the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
This was even before the development of Islam in Indonesia.
Most contact was with spice traders.
The first Arab settlements in the archipelago may have started in the fifth century.
These early communities took over much of the local culture.
Some of them disappeared completely while others formed ethnic groups.
Modern Arab Indonesians are descended from Hadramis, who came to Indonesia during the Dutch colonial period.
The men often married native women.
They were classified as "foreign orientals" along with Chinese Indonesians.
This class stopped them from going to certain schools and also restricted their travel.
They were also only allowed to live in special Arab districts, called kampung Arab in Indonesian.
These laws were removed in 1919.
The community elites began to build economic power through trade and real estate investment.
They bought large amounts of real estate in Batavia (modern-day Jakarta), Singapore and other parts of this area.
Arab Indonesians did charity work, and built and protected their social capital.
Eventually, some Arab Indonesians joined the Volksraad, the people's council of the Dutch East Indies.
During the Indonesian National Awakening, Arab Indonesians began to oppose native Indonesians and the Dutch.
This caused the formation of organizations which were only for Arab Indonesians in 1913.
These organizations viewed the Arabian peninsula as their homeland.
In 1934, Abdurrahman Baswedan founded an Arab Indonesian nationalistic movement, Persatoean Arab Indonesia.
Azyumardi Azra described Arab Indonesians as people who wish to remove local religious elements from Indonesian Islam.
Indonesian critics of Arab influence in Indonesia point to the founding of the radical group Jemaah Islamiah (JI).
Their leader is Laskar Jihad (LJ).
After the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in 2001 and the 2002 Bali bombing, the community came under suspicion.
First generation immigrants are called wulāytī or totok.
They are a small minority of the Arab Indonesian population.
The majority, muwallad (plural form: muwalladīn), were born in Indonesia and may be of mixed heritage.
The majority of Arab Indonesians live on Java, mostly in East Java.
Some live in South Sumatra.
Arab Indonesians are almost all Muslim.
According to the 2000 census, 98.27 percent of Arab Indonesians are Muslim, compared to 88.22 percent of the whole population.
Historically, most have lived in kauman, or the area around mosques, but this has changed in recent years.
The majority are Sunni, people who follow the Shafi'i school of Islamic law.
The Shia are a growing minority.
Children are often sent to madrasahs.
The Islam practiced by Arab Indonesians is more orthodox than the local, indigenous-influenced forms like abangan''.
Many Arab Indonesians try to convince local Muslims to follow a more orthodox form of Islam as well.
Notable Arab Indonesians
Ali Alatas, former Minister of Foreign Affairs
Abdurrahman Baswedan, founder of Persatoean Arab-Indonesia
Abu Bakar Bashir, suspected head of Jemaah Islamiyah
Christina Aguilera is the first album by American singer Christina Aguilera, released on August 24, 1999.
The success of this album made Aguilera the Best New Artist at Grammy Awards of 2000.
Teen pop albums
This is the discography for Christina Aguilera.
She has released six studio albums, twenty solo singles, four video albums, and twenty-seven music videos.
Aguilera, Christina
My Kind of Christmas is a Christmas collection by Christina Aguilera, released on October 24, 2000.
Stripped is the fourth studio album by American singer Christina Aguilera.
The album sold over 13 million copies.
Music critics gave it mixed reviews.
"Dirrty" was released as the album's first single.
The video was directed by Dave LaChapelle.
It was protested in Thailand.
The song was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 2003 Grammy Awards.
"Can't Hold Us Down" had Lil' Kim rapping in it.
It was nominated a Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 2004 Grammy Awards.
The album's last single "The Voice Within" was released	October 27, 2003.
Pop-soul albums
Back to Basics is the fifth studio album by Christina Aguilera.
Released on August 10 2006.
iTunes Bonus Track
Burlesque: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the studio album by Christina Aguilera and Cher.
It was recorded for the movie Burlesque.
Married to the Hereditary Prince of Parma in 1690, she was the mother of two children including the future Queen Elisabeth of Spain.
Her first husband died after just three years of marriage.
Remaining in Parma she was engaged to her brother-in-law, the new Duke of Parma.
Retiring from the court at the death of her last husband, her grandson the future Charles III of Spain conquered Parma after the extinction of the Farnese and Dorothea Sophie acted as regent of the state till his official majority in January 1735.
She died aged seventy-eight just weeks before her second grandson Infante Felipe of Spain became the next duke of Parma.
Alessandro Ignazio Farnese (6 December 1691 - 5 August 1693) died in infancy.
Elisabetta Farnese (25 October 1692 - 11 July 1766) married Philip V of Spain and had issue.
5 July 1670 – 17 September 1690 Her Serene Highness Countess Palatine Dorothea Sophie of Neuburg
17 September 1690 – 6 September 1693 Her Highness the Hereditary Princess of Parma
6 September 1693 – 7 December 1696 Her Highness the Dowager Hereditary Princess of Parma
7 December 1696 – 26 May 1727 Her Highness the Duchess of Parma
26 May 1727 – 15 September 1748 Her Highness the Dowager Duchess of Parma
1670 births
FC Blau-Weiß Linz is an Austrian football club from Linz, Upper Austria.
The team is playing in the Austrian Football Second League .
The club was founded in 1997 as follow up team for FC Linz and SV Austria Tabak Linz.
