the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Beer is also the name of a place in Devon, England - Beer (Devon)
Beer is a type of alcoholic drink.
It is made with water, hops, barley (types of cereal grains), and types of yeast (a fungus that produces alcohol).
A process called fermentation turns sugar into alcohol, using yeast.
Another product of the fermentation is carbon dioxide.
Classification from the type of fermentation
In general, all alcoholic drinks where yeast turns sugar into alcohol are called beer.
In these cases, distillation is not used.
The difference to wine is that with wine, sugars from plants, such as fruit sugar, or that made by animals is used.
As an example, mead is a wine made from honey.
Japanese sake is made from rice, and uses yeast for fermentation; so even if some people call it rice wine, sake is really a kind of beer.
Making beer
The act of making beer is called "brewing".
Beer is made by adding warm water to malted barley and other grains.
The enzymes in the barley change the malted barley and other grains into simple sugars.
This is called the mash.
The water is then sparged (drained) from the grain.
The water is now called wort.
The wort is boiled and hops are added.
Hops provide flavour and preserve the beer.
After boiling the wort is cooled and yeast is added.
The yeast turns the sugars into alcohol and the wort into beer.
Different beers can have different natures, depending on the ingredients used; for example, an ale uses top fermenting yeast.
Top fermenting yeasts eat more sugar and produce more alcohol.
A lager uses bottom fermenting yeast.
Bottom fermenting yeasts eat less sugar and produce a crisper, cleaner taste.
Adding hops makes the beer more bitter and aromatic.
Specialty malts (different types of cooked barley) produce different flavours and colours.
These flavours and colours are most notable in dark beers like Porter and Stout.
Different countries have different ways to make beer.
In Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Czech Republic, and Slovakia, beer is usually made from just hops, malt, water, and yeast.
This is because of the Reinheitsgebot.
The Reinheitsgebot was a law that said says that beer can only be made from hops, malt, and water.
Yeast was discovered after the Reinheitsgebot.
The law was overturned by the European Union in 1992.
In Belgium, however, beers have always been made with wheat, sugar, fruit, and other ingredients.
Different ways to make beer
Some kinds of yeast ferment at a higher temperature, usually at 15-20 °C.
The fermentation process is quicker.
Other kinds ferment at a lower temperature, usually 4-8 °C.
Beers made with this kind usually have a longer shelf-life.
Some beers ferment sponaneously from yeast that can be found in the environment.
The history of beer
The earliest records of beer were written around 7000 years ago by the Sumerians.
It is said that the Sumerians discovered the fermentation process by accident.
It is not known exactly how this happened, but it could be that a piece of bread or grain became wet, and a short time later, it began to ferment and made a pulp that caused people to become drunk.
A seal around 4,000 years old is a Sumerian "Hymn to Ninkasi", the goddess of brewing.
This "hymn" is also a recipe for making beer.
A description of the making of beer on this ancient engraving in the Sumerian language is the earliest account of what is easily recognised as barley, followed by a pictograph of bread being baked, crumbled into water to form a mash, and then made into a drink, that is recorded as having made people feel "...wonderful and blissful".
It could even be possible that bread was first baked to be a way to make beer that is easy to carry around.
The Sumerians were probably the first people to brew beer.
They had found a "divine drink" -- they felt it was a gift from the gods.
Amount of alcohol in beer
Normal beers have around 3-5 % alcohol (for the volume, i.e. in 100ml beer there is 3-5ml alcohol).
In brewing beer, the amount of alcohol can be made more or less quite easily.
The Belgian types of beer are made by adding more sugar.
Through the fermentation, this will then turn to alcohol.
Today, there are beers with between 2% and about 16% of alcohol (about the same alcohol content as wine).
Spirits can have up to 80% alcohol.
Some beer labels say there is no alcohol in them because it was taken out later.
This is not completely true, though.
Beers "without alcohol" usually do have less than 1% of alcohol.
An IP address (short for Internet Protocol address) is a label which is used to identify one or more devices on a computer network, such as the internet.
It can be compared  to a postal address.
An IP address is a long
number written in binary.
Since such numbers are difficult to communicate,  IP addresses are usually written as a  set of numbers in a given order.
Devices using IP addresses use the internet protocol to communicate.
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority assigns IP addresses to regional internet registries (RIRs).
The RIRs assign them to Internet Service Providers.
Internet Service Providers then assign IP addresses to their customers.
Very often, people have a router or gateway at home, to which they connect computers, printers, and other devices.
These routers or gateways are often configured to assign "local" IP addresses to the devices that are connected.
Each address has two parts: one that specifies the computer or group of computers, and another which specifies the network.
A device can have more than one IP address.
Certain types of IP addresses are used to address a group of devices, while others are used to address only one device.
Certain types of addresses are unique, others can be re-used.
A number of IP addresses are used for special purposes, for example to obtain an IP address automatically.
An IP address is converted to physical or Media Access Control Address using the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
If an IP address is your phone number, then your MAC address is your name.
