the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Moulins en Bessin.
Coulonces is a former commune.
On 1 January 2016, it became a part of the new commune of Vire-Normandie.
Coulvain is a former commune.
It is in the region of Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department.
On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Seulline.
Coupesarte is a former commune.
On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Mézidon Vallée d'Auge.
Courcy, Calvados is a commune.
Courseulles-sur-Mer is a commune.
Courson is a former commune.
Courtonne-la-Meurdrac is a commune.
Courtonne-les-Deux-Églises is a commune.
Courvaudon is a commune.
Cresserons is a commune.
Cresseveuille is a commune.
Creully is a former commune.
On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Creully sur Seulles.
Cricquebœuf is a commune.
Cricqueville-en-Auge is a commune.
Cricqueville-en-Bessin is a commune.
Cristot is a commune.
Crocy is a commune.
Croisilles, Calvados is a commune.
It is in the Basse-Normandie region  in the Calvados department in northwest France.
Croissanville is a former commune.
Crouay is a commune.
Crèvecœur-en-Auge is a former commune.
Crépon is a commune.
Culey-le-Patry is a commune.
Cully, Calvados is a former commune.
On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Moulins en Bessin.
Curcy-sur-Orne is a former commune.
Cussy is a commune.
Cuverville, Calvados is a commune.
Damblainville is a commune.
Dampierre, Calvados is a former commune.
On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Val de Drôme.
Danestal is a commune.
Danvou-la-Ferrière is a former commune.
Deauville  is a commune in Lower Normandy in the Calvados department in northwestern France.
It is a luxurious seaside resort.
it is perhaps best known for its role in Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time.
Deux-Jumeaux is a commune.
Dives-sur-Mer is a commune.
Donnay is a commune.
Douville-en-Auge is a commune.
Douvres-la-Délivrande is a commune.
Dozulé is a commune.
Drubec is a commune.
Ducy-Sainte-Marguerite is a commune.
Démouville is a commune.
Ellon, Calvados is a commune.
Englesqueville-en-Auge is a commune.
Englesqueville-la-Percée is a commune.
Eraines is a commune.
Ernes is a commune.
Escoville is a commune.
Espins is a commune.
Esquay-Notre-Dame is a commune.
Esquay-sur-Seulles is a commune.
Esson is a commune.
It is in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in northwest France.
Estry is a former commune.
Estrées-la-Campagne is a commune.
Familly is a former commune.
Fauguernon is a commune.
Fervaques is a former commune that is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Feuguerolles-Bully is a commune.
Fierville-Bray is a former commune.
Fierville-les-Parcs is a commune.
Firfol is a commune.
Fleury-sur-Orne is a commune.
Fontaine-Henry is a commune.
Fontaine-le-Pin is a commune.
Fontaine-Étoupefour is a commune.
Fontenay-le-Marmion is a commune.
Fontenay-le-Pesnel is a commune.
Fontenermont is a former commune.
Formentin is a commune.
Formigny is a former commune.
Foulognes is a commune.
Fourches is a commune.
Fourneaux-le-Val is a commune.
Fourneville is a commune.
Fresney-le-Puceux is a commune.
Fresney-le-Vieux is a commune.
Fresné-la-Mère is a commune.
Friardel is a former commune.
On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of La Vespière-Friardel.
Frénouville is a commune.
Fumichon is a commune.
Garcelles-Secqueville is a former commune.
On 1 January 2019, it was merged into the new commune of Le Castelet.
Gavrus is a commune.
The name of the commune was first mentioned in 1222.
Gavrus was a Roman cognomen.
Genneville is a commune.
Gerrots is a commune.
Giberville is a commune.
Glanville is a commune.
Glos is a commune.
Gonneville-en-Auge is a commune.
Gonneville-sur-Honfleur is a commune.
Gonneville-sur-Mer is a commune.
Goupillières is a former commune.
On 1 January 2019, it was merged into the new commune of Montillières-sur-Orne.
Goustranville is a commune.
Gouvix is a commune.
Grainville-Langannerie is a commune.
Grainville-sur-Odon is a commune.
Grandcamp-Maisy is a commune.
Grandchamp-le-Château is a former commune.
Grangues is a commune.
Graye-sur-Mer is a commune.
Grentheville is a commune.
Grimbosq is a commune.
Guéron is a commune.
Géfosse-Fontenay is a commune.
Hamars is a former commune.
Hermanville-sur-Mer is a commune.
Hermival-les-Vaux is a commune.
It is in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department.
Heuland is a commune.
Heurtevent is a former commune.
Hiéville is a former commune.
Honfleur is a commune.
Hotot-en-Auge is a commune.
Hottot-les-Bagues is a commune.
Houlgate is a small tourist resort in northwestern France along the English Channel with a beach and a casino.
It is a commune in the Calvados department in the Basse-Normandie region.
It began as a hamlet in the commune of Beuzeval which was a very old parish and was part of the fiefdom of the Aché (or Achey).
There were many different lords because several different families inherited the title through marriage, until gradually the land of the Beuzeval was sold to farmers.
The parish was eventually controlled by Houlgate.
On the south side of the river Drochon, between 1845 and 1850, sea bathing attracted summer visitors.
Houlgate is located along the English Channel in the valley of the Drochon.
The valley is mostly built up or used for animal grazing.
The town's area is 4.69 km² and the average altitude 5 m. Despite its low average height, the town contains two hills which form the natural limits of the commune.
Hubert-Folie is a former commune.
On 1 January 2019, it was merged into the new commune of Castine-en-Plaine.
Hérouville-Saint-Clair is a commune.
Hérouvillette is a commune.
Ifs is a commune.
Isigny-sur-Mer is a commune.
Walt Disney's surname derives from the commune of Isigny.
The earliest known ancestor of Walt Disney, with a similar name, was Jean-Christophe d'Isigny ("of Isigny"). "
d'Isigny" was anglicised to Disney.
d'Isigny in French means ("from Isigny").
Janville, Calvados is a commune.
Jort is a commune.