They played with the licence of SV Tabak in the Upper Austrian Landesliga (4th division).
After three years they reached the title and were promoted to the Regionalliga Mitte.
In the 2003/04 season the won this league but failed in the relegation matches versus  BSV Bad Bleiberg, so they stayed in the league.
After this there was a decline they were even relegated to the Landesliga, but came back the following season.
In the 2010/11 season they finished second behind the LASK Juniors, which were not allowed to promote.
In the relegation matches they won versus WSG Wattens after penalty shooting and were promoted to the First League.
2012/13 they lost the Relegationmatches versus SC-ESV Parndorf 1919 and were relegatet into the Regionalliga Mitte.
2015/16 they were champions in the Regionalliga Mitte and were promoted again to the First League.
In the 2020-21 season the became Champion of the 2.
They had not asked for a licence for the Bundesliga so they stayed in 2.
Since spring 2021 they play in the  Hofmann-Personal Stadion because the Donauparkstadion, their traditional homeground, will be new built till 2023.
The club is thought as successor to the former club VOEST Linz.
This team merged with LASK to FC Linz but soon was inhaled by LASK.
The club colours blue and white are that of former VOEST Linz.
Also the fans see themself in this tradition.
as 15 December 2021
Gerald Scheiblehner Headcoach
Ernö Doma Assistant coach
Manuel Moser Goalkeeper coach
Rudolf Mitterlehner Teammanager
Champion Upper Austria: 2000, 2008
Champion Regionalliga Mitte: 2003, 2016
Promotion to the First league: 2011
Liga: 2021
Yinghuo-1 was a Chinese spacecraft.
People planned for it to be China's first interplanetary mission.
Yinghuo-1 was supposed to orbit and study the planet Mars.
It was launched with the Russian spacecraft Phobos-Grunt.
The spacecraft got into space, but something went wrong and it could not escape earth's gravity.
The name Yinghuo means firefly in Chinese.
Aldershot () is a town in the English county of Hampshire, about 60 km (37 miles) southwest of London.
The town is administered by Rushmoor Borough Council.
The town has a population of 33,840, while the Aldershot Urban Area, a loose conurbation (which also includes other towns, such as Camberley, Farnborough, and Farnham) has a population of 243,344, making it the 30th-largest urban area in the UK
Aldershot is home to professional football team Aldershot Town who compete in the Football Conference.
Prior to 1992 the local club was Aldershot, which folded on 25 March 1992, while playing in the Football League Fourth Division
Aldershot is known for its connection with the British Army.
This led to rapid growth from a small village to a Victorian town.
Today, Aldershot is known as the "Home of the British Army".
Cuckoo is a Federal style house in the small unincorporated area Cuckoo, Virginia near Mineral, Virginia.
The house was built in 1819 for Henry Pendleton.
On August 19, 1994, Cuckoo was added to the list of National Register of Historic Places.
The house is near the U.S. Route 33, which curves around the house.
Cuckoo has Federal details and Colonial Revival elements from the early 20th century.
The house is known for its design, prominence and its association with the Pendleton family of doctors.
The house was named for the Cuckoo Tavern.
The Pendleton family owns the house since its construction.
The first construction had a two storied front section with a one-story extension to the rear.
The dining room and the winter kitchen were in the one-story section.
Between 1839 and 1907 the house was owned by Dr. Philip Barbour Pendleton.
He added a second floor to the rear part of the house and extended the main roof to cover the new rooms of the house.
A later generation of Pendletons rebuilt the house in the Colonial Revival style after 1910.
They added the present Neoclassical portico.
The next owners, Anne Pendleton Forrest and Dr. William Mentzel Forrest, added to the back a design by architect Stanislaw J. Makielski of Charlottesville.
The complex includes a number of outbuildings, including two separate doctor's office buildings, a garage, barn, a house for smoking, and the Pendleton family cemetery.
Cuckoo is a house made of bricks.
It has two floors and a center-hall which is divided into three parts.
Single rooms are flanking the stair hall.
The house has a porch on its entire front.
A semicircular closet with a small window is between the fireplaces of the rooms to the right of the center hall.
The fireplaces and chimneys are on both sides of the elevation.
The Makielski addition to the back of the house has a porch that echoes the curve of the closet.
The addition includes a back stairway.
The small doctor's office was probably built in the early-to-mid 19th century for Dr. Robert Barret.
It is to the north of Cuckoo, and was moved to Cuckoo by Dr. Philip Barbour Pendleton before the American Civil War.
The large doctor's office was built around 1888 for Dr. Eugene Pendleton.
It was expanded to also include his son's practice around 1908.
It was moved to Cuckoo in 1910 when Eugene moved there.
The office was moved again in 1972 when the highway was built, and was used as a medical office by Dr. Eugene Barbour Pendleton until 1979.
A house for smoking was built in the late 19th century, and a barn in the early 20th century.
A garage was built in the 1930s.
The Pendleton cemetery is in an oak grove at the top of a small rise about 1/4 mile from the house.
It is surrounded by a low stone wall.
The cemetery has three gravestones and several unmarked graves.
Cuckoo was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on August 19, 1994.
The house was damaged in the 2011 Virginia earthquake.
The tall chimneys broke down.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) are a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services.
CDC main office is in Druid Hills, a neighborhood in northeastern Atlanta, Georgia.
It works to protect public health and safety.
It provides information to enhance health decisions.