You may change your phone number, but your name will not change.
Suppose one of our friends wants to meet us but they don’t know our address.
He asks for our address and then we give our address (Example: 123 Main Street, Anytown, USA).
After giving the address, he or she can easily locate our address.
The same thing is done in case of internet.
Every network is assigned an address.
Who allocates IP Address
IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) allocates the IP address.
IANA is responsible for the IP addressing system.
What an IP address looks like
An IP address is a long binary number, made of ones and zeros.
An IPv4 address is 32 binary digits (or bits) long.
An IPv6 is 128 bits long, allowing many more IP addresses to be used.
IP addresses are usually written in human-readable form, where 8 bits are grouped into one octet.
IPv4 addresses are usually written as a group of four numbers.
Each number can take a value from 0 to 255.
IPv6 addresses are written as a group of eight hexadecimal numbers.
Many Ipv6 addresses contain many zeroes.
There are special rules which say that in certain cases, these zeroes do not need to be written.
Public and private addresses
Certain IP addresses can be assigned freely on the local area network.
Since they are not unique, they are not routed on the internet.
The addresses which can be freely assigned are called private IP addresses, and the ones which are unique are called public.
To be routed, a private address needs to be translated into a public one.
This process of translating between private and public addresses is  called network address translation, or NAT.
Routers and firewalls often also perform this task.
Reaching one or more devices
Unicast addresses:  The address is assigned to one specific device.
This is the most common case, most addresses are unicast addresses.
Broadcast addresses: Addresses all computers on the same network.
There are certain cases where this is useful, such as to obtain a new address automatically.
The sender sends the data once, and the devices used for routing the data make copies, as needed.
Multicast addresses: This case is similar to the broadcast case above: Some devices are interested in receiving certain data, and the network copies the data as needed.
The big difference to the broadcast case above is that all devices connected to the broadcast network see the data sent using broadcast.
With multicast, devices need to subscribe to see a given content.
The devices on the same network that are not subscribed will not see the content.
Obtaining a new IP address
There are different ways of getting a new IP address.
One of them is called Bootstrap Protocol (usually shortened to BOOTP).
The device that needs a new address, does not know what network it is in, so it uses an IP address of all zeroes (0.0.0.0) which it sends as a broadcast to the current network, on a special port.
In addition, it sends the MAC address of the network card, plus a 4 byte random number.
The BOOTP server will send a reply, also as broadcast, addressed to a different port.
The reply will contain the mac address of the client, the random number, and the IP address of the client.
When the client receives the data, it will set the address specified.
If the BOOTP server is configured that way, it will also send the IP address and hostname of the BOOTP Server, the name and path to a file which should be loaded to boot the client (using TFTP) or the name of a directory, which the client should mount using NFS.
IP addresses obtained automatically can be dynamic or static.
Static addressing means the same machine will always get the same IP address.
With dynamic addresses, a device will get the next address which is not used.
Dynamic addresses which are used need to be reviewed from time to time.
If they are not renewed, they can be used for other devices.
IP Version 4
With IPv4, each address consists of four 8-digit binary numbers, called octets.
An IPv4 address is 32 bits in total.
The biggest number one can make with 8 regular digits is 99,999,999, but the biggest number one can make with 8 binary digits is 255 (11111111 in binary), so each octet can be any number from 0 to 255.
198.51.100.137
There are are also special meanings associated with two different ending numbers.
In general, a last number of 0 stands for the network (called base address), and a last number of 255 stands for all hosts on that network (called broadcast address).
Computers that are on the same local network share 3 of the 4 numbers.
A computer can be on more than one network.
It can also have several names.
Public/Private addresses
The problem with IPv4 is that it only allows for 4.3 billion addresses, and we've almost used them all.
To delay this, Network Address Translation (NAT) was created.
Network Address Translation has a network share one public IP address and give every computer on the network a private IP address.
Everyone living in the same house uses the same address, but mail can be meant for multiple different people living in the house.
Special IP addresses
There are some IP addresses that are reserved for special purposes.
For example, the address 127.0.0.1 is called the Loopback Address and will "loop back" any packets sent to this address back to the computer that sent them, like sending mail to yourself.
Although this may not seem useful, it is used to test servers.
Host Part
Static IP Address
It is a permanent internet address.
It has to be configured manually.
It is used in smaller networks.
All servers use static IP addresses.
It is a simple way for communication.
Dynamic IP Address
(Dynamic means Constantly changing)
It is a temporary internet address.
It is assigned by a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server from a specific range of IP address.
IPv4 subnetting
To make a network work faster, it is split up into subnets.
To do this, an IP address contains a network ID, subnet ID, and a host ID.
A special binary number called a Subnet Mask is used to determine the size of the network, subnet, and host IDs.
The original IPv4 only supported 254 networks, so in 1981 the Internet addressing specification was changed to a classful network architecture.
Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual networks.
