the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Around this time, many senators began to fear Caesar's growing power after his appointment as Dictator for life.
Brutus was persuaded into joining the conspiracy against Caesar.
Eventually, Brutus decided to take action against Caesar.
His wife was the only woman who knew about the plot.
The conspirators planned to kill Caesar on the Ides of March (March 15) that same year.
On that day, Caesar was delayed going to the Senate because his wife tried to convince him not to go.
The conspirators feared the plot had been found out.
Brutus persisted, however, waiting for Caesar at the Senate, and allegedly still chose to remain even when a messenger brought him news that would otherwise have caused him to leave.
When Caesar finally did come to the Senate, they attacked him.
The conspirators attacked in such numbers that they even wounded one another.
Brutus is said to have been wounded in the hand.
After Caesar's assassination
After the assassination, the Senate passed an amnesty on the assassins.
This amnesty was proposed by Caesar's friend and co-consul Mark Antony.
Nonetheless, uproar among the people caused Brutus and the conspirators to leave Rome.
Brutus settled in Crete from 44 to 42 BC.
In 43 BC, after Octavian received his consulship from the Senate, one of his first actions was to have the people that had assassinated Julius Caesar declared murderers and enemies of the state.
Cicero, angry at Octavian, wrote a letter to Brutus explaining that the forces of Octavian and Mark Antony were divided.
Antony had laid siege to the province of Gaul, where he wanted the governorship.
In response to this siege, Octavian rallied his troops and fought a series of battles in which Antony was defeated.
Upon hearing that neither Antonius nor Octavian had an army big enough to defend Rome, Brutus rallied his troops, which totalled about 17 legions.
When Octavian heard that Brutus was on his way to Rome, he made peace with Antony.
Their armies, which together totaled about 19 legions, marched to meet Brutus and Cassius.
The two sides met in two engagements known as the Battle of Philippi.
The first was fought on 3 October 42 BC, in which Brutus defeated Octavian's forces.
Cassius was defeated by Antony, and committed suicide, because he thought Brutus had also failed.
The second engagement was fought on 23 October 42 BC and ended in Brutus' defeat.
After the defeat, he fled into the nearby hills with only about four legions.
Knowing his army had been defeated and that he would be captured, Brutus committed suicide.
Antony, as a show of respect, ordered Brutus' body to be wrapped in his most expensive purple mantle, which was later stolen.
Antony had the thief executed.
Brutus was cremated, and his ashes were sent to his mother.
85 BC: Brutus was born in Rome to Marcus Junius Brutus The Elder and Servilia Caepionis.
58 BC: He was made assistant to Cato, governor of Cyprus which helped him start his political career.
53 BC: He was given the quaestorship in Cilicia.
49 BC: Brutus followed Pompey to Greece during the civil war against Caesar.
48 BC: Brutus was pardoned by Caesar.
46 BC: He was made governor of Gaul.
45 BC: He was made Praetor.
44 BC: A ring-leader in the assassination of Julius Caesar; then went to Athens and then to Crete.
42 BC: Lost the Battle of Philippi to Mark Antony's forces.
The well-known phrase "Et tu, Brute?" ("
And you, Brutus?")
is famous as Caesar's last utterance in Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar.
The reason for the remark was that Caesar had thought him a friend.
42 BC deaths
Khaled Hosseini is an writer who was born in Afghanistan but came to the United States when he was fifteen years old.
He is best known for his first novel, The Kite Runner, which was first published in 2003.
His second novel was published in 2007.
In 2013 And the Mountains Echoed was published.
Afghan writers
Mohsin Hamid is a writer from Pakistan.
He wrote some famous novels like The Reluctant Fundamentalist and Moth Smoke.
is a documentary television show presented by Gethin Jones and previously presented by Adrian Simpson and Alastair Stewart.
Its format is imposing sanctions on criminals who commit offences while filming them on camera in a documentary/reality TV fashion.
It aired from 1994 to 2010.
It is based and mainly aired in the United Kingdom.
The pachayati raj is a political system of decentralisation.
It is mostly used in South Asia, in the countries India, Pakistan and Nepal.
The idea behind it is to give power to local people.
The Indian rupee () (sign:  ; code: INR) is the official currency of the Republic of India.
The currency is issued and controlled by the Reserve Bank of India.
During the past 15 years, the value has ranged from $1 USD = 35–65 INR or 1 euro = 44–69 INR (see below: Convertibility).
The modern rupee is sub-divided into 100 paise (singular paisa).
The coins have values and of 5, 10, 20, 25 and 50 paise, as well as 1, 2, 5 and 10 rupees.
The bank notes are available in values of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500 and 2000 rupees.
The Indian rupee symbol () is an amalgam of both the Devanagari consonant "र" (Ra) and the Latin letter "R" without the vertical bar.
The design was presented to the public by the government of India on 15 July 2010.
The current abbreviation "INR" started in July 2010.
Until then, the abbreviation "Rs" (or "Re") was used.
The word "rupee" originates from the Sanskrit word रौप्य(raupya) meaning "silver" or "made of silver".
Many Indian languages use this root word, for example,  రూపాయి (rūpāyi) in Telugu, ரூபாய் (rūbāi) in Tamil, रुपया (rupayā) in Hindi, રૂપિયો (rupiyo) in Gujarati, ರೂಪಾಯಿ (rūpāyi) in Kannada and Tulu, രൂപ (rūpā) in Malayalam and रुपये (rupaye) in Marathi.