Juaye-Mondaye is a commune.
Jurques is a former commune.
On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Dialan sur Chaîne.
Juvigny-sur-Seulles is a commune.
The commune existed before the French Revolution.
Before, it was simply Juvigny.
The name only became Juvigny-sur-Seulles in 1938.
The commune is a few kilometres away from the D-Day landings beaches.
It is also near Caen and Bayeux.
An 18th century castle and the village's church.
They were badly damaged during the Second World War bombings in 1944.
The old bridge of Juvigny-sur-Seulles over the river Seulles.
It is a listed building in France (French: Momunment Historique) since 19 September 2006.
The bridge dates back to the Middle Ages.
It is made of stone and has five arches.
It is one of the oldest of its kind in the Calvados department.
Pilgrims used to use it to go to the Mont-Saint-Michel.
Many inns, a cabaret, a bakery and a blacksmith settled around the bridge.
In the 18th century, people used the bridge more because of Lime commerce.
L'Hôtellerie is a commune.
L'Oudon is a former commune.
La Bazoque, Calvados is a commune.
La Bigne is a former commune.
On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the commune of Seulline.
La Boissière, Calvados is a commune.
La Brévière is a former commune.
On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Val-de-Vie.
La Caine is a commune.
La Cambe is a commune.
La Chapelle-Engerbold is a former commune.
La Chapelle-Haute-Grue is a former commune.
La Chapelle-Yvon is a former commune.
On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Valorbiquet.
La Croupte is a former commune.
La Ferrière-Harang is a former commune.
La Folie is a commune.
La Folletière-Abenon is a commune.
La Graverie is a former commune.
La Hoguette is a commune.
The place name La Hoguette is derived from the Old Norse word haugr meaning a hill or mound.
La Houblonnière is a commune.
La Lande-sur-Drôme is a former commune.
La Pommeraye, Calvados is a commune.
La Rivière-Saint-Sauveur is a commune.
La Rocque is a former commune.
La Roque-Baignard is a commune.
La Vacquerie is a former commune.
La Vespière is a former commune.
La Villette, Calvados is a commune.
Laize-la-Ville is a former commune.
Landelles-et-Coupigny is a commune.
Landes-sur-Ajon is a commune.
Langrune-sur-Mer is a commune.
Lantheuil is a former commune.
Lasson, Calvados used to be a commune.
On 1 January 2016, it became part of the commune of Rots.
Lassy, Calvados is a former commune.
On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Terres de Druance.
Le Breuil-en-Auge is a commune.
Le Breuil-en-Bessin is a commune.
Le Brévedent is a commune.
Le Bény-Bocage is a former commune.
Le Bô is a commune.
Le Bû-sur-Rouvres is a commune.
Le Désert is a former commune.
Le Détroit is a commune.
Le Faulq is a commune.
Le Fournet is a commune.
Le Fresne-Camilly is a commune.
Le Gast is a former commune.
Le Locheur is a former commune.
About 277 people lived there in 2006.
On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Val d'Arry.
Le Manoir, Calvados is a commune.
Le Marais-la-Chapelle is a commune.
Le Mesnil-Auzouf is a former commune.
Le Mesnil-Bacley is a former commune.
Le Mesnil-Benoist is a former commune.
Le Mesnil-Caussois is a former commune.
Le Mesnil-Durand is a former commune.
Le Mesnil-Eudes is a commune.
Le Mesnil-Germain is a former commune.
Le Mesnil-Guillaume is a commune.
Le Mesnil-Mauger is a former commune.
Le Mesnil-Patry is a former commune.
Le Mesnil-Robert is a commune.
Le Mesnil-Simon, Calvados is a commune.
Le Mesnil-Villement is a commune.
Le Mesnil-au-Grain is a commune.
Le Mesnil-sur-Blangy is a commune.
Le Molay-Littry is a commune.
Le Pin is a commune.
Le Plessis-Grimoult is a former commune.
Le Pré-d'Auge is a commune.
Le Reculey is a former commune.
Le Theil-Bocage is a former commune.
Le Theil-en-Auge is a commune.
Le Torquesne is a commune.
Le Tourneur is a former commune.
Le Tronquay, Calvados is a commune.
Le Vey is a commune.
Leffard is a commune.
Les Autels-Saint-Bazile is a former commune.
Les Authieux-Papion is a former commune.
Les Authieux-sur-Calonne is a commune.
Les Isles-Bardel is a commune.
Les Loges, Calvados is a commune.
Les Loges-Saulces is a commune.
Les Monceaux is a commune.
Les Moutiers-Hubert is a former commune.
Les Moutiers-en-Auge is a commune.
Les Moutiers-en-Cinglais is a commune.
Les Oubeaux is a former commune.
Lessard-et-le-Chêne is a commune.
Lingèvres is a commune.
Lion-sur-Mer is a commune.
Lisieux is a commune.
Lison is a commune.
Lisores is a commune.
Litteau is a commune.
Livarot is a former commune.
Livry, Calvados is a former commune.
Longraye is a former commune.
On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Aurseulles.
Longues-sur-Mer is a commune.
The Wehrmacht constructed a series of concrete bunkers here during World War 2.
Longueville, Calvados is a commune.
Longvillers is a commune.
Loucelles is a commune.
Louvagny is a commune.
Louvigny, Calvados is a commune.
Louvières, Calvados is a former commune.
Luc-sur-Mer is a commune.
Léaupartie is a commune.
Lécaude is a former commune.
Lénault is a former commune.
Magny-en-Bessin is a commune.
Magny-la-Campagne is a former commune.
On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Mézidon Vallée d'Auge.
Magny-le-Freule is a former commune.
Maisoncelles-Pelvey is a commune.
Maisoncelles-la-Jourdan is a former commune.
On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Vire-Normandie.
Maisoncelles-sur-Ajon is a commune.
Maisons, Calvados is a commune.
Maizet is a commune.
Maizières is a commune.
Malloué is a former commune.
Maltot is a commune.
Mandeville-en-Bessin is a commune.
