the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
1918 Salzburg became a federal state of the new Republic of Austria.
In 1938, Germany annexed Austria and Salzburg was a part of Germany.
In 1945, when Austria was independent from Germany.
It became a federal state again.
Urban districts (Stadtteile):
Aigen
Elisabeth-Vorstadt
Gneis
Gneis-Süd
Gnigl
Itzling
Itzling-Nord
Kasern
Langwied
Lehen
Leopoldskron-Moos
Maxglan
Maxglan-West
Morzg
Mülln
Nonntal
Parsch
Riedenburg
Salzburg-Süd
Taxham
Schallmoos
Mayors of the city since it became part of Austria
1816 - 1875
Magistrat without mayor  1816 bis 1818
Anton von Heffter 1818 -  1831
Alois Lergetporer 1831 -  1847
Mathias Gschnitzer 1847 -  1850
Franz Xaver Späth 1850 -  1853
Alois Spängler 1854 -  1861
Heinrich Ritter von Mertens 1861 -  1872
Ignaz Harrer 1872 -  1875
1875 - 1919
Rudolf Biebl 1875 -  1885
Leopold Scheibl 1885 -  1888
Albert Schumacher 1888 -  1890
Franz von Hueber 1890 -  1894
Gustav Zeller 1894 -  1898
Eligius Scheibl 1898 -  1900
Franz Berger 1900 -  1912
Max Ott 1912 -  1919
1919 bis 1945
Josef Preis 1919 -  1927
Max Ott 1927 -  1935
Richard Hildmann 1935 -  1938
Anton Giger, 1938 -  1945 - „Oberbürgermeister der Gauhauptstadt Salzburg“ during Nazi occupation
1945 bis 1999
Richard Hildmann 1945 -  1946
Anton Neumayr 1946 -  1951
Stanislaus Pacher 1952 -  1957
Alfred Bäck 1957 -  1970
Heinrich Salfenauer 1970 -  1980
Josef Reschen 1980 -  1990
Harald Lettner 1990 -  1992
Josef Dechant 1992 -  1999
Mayor elected directly by the people from 1999 onwards
Heinz Schaden since 1999
Salzburg is a World Heritage.
There are some places of interest like:
Altstadt (Old City) with
Franziskaner church
Residenz(here the archbishop had his residence)
Residenzplatz with Residenz fountain
Kollegienkirche (University church)
Festspielhaus
Pferdeschwemme
St. Peter's cemetery
Fortress Hohensalzburg
Other places of interest
Mirabell Palace with Mirabell Garden
Augustiner Bräustübl Mülln (beer garden of the Augustiner brewery)
Hellbrunn palace
Famous citizens
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, composer
Gerhard Amanshauser, writer
Gerd Bacher, journalist
Christian Doppler,  mathematician and  physicist
Herbert von Karajan,  conductor
Angelika Kirchschlager, singer
Genia Kühmeier, singer
Hans Makart, painter
Georg Trakl, lyric poet
Irma von Troll-Borostyáni, early feminist
Reims, France, since 1964
Atlanta, USA, since 1967
Verona, Italy, since 1973
Dresden, Germany, since 1991
Kawasaki, Japan, since 1992
Merano, Italy, since 2000
Shanghai, China, since 2004
Bern, Switzerland, since 2006
Culture-related
- Article by Brian Robins: "Mozart's Salzburg".
Olympic-related
Salzburg 2014 -- 2014 Olympic bid website
Tourism-related
Salzburg City Tourist Office – Official tourist board website.
Visit Salzburg - Local information
Salzburger Nachrichten  – Tourism site maintained by the local newspaper, Salzburger Nachrichten.
Salzburg Tourism  Tourist attractions in Salzburg, with descriptions and maps
Pictureserver  Views of Salzburg
Georgia Salzburger Society – The website of the Georgia Salzburger Society, descendents of the refugees who settled in Georgia after their expulsion from Salzburg in 1731.
LonelyPlanet Salzburg
Main touristic attractions in Salzburg
Tourism related information about main sights and sights off the beaten track
Tourism related information
City Tours and Tour operators in Salzburg
Salzburg Tours, Sound of Music Tours, Hallstatt, Bavarian Mountains, etc. -
Bob's Special Tours
Panorama Tours - Panorama Tours
Hop on hop off tours in the city - Salzburg Sightseeing Tours
City Guides of Salzburg - Salzburg Guides
Districts of Salzburg (state)
Salt, a chemical compound
Table salt (sodium chloride), the salt that people eat
Basque (Basque: ) is the language spoken by the Basque people in the Basque Country and its diaspora.
Although most other Europeans speak Indo-European languages, Basque is a language isolate and is not related to them or to any other language in the world.
History and classification
The ancestors of Basques are among the oldest residents of Europe, and their origins are unknown, as are the origins of the language.
Many scholars have tried to link Basque to Etruscan, African languages, Caucasian languages and so on, but most see Basque as a language isolate.
Basque is spoken in an area that is smaller than what is known as the Basque Country (Basque: Euskal Herria).
Basque was once spoken over a larger area, but Latin took over in some places.
Official status
Today Basque holds co-official language status in the Basque regions of Spain: the full autonomous community of the Basque Country and some parts of Navarre.
Basque has no official standing in the Northern Basque area of France, and French citizens are barred from using Basque in a French court of law.
There are six main Basque dialects, comprising Biscayan, Guipuzcoan, and High Navarrese (in Spain), and Low Navarrese, Labourdin, and Souletin (in France).
The dialect boundaries are not, however, congruent with political boundaries.