However, in West Bengal, Tripura, Mizoram, Odisha, and Assam, the Indian rupee is officially known by names derived from the Sanskrit word टङ्क (Tanka) which means money.
The rupee is called টাকা (Taka) in Bengali, টকা (tôka) in Assamese and ଟଙ୍କା (Tanka) in Odia and is written as such on Indian banknotes.
Full name in various languages
On March 5, 2009, the Government of India announced a contest to create a symbol for the rupee.
During the 2010 Union budget of India, Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee mentioned that the proposed symbol would reflect and capture the Indian ethos and culture.
Five symbols were shortlisted, and the Cabinet selected the definitive symbol created by D. Udaya Kumar on July 15, 2010.
The symbol is derived from a combination of the Devanagari letter ‘र’ and English letter ‘R’.
The parallel lines at the top (with white space between them) make an allusion to the tricolor and also depict an equality sign which symbolizes the nation's desire to reduce economic disparity.
The Indian government has plans to adopt the symbol within six months in the country and globally within 18 to 24 months.
Before the adoption of the symbol, the most commonly used symbols for the rupee were Rs, Re or if the text was in an Indian language, then an appropriate abbreviation in that language.
In Indian English, values at or above a hundred thousand Indian rupees are counted in terms of lakhs (one lakh = hundred thousand) and crores (one crore = ten million).
For example, the amount 3,25,84,729.25 is read as three crores, twenty-five lakhs, eighty-four thousand, seven hundred and twenty-nine rupees and twenty-five paise.
The use of million or billion, as is standard in American or British English, is not very common.
Use in India
India was one of the earliest issuers of coins (circa 6th century BC).
The first "rupee" is believed to have been introduced by Sher Shah Suri (1486–1545), based on a ratio of 40 copper pieces (paisa) per rupee.
Among the earliest issues of paper rupees were those by the Bank of Hindustan (1770–1832), the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar (1773–75, established by Warren Hastings) and the Bengal Bank (1784–91), amongst others.
Until 1815, the Madras Presidency also issued a currency based on the fanam, with 12 fanams equal to the rupee.
Historically, the rupee, derived from the Sanskrit word raupya, which means silver, was a silver coin.
This had severe consequences in the nineteenth century, when the strongest economies in the world were on the gold standard.
The discovery of vast quantities of silver in the U.S. and various European colonies resulted in a decline in the relative value of silver to gold.
Suddenly the standard currency of India could not buy as much from the outside world.
This event was known as "the fall of the rupee".
India was not affected by the imperial order-in-council of 1825 that attempted to introduce the British sterling coinage to the British colonies.
British India at that time was controlled by the British East India Company.
The silver rupee continued as the currency of India throughout the entire period of the British Raj and beyond.
In 1835, British India set itself firmly upon a mono-metallic silver standard based on the rupee.
His decision was influenced by a letter, written in the year 1805, by Lord Liverpool that extolled the virtues of mono-metallism.
Following the Indian Mutiny in 1857, the British government took direct control of British India.
Since 1851, gold sovereigns were being produced in large numbers at the Royal Mint branch in Sydney, New South Wales.
In the year 1864 in an attempt to make the British gold sovereign become the 'imperial coin', the treasuries in Bombay and Calcutta were instructed to receive gold sovereigns.
These gold sovereigns however never left the vaults.
As was realized in the previous decade in Canada and the next year in Hong Kong, existing habits are not easy to replace.
And just as the British government had finally given up any hopes of replacing the rupee in India with the pound sterling, they simultaneously realized, and for the same reasons, that they could not easily replace the silver dollar in the Straits Settlements with the Indian rupee, as had been the desire of the British East India Company.
Since the great silver crisis of 1873, a growing number of nations had been adopting the gold standard.
In 1898, following the recommendations of the Indian Currency Committee, British India officially adopted the gold exchange standard by pegging the rupee to the British pound sterling at a fixed value of 1 shilling 4 pence (i.e., 15 rupees = 1 pound).
In 1920, the actual silver value of the rupee was increased in value to 2 shillings (10 rupees = 1 pound).
In British East Africa at this time, the decision was made to replace the rupee with a florin.
No such opportunity was, however, taken in British India.
In 1927, the peg was once more reduced, this time to 18 pence (13⅓ rupees = 1 pound).
This peg was maintained until 1966, when the rupee was devalued and pegged to the U.S. dollar at a rate of 7.5 rupees = 1 dollar (at the time, the rupee became equal to 11.4 British pence).
This peg lasted until the U.S. dollar devalued in 1971.
The Indian rupee replaced the Danish Indian rupee in 1845, the French Indian rupee in 1954 and the Portuguese Indian escudo in 1961.
Following independence in 1947, the Indian rupee replaced all the currencies of the previously autonomous states.
Some of these states had issued rupees equal to those issued by the British (such as the Travancore rupee).
Other currencies included the Hyderabad rupee and the Kutch kori.
The nominal values during British rule (and the first decade of independence) were:
1 damidi(pie) = 0.520833 paise
1 kani(pice)  = 1.5625 paise
1 paraka      = 3.125 paise
1 anna        = 6.25 paise (1 Anna)
1 beda        = 12.5 paise (2 Anna)
1 pavala      = 25 paise (4 Anna)
1 artharupee  = 50 paise (8 Anna)
1 rupee       = 100 paise (16 Anna)
In 1957, decimalisation occurred, and the rupee was divided into 100 naye paise (Hindi for "new paise").