Manerbe is a commune.
Manneville-la-Pipard is a commune.
Manvieux is a commune.
Marolles, Calvados is a commune.
Martainville, Calvados is a commune.
Martigny-sur-l'Ante is a commune.
Martragny is a former commune.
Mathieu is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.
May-sur-Orne is a commune.
Merville-Franceville-Plage is a commune.
Meslay, Calvados is a commune.
It is found in the region Basse-Normandie, in the Calvados department, in the northwest of France.
Mesnil-Clinchamps is a former commune.
Meulles is a former commune.
Meuvaines is a commune.
Missy, Calvados is a former commune.
On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Noyers-Missy, which became part of the new commune Val d'Arry on 1 January 2017.
Mittois is a former commune.
Monceaux-en-Bessin is a commune.
Mondeville, Calvados is a commune.
Mondrainville is a commune.
Monfréville is a commune.
Mont-Bertrand is a former commune.
Montamy is a former commune.
Montchamp, Calvados is a former commune.
Montchauvet is a former commune.
Monteille is a former commune.
Montfiquet is a commune.
Montigny, Calvados is a commune.
Montreuil-en-Auge is a commune.
Monts-en-Bessin is a commune.
Montviette is a former commune.
Morteaux-Coulibœuf is a commune.
Mosles is a commune.
Mouen is a commune.
Moulines is a commune.
Moult is a former commune.
Moyaux is a commune.
Mutrécy is a commune.
Méry-Corbon is a former commune.
Mézidon-Canon is a former commune.
On 9 September 1972, Mézidon merged with Canon to create Mézidon-Canon.
Neuilly-la-Forêt is a former commune.
Nonant is a commune.
Norolles is a commune.
Noron-l'Abbaye is a commune.
Noron-la-Poterie is a commune.
Norrey-en-Auge is a commune.
Notre-Dame-d'Estrées is a former commune.
It is in Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
On 1 January 2015, it became part of the new commune Notre-Dame-d'Estrées-Corbon.
Notre-Dame-de-Courson is a former commune.
Notre-Dame-de-Livaye is a commune.
Noyers-Bocage is a former commune.
Olendon is a commune.
Ondefontaine is a former commune.
Orbec is a commune.
Osmanville is a commune.
Ouffières is a commune.
In 2017, 189 people lived there.
Ouilly-du-Houley is a commune.
Ouilly-le-Tesson is a commune.
Ouilly-le-Vicomte is a commune.
It is a small port with fishing boats, leisure craft and a ferry-harbour.
It serves as the port of the city of Caen.
Ouville-la-Bien-Tournée is a former commune.
Ouézy is a commune.
Parfouru-sur-Odon is a commune.
Pennedepie is a commune.
Percy-en-Auge is a former commune that is in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Perrières is a commune.
Pertheville-Ners is a commune.
Petiville, Calvados is a commune.
Pierrefitte-en-Auge is a commune.
Pierrefitte-en-Cinglais is a commune.
Pierrepont, Calvados is a commune.
Pierres is a former commune.
Placy is a former commune.
Planquery is a commune.
Plumetot is a commune.
It is in the Basse-Normandie  region in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Pont-Bellanger is a commune.
Pont-Farcy is a former commune.
It is found in the  region Normandy in the Manche department in the northwest of France.
Before 1 January 2018, it was part of the Calvados department.
On 1 January 2018, it was merged into the commune of Tessy-Bocage.
Pont-d'Ouilly is a commune.
Pont-l'Évêque, Calvados is a commune.
It is known for Pont-l'évêque cheese, a type of soft cheese, the oldest Normandy cheese in production.
Pontécoulant is a commune.
Port-en-Bessin-Huppain is a French commune.
Potigny is a commune.
Poussy-la-Campagne is a former commune.
Presles  used to be a commune.
On 1 January 2016, it became part of the new commune of Valdallière.
Proussy is a former commune.
Proussy had about 400 inhabitants in 2006.
Préaux-Bocage is a commune.
Préaux-Saint-Sébastien is a former commune.
Prêtreville is a commune.
Putot-en-Auge is a commune.
Putot-en-Bessin is a former commune.
Périers-en-Auge is a commune.
Périers-sur-le-Dan is a commune.
Périgny, Calvados is a commune.
Quetteville is a commune.
Ranchy is a commune.
Ranville is a commune.
Rapilly is a commune.
Repentigny, Calvados is a commune.
Reux is a commune.
Reviers is a commune.
Rocquancourt is a former commune.
Rosel is a commune.
Rots is a commune.
On 1 January 2016, the former communes of Lasson and Secqueville-en-Bessin were merged into Rots.
Roucamps is a former commune.
Roullours is a former commune.
Rouvres, Calvados is a commune.
Rubercy is a commune.
Rucqueville is a former commune.
Rully, Calvados is a former commune.
On 1 January 2016, it was merged into (it became part of) the new commune of Valdallière.
Rumesnil is a commune.
Russy, Calvados is a former commune.
On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Aure sur Mer.
Ryes is a commune.
Saint-Agnan-le-Malherbe is a former commune.
Saint-Aignan-de-Cramesnil is a former commune.
Saint-André-d'Hébertot is a commune.
Saint-André-sur-Orne is a commune.
Saint-Arnoult, Calvados is a commune.
Saint-Aubin-d'Arquenay is a commune.
Saint-Aubin-des-Bois, Calvados is a commune.
Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer, Calvados is a commune.
Saint-Benoît-d'Hébertot is a commune.
Saint-Charles-de-Percy is a former commune.
Saint-Contest is a commune.
Saint-Cyr-du-Ronceray is a former commune.
Saint-Côme-de-Fresné is a commune.
Saint-Denis-Maisoncelles is a former commune.
Saint-Denis-de-Mailloc is a commune.
Saint-Denis-de-Méré is a commune.
Saint-Désir is a commune.
Saint-Gabriel-Brécy is a former commune.
Saint-Gatien-des-Bois is a commune.
Saint-Georges-d'Aunay is a former commune.