Derived languages
There is now a unified version called Batua ("unified" in Basque), which is the language taught in schools.
Batua is based largely on the Gipuzkoa regional dialect.
Basque is an ergative-absolutive language.
Its grammar is very complex, with many different cases for nouns.
By contact with nearby peoples, Basque has borrowed words from Latin, Spanish, French, Gascon and others but accepted fewer than Indo-European languages.
Some claim that many of its words come from Latin, but phonetic evolution has made many of them now appear as if they were native words, e.g. lore ("flower", from florem), errota ("mill", from rotam, "[mill] wheel"), gela ("room", from cellam).
Basque is written with the Latin alphabet.
The universal special letter is ñ, which is pronounced like the n in onion, and ç and ü are also used.
Basque does not use c, q, v, w, y except for loanwords and are not considered part of the alphabet.
Also, x is pronounced as a sh, as in shine.
Bai = Yes
Ez = No
Kaixo!,
= Hello
Agur!,
= Goodbye!
Ikusi arte = See you!
= Thank you!
Egun on = Good morning (literally: Good day)
Egun on, bai = Standard reply to Egun on
Arratsalde on = Good evening
Gabon = Good night
Mesedez = Please
Barkatu = Excuse (me)
Aizu!
= Listen! (
To get someone's attention, not very polite, to be used with friends)
Kafe hutsa nahi nuke = Can I have a coffee?
Kafe ebakia nahi nuke = Can I have a macchiato?
Kafesnea nahi nuke = Can I have a café latte?
Garagardoa nahi nuke = Can I have a beer?
Komunak = Toilets
Komuna, non dago?
= Where are the toilets?
Non dago tren-geltokia?
= Where is the train station?
Non dago autobus-geltokia?
= Where is the bus station?
Ba al da hotelik hemen inguruan?
= Where is the (nearest, only) hotel?
Zorionak = Happy holidays (During Christmas and new year's), congratulations
Ez dakit euskaraz= I do not speak Basque
Ba al dakizu ingelesez?= Do you speak English?
= Where are you from?
Non dago...?
= Where is...?
Badakizu euskaraz?
= Do you speak Basque?
= Really?
= Cheers!
Hementxe!
= Over / right here!
Geldi!= Stop
Lasai= Take it easy
Ez dut nahi= I do not want
Ethnologue report for Basque
Center for Basque Studies at University of Nevada, Reno
Concise course of Basque
Basque Museum and Cultural Center
FONATARI, all about the sounds of basque.
University of the Basque Country: A Brief Grammar of Euskara, the Basque Language
Basque Verb Tables
Larry Trask: A Linguistic Sketch of Basque
Larry Trask: Some Important Basque Words (And a Bit of Culture)
A proposal for Basque SAMPA
Heinz Fischer (born 9 October 1938) is the former president of Austria.
His wife is Margit Fischer.
People from Graz
Presidents of Austria
Chlorine (chemical symbol Cl) is a chemical element.
Its atomic number (which is the number of protons in it) is 17, and its atomic mass is 35.45.
It is part of the 7th column (halogens) on the periodic table of elements.
Chlorine is a very irritating and greenish-yellow gas.
It has a strong, bleach-like smell.
It is toxic and bad for you.
It can be made into a liquid when cooled.
It is heavier than air.
Chlorine is highly reactive.
It is more reactive than bromine but less reactive than fluorine.
It reacts with most things to make chlorides.
It can even burn things instead of oxygen.
It dissolves in water to make a mixture of hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid.
The more acidic it is, the more chlorine is made; the more basic it is, the more hypochlorous acid (normally turned into hypochlorite) and hydrochloric acid (normally turned into chlorides) are there.
Chlorine reacts with bromides and iodides to make bromine and iodine.
Chlorine exists in several oxidation states: -1, +1, +3, +4, +5, and +7.
The -1 state is most often in chloride.
Chlorides are not reactive.
Compounds containing chlorine in its +1 oxidation state are hypochlorites.
Only one is common.
They are a strong oxidizing agent, as are all + oxidation state compounds.
+3 is in chlorites.
+4 is in chlorine dioxide, a common chlorine compound that is not a chloride.
+5 is in chlorates.
+7 is in perchlorates.
Hypochlorites are most reactive, while perchlorates are the least reactive.
Many organic compounds have chlorine in them.
Freon has chlorine in it.
PVC (poly-vinyl chloride), a common plastic, has chlorine in it.
Chlorine is not found as an element.
Sodium chloride is the most common chlorine ore.
It is in the ocean (sea salt) and in the ground (rock salt).
There are some organic compounds that have chlorine in them, too.
It is made by electrolysis (the passing of electricity through a solution to make chemical reactions happen) of sodium chloride.
This is known as the chloralkali process.
It can also be made by reacting hydrogen chloride with oxygen and a catalyst.
It can be made in the laboratory by reacting manganese dioxide with hydrochloric acid.
It is made when sodium hypochlorite reacts with hydrochloric acid.
This is a dangerous reaction that can happen without anyone knowing.
For water purification
As of 2021, the main use of chlorine is for bleach.
It is also added to water, as a way of purifying it.
Chlorine is both very reactive, and very poisonous.
It will act as a disinfectant: if it is added to water, it will kill off bacteria and other organisms.
Swimming pools are often filled with water that has been treated that way.
As a chemical weapon
Germany used chlorine as a chemical weapon in the First World War.
They used it at the Second Battle of Ypres in 1915.
According to soldiers, which were present at the battle, the chlorine smelled like a mixture of pepper and pineapple.