In 1964, the initial "naye" was dropped.
Many still refer to 25, 50 and 75 paise as 4, 8 and 12 annas, respectively, not unlike the usage of "bit" in American English for ⅛ dollar.
The rupee on the East African coast and South Arabia
In East Africa, Arabia, and Mesopotamia, the Rupee and its related coins were current at various times.
The usage of the Rupee in East Africa extended from Somalia in the north, to as far south as Natal.
In Mozambique, the British India rupees were overstamped.
In Kenya, the British East Africa Company minted the rupee and its fractions as well as pice.
The rise in the price of silver, immediately after the First World War, caused the rupee to rise in value to two shillings sterling.
In 1920 in British East Africa, the opportunity was then taken to introduce a new florin coin, hence bringing the currency into line with sterling.
Shortly after that, the Florin was split into two East African shillings.
This assimilation to sterling did not however happen in British India itself.
In Somalia the Italian colonial authority minted 'rupia' to exactly the same standard, and called the pice 'besa'.
The rupee in the Straits Settlements
The Straits Settlements were originally an outlier of the British East India Company.
The Spanish dollar had already taken hold in the Straits Settlements by the time the British arrived in the nineteenth century, however, the East India Company tried to introduce the rupee in its place.
These attempts were resisted by the locals, and by 1867 when the British government took over direct control of the Straits Settlements from the East India Company, attempts to introduce the rupee were finally abandoned.
International use
With Partition, the Pakistani rupee came into existence, initially using Indian coins and Indian currency notes simply overstamped with "Pakistan".
In previous times, the Indian rupee was an official currency of other countries, including Aden, Oman, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the Trucial States, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, the Seychelles, and Mauritius.
The Indian government introduced the Gulf rupee, also known as the Persian Gulf rupee (XPGR), as a replacement for the Indian rupee for circulation exclusively outside the country with the Reserve Bank of India [Amendment] Act, 1 May 1959.
This creation of a separate currency was an attempt to reduce the strain put on India's foreign reserves by gold smuggling.
After India devalued the rupee on 6 June 1966, those countries still using it – Oman, Qatar, and the Trucial States (which became the United Arab Emirates in 1971) – replaced the Gulf rupee with their own currencies.
Kuwait and Bahrain had already done so in 1961 and 1965 respectively.
The Bhutanese ngultrum is pegged at par with the Indian rupee, and both currencies are accepted in Bhutan.
The Indian rupee is also accepted in towns in Nepal which lie near the border with India.
However, the Indian Rupee denominations of 500 and 1000 are banned in Nepal.
Convertibility
Officially, the Indian rupee has a market-set exchange rate.
However, the RBI trades actively in the USD/INR currency market to impact effective exchange rates.
Thus, the currency regime in place for the Indian rupee with respect to the US dollar is a de facto controlled exchange rate.
This is sometimes called a managed float.
Other rates such as the EUR/INR and INR/JPY have volatilities that are typical of floating exchange rates.
It should be noted, however, that unlike China, successive administrations (through RBI, the central bank) have not followed a policy of pegging the INR to a specific foreign currency at a particular exchange rate.
RBI intervention in currency markets is solely to deliver low volatility in the exchange rates, and not to take a view on the rate or direction of the Indian rupee in relation to other currencies.
Also affecting convertibility is a series of customs regulations restricting the import and export of rupees.
Legally, foreign nationals are forbidden from importing or exporting rupees, while Indian nationals can import and export only up to 5000 rupees at a time, and the possession of 500 and 1000 rupee notes in Nepal is prohibited.
RBI also exercises a system of capital controls in addition to the intervention (through active trading) in the currency markets.
On the current account, there are no currency conversion restrictions hindering buying or selling foreign exchange (though trade barriers do exist).
On the capital account, foreign institutional investors have convertibility to bring money in and out of the country and buy securities (subject to certain quantitative restrictions).
Local firms are able to take capital out of the country in order to expand globally.
But local households are restricted in their ability to do global diversification.
However, owing to an enormous expansion of the current account and the capital  account, India is increasingly moving towards de facto full convertibility.
There is some confusion regarding the interchange of the currency with gold, but the system that India follows is that money cannot be exchanged for gold, in any circumstances or any situation.
Money cannot be changed into gold by the RBI.
This is because it will become difficult to handle it.
India follows the same gold-interchange principle as Great Britain and America.
1991 - India began to lift restrictions on its currency.
A series of reforms remove restrictions on current account transactions including trade, interest payments & remittances and on some capital assets-based transactions.
Liberalized Exchange Rate Management System (LERMS), a dual exchange rate system, introduced a partial convertibility of the Rupee in March 1992.
1997 - A panel set up to explore capital account convertibility recommended India move towards full convertibility by 2000, but timetable abandoned in the wake of the 1997-98 East Asian financial crisis.
2006 - The Prime Minister, Dr Manmohan Singh, asks the Finance Minister and the Reserve Bank of India to prepare a road map for moving towards capital account convertibility.
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar: The problem of the rupee: Its origin and its solution (history of indian currency & banking), Chapter 2, Rajagraha, Bombay, 7.
Mai 1947
Problem of the Rupee .