Saint-Georges-en-Auge is a former commune.
Saint-Germain-Langot is a commune.
Saint-Germain-d'Ectot is a former commune.
Saint-Germain-de-Livet is a commune.
Saint-Germain-de-Montgommery is a former commune.
Saint-Germain-de-Tallevende-la-Lande-Vaumont was a commune.
Saint-Germain-du-Crioult is a former commune.
Saint-Germain-du-Pert is a commune.
Saint-Germain-la-Blanche-Herbe is a commune.
Saint-Germain-le-Vasson is a commune.
Saint-Hymer is a commune.
Saint-Jean-de-Livet is a commune.
Saint-Jean-des-Essartiers is a former commune.
Saint-Jean-le-Blanc, Calvados is a former commune.
Saint-Jouin is a commune.
Saint-Julien-de-Mailloc is a former commune.
Saint-Julien-le-Faucon is a former commune.
Saint-Julien-sur-Calonne is a commune.
Saint-Lambert, Calvados is a commune.
Saint-Laurent-de-Condel is a commune.
Saint-Laurent-du-Mont is a former commune.
In 2016, 189 people lived there.
On 1 January 2019, it became a part of the commune Cambremer.
Saint-Laurent-sur-Mer is a commune.
Saint-Louet-sur-Seulles is a commune.
Saint-Loup-Hors is a commune.
Saint-Loup-de-Fribois is a former commune.
Saint-Léger-Dubosq is a commune.
Saint-Manvieu-Bocage is a former commune.
Saint-Manvieu-Norrey is a commune.
Saint-Marcouf, Calvados is a commune.
Saint-Martin-Don is a former commune.
Saint-Martin-aux-Chartrains is a commune.
Saint-Martin-de-Bienfaite-la-Cressonnière is a commune.
The cuckoos are a family of near-passerine birds.
They are the main part of the order called Cuculiformes.
The family is famous for its "nest-parasite" members, but has a range of other types of bird.
The cuckoo family, in addition to those species named as such, also includes the roadrunners, koels, malkohas, couas, coucals and anis.
The family is notable for its subfamily, the Cuculinae.
Many of them have a unique kind of parasitism called brood parasitism.
This means it lays its eggs in the nests of other kinds of birds, who then rear the baby cuckoo instead of their own.
The brood parasite
The common cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, (usually just called “cuckoo” in countries where it lives) is a spring migrant to Europe and northern Asia.
It winters in Africa and southern Asia.
It is a greyish bird with a slender body, long tail and strong legs.
It looks a little bit like a small bird of prey when it flies.
The male is dark grey above with a blackish brown tail, spotted and tipped with white and unevenly barred in black.
The female is similar but a bit more reddish on the upper breast.
It likes to eat hairy caterpillars.
It is often found where woods border on to open land.
The cuckoo gets its names because the male Common Cuckoo sings two notes which sound like the word “cu – ckoo”.
The female does not make this sound.
She has a loud bubbling call.
Laying its eggs
The common cuckoo does not make a nest of its own, and they do not bring up their own young.
Instead, the female lays her eggs in the nests of other birds.
Each female cuckoo specialises in just one host species, and lays camouflaged eggs in that bird's nest.
For example, a cuckoo which lays its eggs in reed warbler nests will lay eggs that look like those of a reed warbler.
The female cuckoo spends a lot of time watching the birds at the nest where she wants to lay an egg.
She has to work out the exact time to go and lay her egg while the 'host' parents are not looking.
If the cuckoo lays her egg in the nest before the other bird lays, the reed warbler will notice and knows it is not her egg, and so she will get rid of it.
If the cuckoo lays her egg too late, when the reed warbler has finished laying, this will be noticed, too.
When the female cuckoo thinks it is the right moment she will fly down to the reed warblers' nest, pushes one reed warbler egg out of the nest, lays her egg and flies off.
This only takes about 10 seconds.
The reed warbler does not notice, and carries on looking after the eggs.
When the cuckoo chick hatches it soon grows very fast.
It pushes the other eggs or reed warbler chicks out of the nest.
At 14 days old, it is about 3 times the size of the adult reed warblers.
The chick has a huge mouth which it opens very wide.
It also makes a very fast “cheeping” sound which sounds like a nest full of reed warbler chicks.
This makes the parents behave as if they had a nest full of their own chicks.
About 56 of the Old World and 3 of the New World cuckoo species are brood parasites, laying their eggs in the nests of other birds.
These species are obligate brood parasites, meaning that they only reproduce in this fashion.
The shells of the eggs of brood-parasites is thick.
They have two distinct layers with an outer chalky layer that is believed to provide resistance to cracking when the eggs are dropped in the host nest.
Host-specific lines
Female parasitic cuckoos specialize and lay eggs which look like the eggs of their chosen host.
This has been produced by natural selection, as some birds are able to distinguish cuckoo eggs from their own.
This leads to those eggs least like the host's being thrown out of the nest.
Host species may take direct action to stop cuckoos laying eggs in their nest.
Birds whose nests are at high risk of cuckoo-eggs often mob cuckoos and drive them out of the area.
Parasitic cuckoos are grouped into gentes: each gens specializes in a particular host species.
This permits each gens to evolve a particular egg colouring.
Thus, the species as a whole parasitizes a wide variety of hosts, but each line of females specializes in a single host species.
Genes regulating egg colour are passed down only along the maternal line, no doubt on the sex chromosome.
This allows females to lay mimetic eggs in the nest of their host species.
Females are thought to imprint on the host species which raised them; later they only parasitize nests of that species.
Male cuckoos fertilize females of all lines, so gene flow takes place between the different maternal lines.
The detail and near-perfection of the cuckoo nest parasitism, and the defences of the host birds, are extraordinary.
Many of the host species can spot and throw out almost perfect cuckoo eggs.
This system is a fine example of an evolutionary arms race, a type of co-evolution.
There are other birds which practice nest parasitism (such as the cowbirds) but these other systems are much less specialized.