It also tasted metallic and stung the back of the throat and chest.
Chlorine reacts with water in the mucosa of the lungs to form hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid will destroy living tissue.
It often kills.
Gas masks with activated charcoal or other filters can protect the respiratory system.
This makes chlorine gas much less deadly than other chemical weapons.
German scientist Fritz Haber of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin was the first to use it.
Together with IG Farben, he developed methods of how to use chlorine gas against an entrenched enemy.
Chlorine is heavier than air, so it will stay in the trenches.
On 22nd April, 1915, German forces attacked the French army.
With  of chlorine, they only killed about 1.200 French soldiers.
For this reason, chlorine was soon replaced with the more deadly phosgene and mustard gas.
Because it is easily available, chlorine is still used as a chemical weapon in war.
That way, it has been used in the Syrian civil war.
It has also been used in an improvised explosive device in Iraq, in 2015.
It was discovered in 1774 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele who thought it had oxygen in it.
Chlorine was named in 1810 by Humphry Davy who insisted it was an element.
The US made all water chlorinated (added chlorine to water) by 1918.
It is poisonous in large amounts and can damage skin.
When it is inhaled (breathed in), it irritates the lungs, eyes, and skin badly.
It can cause fire with some things because it is very reactive.
It is heavier than air, so it can fill up enclosed spaces.
The halogens are chemical elements under the second-to-right column in the periodic table, also known as Group 17.
The elements in the group are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine, and tennessine.
Halogen literally means "salt becomer", but it is often cited to mean "salt producer".
They are very reactive, so they are likely to join with other elements on the left side of the periodic table to make compounds.
This is due to the fact that they are missing one electron.
They are rarely found alone in nature.
Fluorine is the most reactive, while iodine is the least reactive.
Astatine is very radioactive and hard to get.
A "vitamin" is also a pill that contains vitamins, eaten regularly to keep one healthy.
A vitamin is a chemical compound that is needed in small amounts for the human body to work correctly.
They include Vitamin A, many B vitamins (like B1, B2, B3, B6, and B12), Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, and Vitamin K. For example, citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons contain vitamin C.
The term was coined in 1912 by biochemist Casimir Funk, who isolated a complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named vitamine.
By convention the word vitamin does not include other essential nutrients, such as certain minerals, essential fatty acids and essential amino acids.
Thirteen vitamins are recognized at present.
Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, and not their structure.
Each vitamin name (the word vitamin followed by a letter) refers to a number of vitamer compounds which all show the same biological activity.
For example, vitamin A refers to several different chemicals.
Vitamers convert to the active form of the vitamin in the body.
They are sometimes inter-convertible to one another as well.
The body does not make these chemicals.
They come from other places, usually food.
A short term lack of a certain vitamin is usually not a problem, because the body can store vitamins for a short time.
Not having a certain vitamin for a longer period of time can lead to different diseases, depending on the vitamin.
Probably the best-known of these diseases is scurvy, which results from not having enough Vitamin C. Beriberi and rickets are others.
Today, many drug companies make inexpensive pills that contain various vitamins.
They help people avoid those diseases.
Vitamins can be either fat-soluble or water-soluble.
Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) can be stored in the body, and are used when needed.
Water-soluble ones only stay in the body a short time.
Currently there are no vitamins F to J.  These existed at some time.
Today they are no longer seen as vitamins.
Some of them were also false leads, and turned out to be something else.
Others were renamed as B vitamins.
Today, the B vitamins are a whole complex, and not just one vitamin.
The German-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because the vitamin is intimately involved in the 'Koagulation' (clotting) of blood following wounding.
At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through I were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable.
List of vitamins
Essential amino acid
Adultery is a word used in religious texts like Exodus 20:14.
Adultery applies to a married person sleeping with someone other than the person who they are married to.
In countries where religion is important, adultery often comes with a heavy punishment.
Some Muslim countries punish it with death by stoning.
In most countries adultery is no longer a crime, but most people still see it as a bad thing.(see Gospel of John 8) If a person who is married takes part in adultery, that person's husband or wife would usually have the right to be able to go to court to divorce them.
The word adultery originates not from “adult”, as is commonly thought in English-speaking countries, but from the Late Latin word for “to alter, corrupt”: “adulterare”.
“Adulterare” in turn is formed by the combination of “ad” (towards), and “alter” (other), together with the infinitive form “are” (making it a verb).
Thus the meaning is literally “to make other”.
In contrast, the word “adult” (meaning a person of mature years) comes from another Latin root, “adolescere”, meaning to grow up or mature: a combination of “ad” (towards), “alere” (to nourish, to grow), and the inchoative infix “sc”(meaning to enter into a state of).
Paris (mythology) and Helen in the Iliad
David and Bathsheba the wife of Uriah (2 Samuel 11)
Anna Karenina and Vronsky
Hestor Prynne
Infidelity: the same concept, but without a religious background
Perjury is the word used for a person that tells a lie while they are under oath (in a courtroom).
Committing perjury is against the law, and can be punished with a jail or prison sentence.
Perjury is a serious crime because it might be used to take away the power of a court, which can lead to punishment for the wrong person.
In the United States, perjury is a federal offense, and it can be punished by five years in prison.
However, in California, a person who commits perjury can get the death penalty if the perjury led to a wrongful execution.
The rules of perjury also apply when a person says or does something under penalty of perjury, even if he or she never swore an oath.
One example is the United States' income tax return, where people have to sign as true and correct under penalty of perjury.
A person can be punished by three years in prison if he or she lies on the tax return.