History of the Rupee till 1923 AD
Images of historic and modern Indian coins
ISO 4217 is the international standard describing three-letter codes (also known as the currency code) to define the names of currencies, as established by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
The ISO 4217 code list is the common way in banking and business, all over the world, for defining different currencies.
In many countries, the codes for the more common currencies are so well-known, by the general public, that exchange rates written in newspapers or posted in banks use only those codes to define the different currencies, instead of translated currency names or currency symbols.
ISO 4217 codes are used on airline tickets and international train tickets to remove any uncertainty about the price.
The first two letters of the code are the two letters of ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes (which are also used as the basis for national top-level domains on the Internet).
The third letter is usually the initial of the currency itself.
So Japan's currency code is JPY, "JP" for Japan and "Y" for yen.
This eliminates the problem caused by the names dollar, franc and pound being used in dozens of different countries, each having significantly differing values.
Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency code's last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency.
In some cases, the third letter is the initial for "new" in that country's language, to distinguish it from an older currency that was revalued; the code sometimes outlasts the usage of the term "new" itself (for example, the code for the Mexican peso is MXN).
Other changes can be seen, however; the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB, where the B comes from the third letter in the word "ruble".
There is also a three-digit code number assigned to each currency, in the same manner as there is also a three-digit code number assigned to each country as part of ISO 3166.
This numeric code is usually the same as the ISO 3166-1 numeric code.
For example, USD (United States dollar) has code 840 which is also the numeric code for the US (United States).
The standard also defines the relationship between the major currency unit and any minor currency unit.
Often, the minor currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but 1/1000 is also common.
Some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all.
In others, the major currency unit has so little value that the minor unit is no longer generally used (e.g. the Japanese sen, 1/100th of a yen).
This is indicated in the standard by the currency exponent.
For example, USD has exponent 2, while JPY has exponent 0.
Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya (UM) = 5 khoums, and Madagascar has 1 ariary = 5 iraimbilanja.
ISO 4217 includes codes not only for currencies, but also for precious metals (gold, silver, palladium and platinum; by definition expressed per one troy ounce, as compared to "1 USD") and certain other entities used in international finance, e.g. Special Drawing Rights.
There are also special codes allocated for testing purposes (XTS), and to indicate no currency transactions (XXX).
These codes all begin with the letter "X".
The precious metals use "X" plus the metal's chemical symbol; silver, for example, is XAG.
ISO 3166 never assigns country codes beginning with "X", these codes being assigned for privately customized use only (reserved, never for official codes)—for instance, the ISO 3166-based NATO country codes (STANAG 1059, 9th edition) use "X" codes for imaginary exercise countries ranging from XXB for "Brownland" to XXR for "Redland", as well as for major commands such as XXE for SHAPE or XXS for SACLANT.
Consequently, ISO 4217 can use "X" codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes.
Supranational currencies, such as the East Caribbean dollar, the CFP franc, the CFA franc BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO are normally also represented by codes beginning with an "X".
The euro is represented by the code EUR (EU is included in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list to represent the European Union).
The predecessor to the euro, the European Currency Unit (ECU), had the code XEU.
In 1973, the ISO Technical Committee 68 decided to develop codes for the representation of currencies and funds for use in any application of trade, commerce or banking.
At the 17th session (February 1978) of the related UN/ECE Group of Experts agreed that the three-letter alphabetic codes for International Standard ISO 4217, "Codes for the representation of currencies and funds", would be suitable for use in international trade.
Frequently, these changes are due to new governments (through war or a new constitution), treaties between countries standardizing on a currency, or revaluation of the currency due to excessive inflation.
The ISO 4217 maintenance agency (MA), SIX Interbank Clearing, is responsible for maintaining the list of codes.
Active codes
Official codes
Unofficial codes
Explanation of USD/USS/USN
The US dollar actually has three codes assigned: USD, USS (same day) and USN (next day).
According to UN/CEFACT recommendation 9, paragraphs 8-9 ECE/TRADE/203, 1996, available online :
In applications where monetary resources associated with a currency (i.e. funds) need not be specified and where a field identifier indicating currency is used, the first two (leftmost) characters are sufficient to identify a currency–example: US for United States dollars for general, unspecified purposes where a field identifier indicating currency is present. (
A field identifier can be a preprinted field heading in an aligned document or a similarly-agreed application in electronic transmission of data.)
In applications where there is a need to distinguish between different types of currencies, or where funds are required as in the banking environment, or where there is no field identifier, the third (rightmost) character of the alphabetic code is an indicator, preferably mnemonic, derived from the name of the major currency unit or fund – example: USD for general, unspecified purposes; USN for United States dollar next-day funds, and USS for funds which are immediately available for Federal Reserve transfer, withdrawal in cash or transfer in like funds (same-day funds).
Since there is no need for such a distinction in international trade applications, the funds codes have not been included in the Annex to the present Recommendation.
Without currency code
A number of territories are not included in ISO 4217, because their currencies are: (a) not per se an independent currency but a variant of another currency, (b) a legal tender only issued as commemorative banknotes and/or coinage, or (c) a currency of an unrecognized or partially recognized state.