The first three bits of an IP address determined its class.
Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for normal computer communication (Unicast).
The size of the network ID was based on the class of the IP address.
Each class used more octets for the network ID, making the host ID smaller and reducing the number of possible hosts.
Classful networks have been replaced by Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) since 1993.
CIDR also provides a network address and host address.
CIDR does not have classes, which means network and host address sizes don't have to be in octets.
IP Version 6
Because IPv4 is only 32 bits, the number of available addresses will run out.
To prevent this, an organization called the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) created IP Version 6 (IPv6), which will eventually finish replacing IPv4.
IP Version 6 uses 8 octets each 16 bits = 128 bits in total.
Octets in IPv6 are written in hexadecimal, and separated by colons (:).
An IPv6 address might look like this:
An IPv6 address can be long and this can lead to mistakes when typing them into the computer or writing them down.
There are two ways in which an IPv6 address can be made shorter without leaving anything out:
Leading zeroes can be left out: 2001:0db8:00b8:0008:0000:0000:0000:0001 becomes 2001:db8:b8:8:0:0:0:1
Any number of sequential, all-zero 'chunks' may be compressed to simply ::.
This can be done only once in the same address: 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001 could be written as 2001:db8::1
It is also called a service server, and is based on client server network architecture.
Like a phonebook, it contains a database of public IP addresses.
Versions before IPv4 were experimental and never widely used.
Version 5 was used exclusively for the Internet Stream Protocol, which was also never widely used.
Eurasia is the combined landmass of Europe and Asia in the northern part of Earth.
It has the Atlantic Ocean on its west, and the Pacific Ocean to the east.
The Arctic Ocean is to its north, and the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean to its south.
It is the largest of the continents.
Its name comes from adding the "Eur" from "Europe" to "Asia".
It and Africa form a part of the world called "Afro-Eurasia".
Some geographers say Eurasia is one continent, because Europe and Asia are mostly on the same tectonic plate and do not have a sea between them.
The Ancient Greeks divided the world they knew into Europe, Asia and Africa.
To them, the Aegean Sea was the division between the Balkan Peninsula in Europe and Asia Minor in Asia.
North of the Sea of Marmara, the Greeks thought the lands on the western side of the Black Sea was Europe and the eastern side was Asia.
The ancient Greeks did not know very much about the lands north of the Black Sea.
Since Classical Antiquity, people have talked about Asia and Europe separately, so it is now a tradition to see them as two continents.
Some other continents, which are not completely divided by sea, are joined together by a thin strip of land (called an isthmus).
An example is North America and South America, which are connected by the Isthmus of Panama.
Europe and Asia are not divided by a sea, nor by any isthmus.
Sometimes Eurasia is divided into West Eurasia and East Eurasia.
Here, the dividing line is the Ural Mountains.
West Eurasia includes Europe and the Middle East.
Historians sometimes add North Africa to West Eurasia, because the Sahara Desert divides North Africa from Sub-Saharan Africa, and it is as difficult to cross as a sea.
Also, North Africa is culturally linked to Europe by the Mediterranean Sea.
(EU) Geologically in Europe and North America
Geologically in Europe and North America
The North Pole is the point that is farthest north on Earth.
It is the point on which axis of Earth turns.
It is in the Arctic Ocean and it is cold there because the sun does not shine there for about half a year and never rises very high.
The ocean around the pole is always very cold and it is covered by a thick sheet of ice.
There is also a Magnetic North Pole.
It is near the physical North Pole.
A compass points toward the magnetic North Pole.
There is a star called the North Star (or Polaris) that is always in the sky above the North Pole.
People can tell how far north they are by seeing how high the North Star appears in the sky.
In linguistics, noun phrases have grammatical number.
Plural is one kind of grammatical number.
In English, plural noun phrases are counted as more or less than one (e.g., 32 degrees, no bananas, 0.5 liters, 1.2 grams, two times, three fish, 20 mothers).
In contrast, a singular noun phrase usually refers to something that you would count as one only (e.g., one time, a glass, the sun, my mother, Jennifer).
Noun phrases that cannot be counted are also singular in English (e.g., water, the meat, some space, etc.).
In many languages, a suffix (word ending) is added to a word to show that the word is plural.
In English, the normal plural suffix is -s (e.g., cat is singular, and cats is plural).
Plurals in English
Singulars ending in s are usually the same in plural: species, mumps, innings and so on.
However, proper nouns ending in 's' take add 'es' in plural: Jones becomes the Joneses.
Compound words add the plural to the noun part: sons-in-law, Lord Mayors, Courts Martial.
Singulars ending in y become ies in the plural if a consonant is before the suffix: day becomes days, but spy becomes spies.
Personal names are again exceptions: the plural of Mary is Marys.
Singulars ending in f usually changes to ves: dwarf to dwarves, leaf to leaves, and so on.
Special cases: some plurals just have to be learnt.
The plural of person is normally people, but sometimes persons is used.