Morphs and mimicry
The males and grey females in flight look a bit like a sparrowhawk.
That may protect them from other birds' mobbing (Batesian mimicry).
The advantage of the rufous-coloured females is not known.
It may be that, being less common, they are less recognised by other bird species.
The cuckoo only stays in its summer location for about 10 weeks.
In Britain, for example, it arrives in April and the adults start for Africa by the end of June or early July.
They arrive in Africa (or Asia) in August.
Davies, Nick 2015.
Cuckoo.
London: Bloomsbury.
Wyllie, Ian 1981.
The Cuckoo.
London: B.T. Batsford.
Saint-Martin-de-Blagny is a commune.
Saint-Martin-de-Fontenay is a commune.
Saint-Martin-de-Mailloc is a commune.
Saint-Martin-de-Mieux is a commune.
Saint-Martin-de-Sallen is a former commune.
Saint-Martin-de-la-Lieue is a commune.
Saint-Martin-des-Besaces is a former commune.
Saint-Martin-des-Entrées is a commune.
Saint-Martin-du-Mesnil-Oury is a former commune.
Saint-Michel-de-Livet is a former commune.
Saint-Omer, Calvados is a commune.
Saint-Ouen-des-Besaces is a former commune.
Saint-Ouen-du-Mesnil-Oger is a commune.
Saint-Ouen-le-Houx is a former commune.
Saint-Ouen-le-Pin is a commune.
Saint-Pair is a commune.
Saint-Paul-du-Vernay is a commune.
Saint-Philbert-des-Champs is a commune.
Saint-Pierre-Azif is a commune.
Saint-Pierre-Canivet is a commune.
Saint-Pierre-Tarentaine is a former commune.
Saint-Pierre-de-Mailloc is a former commune.
Saint-Pierre-des-Ifs, Calvados is a commune.
Saint-Pierre-du-Bû is a commune.
Saint-Pierre-du-Fresne is a commune.
Saint-Pierre-du-Jonquet is a commune.
Saint-Pierre-du-Mont, Calvados is a commune.
Saint-Pierre-la-Vieille is a former commune.
Saint-Pierre-sur-Dives is a former commune.
Saint-Rémy, Calvados is a commune.
Saint-Samson, Calvados is a commune.
Saint-Sever-Calvados is a former commune.
Saint-Sylvain is a commune.
Saint-Vaast-en-Auge is a commune.
Saint-Vaast-sur-Seulles is a commune.
Saint-Vigor-des-Mézerets is a former commune.
Saint-Vigor-le-Grand is a commune.
Saint-Étienne-la-Thillaye is a commune.
Sainte-Croix-Grand-Tonne is a former commune.
Sainte-Croix-sur-Mer is a commune.
Sainte-Foy-de-Montgommery is a former commune.
Sainte-Honorine-de-Ducy is a commune.
Sainte-Honorine-des-Pertes is a former commune.
Sainte-Honorine-du-Fay is a commune.
Sainte-Marguerite-d'Elle is a commune.
Sainte-Marguerite-de-Viette is a former commune.
Sainte-Marguerite-des-Loges is a former commune.
Sainte-Marie-Laumont is a former commune.
Sainte-Marie-Outre-l'Eau is a commune.
The name translates to Saint Mary beyond the Water.
The village is small today.
Up to the early 20th century it was a group of farms.
Until a few years ago, there was no road connecting the village to Pont-Farcy.
So, it was very isolated.
The village is 1 kilometer from Pont-Farcy.
It is along the D307 Road.
The village is a collection of farm houses.
It also has a church.
The total population is just 81.
However this probably includes the neighbouring farms as well.
Other nearby settlements are Pont-Bellanger and Beaumesnil.
The nearest large towns are Villedieu-les-Poeles and Vire.
The village is close to the Calvados tourist spot Grotte de Bion.
Sallen is a commune.
Sallenelles is a commune.
Sannerville is a commune.
On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Saline, but this merger was undone on 31 December 2019.
Saon is a commune.
Saonnet is a commune.
Sassy, Calvados is a commune.
Secqueville-en-Bessin is a former commune.
On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the commune of Rots.
Sept-Frères is a former commune.
Sept-Vents is a former commune.
Soignolles is a commune.
Soliers is a commune.
Sommervieu is a commune.
Soulangy is a commune.
Soumont-Saint-Quentin is a commune.
Subles is a commune.
Sully is a commune.
Surrain is a commune.
Surville, Calvados is a commune.
Tessel is a commune.
Thaon is a commune.
Thiéville is a former commune.
Thury-Harcourt is a former commune.
Tierceville is a former commune.
Tilly-la-Campagne is a former commune.
Tilly-sur-Seulles is a commune.
Tordouet is a former commune.
Torteval-Quesnay is a former commune.
Tortisambert is a former commune.
Touffréville is a commune.
Touques, Calvados is a commune.
Tour-en-Bessin is a commune.
Tourgéville is a commune.
Tournay-sur-Odon is a former commune.
Tournebu is a former commune.
Tournières is a commune.
Tourville-en-Auge is a commune.
Tourville-sur-Odon is a commune.
Tracy-Bocage is a commune.
Tracy-sur-Mer is a commune.
Troarn is a commune.
Trois-Monts is a former commune.
Trouville-sur-Mer is a commune.
Trungy is a commune.
Truttemer-le-Grand is a former commune.
Truttemer-le-Petit is a former commune.
Tréprel is a commune.
Trévières is a commune.
Urville, Calvados is a commune.
Ussy is a commune.
Vacognes-Neuilly is a commune.
Valsemé is a commune.
Varaville is a commune.
Vassy, Calvados is a former commune.
Vaubadon is a former commune.
Vaucelles is a commune.
Vaudeloges is a former commune.
Vaudry is a former commune.
Vauville, Calvados is a commune.
Vaux-sur-Aure is a commune.
Vaux-sur-Seulles is a commune.
Vendes is a commune.
Vendeuvre is a commune.
Ver-sur-Mer is a commune.
Versainville is a commune.