These currencies are:
Alderney pound (1:1 pegged to the pound sterling)
Cook Islands dollar (1:1 pegged to the New Zealand dollar)
Faroese króna (1:1 pegged to the Danish krone)
Guernsey pound (1:1 pegged to the pound sterling)
Isle of Man pound (1:1 pegged to the pound sterling)
Jersey pound (1:1 pegged to the pound sterling)
Kiribati dollar (1:1 pegged to the Australian dollar)
Maltese scudo (1:0.24 pegged to the euro)
Somaliland shilling (state of issue is viewed as de jure part of Somalia, exchange rate not fixed)
Transnistrian ruble (state of issue is viewed as de jure part of Moldova)
Tuvaluan dollar (1:1 pegged to the Australian dollar)
Obsolete currency codes
The official list of ISO 4217 alphabetic and numeric codes
ISO 4217 Maintenance Agency
An older list of ISO 4217 alphabetic codes that contains some history of ISO 4217  (PDF file)
Another list of numeric and alphabetic ISO 4217 currency codes
Extended list of international currencies and their abbreviation form
UNECE codes – United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) – Country and Currency Codes (up-to-date)
Currency Codes Search
Position of the ISO code or euro sign in amounts
04217
Calcium nitride is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is Ca3N2.
It contains calcium and nitride ions.
It is a red-brown solid.
It reacts with water to make calcium hydroxide and ammonia.
It reacts with hydrogen to make calcium hydride and calcium amide.
It is made by burning calcium in nitrogen.
It is also made when calcium burns in air.
Uthman ibn Affan () was the third ruler of the Muslim Empire and one of the four righteous caliphs of Sunni Islam.
Uthman belonged to a noble family of Ummayyah, branch of the Quraish in Makkah.
Uthman was one of the very few who was literate.
When he became older, he started a business in cloth, which made him very rich.
He was born in about the year 583 and was ruler for 12 years.
During his time as ruler he conquered Khurasan and the regions of the west of the Arabian Peninsula.
He also united the Muslim upon one uniform version of the Quran.
He was well known for marrying two of Muhammad's daughters, Ruqayyah and Umm Kulthum, both at different times.
For this, he became known as Dhu al-Nurayn, the "Possessor of Two Lights".
He participated in both immigrations, first to Ethiopia and then to Medina.
He was attacked while in his house, although he did not defend himself out of fear of further trouble.
He was killed while reading the Qur'an by Sudaan ibn Hamran on Friday, June 17, 656.
He died aged 72-73 years.
570s births
656 deaths
Calcium permanganate is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is Ca(MnO4)2.
It contains calcium and permanganate ions.
Calcium permanganate is a dark purple solid.
It is similar to potassium permanganate.
It can catch some organic chemicals like alcohol on fire.
It can cause an explosion when mixed with sulfuric acid.
This is because manganese(VII) oxide.
It might whiten teeth.
It can be used as an oxidizing agent, although potassium permanganate is more common.
Calcium nitrate, also known as Norwegian saltpeter, is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is Ca(NO3)2.
It contains calcium and nitrate ions.
Calcium nitrate is a colorless solid.
It absorbs water from the air.
It decomposes to make nitrogen dioxide and calcium oxide when heated.
Calcium nitrate is made by reacting calcium hydroxide or calcium carbonate with nitric acid.
It is made when nitric acid reacts with calcium phosphate.
It can be made by reacting ammonium nitrate and calcium hydroxide.
Calcium nitrate is used in fertilizers to add nitrogen to the soil.
It can be complexed with urea to make a different nitrogen fertilizer.
Windham  Rotunda (born May 23, 1987) is an American professional wrestler.
He is currently wrestling a free agent.
He was known as the leader of a stable with Luke Harper and Erick Rowan known as The Wyatt Family.
Daniel Bryan was also a member for a short time before turning against the stable.
He first wrestled in WWE from 2009 to 2011 where he competed under the name Husky Harris and was a part of the stable, The Nexus.
He competed on the 2nd season of WWE NXT but was eliminated 5th.
Rotunda stayed in WWE's developmental territory, Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW), and made his debut as Bray Wyatt in FCW in April 2012.
He stayed in FCW through its name change to NXT Wrestling (now WWE NXT), and returned to the main WWE roster in July 2013.
The Wyatt Family quickly became some of the company's biggest heels ("bad guys").
WWE Smackdown Live!
Tag Team Champion
FCW Florida Tag Team Championship (one time) (with Bo Rotunda)
Feud of the Year (2010) – The Nexus vs. WWE
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (2010) – as part of The Nexus
He was ranked #129 of the top 500 singles wrestlers by PWI in the PWI 500 in 2011.
Terrestrial locomotion has evolved as animals adapted from aquatic to terrestrial places.
Movement on land makes different problems than that on water, with less friction instead being the effects of gravity.
Legged - Moving by using legs
Limbless locomotion - moving without legs, mostly using the body
Rolling - rotating the body
Legged locomotion
Movement on legs is the most common form of land movement.
It is the simple form of movement of two big groups with many members, the vertebrates and the arthropods.
Limbless locomotion
There are a number of land and amphibious limbless vertebrates and invertebrates.
These animals, due to lack of legs, use their bodies to move.
These movements are sometimes called to as "slithering" or "crawling".
Limits and extremes
Walking fish
Charig, A.J. (1972) The evolution of the archosaur pelvis and hind-limb: an explanation in functional terms.
In Studies in Vertebrate Evolution (eds K.A.Joysey and T.S.Kemp).
Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, pp.
121–55.
Reilly, Stephen M. and Elias, Jason A. 1998, Locomotion in alligator mississippiensis: kinematic effects of speed and posture and their relevance to the sprawling-to-erect paradigm , J. exp.
Biol 201,2559-2574.