A statement that involves interpretation are not perjury because people can judge incorrectly without knowing it.
Perjury only happens if a person wanted to do it and then actually did.
The offence of perjury is written in section 132 of the Criminal Code.
It is described by section 131, which says that perjury is when a person says something false when he or she knows that it is false.
People who commit perjury can be imprisoned for fourteen years at most.
A person in the Court of Justice of the European Communities swears anything he knows is false is guilty of perjury.
Proceedings for perjury can happen in any place in the State and the offence can be treated as if it happened in that place.
The American legal system defines perjury as saying anything knowingly false under oath to a "competent tribunal, officer, or person".
The punishment can be a fine or up to five years in prison or both.
Lust is a term for a strong desire or wanting, or maybe even needing, often for sexual acts, although it is also commonly used to talk of a lust for life or a lust for power or for other goals.
The seven deadly sins, also known as cardinal sins, are a classification of sins within Christian teachings, although they are not mentioned in the Bible.
Behaviors or habits are grouped into this category if they directly form other wickedness.
According to the standard list, they are pride, greed, wrath, envy, lust, gluttony and sloth, which are the opposite from the seven heavenly virtues.
This classification had its origin with the Desert Fathers, who recognized seven or eight evil thoughts.
The seven deadly sins were portrayed in paintings and decorations on churches, as well as in older textbooks.
Modern definitions and views
Most of the seven deadly sins are defined by Dante Alighieri as wicked versions of love.
The seven deadly sins from lust to envy are generally associated with pride.
Ranked in order of least evil to most evil like in Dante's Divine Comedy, the seven deadly sins are:
Lust —  Lust is one of the seven deadly sins.
Lust is a term for a strong wanting for something while already having a significant amount of the desired object.
Lust can take any form such as the lust for sexual acts, money, or power.
Gluttony —  Gluttony is one of the seven deadly sins.
Gluttony is a term for excessive desire for food, drinks, or items.
Greed —  Greed is one of the seven deadly sins.
Greed is a term for a strong and uncontrollable desire to have more wealth than is needed.
Sloth —  Sloth is one of the seven deadly sins.
It is the most difficult sin to explain, since it refers to an assortment of ideas.
Sloth is a constant unwillingness to exertion, or laziness.
Sloth refers to a person not wanting to work, because of a lack of motivation.
Wrath —  Wrath is one of the seven deadly sins.
It refers to an intense emotional state involving a strong response to a threat or warning.
Wrath occurs when we are threatened, offended, wronged, or denied something we really want or need.
Envy —  Envy is one of the seven deadly sins.
It refers to a feeling people get when they want what others have.
This is a negative feeling.
When someone is envious of someone else, they usually dislike the other person.
These emotions are usually caused by a person having a certain object which you want but can not get.
Pride —  Pride is one of the seven deadly sins.
Pride refers to someone who has an exaggerated sense of feeling good.
This might mean that someone has no respect for what other people do, only respect for what he or she does.
Someone who is described as proud may be arrogant or boastful.
People notice that some of these sins are connected.
They have attempted to set down an order to them.
Each of these cardinal sins are ways of not loving God and not loving others as much as oneself.
The opposite of these sins are the seven heavenly virtues: chastity, moderation, charity, zeal, meekness, generosity, and humility.
The Lustfuls are swept around by a strong wind, without ever resting.
This is because lust is so powerful, that it can blow one around without need.
The Gluttons are forced to lie down in a kind of snow, made by freezing rain, black snow, and hail.
This symbolizes what they made with their life.
The Greedy are in boiled in hot oil, it's the best oil that money can buy, but it's still pretty hot and you will be turned into gold.
The Slothful are thrown into a snake pit where the indolent will have to move around to get the snakes off them eternally.
The Wrathful’s limbs are ripped apart, because the furious use their arms and/or legs in their act of violence.
Bromine (Br) is a chemical element.
Its atomic number (which is the number of protons in it) is 35, and its atomic weight is 80.
It is part of the Group 7 elements (halogens) on the periodic table.
It is diatomic, which means that two atoms are stuck together to make a molecule in any bromine sample.
Bromine is a red-brown liquid.
Liquid elements are rare; only bromine and mercury are liquid at room temperature.
It easily evaporates to make suffocating brown fumes.
It has a bad smell.
Its name means "stench of he-goats".
It can become a metal at very high pressures.
It has two stable isotopes.
They are 79Br and 81Br.
There are about 29 other radioactive isotopes.
Bromine is quite reactive.
Its reactivity is between chlorine, which is more reactive, and iodine, which is less reactive.
It reacts with metals and nonmetals.
Phosphorus reacts violently with bromine.
Aluminum reacts in a similar way.
It can bleach things like chlorine.
It reacts better in the light.
It dissolves a little in water.
Hot water makes it disproportionate into hydrobromic acid and hypobromous acid.
Bromine can form compounds with substances such as sodium to form sodium bromide.
Bromine forms compounds in many oxidation states: –1, +1, +3, +5, and (sometimes) +7. –
1 is the most common.
It is found as bromide.
Bromides are not reactive.
They are colorless solids that dissolve in water easily.
Covalent bromides can be liquids or gases.
The other compounds are all strong oxidizing agents.
Their chlorine cousins are more common.
+1 has the hypobromites, which are unstable.
+3 has the bromites.
Bromine dioxide is the only common bromine compound found in the +4 oxidation state.
+5 has the bromates, which are more common than all the other ones except the bromides.
Bromates are strong oxidizing agents and are sometimes added to flour.
+7 has the perbromates.
Perbromates are very unstable.
Bromine is found as bromide in the ocean and in brine pools.
The Dead Sea has a lot of bromide in it.
Bromine is not an important part of our body, unlike its relatives chlorine and iodine.
Bromine is made by bubbling chlorine gas through a solution of a bromide.
The bromide is oxidized to bromine, while the chlorine is reduced to chloride.
It is mainly used to make organobromine compounds, organic compounds with bromine in them.
Organobromines are used to put out fires.
They used to be added to gasoline.
Some were used as pesticides.
Some inorganic bromides were used as sedatives.
Bromine can also be used as a disinfectant.
Silver bromide is used in film.
Bromine is toxic and corrosive to skin.
Bromine gas is irritating when it is breathed in, too.
Bromine can react violently with many things.
Fluorine (symbol F) is a chemical element that is very poisonous.
Its atomic number (which is the number of protons in it) is 9, and its atomic mass is 19.
It is part of the Group 7 (halogens) on the periodic table of elements.
Fluorine is a light yellow diatomic gas.
It is very reactive gas, which exists as diatomic molecules.
It is actually the most reactive element.
Fluorine has a very high attraction for electrons, because it is missing one.
This makes it the most powerful oxidizing agent.
It can rip electrons from water (making oxygen) and ignite propane on contact.
It does not need a spark.
Metals can catch on fire when placed in a stream of fluorine.
After it is reduced by reacting with other things, it forms the stable fluoride ion.
Fluorine is very poisonous.
Fluorine bonds very strongly with carbon.
It can react with the unreactive noble gases.
It explodes when mixed with hydrogen.
The melting point of fluorine is -363.33°F (-219.62°C), the boiling point is -306.62°F (-188.12°C).
Chemical compounds containing fluorine ions are called fluorides.
Fluorine only exists in one oxidation state: -1.
Hydrofluoric acid, a solution of hydrogen fluoride in water
Silver(I) fluoride, brown-yellow
Silver(II) fluoride, highly reactive, white or gray
Sodium aluminium fluoride, cryolite
Thallium(III) fluoride
Fluorine is not found as an element on the earth; it is much too reactive.
Several fluorides are found in the earth, though.
When calcium phosphate is reacted with sulfuric acid to make phosphoric acid, some hydrofluoric acid is produced.
Also, fluorite can be reacted with sulfuric acid to make hydrofluoric acid.
Fluorite naturally occurs on the earths' crust in rocks, coal and clay.
Fluorine is normally made by electrolysis.
Hydrogen fluoride is dissolved in potassium fluoride.
This mixture is melted and an electric current is passed through it.
This is electrolysis.
Hydrogen is produced at one side and fluorine at the other side.
If the sides are not separated, the cell may explode.
Someone made fluorine in 1986 without using electrolysis.
They produced manganese(IV) fluoride by using various chemical compounds, which released fluorine gas.
Fluorine is used to enrich uranium for nuclear weapons.
It is also used to make sulfur hexafluoride.
Sulfur hexafluoride is used to propel stuff out of an aerosol can.
It is also used to make integrated circuits.
Fluorine compounds have many uses.
Fluoride ions are in fluorine compounds.
Fluoride ions can be in toothpaste.
Some are used in nonstick coatings.
Freons contain fluorine.
Fluorine as an element is extremely reactive and toxic.
It can react with almost everything, even glass.
Fluorine is also poisonous.
Fluoride ions are somewhat toxic.
If too much toothpaste containing fluoride is eaten then fluoride poisoning may occur.
Fluoride is not reactive, though.
:Category:Fluorine compounds
Iodine is a chemical element.
Its atomic number (which is the number of protons in it) is 53, and its atomic mass (the number of protons plus neutrons) is 127.
It is part of the Group 7 (halogens) on the periodic table of elements and its electronic configuration is 2,8,8,18,17.
It is a nonmetal.
Iodine is a dark purple-black solid.
It is also a nonmetal and a halogen.
It sublimes when heated to make a bright purple vapor.
This vapor is very irritating, although colorful.
Iodine does not dissolve in water, but it does dissolve in a solution of an iodide in water.
It dissolves easily in organic solvents.
Iodine is at the bottom of the halogens and is the least reactive of the halogens.
Iodine is an oxidizing agent, though not as strong as bromine or chlorine.
It can become the colorless iodide ion if another atom or molecule gives an iodine atom one of its electrons.
This is called reduction.
Iodine reacts with hydrogen sulfide or hydrazine to make hydriodic acid.
Iodine dissolves in oleum to make a bright blue solution of I2+ and sulfur dioxide.
This cation is also made when iodine reacts with antimony pentafluoride.
Iodine reacts with bases to make hypoiodite and iodide.
The hypoiodite disproportionates to iodate and iodide.
Iodine reacts with nitric acid and chlorates to make iodates, too.
Iodine reacts violently with some metals like aluminium to make large amounts of heat and toxic vapors.
Iodine forms chemical compounds in several oxidation states: -1, +1, +3, +5, and +7.
This is typical of the halogens except for fluorine.
-1 compounds as iodides are the most common.
Most organic iodine compounds are in the -1 oxidation state.
Most iodides are colorless or reddish-yellow and are weak reducing agents.
+1 and +3 compounds are quite rare.
They are both oxidizing agents.
+1 compounds are found as iodine monochloride and hypoiodites.
+3 compounds are found as iodine trichloride or iodine trifluoride.
+5 compounds are found as iodates and iodic acid.
Iodine pentafluoride and iodine pentoxide are iodine compounds in the +5 state.
+5 and +7 compounds are all strong oxidizing agents.
+7 compounds are normally found as periodates and periodic acid.
Iodine heptafluoride is also in the +7 oxidation state.
Potassium iodide is one of the most common iodides.
Iodides are normally colorless but turn yellow after being in air because the iodide is oxidized to iodine.
Iodides react with acidified manganese dioxide or chlorine to make iodine.
Iodine monochloride is a red or brown liquid.
Iodine trichloride, as well as iodine trifluoride, are yellow solids.
Iodates like potassium iodate are colorless solids similar to chlorates.
Iodic acid is the only stable oxidizing halogen acid.
Chloric acid, by comparison, is very unstable and dangerous.
Iodine pentoxide is a white solid, and iodine pentafluoride is a yellowish liquid.
Periodates, like sodium periodate, are colorless solids similar to perchlorates, although weaker oxidizing agents.
They decompose to iodates when they are heated.
Periodic acid is not as stable as iodic acid.
Iodine heptafluoride is the only iodine(VII) compound.
It was discovered by Barnard Courtois in 1811.
He burned seaweed to get sodium carbonate and reacted the residue with sulfuric acid.
One time, he poured too much sulfuric acid on the seaweed and purple vapor came out which made dark blue-black crystals on a cold surface.
He did not have enough money to see whether it was a new element or not.
He gave samples to several chemists, who identified it as an element in 1813.
Iodine is too reactive to be in nature as an element.
Iodine compounds are not common in the ground.
There is a mineral called caliche that is found in dry deserts.
It has iodate in it.
Iodide is found in seawater.
Kelp has quite large amounts of iodine in it.
Iodine is one of the heaviest elements needed by living things.
If people do not get enough of it, they get a disease known as goitre.
Most salt has iodine in it, in the form of iodide or iodate.
People can also take iodine pills to make sure they get enough.
Kelp was burned and the iodine extracted from the ashes in the 18th and 19th century, but now it is not good enough for common use.
Most iodine now is extracted from seawater.
Chlorine is reacted with seawater to change the iodide to iodine.
Air is blown over the water to evaporate the iodine.
Then the iodine is reduced with sulfur dioxide to hydriodic acid.
Then the hydriodic acid is oxidized with chlorine again to make iodine.
This process is repeated until the iodine is pure.
A very pure form of iodine is made by reacting copper sulfate and potassium iodide.
This makes copper(II) iodide which is not stable.
It breaks down into copper(I) iodide and iodine, which is pure.
Iodine is used as a catalyst for making acetic acid.
Animal feed also has iodine in it for nutrition.
Iodine is used for a disinfectant.
Tincture of iodine is a common iodine disinfectant.
Iodine can be used to prevent thyroid cancer after a nuclear explosion.
After a nuclear explosion, radioactive iodine fills the air.
The radioactive iodine easily goes into the thyroid and causes cancer.
When people take iodine tablets, it fills up the thyroid with non-radioactive iodine which prevents any radioactive iodine from coming in.
Iodine compounds can be used in X-rays because X-rays cannot go through them easily.
Some metals are purified using their iodides.
Silver iodide is used in photographic film and cloud seeding.
Erythrosine is a food coloring that has iodine in it.
Iodine can be used to make illegal drugs so it is restricted in some areas.
Iodine can be used as a test for reducing agents.
Iodine turns colorless when mixed with a reducing agent.
Iodine also turns black when mixed with starch.
Iodides become colored when mixed with oxidizing agents.
Iodine can irritate skin.
Its vapors are irritating to the lungs.
It is less toxic than the other halogens, though.
2-3 grams of iodine can kill.
Iodides are only toxic in large amounts.
Astatine is a radioactive, chemical element.
Its atomic number is 85, and its atomic weight is 210.
It is part of the Group 17 (halogens) on the periodic table of elements.
All of astatine's isotopes are short-lived; the most stable is astatine-210, with a half-life of 8.3 hours.
The first creation of the element was in 1940 by Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, and Emilio G. Segrè at the University of California, Berkeley, who named it from the Greek estates (ἄστατος), meaning "unstable".
Astatine is highly radioactive and all its isotopes have half-lives of approximately 8 hours or less, the longest being astatine-210 with a half-life of a bit over eight hours.
Some of its isotopes may be found in nature, but because it is so unstable, only about an ounce exists in the Earth's crust at any point in time.
Chemists say it is the rarest element in the Earth's crust.
Less reactive than iodine, astatine is the least reactive of the halogens.
Only a few compounds with metals have been found, in the form of astatides of sodium, palladium, silver, thallium, and lead.
It can be used for cancer treatment and in radioactive tracers.
The United States House of Representatives is a part of the United States (U. S.) Congress.
Congress is the legislature of the U. S. government and makes federal laws.
The other part of Congress is the U. S. Senate.
There are maximum 435 members in the United States House of Representatives.
These members are called U. S. Representatives or just representatives.
The number of representatives from each state depends on the number of people in that state, the population, but there is at least one U. S. representative from each of the 50 states.
Every 10 years, the United States Census Bureau counts the population of the United States.
States gain or lose Representatives based on the count.
The House of Representatives is in one of the two wings in the U.S. Capitol building.
The other wing is for the Senate.
Sometimes the House of Representatives is informally called the House.
The chairman/chairperson in the U.S. House of Representatives is called the Speaker of the House.
The current Speaker is Nancy Pelosi.
According to the U.S. Constitution, all bills about raising revenue, which includes taxes, must start in the House of Representatives.
Also, the House of Representatives has the sole power to impeach certain officials, such as the president or federal judges.
According to the U.S. Constitution, the House of Representatives can expel, or impeach, one of its representatives by a vote of at least two-thirds of its members.
Clerk of the House of Representatives
Chief Administrative Office of the House
Office of the majority leader
Office of the speaker of the House
Official list of current members
Legislative information and archives for US House and Senate, via Congress.gov
A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825
Complete Downloadable List of U.S. Representative Contact Information, via AggData LLC]
Information about U.S. Congressional Bills and Resolutions
Dr.Lourdes Celmira Flores Nano (born October 7 1959) is a Peruvian lawyer and politician.
She is the leader of the Christian People's Party.
She tried to become the mayor of Lima in 2010.
Flores Nano was born in Lima in 1959.
She studied for a Phd in Law from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, one of the world's oldest universities in Madrid, Spain.
She was a member of the Lima Municipal Council and then a member of the National Congress of Peru.
In 2001 and 2006 she was a candidate in election for the President of Peru.
Peruvian politicians
People from Lima
Novels are books which have one long story written in them.
They are works of prose fiction.
They are longer than short stories and novellas.
For example, some are adventure stories, like Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson.
There are horror (scary) stories like Mary Shelley's Frankenstein.
There are also science fiction novels like Dune by Frank Herbert, and humorous novels like Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain.
Novels in English are usually at least 60,000 words long.
Some are much bigger, 150,000 words or more.
Novels usually have 100 pages or more.
The first novels were written more than three hundred years ago.
Some people say that Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes is the first novel.
It was first published in 1605.
Genres of novels
There are many different genres, or categories, of novels.
Gothic Novel
Sentimental Novel
Weird fiction
Fiction is any story made up by an author.
It is a creation of the author's imagination.
It is not based strictly on history or facts.
The opposite of fiction is non-fiction, writing that deals with facts and true events.
Often in a library, part of the library is for fiction books and another part of the library is for non-fiction.
The word fiction comes from the Latin word fictum, which means "created".
This is a good way to remember what fiction is: if it has been created or made up by somebody, it is fiction.
Fiction can be written or told, or acted on stage, in a movie, on television or radio.
Usually the purpose of fiction is to entertain.
However, the dividing line is not always so clear.
Fiction with real people or events in it is called historical fiction, because it is based on things that happened in history.
This type of fiction is written so that we can imagine and understand what it was like when those people were alive.
Reality can be presented through creative writing, and imagination can open the reader's mind to significant thoughts about the real world.
Parts of fiction
In fiction, there are always characters.
There is usually a protagonist, or hero.
Sometimes this is a group of people, not one person.
You usually support the hero (or heroes.)
The protagonist has to face some kind of enemy, usually another character called the antagonist.
The fight between the protagonist and their enemy is called the conflict.
Plot is a literary term.
It is the events that make up a story, particularly as they relate to one another.
The events may form a pattern.
That pattern may be a sequence, through cause and effect, or  how the reader views the story, or simply by coincidence. (
For example, at the start.
a puppy hunged by a tree branch.
At the middle, someone sees that puppy is about to fall.
At the end, someone saves the puppy.)
Aristotle on plot
In his Poetics, Aristotle considered plot (mythos) the most important element of drama—more important than character, for example.
A plot must have, Aristotle says, a beginning, a middle, and an end, and the events of the plot must causally relate to one another as being either necessary or probable.
Of the utmost importance to Aristotle is the plot's ability to arouse emotion in the psyche of the audience.
In tragedy, the emotions are fear and pity, emotions which he considers in his Rhetoric.
Freytag on plot
Gustav Freytag considered plot a narrative structure that divided a story into five parts, like the five acts of a play.
These parts are: exposition (of the situation); rising action (through conflict); climax (or turning point); falling action; and resolution.
The climax is the most dangerous and exciting part of the plot.
For example, if you were on a rollercoaster, the highest part would be the climax.
The climax usually near to the end of the story, because the whole story has been building up to it (rising action).
In an action drama  it is the point when the hero or heroine looks like s/he is about to lose, and is in the greatest danger.
Conflict is very important in fiction.
Every work of fiction needs a conflict, or problem.
There are five basic types of conflict.
In modern times, a new one, "Person vs. Technology", has been used.
Person vs. Self
Person vs. Self is when a character is facing his own fears, confusion or philosophy.
Sometimes the character tries to find out who he or she is, and comes to realize it or change it.
Sometimes the character struggles to find out what is right or wrong.
Although the enemy is inside the character, they can be influenced by outside forces.
The struggle of the human being to come to a decision is the base of this type of conflict.
Person vs. Person
Person vs. Person is when the hero is fighting another person.
There is usually more than one time that the hero meets the enemy.
For example, if a child is being bullied, that is person vs. person conflict.
An example is the conflict between Judah and Messala in Ben-Hur.
Person vs. Society
Person vs. Society is when the hero's main source of conflict is traditions or ideas.
The protagonist is basically fighting what is wrong with the world he lives in.
Society itself is often treated as a single character, just as another person is in person vs. person conflict.
An example in literature would be Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë.
Person vs. Nature
Person vs. Nature is when a character is fighting against forces of nature.
Many films focus on this theme.
It is also found in stories about trying to survive in places far away from humans, like Jack London's short story To Build a Fire.
Person vs. Supernatural
Person vs. Supernatural is when a character is battling supernatural forces.
Sometimes, this force is inside themselves, it is internal.
Such stories are sometimes used to represent or criticize Freud's theory of id vs. superego.
Bram Stoker's Dracula is a good example of this, as well as Frankenstein by Mary Shelley and Christabel by Samuel Coleridge.
It is also very common in comic books.
Person vs. Machine/Technology
Person vs. Machine/Technology places a character against robot forces with artificial intelligence.
I, Robot and the Terminator series are good examples of this conflict.
The county of Portugal is established for the second time.
Pembroke Castle is built in Wales.
The cathedral in Valence, France is consecrated.
Coloman becomes King of Hungary.
March – Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus sends ambassadors to Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza, to discuss sending mercenaries against the Seljuk Turks.
November 18 – The Council of Clermont began.
The council was called by Pope Urban II to discuss sending the First Crusade to the Holy Land.
November – Pope Urban II preaches the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont; Peter the Hermit begins to preach throughout France.
November 28 – On the last day of the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II appoints Bishop Adhemar of Le Puy and Count Raymond IV of Toulouse to lead the First Crusade to the Holy Land.
Oak Lawn is a village in Cook County, Illinois, USA.
Suburbs of Chicago, Illinois
Settlements in Cook County, Illinois
January 10 – Isaac Jogues, Jesuit missionary to Native Americans (died 1646)
March 20 – Lady Alice Boyle, Irish noblewoman (died 1667)
March 24 – Michiel de Ruyter, Dutch admiral (died 1676)
July 13 – Václav Hollar, Bohemian etcher (died 1677)
November 1 – Georg Philipp Harsdorffer, German poet (died 1658)
November 15 – Madeleine de Scudéry, French writer (died 1701)
November 26 – John Harvard, American clergyman (died 1638)
Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll (died 1661)
Thomas Barlow, Bishop of Lincoln (died 1691)
John Boys, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (died 1664)
John Dixwell, English judge and regicide (died 1689)
Jan Kazimierz Krasinski, Polish nobleman (died 1669)
Claude de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, French courtier (died 1693)
Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton (died 1667)
Yagyu Jubei Mitsuyoshi, Japanese samurai (died 1650)
Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla, Spanish dramatist (died 1660)
509 BC -the Roman Republic starts.
509 BC, September 13 - The temple of Jupiter on Rome's Capitoline Hill is dedicated on the ides (15th) of September.
508 BC - Office of pontifex maximus made in Rome
507 BC - Cleisthenes, Greek reformer, takes power and increases democracy
506 BC - Battle of Bai ju: Forces of the Kingdom of Wu under Sun Tzu defeat the forces of Chu
505 BC - First pair of Roman consuls elected
502 BC - December 4: Solar eclipse darkens Egypt. (
we think this because of scientific pattern, no clear historical record of observation)
502 BC - The Latin League defeats the Etruscans under Lars Porsenna at Aricia.
502 BC - Naxos rebels against Persian domination sparking the Ionian Revolt.
501 BC - Cleisthenes reforms democracy in Athens.
501 BC - Naxos is attacked by the Persian Empire.
501 BC - because of threats by the Sabines, Rome makes the office of dictator.
501 BC - Confucius is made governor of Chung-tu.
501 BC - Gadir (present-day Cádiz) is captured by Carthage. (
500 BC - Bantu-speaking people come into south-west Uganda from the west. (
500 BC - Refugees from Teos resettle Abdera.
500 BC - Darius I of Persia proclaims that Aramaic be the official language of the western half of his empire
500 BC - the end of the Nordic Bronze Age civilization in Oscar Montelius periodization system and the start of the Pre-Roman Iron Age
500 BC - the first republic in Vaishali Bihar India starts.
c. 500 BC—Yayoi period starts in Ancient Japan.
c. 500 BC—Oldest known Zapotec writing.
The Gutaii tribe began around this time, in Middle and Southern Africa.
c. 500 BC—Heraclitus, Greek philosopher
Siddharta Gautama
c. 585–501 BC—Pythagoras, mathematician
Lucretia, Roman noblewoman
Lucius Junius Brutus, Roman consul (509 BC)
Aruns Tarquinius, Roman prince (509 BC)
Shen Yin Shu, general of Chu, (506 BC)
Titus Junius Brutus, Roman noble and monarchist conspiractor
Tiberius Junius Brutus, Roman noble and monarchist conspiractor
How the world looked
Fossil fuels are fuels that come from old life forms that decomposed over a long period of time.
The three most important fossil fuels are coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
Oil and gas are hydrocarbons (molecules that have only hydrogen and carbon in them).
Coal is mostly carbon.
These fuels are called fossil fuels because they are dug up from underground.
Coal mining digs up solid fuel; gas and oil wells bring up liquid fuel.
Fossil fuel was not much used until the Middle Ages.
Coal became the main kind of fuel with the Industrial Revolution.
Most of the fuels people burn are fossil fuels.
A big use is to make electricity.
In power plants fossil fuels, usually coal, are burned to heat water into steam, which pushes a fan-like object called a turbine.
When the turbine spins around, magnets inside the turbine make electricity.
Crude oil can be separated to make various fuels such as LPG, gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel, and diesel fuel.
These substances are made by fractional distillation in an oil refinery.
They  are the main fuels in transportation.
That means that they are burned in order to move cars, trucks, ships, airplanes, trains and even spacecraft.
Without them, there wouldn't be much transport.
People also burn fossil fuels to heat their homes.
They use coal less for this than they did long ago, because it makes things dirty.
In many homes, people burn natural gas in a stove for cooking.
All fossil fuels come from the periods in Earth's history when the Earth had huge tropical forests.
In those periods, plants lived, grew and died, faster than they decayed.