This is in northwest France.
Verson is a commune.
Vicques, Calvados is a commune.
Victot-Pontfol is a commune.
Vienne-en-Bessin is a commune.
Vierville-sur-Mer is a commune.
Viessoix used to be a commune.
Vieux, Calvados is a commune.
Vieux-Bourg is a commune.
Vieux-Fumé is a former commune.
Vieux-Pont-en-Auge is a former commune.
Vignats is a commune.
Villers-Bocage, Calvados is a commune.
Villers-Canivet is a commune.
Villerville is a commune.
Villiers-le-Sec is a former commune.
Villons-les-Buissons is a commune.
Villy-Bocage is a commune.
Villy-lez-Falaise is a commune.
Vimont, Calvados is a commune.
Vire is a former commune in Lower Normandy in the Calvados department in northwestern France.
Vouilly  used to be a commune.
On 1 January 2017, it became part of the commune of Isigny-sur-Mer.
Écrammeville is a former commune.
Émiéville is a commune.
Épaney is a commune.
Épinay-sur-Odon is a commune.
Épron is a commune.
Équemauville is a commune.
Éterville is a commune.
Étouvy is a former commune.
Étréham is a commune.
For other uses see Southern Railway
The Southern Railway (SR), was one of the Big Four British railway companies from 1923 to 1948.
It was established under the Railways Act 1921.
The railway was formed by the amalgamation of smaller companies.
The largest of these were the London and South Western Railway, the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway, and the South Eastern and Chatham Railway.
The SR contained notable examples of civil engineering, linking London with the Channel ports, South West England and Kent.
Construction of what was to become the Southern began in 1838 with the opening of the London and Southampton Railway, which was renamed the London and South Western Railway.
A large number of different shunter types were purchased by British Rail and its predecessors, many of which were withdrawn prior to the introduction of TOPS.
The tables below attempt to list the different types and the different classifications used to describe them as clearly as possible:
Small shunters: under 300 hp
Shunter classes are listed by 1955 class, which puts TOPS classes in ascending order, and generally puts 1948 and 1962 classes in ascending order.
Unclassed shunters are placed at the start of the table; TOPS class 07 has been placed so its 1962 class is in the logical place.
Relation between TOPS, 1948, 1955 and 1962 classes, and 1948, 1957 and TOPS numbers:
Large shunters: 300 - 799hp
Type 1 locomotives: 800 - 1000hp
Relation between TOPS, 1948, 1955 and 1962 classes, and 1948, 1957 and TOPS numbers (unless otherwsie given):
Type 2 locomotives: 1001 - 1499hp
Locomotive class are listed by TOPS class.
Locomotives for TOPS classes 24 and 26 have their original sub-classes shown, as each wholly comprised locomotives from a distinct 1962 class.
Relation between TOPS, 1948, 1955 and 1962 classes, and 1948, 1957 and TOPS numbers (unless otherwise given):
Type 3 locomotives: 1500 – 1999hp
Relation between TOPS, 1955 and 1962 classes, and pre-TOPS and TOPS numbers (unless otherwise given):
Type 4 locomotives: 2000 – 2999hp
Type 5 locomotives: over 3000hp
DC electric locomotives
AC electric locomotives
Miscellaneous locomotives
Class 99
Builders' demonstrators
Unbuilt locomotives
The Railway Centre
departmentals.com
modern traction locomotive classes
Pre-nationalisation designs
Early BR DMUs (79xxx series)
First generation "Heritage" DMUs
Second generation DMUs
Lightweight Railcars
Turbos
Networker
Coradias
Diesel-electric multiple units (DEMUs)
Southern Region DEMUs
Voyager-style express DEMUs
This page lists every electric-powered multiple unit allocated a TOPS classification or used on the mainline network since 1948 (i.e. British Railways and post-privatisation).
British Rail operated a wide variety of electric multiple units for use on electrified lines.
AC units operate off 25 kV alternating current (AC) from overhead wires.
Where clearances for the overhead wires on the Great Eastern Main Line and London, Tilbury and Southend railway routes were below standard, a reduced voltage of 6.25 kV AC was used.
The Midland Railway units used 6.6 kV AC.
Under the computer numbering, AC units (including mixed-voltage units that can also work off a DC supply) were given a class in the range 300-399.
DC units operate off 650-850 V direct current (DC) from a third rail on the Southern Region and North London, Merseyside and Tyneside networks.
The Manchester-Bury Railway line used 1,200 V DC from a side-contact third rail.
The Manchester South Junction & Altrincham and "Woodhead" and initially the Great Eastern Railway routes used 1,500 V DC from overhead wires.
Under the computer numbering, DC units were given a class in the range 400-599.
AC EMUs and dual-voltage EMUs
Modern Generation
DC EMUs
Southern Region units
Pre-Nationalisation
Mark 1 and 2 Bodyshell
Tube stock
Modern EMUs
Other DC units
The 500 series classes were reserved for DC (third/fourth rail) EMUs not from the Southern Region.
This included the DC (third/fourth rail) lines in North London, Merseyside and Greater Manchester.
The DC electric network around Tyneside had been de-electrified by the time TOPS was introduced, and the stock withdrawn or transferred to the Southern Region.
Ex-LNER Units (Tyneside stock)
Ex-LNWR Units (North London stock)
Ex-LYR Units (Manchester-Bury stock)
Battery electric multiple unit (BEMU)
79998/79999
The 900 series classes were reserved for multiple units in departmental stock, most of which were converted from old passenger units.
In broad terms, classes 930-935 were allocated to Southern Region multiple units (ex-200 and 400 series), 936 & 937 to other EMUs (ex-300 and 500 series) and 960 to other DMUs (ex-100 series).
In recent years, this has been less rigidly adhered to.