It promotes health as a partner with state health departments and other organizations.
When an infectious disease or bad food can cause health problems, the CDC will tell the nation how to fight it.
The CDC works on environmental health, occupational safety and health, health promotion, injury prevention and education activities designed to improve the health of the people of the United States.
The CDC Foundation is separate from CDC as a private, nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization.
It is incorporated in the State of Georgia.
Section 399F of the Public Health Service Act created the foundation to help the CDC work with the private sector.
The CDC Homepage
CDC Online Newsroom
CDC Health Topics A to Z
CDC Public Health Image Library
CDC Global Communications Center
CDC Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratory– Atlanta, Georgia
Centers For Disease Control And Prevention Meeting Notices and Rule Changes  from The Federal Register RSS Feed
Proposed and finalized federal regulations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Maria Anna of Austria (Maria Anna Josepha; 7 September 1683 – 14 August 1754) was an Archduchess of Austria as she was a daughter of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor.
She would become Queen consort and regent of Portugal by her marriage to John V of Portugal.
She was the Regent of Portugal from 1742 until 1750 during the illness of her spouse.
In Portugal she was commonly known as Mariana.
The fifth of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperors children by Eleonore Magdalene of Neuburg, she was baptised Maria Anna Josepha.
She was born in Linz as the Austrian royal family had to flee Vienna from the Turkish army which destroyed the capital.
Maria Anna was a sister of two future Holy Roman Emperors Joseph I and Charles VI.
Through Charles VI, she was an aunt of Empress Maria Theresa.
Her first cousins included Elisabetta Farnese as well as Charles II of Spain.
On 27 October 1708 she married her first cousin John V of Portugal.
Both of their mothers were sisters.
Maria Anna thus became Queen of Portugal as the wife of the ruling king.
She was the mother of six children:
In 1742 Maria Anna took over power as regent after her husband suffered a stroke, which left him partially paralyzed.
When John V died on 31 July 1750 she gave up power to their eldest son Joseph I of Portugal.
She died at he Palace of Belém in 1754.
Her body was buried in Lisbon, her heart was brought to Vienna and buried there in the imperial crypt.
Maria Barbara of Portugal (4 December 1711 – August 27, 1758) married Ferdinand VI of Spain.
Pedro of Portugal (19 October 1712 – 24 October 1714) Prince of Brazil.
Joseph I of Portugal (6 June 1714 – 24 February 1777) married Mariana Victoria of Spain.
Carlos of Portugal (2 May 1716 – 30 March 1730) died unmarried.
Peter III of Portugal (5 July 1717 – 25 May 1786) married Maria I of Portugal had issue.
Alexander of Portugal (24 September 1723 – 2 August 1728) died in infancy.
7 September 1683 – 27 October 1708 Her Royal Highness Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria
27 October 1708 – 31 July 1750 Her Most Faithful Majesty The Queen of Portugal
31 July 1750 – 14 August 1754 Her Most Faithful Majesty The Dowager Queen of Portugal
In the Zone is the fourth studio album by Britney Spears, released on November 13, 2003.
She wrote or co-wrote some songs of the album: "Me Against the Music", "Showdown", "Early Mornin", "Touch of My Hand", "The Hook Up", "Shadow", "Brave New Girl" and "Everytime".
Latin American Bonus Track
Australian, European & Japanese bonus tracks
Brooklyn Botanic Garden (BBG) is a park in the borough of Brooklyn in New York City.
The park has many different plants from many parts of the world.
It is near the Prospect Heights, Crown Heights, and Park Slope neighborhoods.
The area of the garden is .
It includes several special gardens or plant collections.
The Steinhardt Conservatory which has the C.V. Starr Bonsai Museum is also there.
The garden was founded in 1910.
Sportklub Niederösterreich St. Pölten is a football club from St. Pölten the capital of the Austrian federal state Lower Austria.
St. Poelten plays in the Austrian Football First League, the second division in the Austrian football league system.
SKN St. Poelten was founded in June 2000.
The new club took over all belongings of the predecessor, FCN St. Poelten .Most important was the ownership  of the Bundesliga junior center.
Through this the club did not enter in the lowest class but was allowed in the 2nd League West, the fifth level of Austrian football.
The next two seasons they won the championships and reached the Regionalliga Ost(3rd division).In the 2003/04 season the club reached the 4th place.
The following season the club reached sixth place in the league reached in the Austrian Cup the quarter-finals.
They won over SV Wörgl (3-0), SW Bregenz (2–1) and a sensational 5-1 victory overAustria Salzburg in the third round.
In the quarter-finals, St. Poelten, was beaten by Austria Wien 6-0.
Zlatko Kranjcar (1990)
Frank Schinkels (2002–04)
Youth work
The SKN St. Poelten currently has ten youth teams for children from the age of 7 to 15, with a total of 150 children and youths.
In addition to the junior teams, the club has a second team (SKN II), which plays their games in the Mid Western League, with the squad mostly consisting of squad players under the age of 18.
The Bourbons of Parma are a royal family who ruled the Duchy of Parma from 1748 till 1860 when Italy was created.
The family was founded by the Infante Philip of Spain, third son of Philip V of Spain and Elisabetta Farnese.
The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) ended the War of the Austrian Succession, and gave the land to Philip.
Philip married Louise Élisabeth of France and the present pretending duke of Parma (Carlos/Carlo of Parma) is a direct descendant.
