court
1 Haslemere
1 Horsham
1 Littlehampton and Eastbourne (divides at Haywards Heath)
2 London Bridge
2 London Waterloo (via Brentford, Hounslow and Richmond)
2 London Waterloo (via Richmond, Hounslow and Brentford)
2 London Waterloo (via Wimbledon, Kingston and Richmond)
2 London Waterloo (via Richmond, Kingston and Wimbledon)
1 Milton Keynes Central (via Kensington)
1 Ore and Littlehampton (divides at Haywards Heath and Eastbourne)
1 Poole
1 Portsmouth Harbour (via Haslemere)
1 Portsmouth Harbour and Bognor Regis (divides at Horsham)
2 Reading
2 Shepperton
1 Southampton Central and Bognor Regis (divides at Horsham)
2 Sutton (via Norbury)
2 West Croydon (via Crystal Palace)
2 Weybridge (via Brentford, Hounslow and Staines)
1 Weymouth
2 Willesden Junction
2 Windsor & Eton Riverside
2 stopping to Woking
1 Yeovil Junction (some continue to Exeter and beyond)
The facilities
The station has 17 platforms, numbered 1 to 17, and arranged in two groups.
Platform 1, the northernmost platform.
The station's main entrance is from St. John's Hill, into a foot tunnel which is 15 ft (4.6 m) wide.
It runs under the eastern end of the 17 platforms, and to a northern exit, which has restricted opening hours.
The foot tunnel becomes very crowded during the morning and evening rush hours, and ticket barriers at the end of the tunnel are a particular pinch point.
A covered footbridge connects the platforms at their western end.
The footbridge does not have an exit to or from the station.
The station is named Clapham Junction because it is close to the joining point of a number of major rail lines—although the name is not shared by any junction near the station.
The names of the nearby rail junctions are:
Falcon Jn
Ludgate GW Jn
Latchmere Jns
West London Jn
Pouparts Jn
Mirror of the Unofficial CJ Guide  (original site seems to have been removed)
Short History of Clapham Junction  prepared by Wandsworth Council, and from which much of the information in the history section of this entry is sourced.
BBC News report on the 1988 train collisions
London Overground stations
London Travelcard zone 2
Railway stations opened in 1863
Transport in the London Borough of Wandsworth
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a chemical.
All living things make ATP to store energy and to move it to the cells that need it.
An ATP molecule is like an oil barrel that stores and transports fuel.
Cells get all of their energy from ATP.
They break ATP molecules apart to use the stored energy.
The harder a cell works, the more ATP it needs.
Chemical form
A molecule of ATP has three parts.
A chemical base called adenine is joined to a ribose.
This makes adenosine.
The adenosine is joined to a line of three phosphate groups, called a triphosphate.
It takes a lot of energy to hold the phosphates together.
When a cell needs energy, a chemical process frees one of the phosphates from the ATP molecule.
It's like taking the lid off the oil barrel.
The energy that was holding the phosphate is freed at the same time.
After this, the molecule only has two phosphate groups, so it is called adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
ADP molecules and free phosphates are used again to make more ATP.
Plants get the components of ATP from sunlight, water, and soil.
They make ATP using the process of photosynthesis.
Animals get the components of ATP mostly from food.
They make ATP using the process of cellular respiration.
Creation and Use
All cell processes that support life use the energy carried by ATP molecules.
For example in plants, ATP is made by photosynthesis.
However, it also supplies the energy for photosynthesis.
In animals, ATP is needed for muscle movement, nerve signals, brain processes, and making new cells.
ATP is made and used and made again, in a cycle.
First, ADP joins with a phosphate to make ATP.
Energy is used to hold the new molecule together.
In other words, when a bond is made, energy is stored.
This is an endothermic reaction.
Then, when the bond is broken, the energy is freed.
This is an exothermic reaction.
The cycle of making and breaking ATP only stops when a cell dies.
Cell Functions
ATP is used in other ways for many cellular processes.
It is used to make complex molecules such as DNA and RNA.
It is used to make proteins.
It is used to move large molecules into cells (endocytosis) and out of cells (exocytosis).
ATP was discovered in 1929 by Karl Lohmann and Jendrassik, and at the same time, by Cyrus Fiske and Yellapragada Subba Rao at Harvard Medical School.
In 1941, Fritz Albert Lipmann suggested ATP was the connection between reactions that take energy, and reactions that give energy, in cells.
ATP was first made in a laboratory by Alexander Todd in 1948.
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1997 was given to two groups who researched ATP.
Half of the prize was given to Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker for explaining how the enzyme ATP synthase makes ATP.
The other half of the prize was given to Jens C. Skou for finding a very important cell enzyme that uses ATP, Na+/K+-ATPase.
Plunkett, John.
Karol, Michael (January 11, 2008) "ATP for muscle contraction" </ref>
Shrimp refers to small, decapod crustacea.
Shrimp are mainly found in three groups: Caridea, Procarididea, and Dendrobranchiata.
There are thousands of species, and usually there is a species adapted to any particular habitat.
Any small crustacean which resembles a shrimp tends to be called one.
Adult shrimp are filter feeding benthic animals that live close to the bottom.
They can live in schools and can swim rapidly backwards.
They have a high tolerance to toxins in polluted areas, and may contribute to high toxin levels in their predators.
They play important roles in the food chain and are important food sources for larger animals from fish to whales.
Shrimp are related to prawns.
In cooking, the criterion is often only the size of the animal (prawns are bigger).
Biologically, prawns and shrimp can be told apart by the structure of their gills.
In prawns, the gills are branching; in shrimp they are not.
Many shrimp species are caught to be eaten.
Usually, the head and the digestive tract are removed before the shrimp is eaten.
The muscular tails of shrimp can be eaten, and they are widely caught and farmed for human consumption.
Commercial shrimp species support an industry worth 50 billion dollars a year.
In 2010 the total commercial production of shrimp was nearly 7 million tonnes.
Shrimp farming took off during the 1980s, particularly in China, and by 2007 the harvest from shrimp farms exceeded the capture of wild shrimp.
There is often pollution damage done to estuaries when they are used for shrimp farming.
Decapods
Dendrobranchiata are commercially fished and are used for cooking.
The difference between prawns and shrimp is usually that prawns are larger than shrimps.
Prawns are crustaceans similar in appearance to shrimps, but they can be distinguished by the gill structure which branches out in prawns but not in shrimps.
Prawns are also related to crabs and lobsters.
Prawns have two pairs of antennae.
Prawns are found in calmer waters were the they can nest in water plants to lay their eggs.
Like shrimps, prawns tend to prefer warmer waters in the tropics but some species of prawn are found in the Northern Hemisphere.
Prawns eat by filtering nutritious particles out of the water flowing around the prawn.
Therefore, prawns are found near rocks or close to the sea floor.
Lee Redmond (born February 2, 1941) is a woman from the Salt Lake City, Utah, United States.
She is famous for having the longest fingernails in the world.
She has not cut her fingernails since 1979.
The combined length of her fingernails are 7 meters and 51 centimeters long (24 feet, 8 inches) .
She has an active life despite of her long fingernails.
Lee Redmond is in the Guinness Book of World Records in the category Longest Fingernails - Female.
On February 10, 2009, Lee was in a car crash, and was thrown out of the car.
She was badly hurt and all her fingernails were broken off.
Guinness World Records: Longest Fingernails - Female.
People from Utah
Martin Amis (born 25 August 1949) is a Welsh novelist.
His best known novels include Money (1984), London Fields (1989), Time's Arrow (1991) and The Information (1995).
Affected by several writers including his father Sir Kingsley Amis, Amis's style of writing has affected a generation of writers.
His recent work has looked at moral and geopolitical issues, including The Holocaust, Communist Russia, and the September 11, 2001 attacks and Islamism.
Amis was born in Swansea, South Wales.
He was the middle of three children, with an older brother, Philip, and a younger sister, Sally.
He went to many different schools in the 1950s and 1960s.
The fame of his father's first novel Lucky Jim sent the Amises to Princeton, New Jersey, where his father lectured.
Amis's parents, Hilly and Kingsley, divorced when he was twelve.
Amis graduated from Exeter College, Oxford.
He graduated with a first-class degree in English.
After Oxford, he got a job at The Times Literary Supplement.
At age 27, he became literary editor of The New Statesman.
Early writing
His first novel The Rachel Papers (1973) won the Somerset Maugham Award.
It tells the story of a smart, self-centered teenager (which Amis says he based on himself) and his relationship with his girlfriend in the year before going to university.
Dead Babies (1975) has a typically 1960s plot.
It has a house full of characters who abuse various substances.
A movie version was made in 2000 which was unsuccessful.
Success (1977) told the story of two foster-brothers, Gregory Riding and Terry Service, and their good and bad luck.
Other People: A Mystery Story (1981), about a young woman coming out of a coma.
Money (subtitled A Suicide Note) is a first-person narrative by John Self.
He was an advertising man who wanted to be a movie director.
The book follows him as he flies back and forth across the Atlantic looking for success.
The book was a huge success and is Amis's most highly regarded work.
London Fields is Amis's longest book.
It show the encounters between three main characters in London in 1999, as a climate disaster draws near.
Time's Arrow is about a doctor who helped torture Jews during the Holocaust.
It was written in the form of an autobiography.
The story is unusual because time runs backwards during the entire novel.
The Experience is mainly about his relationship with his father, Kingsley Amis.
He also writes about finding long-lost daughter, Delilah Seale and of how one of his cousins, 21-year-old Lucy Partington, became a victim of suspected serial killer Fred West.
The Martin Amis Web
Martin Amis - Author Page (Guardian Books)
Martin Amis interviewed by Ginny Dougary  (2006)
Welsh novelists
Writers from Glamorgan
Xi Shun (Bao Xishun) (China, born in 1951) is in the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's tallest living man.