Invariant nouns: The common names of animals is often used as both singular and plural.
One can say "We shot grouse today" correctly no matter what number were killed.
With "fish" there is a choice.
The traditional English usage is that the word is used for both singular and plural, but American usage seems to prefer fishes as the plural.
With groups of animals, one uses the singular, as in a herd of bison or a shoal of herring.
However, if the animals are known as individuals then, for example, we feed the ducks, or stroke our cats.
There are other cases where there is no plural at all, as with sheep, salmon, deer.
Other general words which add no suffix in plural are aircraft and offspring.
Some look like singular but are always plural, such as vermin, livestock, cattle, people.
All European languages have plural forms.
The suffix that is used in each language is different from the one that is applied to English nouns.
Alexander Gottfried Friedrich Gode-von Aesch, or simply Alexander Gode (October 30, 1906 – August 10, 1970), was a German-American linguist, and translator.
He helped create the auxiliary language Interlingua.
American linguists
American translators
German people
1906 births
1970 deaths
Oceania is a name used in geography for the region made up of Australia, Polynesia, Melanesia, and several other island nations in the surrounding area.
It is often listed as one of the continents of the world.
The term "Oceania" does not have one single agreed definition.
The widest definition of Oceania includes the entire region between continental Asia and the Americas, including Australasia, as well as islands in the Pacific Rim such as the Japanese archipelago, Taiwan, and the Aleutian islands.
On the other hand, the Oceania ecozone includes all of Micronesia, Fiji, and all of Polynesia except New Zealand.
Sometimes, people use the term 'Oceania' to include only the Polynesian and Melanesian islands in the Pacific Ocean, as separate from Australasia.
When Oceania is treated seperately from Australia, the region of Oceania is referred to as "Australia and Oceania".
A smaller usage of Oceania as a continent includes only Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and the islands between them.
This part of the world is usually called Australasia instead.
For these reasons, it is not correct to say that Australasia is part of Oceania, because what is meant by 'Oceania' is not clear.
Australasia has an exact definition in biogeography and geology; Australasia includes New Zealand, Australia (including Tasmania), and Melanesia, New Guinea, and the islands just north and east of Australia.
All these are south-east of the Bali–Lombok line, also known as the Wallace Line.
The Southern Ocean is the ocean around Antarctica.
It means the waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans around the continent of Antarctica.
Since the 1770s geographers have discussed its limits.
Nowadays, sixty degrees south latitude is often accepted.
Some people call this ocean the Antarctic Ocean.
The CIA World Factbook's  entry on the Southern Ocean
The Fifth Ocean from Geography.About.com
NOAA FAQ about the number of oceans
The Catalan language is a Romance language spoken in Catalonia, Valencian Community, the eastern part of Aragon, the Balearic Islands, a small zone of Murcia (all of them in Spain), Andorra, North Catalonia (in France) and the Italian city of L'Alguer.
Together, those places are often called the Catalan Countries.
The language that most similar is Occitan.
Catalan also has similarities to other Romance languages, such as Spanish, Italian, French and Portuguese.
It came from Vulgar Latin and was first spoken in the in the Eastern Pyrenees in the Middle Ages.
There are about 4 million people who speak Catalan as a first language and about 6 million people as a second language.
Catalan is the sixth-most-spoken Romance language and also the most-spoken language that is not an official language in the European Union.
Languages of Europe
A tight-lacing corset is a common form used today.
"Stays" are an old form, which were used from about 1500 to after 1860
An orthopaedic corset supports the back of an injured person.
Pop music is a type of popular music that many people like to listen to.
Styles of pop music in the 2020s (today) include rock music, electronic dance music and hip hop.
Pop music tends to change quite a lot so the description is quite flexible.
Modern pop music grew out of 1950s rock and roll, (for example Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley and Little Richard) and rockabilly (for example Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly).
How does the business of pop music work?
There are also many more people working on pop music who are not seen on the stage or in the video.
These people include the studio staff (people who help the musicians to record CDs and music videos in music studios), production staff (people who help make the music recordings sound good), distribution staff (people who help sell the music to stores) and retail staff (people that sell the music to people at CD stores).
Tour staff help the band to travel around the country (or around the world) for their concert tours.
Some tour staff help by carrying heavy musical instruments onto the stage.
Other tour staff drive buses or cars, so that the band can get to the concert.
Some tour staff operate sound equipment, such as the large amplifiers and loudspeakers that are used to amplify (make louder) the band's music for the audience.
Promotional staff help to market or promote the band's music, so that more people will know about the band, and buy the band's CDs.
Some promotional staff travel to radio stations and give the band's CD to radio station managers or DJs (disk jockeys: the people who announce songs on the radio).
Other promotional staff write press releases (short articles) about the band which are sent to the newspapers.
Types of music that became pop music
Pop music came from the Rock and Roll movement of the early 1950s, when record companies recorded songs that they thought that teenagers would like.
Pop music usually uses musical from the other types of music that are popular at the time.