The duchy was taken by the House of Savoy when the state of Italy was created.
The history of English poetry stretches from the middle of the 7th century to today.
Over this period, English poets have written some of the longest-surviving poems in Western culture.
The language and its poetry have spread around the world.
The earliest surviving poetry from the area now called England was probably transmitted orally (or passed from person to person by mouth, without being written down).
It was then written down in versions that do not now survive.
Because of this, it is difficult to say which poems were the earliest.
There is a lot of controversy over this issue.
A number of major national poetries have developed.
These include American, Australian, New Zealand, Canadian and Indian poetry.
It may be controversial to describe Irish literature as English or British, even though it is in the English language.
A rearrangement reaction are organic reactions where the carbon skeleton of a molecule is rearranged.
The result is a structural isomer of the original molecule.
In the example below, the substituent R moves from carbon atom 1 to carbon atom 2:
Sometimes chemists draw diagrams with arrows that show how electrons are transferred between bonds during a rearrangement reaction.
Many organic chemistry text books have such diagrams.
But they do not tell the full story of the reaction mechanism.
The actual mechanism of a rearrangement with an alkyl group moving is for the group to slide smoothly along a bond, not ionic bond-breaking and forming.
One example of this is the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement:
In pericyclic reactions, the orbital interactions are important.
The reactions can not be explained by a series of simple discrete electron transfers.
But, the curved arrows showing a sequence of discrete electron transfers can give the same result as a rearrangement reaction.
Yet, the diagrams are not necessarily realistic.
In allylic rearrangement, the reaction is ionic.
1,2-rearrangements
A 1,2-rearrangement is an organic reaction where a substituent moves from one atom to another atom in a chemical compound.
In a 1,2 shift, the substituent moves between two adjacent atoms.
But moves over larger distances are possible.
Examples are the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement:
A pericyclic reaction is a type of reaction with multiple carbon-carbon bond making and breaking.
The transition state of the molecule has a cyclic geometry.
The reaction progresses in a concerted fashion.
Examples are hydride shifts
Olefin metathesis
Olefin metathesis is a formal exchange of the alkylidene fragments in two alkenes.
It is a catalytic reaction with carbene.
It has transition metal carbene complex intermediates.
Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computer science to help solve chemical problems.
These programs calculate the structures and properties of molecules and solids.
Computational chemistry normally complements the information obtained by chemical experiments.
It can predict chemical phenomena that have not yet been observed.
Computational chemistry looks at both static and dynamic systems.
In all cases, as the size of the system being studied grows, the computer time and other resources (such as memory and disk space) used also grows.
That system can be a single molecule, a group of molecules, or a solid.
Computational chemistry methods range from highly accurate to very approximate.
Highly accurate methods are typically feasible only for small systems.
NIST Computational Chemistry Comparison and Benchmark DataBase  - Contains a database of thousands of computational and experimental results for hundreds of systems
American Chemical Society Division of Computers in Chemistry - American Chemical Society Computers in Chemistry Division, resources for grants, awards, contacts and meetings.
CSTB report Mathematical Research in Materials Science: Opportunities and Perspectives - CSTB Report
3.320 Atomistic Computer Modeling of Materials (SMA 5107)  Free MIT Course
Technology Roadmap for Computational Chemistry
Applications of molecular and materials modelling.
Impact of Advances in Computing and Communications Technologies on Chemical Science and Technology CSTB Report
MD and Computational Chemistry applications on GPUs
Polymer chemistry (also called macromolecular chemistry) is  the science of chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules.
According to IUPAC recommendations, macromolecules refer to the individual molecular chains and are the domain of chemistry.
Polymers describe the bulk properties of polymer materials and belong to the field of polymer physics (a part of physics).
Biopolymers produced by living organisms:
structural proteins: collagen, keratin, elastin and others
chemically functional proteins: enzymes, hormones, transport proteins and others
structural polysaccharides: cellulose, chitin and others
storage polysaccharides: starch, glycogen and others
nucleic acids: DNA, RNA
Synthetic polymers used for plastics—fibers, paints, building materials, furniture, mechanical parts, adhesives:
thermoplastics: polyethylene, Teflon, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyester, polyurethane, polymethyl methacrylate, polyvinyl chloride, nylon, rayon, celluloid, silicone and others
thermosetting plastics: vulcanized rubber, Bakelite, Kevlar, epoxy and others.
Polymers are formed by polymerization of monomers.
Chemists describe a polymer by its degree of polymerization, molar mass distribution, tacticity, copolymer distribution, the degree of branching,  by its end-groups,  crosslinks,  and crystallinity.
Chemists also study a polymer's thermal properties such as its glass transition temperature and melting temperature.
Polymers in solution have special characteristics for solubility, viscosity and gelation.
Polymer chemistry started by studying the long fibers in plants.
The work of Henri Braconnot in 1777 and the work of Christian Schönbein in 1846 led to the discovery of nitrocellulose.
Nitrocellulose treated with camphor makes celluloid.
Chemists dissolve celluloid in ether or acetone to make collodion.
Doctors have used collodion as a wound dressing since the U.S. Civil War.
Cellulose acetate was first prepared in 1865.
In 1834, Friedrich Ludersdorf and Nathaniel Hayward independently discovered that adding sulfur to raw natural rubber (polyisoprene) helped prevent the material from becoming sticky.