Diesel multiple units
Class 901 (Test units, ex-Class 101)
Class 930 (Departmental SR DEMUs)
Class 950 (Purpose-built test unit, similar to Class 150)
Class 951 (Sandite/De-icer units, ex-Classes 201, 203, 205, and 207)
Class 960 (Departmental DMUs)
Multi-Purpose Vehicle (Purpose-built departmental vehicles)
Gas turbine multiple unit
APT-E (Experimental Advanced Passenger Train unit)
Electric multiple units
Class 910 (Test units, ex-Class 488)
Class 920 (3-Pep prototype unit)
Class 930 (SR Sandite and de-icing units)
Class 931 (SR route learning and stores units)
Class 932 (SR research and tractor units)
Class 933 (SR mobile instruction units)
Class 935 (4Pep Research units)
Class 936 (Sandite units, ex-classes 311 and 501)
Class 937 (Sandite units, ex-classes 302 and 308)
Class 960 (Test units, ex-classes 309 and 310)
UK British Rail multiple units
British Rail departmental multiple unit classes
British United Traction (BUT) was a joint company owned by the Associated Equipment Company and Leyland Motors which produced railway equipment and trolleybuses.
Rail vehicles manufacturers
The British Rail Derby Lightweight diesel multiple units, were the first such trains to be built en-masse for British Railways.
The units were built at BR's Derby Works from 1954 to 1955.
The units were built in various formations, including two single car units, 12 power-twin 2-car units, 84 power-trailer 2-car units, and four 4-car units.
Contemporaneous with these units was the unique Battery Electric Multiple Unit.
Derby Lightweight
In 1955, Metropolitan Cammell produced its first lightweight Diesel multiple units, the prototypes of what were to become British Rail's most successful and longest-lived First Generation DMU type, the Class 101.
Metro-Cammell
British Rail produced a variety of Railbuses as a means both of building new rolling stock cheaply, and to provide services on lightly-used lines economically.
Railbuses
In 1933, the Great Western Railway introduced the first of what was to become a very successful series of railcars, which survived in regular use into the 1960s, when they were replaced with the new British Rail "first generation" type diesel multiple units.
Railcars GWR
The  London Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS) introduced a number of railcars to service between 1933 and 1939.
They were mainly single units but one was a three-car articulated set.
Railcars LMS
Railcars
Pacer trains are railbuses built by British Rail between 1980 and 1987.
There are several classes of them: 140, 141, 142, 143 and 144.
They are diesel multiple unit trains, meaning each carriage has its own diesel engine.
Pacers were built as a stopgap because British Rail did not have enough normal trains at the time and could not get new ones quickly enough.
They were not supposed to be used for more than 20 years, but it actually took nearly 35 years to replace them.
Most Pacer trains were put out of use in 2020.
Two things finally made this happen.
The first is that it is difficult for people with disabilities to climb onto Pacer trains.
The Rail Vehicle Accessibility Regulations require that all public passenger trains must be made easy to use for disabled people by 2020 - but they made an exception for the Pacer trains until the end of 2020.
Only one Pacer (the modernised 144e) follows this rule right now.
The second is that the Transport Secretary made a decision in 2015 to retire the Pacers by 2020 for the then-new Northern service, arguing that it would be bad for the economy in the north to keep using "these uncomfortable and low-quality vehicles".
At the start of 2020, 138 Pacer units were still being used or stored by three National Rail operators: Northern Trains, Great Western Railway and Transport for Wales.
Northern Trains retired its last Pacer unit on 27 November 2020, and so did Great Western Railway in December 2020.
Transport for Wales will still use their Class 143s into the first part of 2021.
A lightweight modified bus body and other things from buses, such as the seats.
The driver's cab area is reinforced to make it safer in case of a crash.
An underframe with just four wheels for the entire unit, instead of the usual two four-wheeled bogies (making eight wheels) that you would expect on trains.
Passengers complained that this made for a noisy and bumpy ride.
It also causes more wear to the wheels and track on tight curves.
At the beginning of the 1980s British Rail (BR) needed to make new trains to replace its old first generation diesel multiple units (DMUs) which had been built between the mid-1950s and early-1960s.
These old trains had helped replace steam and were popular with the public at the time.
But BR did not get much money from the government, so could not get new trains that were just as good as the old ones.
BR created two kinds of new second generation trains: the Sprinter series, for use on city and longer-distance services, and the Pacer series as cheap DMUs built using bus parts for short-distance countryside and branch line services.
The Pacers were intended as a cheap stopgap solution to the shortage of trains, and were not supposed to be used for more than 20 years.
BR set a challenge to several companies to design a cheap, lightweight train similar to railbuses.
Since then, 165 Pacer trains (with 340 carriages in total) have been built.
By 2015, some of these were over 30 years old.
They also tried to sell Pacers by showing them in the USA, Northern Ireland, Belgium, Sweden, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia, but no one bought any there.
However, Iran bought leftover Class 141 units, for use on suburban lines around Tehran until 2005.
Class 140
The Pacer series was the outcome of an idea to try using bus parts to create a diesel multiple unit.
The first prototype, known as LEV 1, was made by British Rail Research Division and Leyland Motors working together.
It used a bus body that was mounted on a modified freight train underframe (HSFV1).
In 1980 they also built a two-car prototype class 140 at British Rail Engineering Limited (BREL)'s Derby Litchurch Lane Works.
Class 141
Then they built 20 more two-car units, forming the Class 141 fleet that was used mostly for suburban services in Yorkshire.
They could carry 94 passengers in each set of two cars.
Their two Leyland TL11 engines gave a total of , making for a top speed of .
The 141s were built with Leyland National bus bodies that were so narrow that they could only be fitted with standard bus seats.
The later Pacers had widened body panels to allow better seating.
The units were withdrawn from British Rail in 1997.
Many were sold to Islamic Republic of Iran Railways but have been withdrawn and are left in disused sidings in Iran.
A few are preserved at museum sites.
Class 142
The next and largest Pacer class was the Class 142.
This again was built by Leyland and BREL, in 1985.
The body was based on a Leyland National bus, built at Workington in Cumbria.
The new class could carry more passengers: 120 passengers per two-car set.
The same engines were used.
The first sets were used on Devon and Cornwall branch lines and on commuter services in the north west.