Many different styles of music have become pop music during different time periods.
Often, music companies create pop music styles by taking a style of music that only a small number of people were listening to, and then making that music more popular by marketing it to teenagers and young adults.
In the 1950s, recording companies took blues-influenced rock and roll (for example Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley) and rockabilly (for example Carl Perkins and Buddy Holly) and promoted them as pop music.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, record companies took folk music bands and musicians and helped them to create a new type of music called folk rock or acid rock.
Folk rock and acid rock mixed folk music, blues and rock and roll (for example The Byrds and Janis Joplin).
In the 1970s, record companies created several harder, louder type of blues called blues rock or heavy metal, which became a type of pop music (for example the bands Led Zeppelin and Judas Priest).
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, a type of nightclub dance music called Disco turned into a popular type of pop music.
Record companies took an experimental, strange-sounding type of music called New Wave music from the 1980s and turned it into pop music bands such as The Cars.
In the 1990s record companies took an underground type of hard rock called Grunge (for example the band Nirvana).
Michael Jackson was also a very influential artist for pop music.
His album, Thriller, is the best-selling album of all time.
He also wrote some other very influential songs, such as "Bad", "Give In to Me", "Will You Be There", "Heal the World", "We Are the World", "Black or White", and "Billie Jean", just to name a few.
By the 21st century (after the demise of disco in the 1980s)  Contemporary R&B became pop music.
Examples of Contemporary R&B artists that have a wide pop appeal are Usher, Beyoncé, Rihanna, Chris Brown and more.
Pop rappers Flo Rida and Kesha were mainstream in the late 2000s and the early 2010s.
Modern pop singers include Ariana Grande, Katy Perry and Lady Gaga.
Nicki Minaj blended pop and hip hop in the early 2010s.
Many bands and artists are looked as influential in music history, but the English band The Beatles are the most looked upon band in history because of many of their songs being different types of pop and rock music (even metal and punk).
Michael Jackson, The Bee Gees, Nirvana (band) are many of the artists and bands that look at The Beatles as a massive influence on their music.
General semantics is a philosophy that deals with how people react to things that happen around them based on meaning.
It was created by Alfred Korzybski during the 1920s and early 1930s.
The goal of general semantics is for people to know that when we simplify something, either mentally or in language, that simplification is not the same thing as the thing simplified.
How people understand reality is not the same as what reality is because people do not know everything about reality.
General semantics teaches that there is always more to something than what is seen, heard, felt, or believed.
Branches of philosophy
Semiotics (or semiology) is a theoretical framework for the study of the meaning of language, signs and symbols.
It was first developed in the early 20th century, separately, by the Swiss Ferdinand Saussure and Charles Sanders Peirce of the U.S.A. It can be described as both a science and a technique: a science because it has its own theories and a technique because it is a way of studying systems of representation and meaning.
The meaning can be intentional such as a word uttered with a specific meaning, or unintentional, such as a symptom being a sign of a particular medical condition.
Signs can communicate through any of the senses, visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, or gustatory.
History and terminology
The importance of signs and signification has been recognized throughout much of the history of philosophy, and in psychology as well.
The term derives from the Greek: σημειωτικός, romanized: sēmeiōtikos, "observant of signs" (from σημεῖον sēmeion, "a sign, a mark").
For the Greeks, "signs" occurred in the world of nature, and "symbols" in the world of culture.
As such, Plato and Aristotle explored the relationship between signs and the world.
The general study of signs that began in Latin with Augustine culminated with the 1632 Tractatus de Signis of John Poinsot, and then began anew in late modernity with the attempt in 1867 by Charles Sanders Peirce to draw up a "new list of categories."
More recently, Umberto Eco, in his Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language, has argued that semiotic theories are implicit in the work of most, perhaps all, major thinkers.
Semantics -  what was the meaning of the words or signs used;
Pragmatics - who said it, to whom and in what circumstances and
Syntactics - the formal rules of the language used.
Nitrogen is a nonmetal chemical element.
The atmosphere contains more than 78 percent of nitrogen.
It has the chemical symbol N and atomic number 7.
Its stable inside typically contains 14 nucleons (7 protons and 7 neutrons).
It has 5 electrons in its outer shell.
Nitrogen is a colorless odorless gas at normal temperature.
It is normally attached to another nitrogen atom, making a nitrogen molecule (N2).
This bond is very strong.
That is why many explosives contain nitrogen.
The bond is broken when the explosive is made.
When it explodes the bond reforms, releasing a lot of energy.
It turns into a liquid at -195.8°C and turns into a solid at -210°C.
If it is compressed, it can be turned into a liquid without making it cold.
It usually does not combine with other atoms because its strong bond prevents it from reacting.
Lithium is one of the few chemical elements that react with nitrogen without being heated.
Magnesium can burn in nitrogen.
Nitrogen also makes blue electric sparks.
The blue color is caused by the atoms being excited.
When they get normal again, they release light.