In 1844 Charles Goodyear received a U.S. patent for vulcanizing rubber with sulfur and heat.
Thomas Hancock had received a patent for the same process in the UK the year before.
In 1884, Hilaire de Chardonnet started the first artificial fiber factory based on regenerated cellulose, or viscose rayon, as a substitute for silk, but it was very flammable.
In 1907 Leo Baekeland invented the first synthetic polymer, a thermosetting phenol-formaldehyde resin called Bakelite.
Around the same time, Hermann Leuchs reported the synthesis of N-carboxyanhydrides and their high molecular weight products upon reaction with nucleophiles.
But Leuchs did not call them polymers, possibly due to the strong views held by Emil Fischer, his direct supervisor, denying the possibility of any covalent molecule exceeding 6,000 daltons.
Cellophane was invented in 1908 by Jocques Brandenberger who squirted sheets of viscose rayon into an acid bath.
In 1922, Hermann Staudinger (a German chemist) proposed that polymers were long chains of atoms held together by covalent bonds.
He also proposed to name these compounds "macromolecules".
Before that, scientists believed that polymers were clusters of small molecules (called colloids), without definite molecular weights, held together by an unknown force.
Staudinger received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1953.
Wallace Carothers invented the first synthetic rubber called neoprene in 1931.
Neoprene was the first polyester.
Carothers went on to invent nylon, a true silk replacement, in 1935.
Paul Flory was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974 for his work on polymer random coil configurations in solution in the 1950s.
Stephanie Kwolek developed an aramid, or aromatic nylon named Kevlar, patented in 1966.
There are now a large number of commercial polymers.
They include composite materials such as carbon fiber-epoxy, polystyrene-polybutadiene (HIPS), acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS).
Chemists design commercial polymers to combine the best properties of their various components.
For example, special polymers used in automobile engines are designed to work at high temperatures.
An "Institut fur Makromolekulare Chemie was founded in 1940 in Freiburg, Germany under the direction of Hermann Staudinger.
In America a "Polymer Research Institute" (PRI) was established in 1941 by Herman Mark at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (now Polytechnic Institute of NYU).
Several hundred graduates of PRI played an important role in the US polymer industry and academia.
Other PRI's were founded in 1961 by Richard S. Stein at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, in 1967 by Eric Baer at Case Western Reserve University and in 1988 at the University of Akron.
Polymer Chemistry Hypertext, Educational resource
Graduate studies in macromolecular science and engineering
In chemistry, chemical synthesis means using chemical reactions to get a product, or several products.
This happens by physical and chemical manipulations.
Often, several different chemical reactions are used; one after another.
In modern laboratory usage, a chemical synthesis is reproducible (if the experiment is done a second time, it will have the same results as the first time), reliable (not broken by small changes in conditions), and established to work in multiple laboratories.
Chemists start to design a chemical synthesis by selecting compounds to combine.
These starting chemicals are known as reagents or reactants.
Chemists do various things to these reagents to synthesize the product, or an intermediate product.
This requires mixing the compounds in a reaction vessel.
The vessel can be a chemical reactor or a simple flask.
Typically, chemical yields are expressed as a weight in grams or as a percentage of the total theoretical quantity of product that could be produced.
A side reaction is an unwanted chemical reaction taking place that reduces the yield of the wanted product.
The chemist Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe was the first to use the word synthesis in its present-day meaning.
In most cases, a single reaction will not convert a reactant (starting chemical) into the desired reaction product.
Chemists have many strategies to find the best sequence of reactions to make the desired product.
In cascade reactions multiple chemical changes take place within a single reactant.
In multi-component reactions up to 11 different reactants form a single reaction product.
In a telescopic synthesis, one reactant goes through multiple transformations without isolating intermediates after each step.
Organic synthesis is a special type of chemical synthesis.
Only organic compounds are created in organic synthesis.
The total synthesis of a complex product may take many steps to reach the goal product.
These steps can take too much time.
Chemists want to have skill in organic synthesis and being able to find a synthesis path with the least number of steps.
The synthesis of very valuable or difficult compounds has earned chemists, such as Robert Burns Woodward, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
If a chemical synthesis starts from basic laboratory compounds and yields something new, it is a "purely synthetic process".
If it starts from a product isolated from plants or animals and then proceeds to a new compounds, the synthesis is called a "semisynthetic process".
Most times, chemical synthesis means the overall, many step procedure for making a desired product.
Sometimes, chemists use "chemical synthesis" to mean just a direct combination reaction.
In a direct combination reaction, two or more reactants combine to form a single product.
The chemical equation for a direct combination reaction is:
2Na + Cl2 → 2 NaCl (formation of table salt)
S + O2 → SO2 (formation of sulfur dioxide)
4 Fe + 3 O2 → 2 Fe2O3 (iron rusting)
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 (carbon dioxide dissolving and reacting with water to form carbonic acid)
metal-oxide + H2O → metal(OH)
non-metal-oxide + H2O → oxi-acid
metal-chloride + O2 → metal-chlorate
metal-oxide + CO2 → metal carbonate (CO3)
The Organic Synthesis Archive
Natural product syntheses
Organic synthesis is a special part of chemical synthesis.
It builds organic compounds using organic reactions.
Organic molecules can have a higher level of complexity compared to inorganic compounds.
So, the synthesis of organic compounds has developed into one of the most important parts of organic chemistry.
There are two main areas of research fields within the general area of organic synthesis: total synthesis and methodology.
A total synthesis is the complete chemical synthesis of complex organic molecules from simple, commercially available (petrochemical) or natural precursors.
In a linear synthesis—often used for simple structures—several steps are performed one after another until the molecule is complete.
The chemical compounds made in each step are usually called synthetic intermediates.
For more complex molecules, a different approach may be preferable: convergent synthesis involves the individual preparation of several "pieces" (key intermediates), which are then combined to form the goal product.
Robert Burns Woodward, who received the 1965 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for several total syntheses (for example, his 1954 synthesis of strychnine), is regarded as the father of modern organic synthesis.
Some latter-day examples of total synthesis include Wender's, Holton's, Nicolaou's and Danishefsky's synthesis of Taxol.
Methodology and applications
Each step of a synthesis involves a chemical reaction, and reagents and conditions for each of these reactions need to be designed to give a good yield and a pure product, with as little work as possible.
A method may already exist in the literature for making one of the early synthetic intermediates, and this method will usually be used rather than "trying to reinvent the wheel".
However most intermediates are compounds that have never been made before.
These will normally be made using general methods developed by methodology researchers.
To be useful, these methods need to give high yields.
They must also be reliable for a broad range of substrates.
For practical applications, additional requirements include industrial standards of safety and purity.
Methodology research usually involves three main stages: discovery, optimization, and studies of scope and limitations.
The discovery requires extensive knowledge of and experience with chemical reactivities of appropriate reagents.
Optimization is where one or two starting compounds are tested in the reaction under a wide variety of conditions of temperature, solvent, reaction time, etc.
Researchers try different conditions until they find the best conditions for product yield and purity.
Finally, researchers try to extend the synthesis method to a broad range of different starting materials, to find its scope and limitations.
Total synthesis (see above) are sometimes used to highlight the new method and demonstrate its value in a real-world application.
Major industries focused especially on polymers (and plastics) and on pharmaceuticals have used this research.
Asymmetric synthesis
Most complex natural products are chiral.
Each enantiomer can have a different bioactivity.
Traditional total syntheses targeted racemic mixtures, i.e., as an equal mixture of both possible enantiomers.
The racemic mixture might then be separated via chiral resolution.
In the latter half of the twentieth century, chemists began to develop methods of asymmetric catalysis and kinetic resolution.
These reactions could be directed to produce only one enantiomer rather than a racemic mixture.
Early examples include Sharpless epoxidation (K. Barry Sharpless) and asymmetric hydrogenation (William S. Knowles and Ryōji Noyori).
For their achievement, these workers went on to share the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2001.
Such reactions gave chemists a much wider choice of enantiomerically pure molecules to start an organic synthesis.
Previously only natural enantiomer starting materials could be used.
Using techniques pioneered by Robert Burns Woodward and other new synthetic methods, chemists became more able to make complex molecules without unwanted racemisation.
This is called stereocontrol.
This allowed the final target molecule to be synthesised as one pure enantiomer without any resolution being necessary.
Such techniques are referred to as asymmetric synthesis.
Synthesis design
Elias James Corey brought a more formal approach to synthesis design, based on retrosynthetic analysis, for which he won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1990.
In this approach, the research is planned backwards from the product, using standard rules.
The steps are shown using retrosynthetic arrows (drawn as: =>), which in effect means "is made from".
Computer programs have been written for designing a synthesis based on sequences of generic "half-reactions".
Chemical synthesis database
http://www.webreactions.net/search.html
https://www.organic-chemistry.org/synthesis/
Chemical synthesis semantic wiki
Alexander Morozevich  (born Moscow, 18 July 1977) is a Russian chess Grandmaster.
He was ranked second, in the July 2008 FIDE rating list, but is now ranked ninth.
Morozevich has been one of the best chess players in the world for nearly a decade.
He is famous for employing unusual openings, for example the Chigorin Defense (1.
c4 Nc6), and more recently the Albin Countergambit (1.d4 d5 2.c4 e5); both systems are hardly ever seen at the top level.
He is also well known for preferring complicated rather than clear positions.
Perhaps because of his style, which produces relatively few draws, Morozevich is popular among chess fans.
Among his most notable results are 7.5/10 at the 2000 Chess Olympiad (winning Bronze Medal for board 2) and 7/11 at the 2002 Chess Olympiad.
He took first place in the overall standings at the Amber tournament in 2002, 2004 (shared with Kramnik) and 2006 (shared with Anand); first place in Biel tournament three times: 2003, 2004 and 2006; and twice winning the Russian championship (1998 and 2007).
He became a grandmaster in 1994 at the age of 14 years (a world record at the time).
He was the challenger in the Classical World Championship 2004 against Vladimir Kramnik.
He tied with Kramnik 7-7, so Kramnik kept his title.
Leko's best world ranking was fourth, first achieved in April 2003.
The Abilene Ruff Riders are an American football team.
They play their games at the Taylor County Expo Center in Abilene, Texas.
Their team colours are red, black and white.
The team logo (the picture they have on their shirts) is a cowboy on a horse.
They have a team mascot called Rowdy the Ruffrider, who is a cowboy too.
At first, the Ruff Riders were called the Katy Ruff Riders, because they played their games in a city called Katy, Texas.
In 2008, they moved to Abilene and changed their name.
They were part of the Intense Football League until 2010.
For the 2010 - 2011 season, they were part of the Southern Indoor Football League, but now they are a part of the Lone Star Football League.
Abilene Ruff Riders Website
Lone Star Football League Website
The Association of Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals and Transgenders persons in Morocco (KIFKIF) is a Moroccan non-profit organization working on improving the legal and social status of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people.
It was founded in 2005 in and is the first LGBT advocacy group in North Africa.
Kifkif means equal in Arabic.
2005 establishments in Africa
Jerry Koosman (born December 23, 1942) is a former baseball player with the New York Mets, Minnesota Twins, Chicago White Sox and Philadelphia Phillies.
He won more than 200 games in his career.
In 1969, he was on the Mets team that won the baseball championship the World Series.
Koosman won two games for the Mets in the 1969 World Series.
In 1968, Koosman finished 2nd by one vote to Johnny Bench in the voting for National League Rookie of the Year, given to the best first year player in the league.
In 1976, Koosman finished 2nd to Randy Jones in the voting for National League Cy Young Award, given to the league's best pitcher.
Koosman won at least 20 games in both 1976 and 1979.
Thomas (Tom) William Cleverley (born 12 August 1989) is an English footballer.
He was born in Basingstoke, Hampshire and grew up in Bradford, West Yorkshire.
Johnny Bench (born December 7, 1947) is a former baseball player who played for the Cincinnati Reds.
He mostly played catcher.
He hit 389 home runs.
He was the National League Most Valuable Player in both 1970 and 1972.
He was also the National League Rookie of the Year, or best first year player, in 1968.
He was chosen for the All Star Game 14 times.
He won the baseball championship, the World Series, with Reds in both 1975 and 1976, and was voted the Most Valuable Player of the World Series in 1976.
He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1989.
Ali Aksih was a preeminent leader of the Tatar nationalist movement in diaspora.
He was born in the city of Hailar (Manchuria), where he attended a local Tatar elementary school before entering a Russian lycee.
After completing the lycee in 1936, he went to study at Al-Azhar University in Cairo (Egypt), and in 1938, along with another young nationalist, Ahat Ginish, went to Poland.
Akish and Ginish served as technical assistants to Ayaz Iskhaki at the Idel-Ural National Center, where the newspaper “Yanga Milli Yul" (New National Path) was published.
Their work was interrupted by the invasion of Poland by the Nazi and Soviet forces.
Akish lived from 1940 to 1966 in Turkey where he was involved with the diaspora national movement.
His pamphlet “Problems of Idel-Ural and Soviet Imperialism” printed in 1963 received great attention and provoked repercussions in the USSR in the form of two books, one ostensibly written by the President of the Tatar ASSR, Salikh Batiyev in 1977.
In 1966 Ali Akish joined the Tatar-Bashkir Service of Radio Liberty, Inc. In 1983, he retired from this position and went again to Ankara.
Over the years he wrote numerous articles in emigree publications and other forums such as Turk Kulturu, and in 1985 published a 59 page booklet, similar to his first, called "Idel-Ural'da Hurriyet Mucadelesi" (Struggle for Freedom in Idel-Ural).
In 1994, after reading Vladimir Zhirinovsky's book "Last Thrust to the South," he wrote an article for the Turkish newspaper "Milliyet" in which he denounced the Russian nationalists' imperial and anti-Turkish aspirations.
The article was highly significant as one of the first published in Turkey critical of Zhirinovsky and his views.
He was able to visit Kazan, the capital of the Republic of Tatarstan in Russia.
On his first visit to Kazan he brought, at his own expense, a computer that he donated to the Tatar Public Center.
Akish dedicated his whole life to the liberation of the Tatar people from colonial oppression.
The World Tatar League named him honorary president in recognition of his achievements.
A school was named in his honor in the city of Chally (Naberezhniye Chelny) in Tatarstan.
In chemistry, yield (also called chemical yield or reaction yield) is the amount of product resulting from a chemical reaction.<ref name=vogel>Vogel, A.I., Tatchell, A.R., Furnis, B.S., Hannaford, A.J. and P.W.G. Smith.
Vogel's Textbook of Practical OrganicHall, 19936-3.</ref> The absolute yield gives the weight in grams, and the molar yield gives the number of moles.
The fractional yield, relative yield, or percentage yield shows how completely a synthetic procedure worked.
It is calculated by dividing the amount of product by the theoretical yield (the unit of measurement for both must be the same):
To get the percentage yield'', one must multiply the fractional yield by 100% (e.g., 0.673 × 100% = 67.3%).
The ideal percentage yield of a chemical reaction is 100%, but it cannot be achieved because measurements are never completely accurate.
Yields around 100% are "quantitative", yields above 90% are "excellent", yields above 80% are "very good", yields above 70% are "good", yields above 50% are "fair", and yields below 40% are "poor".
A feeling of wanting to do something.
In July 2014, Sanchez signed for Arsenal on a long-term contract for an undisclosed fee, reported to be around £35 million.
In January 2018, he joined The Red Devils after Henrikh Mkhitaryan swapped clubs with him to Arsenal FC.
Chilean Primera División: 2006 Clausura, 2007 Apertura
Argentine Primera División: 2008 Clausura
La Liga: 2012–13
Copa del Rey: 2011–12
Supercopa de España: 2011, 2013
UEFA Super Cup: 2011 FIFA Club World Cup: 2011
FA Cup: 2014–15, 2016-17
FA Community Shield: 2014, 2015
Copa América: 2015, 2016
FIFA Confederations Cup 2017: Runner Up
Individual Awards
Copa América Golden Ball: 2016
Arsenal's Player of the Season: 2014–15,2016-17
Premier League Team of the Year: 2014–15
Copa América Team of the Tournament: 2016
FIFA Confederations Cup Silver Ball: 2017
As of 15 November 2016
People from Antofagasta Region
Dry cleaning (or dry-cleaning) is any cleaning process for clothing and textiles using a chemical solvent (a chemical that can dissolve certain compounds) rather than water.
The solvent used is usually tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene).
The solvent is called "perc" in the industry and "dry-cleaning fluid" by the public.
It is often used instead of hand washing delicate fabrics.
People use dry cleaning because it takes less work than hand washing.
The ancient Romans used a chemical called ammonia (derived from urine) and fuller's earth (a clay that can absorb grease and oil.)
to clean their woolen togas.
Fullonicae were very famous, with at least one in every town of any notability, and frequently the largest employer in a district.
These laundries got their urine from farm animals, or from special pots situated at public bathrooms.
The workforce made so much money that fuller's guilds (a group that works in solely one job, in this case, making fuller's earth, this special clay.)
were an important political force.
Also, the government taxed the collection of urine and sent people to jail for wetting their pants.
Modern dry cleaning uses solvents that do not use water to remove dirt and stains from clothing.
Jean Baptiste Jolly discovered that petroleum-based solvents (chemicals based on fuel like gasoline or kerosene.)
can be used for dry-cleaning in the mid-19th century.
Jolly was a French dye-works owner.
He noticed that his tablecloth became cleaner after his maid spilled kerosene on it.
Because of this, he developed a service cleaning people's clothes this way, which became known as "nettoyage à sec," or "dry cleaning".
Early dry cleaners used petroleum-based solvents, such as gasoline (petrol) and kerosene.
Fire concerns led William Joseph Stoddard, a dry cleaner from Atlanta, to develop Stoddard solvent as a slightly less flammable alternative to gasoline-based solvents.
The government started to control dry cleaners because the highly flammable petroleum solvents caused many fires and explosions.
After World War I, dry cleaners began using chlorinated solvents.
These solvents were much less flammable than petroleum solvents and had improved cleaning power.
By the mid-1930s, the dry cleaning industry had adopted tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene), widely called "perc," as the best solvent.
It has excellent cleaning power and is stable, nonflammable, and gentle to most clothing.
However, perc was also the first chemical to be classified as a carcinogen (a chemical that can cause cancer.)
by the Consumer Product Safety Commission (a classification later withdrawn).
In 1993, the California Air Resources Board adopted regulations to reduce perc emissions from dry cleaning operations.
The dry cleaning industry is in the process of replacing perc with other chemicals and/or methods.
Traditionally, the actual cleaning process was carried out at centralized "factories"; high street cleaners shops received garments from customers, sent them to the factory, and then had them returned to the shop, where the customer could collect them.
This was due mainly to the risk of fire or dangerous fumes created by the cleaning process.
At this time, dry-cleaning was carried out in two different machines — one for the cleaning process itself and the second to dry the clothing.
Machines of this era were called vented; their fumes and drying exhausts were sent into the air, in the same way as with modern tumble dryer exhausts.
This added to environmental contamination.
Also much potentially reusable perc was lost to the atmosphere.
Much stricter controls on solvent emissions have ensured that all dry cleaning machines in the western world are now fully enclosed.
No solvent fumes are vented to the atmosphere.
In enclosed machines, solvent recovered during the drying process is returned condensed and distilled.
So, it can be reused to clean further loads, or safely thrown away.
The majority of modern enclosed machines also incorporate a computer-controlled drying sensor, which automatically feels when most traces of perc have been removed from the load during the drying process.
This system ensures that only the smallest amount of perc fumes will be released when opening the door at the end of the cycle.
A dry-cleaning machine is similar to a combination of a domestic washing machine, and clothes dryer.
Garments are placed into a washing/extraction chamber (referred to as the basket, or drum).
The chamber is the core of the machine.
The washing chamber contains a horizontal, perforated drum that rotates within an outer shell.
The shell holds the solvent while the rotating drum holds the clothing.
The basket can hold between about 10 and 40 kg (20 to 80 lb).
During the wash cycle, the chamber is filled approximately one-third full of solvent and begins to rotate, agitating the clothing.
The solvent temperature is maintained at 30 degrees Celsius (86 degrees Fahrenheit), as a higher temperature may damage it.
During the wash cycle, the solvent in the chamber is filtered and then fed back into the chamber.
This is known as the cycle and is continued for the wash duration.
The solvent is then removed and sent to a distillation unit that has both a boiler and condenser.
The condensed solvent is fed into a separator unit where any remaining water is separated from the solvent and then fed into the 'clean solvent' tank.
The ideal flow rate is one gallon of solvent per pound of garments (roughly 8 litres of solvent per kilogram of clothing) per minute, depending on the size of the machine.
Operators also check clothing for foreign objects before placing them into the machine.
Items such as plastic pens will dissolve in the solvent bath and may damage textiles beyond recovery.