García-París, M. & Deban, S. M. 1995.
A novel antipredator mechanism in salamanders: rolling escape in Hydromantes platycephalus.
Journal of Herpetology 29, 149-151.
Tenaza, R. R. 1975.
Pangolins rolling away from predation risks.
Journal of Mammalogy 56, 257.
In chemistry, a strong acid is an acid which ionizes (splits) completely in a solution of water.
It always loses a proton (A H+) when put in water.
A weak acid does not always lose a proton, though; It can lose its proton, but not all the time.
They also have a very low pH, usually between 1 and 3.
Many strong acids have a negative pKa value, which means they are very strong.
HydroChloric acid HCl
HydroBromic acid HBr
Sulfuric acid H₂SO₄
Perchloric acid HClO4
HydroIodic acid HI
Nitric acid HNO3
Chloric acid HClO3
Hamilton is New Zealand's fourth largest city.
It has a population of 140,700 people.
It is the largest inland city in New Zealand.
The mayor is Andrew King.
Incubator, a machine that hatches eggs for hens
Incubator, a website by the Wikimedia Foundation to host test wikis for new languages
Liu Xiaobo (28 December 1955 – 13 July 2017) was a Chinese intellectual, writer,  human rights activist and a political prisoner in China.
He has been President of the Independent Chinese PEN Center since 2003.
On 8 December 2008, police stopped Liu and held him because of his work with Charter 08.
He was not actually arrested until 23 June 2009.
The government accused him of encouraging people to turn against the state.
He had a trial on 23 December 2009.
On 25 December 2009, the court decided he must go to prison for eleven years.
The court also took away his political rights for two years.
He won the Nobel Peace Prize on 8 October 2010, for "his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China."
This was during the fourth time Liu was in prison.
He is the first Chinese person to win a Nobel Prize while living in China.
He is also the third person to win the Nobel Peace Prize while in prison or detention.
The others were Germany's Carl von Ossietzky in 1935 and Myanmar's Aung San Suu Kyi in 1991.
On 26 June 2017, he was granted medical parole after being diagnosed with terminal liver cancer.
He died a few weeks later on 13 July 2017.
Liu was born in 1955 in Changchun, Jilin to an intellectual family.
His father took him to the Inner Mongolia from 1969 to 1973 during the Down to the Countryside Movement.
He worked in a village in Jilin province when he was 19 years old.
He worked at a construction company after that.
In 1976, he studied at Jilin University and got a B.A. degree in literature in 1982.
He earned an M.A. degree in 1984 from Beijing Normal University.
Liu joined the faculty at Beijing Normal University after he graduated.
He also received a Ph.D. degree there in 1988.
In the 1980s, his most important essays, Critique on Choices - Dialogue with Le Zehou and Aesthetics and Human Freedom''' earned him fame in the academic field.
The essay criticised a prominent Chinese thinker Li Zehou's philosophy.
During the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests he was in the United States but decided to go back to China to join the movement.
He was later named as one of the "Four Junzis of Tiananman Square" by many Hong Kong- and Taiwan-based Chinese media.
Human rights activities
Liu Xiaobo works to increase human rights.
He has asked the Chinese government to be more open and honest about its actions.
The Chinese government has brought him to police stations, arrested him, and sent him to prison many times for his peaceful political activities.
The first time was for his actions in the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.
Organizations outside China have noticed Liu's human rights work and given him awards.
In 2004, Reporters Without Borders honored Liu's human rights work, awarding him the Fondation de France Prize as a defender of press freedom.
Time in prison
In January 1991, Liu Xiaobo was convicted of "counter-revolutionary propaganda and incitement."
However, the government did not give him any punishment as a criminal.
In October 1996, he was ordered to serve three years of labour for "disturbing public order"Liu Xiaobo, "劉曉波：勞教 早該被廢除的惡法" (Reeducation-through-labor: An evil law which should be quickly repealed), Observe China, 6 December 2007.
by criticizing the Communist Party of China.
In 2007, police took Liu for a short time and asked him about articles he had written.
The articles were posted on websites hosted outside China.
Writing the Charter and making it well-known
Liu Xiaobo actively participated in the writing of Charter 08.
Then, along with more than three hundred Chinese citizens, he signed Charter 08.
This was a manifesto, or statement of beliefs and principles.
It was released on the 60th anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (10 December 2008).
They wrote it in the style of the Czechoslovak Charter 77 calling for greater freedom of expression, human rights, and free elections.
As of May 2009, the Charter has collected over 8,600 signatures from Chinese of various walks of life.
Police took Liu Xiaobo away from his home late in the evening of 8 December 2008.
This was two days before the official release of the Charter.
Police also took away Zhang Zuhua at that time.
He is another scholar who signed Charter 08.
According to Zhang, the two men were taken by police because they thought Liu and Zhang were trying to get more people to sign the Charter.
While Liu was kept alone in solitary confinement, he was not allowed to meet with his lawyer or family.
He was allowed to eat lunch with his wife, Liu Xia, and two policemen on New Year's Day 2009.
On 23 June 2009, an officer of the government in Beijing (the procuratorate) approved Liu Xiaobo's arrest on charges of "suspicion of inciting subversion of state power."
This is a crime under Article 105 of the Law of the People's Republic of China.
The Beijing Public Security Bureau (PSB) said in a press release that Liu had incited the subversion of state power and the overturn of the socialist system through methods such as spreading rumors and slander, using almost the exact words of Article 105.