When nitrogen is excited, it reacts with many things that it does not normally react with.
Many chemical compounds that are important for industrial purposes contain nitrogen ions.
These include ammonia, nitric acid, nitrates and cyanides.
Nitrogen comes in several oxidation states; -3, -2, -1/3, +1, +3, +4, and +5.
Each of those oxidation states has its set of compounds.
Compounds in the -3 oxidation state are weak reducing agents.
These include ammonia, ammonium, amide and nitrides.
Amino acids and proteins contain nitrogen in this oxidation state.
Hydrazine, a compound in the -2 oxidation state, is a strong reducing agent.
Azides contain nitrogen in the -1/3 oxidation state.
They are extremely powerful reducing agents, and most are very toxic.
Nitrous oxide contains nitrogen in the +1 oxidation state.
It is used as an anesthetic.
Compounds containing nitrogen in the +2 oxidation state, such as nitric oxide, are reducing agents.
+3 oxidation state compounds are strong oxidizing agents and weak reducing agents.
Nitrites are the most common +3 compounds.
Compounds in the +4 oxidation state are strong oxidizing agents.
They include nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen tetroxide.
Compounds containing nitrogen in the +5 oxidation state are strong oxidizing agents.
They are one of the more common groups of nitrogen compounds.
They include nitric acid and dinitrogen pentoxide.
They also include nitrates, which are used in explosives such as dynamite, nitroglycerin and trinitrotoluene.
Occurrence and preparation
Air is made up of about 78% nitrogen and about 20.95% oxygen, < 1% argon, and traces of other gasses such as carbon dioxide, and water vapor, among others.
It is also in a few nitrates in the ground.
Ammonium minerals are rare.
Nitrogen is in proteins.
Pure liquid nitrogen can be made by cooling air.
The nitrogen turns into a liquid at a different temperature than the oxygen.
It can also be made by heating certain chemical compounds, such as sodium azide.
Nitrogen as an element is used to prevent things from reacting with the oxygen in the air.
It can be used to fill crisp bags and incandescent bulbs.
It is also used to fill some tires.
It can be used to make electric components like transistors.
Liquid nitrogen can be used to freeze things.
Nitrogen is also used as a way to relieve body aches.
It contributes to the torn bones in your body and helps.
Nitrogen was discovered by Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious gas or fixed gas.
They discovered that part of air did not burn.
It was found that animals died in it.
It was known as "azote".
Many nitrogen compounds also contain the "azide" or "azine" letters, such as hydrazine.
In 1910, Lord Rayleigh found out that when a spark was passed through nitrogen, it made a reactive form of nitrogen.
This nitrogen reacted with many metals and compounds.
For the American sport, see American football.
For other sports known as football, see Football
Association football is a sport played between two teams.
In the United States, Canada and Australia, it is called soccer.
In most other countries it is called football.
Association football is the most popular sport in the world.
Games like football have been played around the world since ancient times.
The modern game came from England, where the Football Association wrote a standard set of rules for the game in 1863.
One of these players is the goalkeeper, the only player who is allowed to touch the ball with their hands.
The other ten are known as "outfield players".
The players try to kick the ball into their opponent's goal.
The team that scores the most goals wins.
A match has 90 minutes of play, with a break of 15 minutes during the match.
The break in the middle is called half-time.
Added time may be added after half time or after 90 minutes to make up for time lost during the game because of fouls, free kicks, corner kicks, injuries, bookings, substitutions or any other time the game is stopped.
A match can end in a tie, except in some competition games where one team must win.
In that case, extra-time with two halves of 15 minutes each may be played, and if there is still a tie, a penalty shootout decides the winner.
Sometimes extra-time is skipped and the game goes right into the penalty shootout.
Free kick or penalty for other team,Fouls include kicking the opponent, handling the ball and being offside Yellow and red cards.
There are many competitions for football, for both football clubs and countries.
Football clubs usually play other teams in their own country, with a few exceptions.
Here are a list of some of those exceptions:
Welsh teams  and  play in the EFL Championship (the 2nd tier of English league system) and the FA Cup (the English cup competition)
Canadian teams , Toronto FC, and CF Montreal play in the MLS (the USA league system)
Monégasque team A.S. Monaco play in Ligue 1 (the French league system)
There are 6 associations (CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, CAF, UEFA, AFC, and OFC).
Each association has their own continental competition between clubs and national teams.
Some examples are the Copa América for CONMEBOL national teams and the Copa Libertadores for CONMEBOL clubs.
FIFA organises international competitions between worldwide clubs and countries.
Clubs play in the Club World Cup, and countries play for the FIFA World Cup.
The FIFA World Cup takes place every four years between national teams, and is the world's most popular sporting event, even more popular than the Olympic Games.
In football, there are two main competition types.
In a "league", all of the teams play the same number of games, but in a "cup", teams leave the competition when they lose, until the last two teams play each other to decide the winner.