The units from Cornwall were eventually moved to Liverpool and the north east, so the Class 142s were often seen on services across the north of England.
In the early 1990s, the 142s got more powerful Cummins engines, which gave a total power output of  per two-car set.
Several units were then changed for use on the Merseyside PTE City Line on Merseyrail in the Liverpool region, giving them dot-matrix route signs, better seating and Merseyrail PTE paintwork.
When privatisation happened, the class 142s were taken over by Arriva Trains Northern and First North Western, and then by Northern Rail, Arriva Rail North, Northern Trains, Arriva Trains Wales and Transport for Wales.
Eight Northern Rail units were withdrawn from service for a while and replaced by a series of British Rail Class 158s.
First Great Western received 12 units on loan from Northern Rail from December 2007 to November 2011 (five units were returned to Northern in December 2008).
This allowed most of its Class 158 fleet to be rebuilt as three-car sets.
Class 143 and Class 144
Around the same time that the Class 142 was developed, another class of Pacer railbus was designed by Kilmarnock-based Hunslet-Barclay.
These used a Walter Alexander bus body.
They were given the number Class 143 and started being used in 1985.
Its two 205 bhp engines gave a total output of  and a top speed of .
This class of Pacer originally had a capacity of 122 passengers.
They were used in the North East before being transferred to Wales and the South West, and were moved over to Valley Lines and Wales & West control during privatisation.
They then passed on to Arriva Trains Wales,  Wessex Trains, First Great Western and Transport for Wales.
The interiors were completely changed in 2000, when the Valley Lines service was introduced, with full back, coach-type seating installed throughout, along with improved fittings.
This reduced seating capacity to 106 seats per set.
Then came a similar Class 144 unit, a Walter Alexander body on BREL underframe, which was introduced in 1987.
A unit was formed of either a two-car set with 122 seats or a three-car set with a total capacity of 195 passengers and , but its top speed was still .
The units were used in the North East, passing to Northern Spirit at privatisation, then to Arriva Trains Northern, Northern Rail, Arriva Rail North and now Northern Trains.
It has often been said that the Pacers are of poor quality.
Instead of the usual bogies, Pacers use a basic four-wheel two-axle underframe.
This often makes for a ride that is noisier and less comfortable than other trains, especially over points, and a loud squealing noise is heard around tight curves.
Not having bogies also makes for a worse suspension and a bumpier ride; Pacers have been nicknamed "nodding donkeys" because of the trains' up-and-down motion on uneven track.
The basic bench seating can also be uncomfortable.
The early units, especially the s, were also very unreliable.
Pacers have only been used in certain areas of the north and south west of England and the south of Wales, but not in the richer London or south east England areas.
This has also created bad feelings.
Safety worries were raised after the 1999 Winsford crash.
A Virgin Trains Class 87 express train ran into an empty First North Western Class 142 Pacer, after the Pacer had fouled the main line at Winsford, Cheshire on the West Coast Main Line.
The wire straps that held the body of the Pacer to its frame broke, separating the body from the frame and causing severe damage.
The unit was written off.
Twenty-seven passengers and crew were wounded, four badly.
But all passenger injuries were on the other train, as the Class 142 was running empty at the time.
On the other hand, the Pacers were seen as a practical solution at a time when there was not a lot of money.
They probably saved services on some rural lines that might not have been serviced by any trains at all if only more expensive trains had been available.
They have also proved cheap to run, achieving a fuel economy of 10 miles to the gallon.
As of 2020, the oldest Pacers on the national network were nearly 35 years old.
All were planned to be withdrawn and scrapped by December 2019 as they do not comply with Rail Vehicle Accessibility Regulations.
CAF Civity
In July 2019, rollout of Northern's Class 195 CAF Civity units had begun on some routes.
Because of this, refurbished Sprinters that no longer needed on those routes can be used to replace Pacers instead.
Vivarail D-Train
These units are built out of upcycled London Underground D78 Stock, built between 1978 and 1981, which were in service on the District line until 2017.
To convert the old stock for mainline railway use, it will be necessary to re-use the aluminium bodyshells, traction motors and bogies from the D78 units and fit them out with new diesel engines and interiors.
The D-Train units underwent acceptance testing in 2015 and Vivarail pitched them to train operating companies (TOCs), especially those bidding for the Northern franchise.
While no orders were received from Northern, Transport for Wales will replace its Pacers with a combination of five D-Trains and trains taken over from other train operators, and other TOCs have ordered D-trains to replace other outdated trains: South Western Railway for the Isle of Wight's Island Line, and West Midlands Trains for the Marston Vale line
"144e Evolution"
Porterbrook, which owns the Class 143 and Class 144 fleets, refurbished 144012 in 2014 to comply with the new legislation, dubbed the "144e Evolution" unit.
However, no other units have been refurbished to this standard.
Several Pacers have been preserved for further use on heritage railways.
The National Railway Museum has preserved 142001.
In May 2019, the government asked the public how to re-use the trains after withdrawal from service.
One of the suggestions was re-using them as public spaces, such as village halls or cafes.
The Sprinter is a family of diesel multiple unit trains in use on the UK railway system.
They were built in the 1980s and early 1990s by BREL, Metro Cammell and Leyland.
All are based around a Cummins engine with Voith hydraulic transmission.
Sprinters can be seen operating in almost every part of the UK, from rural branch lines to commuter expresses into major cities.
Turbostar is the name given to a series of diesel multiple units (DMU) built by Bombardier Transportation (previously ADtranz) at their Litchurch Lane Works in Derby, England.
The Turbostar was the first new train type to be introduced after the privatisation of British Rail, and is the most common type of diesel multiple unit (its electrical variant, the Electrostar, is the most common electric multiple unit).
The first units were ordered by Chiltern Railways in 1996 and were designated Class 168 (also known as Clubman).
Since then the family has grown with the addition of the Class 170, Class 171, and (in development) the Class 172.
Coradia is the name given to the range of multiple-unit inter-city and regional trains manufactured by Alstom.