The Beijing PSB also said that Liu had "fully confessed."
On 1 December 2009, Beijing police transferred Liu's case to the procuratorate for investigation and processing; on 10 December, the procuratorate formally indicted Liu on charges of "inciting subversion of state power" and sent his lawyers, Shang Baojun and Ding Xikui, the indictment document.
He was tried at Beijing No.
1 Intermediate Court on 23 December 2009.
His wife was not permitted to watch the trial, but his brother-in-law was there.
Human Rights Watch, "China: Liu Xiaobo's Trial a Travesty of Justice," 21 December 2009.
Diplomats from more than 12 countries – including the U.S., Britain, Canada, Sweden, Australia and New Zealand – were not allowed in the court.
They could not watch the trial.
Some diplomats stood outside the court during the whole trial.
Gregory May, political officer at the U.S. Embassy, and Nicholas Weeks, first secretary of the Swedish Embassy were among the diplomats who waited outside.
Sentence and imprisonment
On 25 December, Liu Xiaobo was sentenced to eleven years' imprisonment and two years' deprivation of political rights by the Beijing No.
2 Intermediate Court on charges of "inciting subversion of state power."
According to Liu's family and counsel, he plans to fight this and ask for a new trial.
The court said that Charter 08 was part of the evidence supporting his conviction.
Many individuals, states, and organizations around the world asked the Chinese government to release Liu.
The Chinese government said no and told people outside China not to become involved.
On 22 December 2008, an organization of scholars, writers, lawyers, and human rights workers wrote an open letter to ask the government to let Liu out of prison.
On 21 January 2009, 300 international writers, including Salman Rushdie, Margaret Atwood, Ha Jin and Jung Chang, called for Liu's release in a statement put out through PEN.
In March 2009 Liu Xiaobo was awarded with the Homo Homini Award by the One World Film Festival, organized by the People in Need foundation, for promoting freedom of speech, democratic principles and human rights.
Responding to the result in court, United Nations Human Rights Commissioner Navanethem Pillay expressed concern political rights in China becoming worse.
German Chancellor Angela Merkel strongly criticized the verdict, stating "despite the great progress in other areas in the expression of views, I regret that the Chinese government still massively restricts press freedom."
Canada and Switzerland also condemned the verdict.
Taiwan President Ma Ying-jeou called on Beijing to "tolerate dissent".
On 6 January 2010, former Czech president Václav Havel joined with other communist-era dissidents at the Chinese embassy in Prague to present a petition calling for Liu's release.
On 22 January 2010, European Association for Chinese Studies sent an open letter to Hu Jintao on behalf of over 800 scholars from 36 countries calling for Liu's release.
Events leading up to the prize
On 18 January 2010, Liu was named by many people as a nominee (possible winner) of the 2010 Nobel Peace Prize.
These included Václav Havel, the 14th Dalai Lama, André Glucksmann, Vartan Gregorian, and Desmond Tutu.
China's Foreign Ministry spokesperson Ma Zhaoxu said that awarding the Nobel Peace Prize to Liu would be "totally wrong".
Geir Lundestad, a secretary of the Nobel Committee, stated the award would not be influenced by Beijing's opposition.
On 25 September 2010, The New York Times reported that a petition in support of the Nobel nomination was being circulated in China.
In September 2010 Václav Havel, Dana Němcová, and Václav Malý published an open letter in The International Herald Tribune calling for the award to be given to Liu.
All three had been leaders of Czechoslovakia's Velvet Revolution.
Soon after,  people began signing a petition.
"A Nobel Prize for a Chinese Dissident".
20 September 2010.
Freedom Now is a non-governmental organization and works as a lawyer for Liu Xiaobo outside China.
On 6 October 2010, they publicly released a letter from 30 U.S. Members of Congress to President Barack Obama (the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize winner).
This letter strongly asked President Obama to talk directly to Chinese President Hu Jintao at the G-20 Summit in November 2010.
They wanted Obama to talk about Liu Xiaobo and another political prisoner named Gao Zhisheng .
Prize announcement
On 8 October 2010 the Nobel Committee awarded Liu the Prize "for his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China".
The Norwegian Nobel Committee president Thorbjørn Jagland said the choice of Liu as the recipient of the prize had become clear early on in the process.
The Chinese foreign ministry had already warned the Nobel committee not to give Liu the prize.
They said that it would be against Nobel principles.
All news about the announcement of the award was immediately censored in China.
Foreign news broadcasters including CNN and the BBC were immediately blocked after mentioning the award in China.
Web searches for Liu Xiabo were immediately deleted and no information can be searched about him in China.
The Chinese Foreign Ministry issued a statement that said, "The Nobel Peace Prize is meant to award individuals who promote international harmony and friendship, peace and disarmament.
Liu Xiaobo is a criminal who has been sentenced by Chinese judicial departments for violating Chinese law.
Awarding the peace to Liu runs completely counter to the principle of the award and is also a desecration of the Peace Prize."
The state-run Xinhua News Agency later carried a report saying that awarding Liu Xiaobo the prize “defiles” (亵渎) Alfred Nobel's purpose of creating this prize and "may harm China-Norway relations".
The spokesperson added that Liu had broken Chinese law and his "actions run contrary to the purpose of the Nobel Peace Prize."
Responses from world leaders
Many world leaders congratulated Liu for the award.
These included Jose Manuel Barroso, President of the European Commission, The British Foreign Secretary William Hague, US President Barack Obama, and  The Dalai Lama.
Official Chinese government response
The Chinese Foreign Ministry called the Norwegian ambassador to the People's Republic of China to the ministry on 8 October 2010.
The Chinese gave the ambassador an official complaint against awarding the Nobel Peace Prize to Liu Xiaobo.
The Norwegian foreign minister replied that the Chinese government complaint was not needed because the group of people who decide the Nobel Prize is independent from the Norwegian government.
However, the Norwegian Nobel Committee that gives the peace prize is appointed by the Norwegian parliament.
Beijing Normal University Publishing.
Shanghai's People publishing.
Times Literature and Art Publisher.
Taiwan Times Publishing.
Taiwan Tangshan Publishing.
Hong Kong Xiafeier International Publishing Ltd.
Jieyou Publishing.
Labor Reform Foundation.
Boda Publishing.
Yunchen Culture publisher.
Hellman-Hammett Grant (1990, 1996)
China Foundation on Democracy Education (2003): Outstanding Democratic Activist
Fondation de France Prize (2004): Award for Defending Freedom of Speech
Hong Kong Human Rights Press Awards (2004, 2005, 2006)
Homo Homini Award (2009)
PEN/Barbara Goldsmith Freedom to Write Award (2009)
Hermann Kesten Award (2010)
Nobel Peace Prize (2010)
In May 2017, Liu was diagnosed with terminal liver cancer.
On 10 July 2017, Liu was listed in critical condition in hospital in Shenyang.
Freedom Now (International Lawyers Representing Liu Xiaobo)
Free Liu Xiaobo now!
English language articles and interviews
Film Excerpts of Liu Xiaobo from The Gate of Heavenly Peace
The Poet in an Unknown Prison letter by Liu from The New York Review of Books
Unofficial English translation of Liu Xiaobo's 2009 criminal verdict
"Further Questions about Child Slavery in China's Kilns"  - the Chinese court supporting Liu Xiaobo's subversion conviction
Jailed Chinese Dissident Liu Xiaobo Awarded Nobel Peace Prize - video report by Democracy Now!''
Chinese educators
Chinese journalists
Peking University alumni
Beijing Normal University is a public university in China, located in Beijing.
It is one of the most highly ranked universities in China, and focuses on teaching humanities and sciences.
It was first opened in 1902, which makes it one of the oldest universities in China.
Its nickname is Beishida.
Originally, it was called a "normal school" because it was only a school for teachers, and all teacher schools were named the same way.
It was attached to the Imperial University of Peking.
Later, it became a university on its own, teaching subjects other than education, but kept its name the same.
QS World University Ranking: 292nd, 7th in China
Academic Ranking of World Universities: 201-300th, 7th-12th in China
Humanities and Social Sciences overall ranking in China: 3rd
Liu Xiaobo (Peace)
Mo Yan (Literature)
University website
20th-century establishments in China
The University of Oslo (, ) is the oldest and largest university in Norway.
It is in the Norwegian capital, Oslo.
The university began in 1811 as The Royal Frederick University (in Norwegian Det Kongelige Frederiks Universitet and in Latin Universitas Regia Fredericiana).
The university was modelled after the recently established University of Berlin, and originally named after King Frederick of Denmark and Norway.
In 1939 it changed to the name it has now.
The university has faculties of (Lutheran) Theology, Law, Medicine, Humanities, Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Dentistry, Social Sciences, and Education.
The Faculty of Law is still located at the old campus on Karl Johans gate, near the National Theatre, the Royal Palace, and the Parliament.
Most of the other faculties are at a modern campus area called Blindern.
The Faculty of Medicine is split between several university hospitals in the Oslo area.
Education in Norway
1810s establishments in Europe
The Central Region of Singapore is also known as the south of Singapore.
It is a place where most commercial buildings are in.
The Istana is also found in this area.
When Sir Stamford Raffles first arrived in Singapore in 1819, he signed a treaty with Tengku Abdul Rahman (the local Sultan) and Tengku Hussein (the Temmengong which became Sultan since he was the elder brother).
The Sultan and Temmengong were paid money for allowing the British to set up a port in Singapore.
The British were given the southern part of Singapore to develop.
Therefore, it was also recognised as the Central Region of Singapore, or also called Central Business District.
The Central Region of Singapore starts from the harbour all the way to Bishan as the north, Queenstown as the west and Marine Parade as the east.
In total, it takes up 13,150 hectares of land area.
11 planning areas
Tuas is a region in the far west of the island of Singapore.
It is not reachable by the Mass rapid transit (MRT) of Singapore.
The nearest MRT station is Joo Koon.
Orchard Road is a street in Singapore that has many shopping centres.
It is in the south of Singapore.
Orchard Road got its name from the nutmeg, pepper and fruit orchards that used to grow on both sides of the street.
It only started to develop in the twentieth century.
Flash floods occurred at the road junction with Scotts Road on 16 June 2010 after 100mm of rain fell from 8 am to 11 am that morning, it is the worst flood at the junction since 1984.
Shopping malls along Orchard Road like Lucky Plaza and Liat Towers were affected by the flood.
The flood had caused some shopping mall and underground car parks to be under the water.
Rescuers had to pull out about 70 passengers from cars and buses, as flooding closed down Orchard Road, which is lined with high-end shopping malls and tourist attractions.