Who plays football
Football is the world's most popular sport.
It is played in more countries than any other game.
In fact, FIFA (the Federation Internationale de Football Association) has more members than the United Nations.
It was originally an all-male sport, but today it is played by both males and females (separately, except sometimes at primary school level).
In Europe, the main competitions to compete are the Champions League for the top teams from the top leagues in each country in Europe.
Then there is the UEFA Europa League which is for the next best teams from each member country of the UEFA.
Most successful clubs are FC Barcelona and Real Madrid from Spain; Bayern Munich and Borussia Dortmund from Germany; Galatasaray S.K. from Turkey; Juventus, AC Milan and Inter Milan from Italy; Liverpool, Manchester United and Manchester City from England; Paris Saint-Germain from France and Al Ahly from Egypt.
The most successful club in the world, in terms of domestic league results, is Rangers F.C. from Scotland, who have won more domestic league titles than any other team in the world.
They have won the country's league 54 times which is a world record.
In May 2000, Rangers became the first team to win 100 trophies.
Fundamental rules
Note: this is a complete summary
The side which scores the most goals wins.
If scores are equal, the result is a draw.
In cup competitions, there may be extra time and penalties to determine a winner.
The officials in a football game are a referee and two linesmen.
Goals are scored by getting the ball into the opponen' goal, more than halfway across the line.
Referees have access to goal-line cameras to decide close cases.
The offside rule means that there have to be at least two defenders between the attacker and the defenders' goal when the attacker's teammate passes the ball to him/her. (
This is not a complete summary: the rule is complex).
Usually, one of the two defenders is the goalkeeper.
Players may not use their hands or arms (handball), except the goalkeeper, who may use them within his own penalty area (penalty areas are in front of both goals).
The ball is out of play if it crosses the field boundaries.
If a player hits the ball out of play at the side of the field, the other team gets to throw the ball back into play (a throw in).
If a player hits the ball out of play at their end of the field, the other team kicks the ball back into play from the corner (a corner kick).
If a player kicks the ball out of play at the other end of the field, the other team kicks the ball back into play from directly in front of the goal (a goal kick).
Football is a game of two halves.
Each half is 45 minutes.
The referee may add time to the end of each half when play is delayed due to injuries or substitutions.
There is an interval of ten minutes between halves.
Each team is allowed up to three substitutes from the bench during the course of a game.
No player substituted can return during the game.
Behaviour rules
Players may not trip or push each other (a foul).
Players may not hold each other or stop other players from getting to the ball (obstruction).
When a player scores he/she is not allowed to jump into the crowd.
If he/she does they will get a yellow card.
The same applies to lifting or removing their shirt in celebration.
Players must not abuse referees in any way (verbally or physically).
Players who commit bad fouls get shown a yellow card.
Players who commit really bad fouls, or get shown two yellow cards in the same game, get shown a red card.
Players who get shown a red card get sent off the field and cannot finish playing the game.
In some competitions (like the Premier League in England) you miss the next game (suspended) if you get a red card, or pick up 5 yellow cards during the season.
List of football teams in Armenia
List of football teams in Azerbaijan
List of Colombian football teams
List of football teams in Chile
List of Mexican football teams
List of Scottish football teams
List of football teams in Sweden
List of football teams in Turkey
Summer Olympic sports
Spamming is when one person or company sends an unwanted email to another person.
Spam emails are the computer version of unwanted "junk mail" that arrives in a mailbox, such as advertising pamphlets and brochures.
Spam emails are usually sent to try to get the person to buy something or do something else that will cause gain for the sender.
The emails sent when someone is spamming is called spam.
The person or company who sent the unwanted email is called a spammer.
Both of these words came from a brand of canned meat called "Spam", but it was a short sketch created by the British comedy group Monty Python in 1970 that led to the word "Spam" being widely used to mean unwanted email messages.
Spam emails are usually sent to many people at once trying to get them to buy a product or sign up for a service.
The people who receive the email did not ask to receive the email, and do not want to receive it.
One of the reasons there is so much spam emails around is that it costs very little to send millions of spam messages at once.
Spam messages can easily be sent, sometimes even by a special computer program.
How spammers find email addresses
The hardest part about spamming is to get the email addresses to send the spam to.
Sometimes the spammers do this by searching for emails on the internet, or by buying emails from people who know a lot of them (for example, someone who runs a site that makes users tell them their email address to signup will have a lot of email addresses to sell to spammers).
Method one
One part of getting e-mail addresses is to find addresses that are still in use.
One trick used by spammers is to put a link at the end of a message like this:
If you do not wish to get more of these messages
from us click here to stop getting them.
If the person clicks on the link, it tells the spammers that there is someone at the address.
Then the spammers put that person on a list of people who actually open spam messages.
Next, the spammers sell that list to other spammers.
The same thing happens if the person sends another email back to the spammer (called replying), which also tells the spammer the message has been opened.
Method two
Another trick that spammers use is to put a picture – even one that cannot be seen – into a spam message.
The picture will have a name that goes with just that one email.
When the email is opened, a request will be sent to the server that has that picture to get the image.
If they get this request, then they know that you read their email, which could cause a person to receive even more email spam.
The word "spamming" is also used to describe the act of typing a lot of words or text in Internet chat rooms, so that other people using the chatroom cannot carry on conversations.
Usually this blocks the screen with meaningless words, in order to annoy the other people in the chatroom.
Spamming in Internet chatrooms is usually considered to be rude.
This kind of behavior is usually called flooding rather than spamming.
Problems with spam
Computer users at home and in workplaces waste a lot of time opening and deleting spam messages.
In some cases, spam emails contain viruses or links to pornography or illegal gambling websites.
Spam emails often advertise products or services which are being lied about by the companies sending the spam, such as frauds or scams.
Some user email programs can automatically delete spam messages when they arrive, or move them to a separate spam folder.
Internet service providers also detect them automatically and cooperate to cut off customers who are major spammers.
An earthquake is the sudden movement or trembling of the Earth's tectonic plates, that creates the shakes of the ground.
This shaking can destroy buildings and break the Earth's surface.
A sudden shake underwater is called a tsunami.
Earthquakes are caused by disturbances in the balance of the earth.
Earthquakes are also caused by reactions that result from invisible events operating beneath the Earth's crust..An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus.
The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter.
People who study earthquakes are called seismologists.
There can be many earthquakes over a short period of time in a small area.
The sudden release of tension in the tectonic plates sends waves of energy that travel through the Earth.
Seismology studies the cause, repeats, type, and size of earthquakes.
Earthquakes are measured using watching from seismographs.
The magnitude of an earthquake and the power of shaking is usually reported on the Richter scale.
The Richter Scale was invented by Charles Francis Richter in 1935.
On the scale, 2 is scarcely noticeable, and magnitude 5 (or more) creates damage over a wide area.
An earthquake under the ocean can destruction as the earthquake itself in mountainous areas.
Earthquakes can also create landslides.
Earthquakes are part of the Earth's natural rock cycle.
The affect of an earthquake can be measured by a seismometer.
It detects the shakes caused and it puts these movements on a seismograph.
The strength, or magnitude, of an earthquake, is measured using the Richter scale.
The Richter scale is numbered 0-10.
The largest earthquake ever measured was a 9.5.
An earthquake of 10 has never been recorded.
Scientists cannot predict an earthquake before it happens.
But we do know where earthquakes might happen in the future, like close to fault lines.
An earthquake under the ocean can create a tsunami, this can create just as much destruction as the earthquake itself.
Earthquakes zones are divided into some parts of the world.
The first is the Pacific belt.
This part is the biggest part of seismic belt which means the largest activities of earthquakes caused by the movement of the earth's lithosphere as well as the volcanoes.
The zone shape the most volcanoes located on the nations around the pacific ocean.
The second part is the alpide.
It is the seismic activities from Sumatra, Himalayan, europan to outer atlantic.
Earthquakes sometimes hit cities and kill hundreds or thousands of people.
Most earthquakes happen along the Pacific Ring of Fire but the biggest ones mostly happen in other places.
Tectonically active places are places where earthquakes or volcanic eruptions are quite repeated.
Causes of an earthquake
Earthquakes are caused by tectonic movements in the Earth's crust.
The main cause is when tectonic plates ride one over the other, causing orogeny (mountain building), and severe earthquakes.
The boundaries between moving plates form the largest fault surfaces on Earth.
When they stick, motion between the plates leads to increasing stress.
This continues until the stress rises and breaks, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault.
This releases the stored energy as shock waves.
The San Andreas fault in San Francisco, and Rift valley fault in Africa are faults like this.
Volcanic Earthquakes: Earthquakes which are caused by volcanic eruptions are quite devastating.
However, these are confined to areas of active volcanoes.
Collapse Earthquakes: In areas of intense mining activity, often the roofs of underground mines collapse and minor tremors take place.
These are called collapse earthquakes.
Earthquake fault types
There are three main types of geological fault that may cause an earthquake: normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip.
Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended.
Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened.
Strike-slip faults are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each other.
Earthquake clusters
Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time.
Most earthquake clusters consist of small tremors which cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that earthquakes can recur in a regular pattern.
A foreshock is an earthquake that happens before a larger earthquake, called the mainshock.
An aftershock is an earthquake that happens after a previous earthquake, the mainshock.
An aftershock is in the same place of the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude.
Aftershocks are formed as the crust adjusts to the effects of the main shock.
Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific area within a short period oof time.
They are different from earthquakes followed by a series of aftershocks by the fact that no single earthquake in the sequence is obviously the main shock, therefore none have notably higher magnitudes than the other.
An example of an earthquake swarm is the 2004 activity at Yellowstone National Park.
Sometimes a series of earthquakes happen in a sort of earthquake storm, where the earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes.