the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
During the Soviet blockade of West Berlin, Truman ordered the Berlin Airlift, which flew in tons of food to West Germany to feed the starving people.
Truman also helped create the United Nations, an organization which was based on the League of Nations.
The United Nations still exists today.
Its goal is for different countries to work together to help humanity and to promote peace.
After World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States were the only two powerful countries left.
With Germany being divided between the Soviet Union and the United States, tensions began to increase between the two countries.
The Cold War began.
This was a war where the Soviet Union and the United States did not fight directly, but each wanted to have a bigger influence than the other over the world.
The Soviet Union wanted to spread communism around the world. (
Communism is the belief that the government should own the economy to make everybody equal).
Truman believed in a policy called containment: that the U.S. should contain communism and stop it from spreading.
Truman declared the Truman Doctrine, which said the United States should give money to Turkey and Greece so that they could be strong enough to defend themselves from communism.
Truman sent Congress his "Fair Deal."
It was based on Roosevelt's New Deal.
It gave more money to education, more money to farmers, and a higher minimum wage for workers.
Labor union leaders asked him for higher wages and more benefits.
After coal miners went on strike, Truman had the Department of the Interior take over the mines.
While Truman sympathized with the working class, when there was a huge railroad strike, Truman believed it was illegal.
He also thought it was unfair to people who could not get to work because the railroads were not running.
He reacted by threatening to force the strikers to go into the army if they did not return to work.
1948 election
Further information: 1948 United States presidential election
In 1948, Truman ran for a second term as President against Thomas Dewey.
He was the underdog and everyone thought he was going to lose.
The Chicago Tribune published a newspaper on the night of the election with the title "Dewey Defeats Truman".
To everyone's surprise, Harry Truman won the election.
On June 25, 1950, North Korea attacked South Korea.
China supported North Korea.
North Korea wanted to bring Communism into South Korea.
The U.S. fought the Korean War to defend South Korea and keep communism from spreading there.
General Douglas MacArthur wanted to bomb China.
Truman thought it was too dangerous to do that, so he fired MacArthur.
Many people respected MacArthur, so they were angry at Truman.
He made Mathew B. Ridgeway general.
During the end of his term, Harry Truman's approval rating was at an all-time low.
He was very unpopular because thousands of Americans died in the Korean War; there was a medium amount of corruption in his government; and people were accusing many of Truman's employees of being communists.
He left office on January 20, 1953.
The Korean War ended about six months later.
As time passed, Truman's reputation got better.
Many historians now believe that Harry Truman was a great president.
Truman moved back to Missouri.
He died on December 26, 1972 in Kansas City, Missouri of multiple organ failure caused by pneumonia at the age of 88.
WW2DB: Harry Truman
White House biography on Truman
1884 births
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John Adams, Jr. (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was the second president of the United States (1797–1801), and father of the sixth president, John Quincy Adams.
He was also the first vice president of the United States (1789–1797).
Adams was born in Braintree, Massachusetts.
He was the son of Lt.
John Adams, Sr. (
1691-1761) and Susanna Boylston (1708-1797), and he was the cousin of the philosopher Samuel Adams.
He went to Harvard College.
He married Abigail Adams in 1764.
Revolution years
Adams wanted the Thirteen Colonies to be free from Great Britain.
However, Adams was fair and thought every person should be treated fairly.
Even though he did not want British soldiers in Boston, he was the lawyer who defended the British soldiers who were involved in the Boston Massacre.
Adams was a representative from Massachusetts during the Second Continental Congress.
He helped Thomas Jefferson write the United States Declaration of Independence.
During the American Revolutionary War,  Adams helped make peace with Great Britain.
He served in France, the Netherlands and England as an ambassador in the 1780s.
Adams was the first vice president under George Washington.
After Washington chose not to run again, Adams won the 1796 election.
Adams is thought to have been the first president to belong to a political party, but like George Washington, he thought himself above any particular party.
He ran for president on the Federalist ticket.
He beat Thomas Jefferson of the Democratic-Republican Party.
President candidates and vice president candidates did not run together like they do today.
Since Jefferson got the second-highest number of votes, he became vice president.
During his term, he resolved a conflict against France peacefully.
He also passed the Alien and Sedition Acts which made it illegal to say bad things about the government.
Many people did not like those acts because they felt it took away their freedom of speech.
Adams was not re-elected president and lost to Thomas Jefferson.
The Federalist Party was not as popular as it was when Adams was elected.
One of his last acts as president was to make John Marshall the Chief Justice of the United States.
This made sure that the Federalist Party would still be important.
Of the first five U.S. presidents, Adams was the only one who did not own slaves.
He was also the only one to be from New England.
Adams died on July 4, 1826 of heart failure.
This was the same day that Thomas Jefferson died, and was also exactly 50 years after the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776.
John Adams' White House biography
John Adams -Citizendium
1735 births
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William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III; August 19, 1946) is an American politician and humanitarian activist.
He was the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001.
Before he was president, Clinton was the governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and 1983 to 1992, as well as the attorney general of Arkansas from 1977 to 1979.
He took office at the end of the Cold War.
Clinton was the first president from the baby boom generation.
He was 46 years old when he was elected and the third youngest president.
He was impeached in 1998 for lying about his sexual relationship with Monica Lewinsky.
Clinton was the second president to be impeached.
He is married to Hillary Rodham Clinton, who was the 67th United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013, U.S. senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, and the Democratic nominee for president in the 2016 U.S. presidential election.
Clinton was born William Jefferson Blythe III at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas.
His biological father, William Jefferson Blythe.
Jr, died in a car accident, three months before Clinton was born.
His mother, Virginia Clinton Kelley was a Nurse anesthetist.
He took the last name Clinton because it was his stepfather, Roger Clinton, Sr.
's name.
Clinton grew up in Hot Springs, Arkansas.
In high school, Clinton played the saxophone.
Clinton went to college at Georgetown University.
During his college years, Clinton worked under several politicians.
He later went to Oxford University and Yale Law School.
Clinton did not fight in the Vietnam War because he was in the ROTC for a short time.
Before being President
Clinton married Hillary Rodham in 1975.
In 1980, their daughter, Chelsea Clinton, was born.
After law school, Clinton was elected Attorney General of Arkansas in 1976 and governor of Arkansas in 1978.
At 32, he was the youngest governor in the country at that time.
Clinton was governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and again from 1983 to 1993.
Clinton was known for being a "New Democrat" while governor.
During his time as governor, Clinton changed the state's school system.
There was also a scandal called Whitewater during Clinton's term.
In the 1992 presidential election, he beat Republican George H. W. Bush.
During the early part of Clinton's first term, he put in place a tax code which would increase taxes on the rich.
In 1994, during Clinton's first term in office, the Congress switched to a Republican majority.
However, Clinton still beat Republican Bob Dole in the 1996 election.
The Republicans defeated Clinton's proposal for the U.S. government to adopt universal health care.
The Republicans proposed many new ideas to Congress to limit the size of government such as requiring the budget to be balanced and to stop people from abusing the welfare system.
Clinton was sued by Paula Jones for sexual harassment, but the lawsuit was officially dismissed after Jones failed to prove damages.
This made him the first sitting United States president to be sued.
President Clinton was accused of wrongdoing by the U.S. House of Representatives in December 1998 during the Monica Lewinsky scandal and was impeached.
Although he lied that they did not engage in sexual activity, he was found to have done nothing wrong by the U.S. Senate in February 1999.
The country faced few challenges during his term.
The Cold War was over and there was very little need for the U.S. military to get involved in the world's affairs, so defense spending was significantly lowered.
The economy was doing very well during his term, though there is a debate whether the economy was well because of Clinton's policies or because of the Republicans' policies.
The decade ended with it being the first time the United States did not have to borrow money to pay for its budget.
Clinton left office in 2001 with high approval ratings and was succeeded by George W. Bush.
Post-presidency
After his presidency, he wrote some books and traveled around the world helping out the United States.
He is married to former US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and now lives in New York.
He has written My Life, a book about his life, and several other books.
Clinton has received two Grammy Awards, both for books he read on tape.
He is now the U.N.'s envoy to Haiti.
He also became a vegetarian.
In 2013, Clinton started following Buddhist meditation to help him relax.
On October 12, 2021, Clinton was hospitalized with sepsis in Irvine, California.
Photos of Bill Clinton's actions to bring peace to the Middle East
Bill Clinton's White House biography
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In economics, the yield is how much money somebody is paid each year for leaving his or her money invested somewhere.
Unlike a corporate dividend, a yield is fairly certain, unless there is a bankruptcy.
This means that somebody usually knows how much money they are going to make from their yield ahead of time.
Yields can be different because of inflation.
However, there is usually an order for which are most risky and which are the least: the least risky instruments, such as treasury bonds, yield the least, then safe and "guaranteed" instruments like long-term deposits, then overnight deposits, and so on to the various municipal bond and corporate bonds.
Extremely risky instruments with high yield are usually called junk bonds.
Moral purchasing is when a person uses moral reasoning to decide what to buy.
For example, when a person chooses to buy local goods instead of those from other countries, helps neighbours and processes that one can point to quickly.
A social network is a set of people who interact.
This includes group organizations.
The social relationships may include friendship/affect, communication, economic transactions, interactions, kinship, authority/hierarchy, trust, social support, diffusion, contagion, and so on.
A community social network is the pattern of relationships among a set of people and/or organizations in a community.
Each of these networks can involve social support, give people a sense of community, and
How big a personal network becomes depends on the individual and the type of relationships considered.
The set of people that a person knows well or with whom a person frequently interacts seldom exceeds several hundred.
As the size of a network grows, keeping relationships is strained by the size.
There is a so-called "Law of 150" which suggests that about 150 people is the best size for a village or large clan though most people live in much bigger towns.
Some experts think that a corporation has an ideal size of about 70 people: these people and their spouses would also make a large social network.
The free rider problem is that someone uses the social network but does not give help when needed.
Social networks are vulnerable to them, since the circumstances where help is required, like disasters, occur by surprise.
It might happen that someone cannot help at that one time - it might also happen that they are not there the next time.
Only slowly does it become obvious who is and is not contributing to the safety of the group, or who is avoiding this duty.
Social networks are held together by common interest.
This may be employment, common interest in a sport or pastime, a religion (a mosque, church or temple is almost always a center of a social network).
Often the network has an identity of its own which is quite real, even though it may have no official recognition.
Networks may be centered on places, or on families, or on worldwide communities with common interests.
The Law of 150 is documented in R.I.M. Dunbar 1992.
Neocortex size as a constraint on group size in primates.
Journal of Human Evolution.
469–493.
The field of study which investigates human social life is social psychology.
A cabal is a group of people who try to control things in a secret way.
Cabals are often an important part of a conspiracy theory.
Sometimes people say "There Is No Cabal", or use the abbreviation TINC to mean "There Is No Cabal".
The joke is that since a cabal is necessarily secret, only those who are in the cabal can know.
The former chief of staff, Lawrence Wilkerson, of the Secretary of State Colin Powell said that the foreign policy of George W. Bush's administration were run by a "Cheney-Rumsfeld cabal".
With this word he meant that the President had not really the power that he is given by the constitution and that the Vice President and the Secretary of Defense had more influence than they should have.
Creating is making new things that have not existed before, usually by combining two or three things that existed.
Art is almost always called creative, but so are other activities like music, mathematics, technology, business, craft, building, gardening and forestry, if they combine things to get new things.
When several people cooperate in more than one process of creating, that is a creative network.
This cuts risk since anything creative involves some chance that it will simply not work.
What is "not creative" is usually called imitative, and includes anything that is mostly trying not to do what has never been done – like law, sports, science, war, and especially education.
These involve more direct competition, so risk comes from the competitor who may do it better.
The word team is used for such groups.
Most people fear change and new things, and so what is most stable and considered important by society tends to be imitative and done in teams.
But unless society encourages creating it loses out to others by competition in business or technology, so there must be some creative networks, somewhere, in labs or art studios.
Views of control of creative work also depend very much on religious and spiritual views of nature (or a creator) creating Man, according to economist Lester Thurow.
Those ethical traditions that see "Man in the image of God" have created legal codes (see guild, intellectual right, intellectual interest, intellectual property) to tightly control what they are creating or have created.
These are now the basis of organizations such as WIPO or ICANN.
Often, such laws also create control over things which are merely found, not created.
Wikipedia uses the GNU FDL which is a content license that tries to get people to combine what they are creating, with no one clearly in control.
This is considered strange by many people, who are uncomfortable with that idea, or seek to control some aspect of it themselves.
Human science is the science of humans:  what makes them different from animals, and their limits, which tend to be the same as those of other animals.
Because human bodies are animal bodies, human science is part of biology which leads to Life Science.
However human behaviour includes the use of words, measures, numbers, knowing time and having memory, and such habits as trade - thus economics and psychology are considered to be part of human science.
A general human science is anthropology which studies only the differences between humans and near relatives.
One important debate in human science is whether the exchange of culture (or in economics instructional capital), is only among humans or if it also goes on among our Great Ape near relatives.
If so, then culture is part of primatology and there is no clear line between human science and life sciences.
Another name for human science is Social Science, since the most complex thing about humans is how they relate to each other in society.
The most general social science is ethics, or economics, depending on your point of view.
However, life science also deals with humans as objects of study (notably in medicine), while hard science such as chemistry deals with humans as the observer who does the study - sets the scale at which observation can happen, incurs observer effects - as studied in philosophy of science.
Often sciences have different names based on whether they study humans or not.
For instance economics is the study of how humans make a living, while ecology is the study of how non-humans make a living.
Medicine is normally restricted to humans while veterinary medicine refers to the same techniques made on other species.
One relies more on ethics and less on economics when dealing with humans, at least according to any ethical tradition.
Specific human sciences are (in addition to anthropology and ethics and economics) include psychology, sociology and linguistics.
There is debate as to whether mathematics is something human or if it is universal - see philosophy of mathematics on this.
Flaying is a form of torture, mutilation, and execution.
It is the act of stripping the skin and flesh from the bones.
Flaying an enemy while alive is an ancient practice.
Accounts attribute the practice to the ancient Assyrians, who were said to flay the skin from a captured enemy or rebellious ruler and nail it to the wall of his city, as warning to all who would defy their power.
Searing or cutting the flesh from the body was sometimes used as part of the public execution of traitors in medieval Europe.
A similar mode of execution was used as late as the early 18th century in France; one such episode is graphically recounted in the opening chapter of Michel Foucault's Discipline and Punish (1979).
Rice (Oryza sativa) is a type of cereal and food.
In origin, it is a swamp grass.
It is eaten as staple food in many parts of Asia.
It is grown in warm parts of the world, mainly Asia, Africa, northern Italy, and the west coast of North America.
Rice accounts for 80% of the calories eaten in Asia, or one-fifth of the calories eaten worldwide by humans.
It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production (rice, 741.5 million tonnes in 2014), after sugarcane (1.9 billion tonnes) and maize (1.0 billion tonnes).
However, judged by value, the world trade in wheat is greater than all other crops combined.
All these cereals are grasses.
Rice used to be the main diet in many countries.
Various kinds of food processing prepare rice for eating.
It is usually cooked.
In some areas, such as Spain, rice is first fried in olive oil or butter, then cooked with water or soup.
In other areas, such as India, rice is eaten with sauce, curry, or soup.
Rice can also be used to make alcohol, such as Japanese sake rice wine.
Rice is believed to have been first grown in ancient southern China and India around 2500 BC.
Rice-growing was brought to Japan possibly in the 1st century BC, and became popular during the 2nd century and the 3rd century.
From India, rice spread to southern Europe and Africa.
Alluvial loamy and clayey soil is ideal for growing rice.
The rice crop needs about 24°C or above with minor variations during sowing, growing and harvesting seasons.
It grows well in the areas where rainfall is above 100cm.
Deltas, river valleys, coastal plains and terraced fields in mountainous regions are ideal for its cultivation.
Rice is usually planted in a flat field filled with water.
Before cropping, the water is drained from the field.
Before farmers developed a good farming system and fertilizers, they used to let lands rest for 1 to 2 years while farming in other lands.
Rice contains a lot of carbohydrates.
There are different ways of milling rice.
Brown rice has only had the outer layer removed.
It contains more fibre than the completely milled white rice.
Rice varieties
There are several grains called "rice": they have been cultivated for thousands of years.
There are a huge number of varieties.
Asian rice (Oryza sativa) is most widely known and most widely grown, with two major subspecies and over 40,000 varieties.
Also notable are varieties of African rice (Oryza glaberrima) and wild rice (genus Zizania).
Rice may vary in genetics, grain length, color, thickness, stickiness, aroma, growing method, and other characteristics.
Rice can be divided into different categories on the basis of each of its major characteristics.
The two subspecies of Asian rice, indica and japonica have different length and stickiness.
Indica rice is long-grained and unsticky, while japonica is short-grained and sticky.
"In the 1950s... you only needed to plot population growth against rice production to see that, within a few years, there would not be enough to go around.
Something needed to be done, and in 1960 two American charities, the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations, joined forces to found the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines.
The new team began patiently cross-breeding the 10,000 different varieties they had collected.
"Most crosses between rice strains give only 1% or 2% improvements, [but] IR8 was different.
It married a tall high-yielding strain from Indonesia (PETA) with a sturdy dwarf variety from China (DGWG).
There was never any instance in the history of the world where rice yields doubled in one step... In fact, according to some studies, IR8 yields in best conditions could be as much as 10 times that of traditional varieties".
The new strain, part of the Green Revolution, had defects.
It lacked taste, and the team spent 20 years improving its quality, and its resistance to fungi and pests.
The team's later work was to reduce its bad effect on diabetes type 2 and on its vitamin A content.
2004: International Year of Rice
The International Rice Research Institute Knowledge Bank
Origin of Chinese rice cultivation
South Carolina rice planting photos from the early 1900s
Yoga is an old discipline of Hindu philosophy from India.
It is both spiritual and physical.
Yoga uses breathing techniques, exercise and meditation.
It helps to improve health and happiness.
Yoga is the Sanskrit word for union.
Patanjali was a pioneer of classical yoga.
He defined yoga as "the cessation of the modification of the mind" (stopping changing the mind).
A person doing yoga will move from one posture (called asana) to another, but there are also other aspects which are important in yoga, such as breath-work, mantras, mudras (postures of the hands and fingers), meditation and much more (for more information, check out the Yoga Sutras).
For example, the "sun-salutation" contains 12 poses of asanas, one after the other, and is said to help balance body and soul.
There is a specific mantra for each asana.
The "sun-salutation" is popularly known as "Suryanamaskar".
Yoga was introduced by Indian Ascetic.
Ascetic practices (tapas) are referenced in the  (900 to 500 BC), early commentaries on the Vedas.
Several seals discovered at Indus Valley Civilization (~3300–1700 B.C.) sites in Pakistan depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose.
The pose shows "a form of ritual discipline, suggesting a precursor of yoga", according to archaeologist Gregory Possehl.
Scholars think there must be some type of connection between the Indus Valley seals and later yoga and meditation practices, though there is no conclusive evidence.
Jonathan Mark Kenoyer describes one figure as "seated in yogic position".
Karel Werner writes that " Archeological discoveries allow us therefore to speculate with some justification that a wide range of Yoga activities was already known to the people of pre-Aryan India".
Important yoga words(ashtang yoga)
Yama: Positive Rules of meditations.
Niyama: Prohibitory Rules of meditations.
Asanas: Physical postures and movements.
Pranayama: Breathing techniques
Pratyahara: Controlling the mind.
Dharana: Gazing inward.
Dhyana: Meditation with object.
Samadhi: Meditation without object.
Types of yoga
Classification based on mind and body.
Rajayoga: Raja yoga focuses on meditation and contemplation in order to fully realize the self.
Hathayoga: Hatha yoga is the practice of yoga postures, or asana, using the body as a vehicle for self-transformation.
Classification based on way of spiritual life.
Gyanyoga: It is a way of knowledge.
Karmayoga: It is a way of work.
Bhaktiyoga: It is a way of worship.
Classification based on a way of other things.
Swaryoga: Emphasizes the most on breathing.
Kriyayoga: Emphasizes the most on blending Karmayoga (Tapa), Gyanyoga (Swadhyay) and Bhaktiyoga (Ishwar Pranidhan).
Some popular Yogasanas
A yogasana is a pose in which a person can sit.
The intention of yogasana is to exercise the body and make it free of pains and problems.
Yogi is a person who has mastered yoga or has achieved great success in yoga.
Yogasanas are also called Asana or Asanas (plural).
A Yogi can sit in any asana for a given time.
Pawanmuktasana
Ushtrasana
Even though economics is all about choice on the basis of what is available rather than what should be available, the big question relates to who decides how resources should be distributed and how economics can embrace a trade-off between different groups which each seek to make the most of their allocation of resources.
If "what should be" cannot be incorporated, the subject of economics will be as dry as desert as described by Ayn Rand.
The challenge therefore is to construct a model combining "what is" to "what should be" and make the same acceptable to common man as well as politicians.
Not being able to sell the idea as such is a defeat to the discipline.
The issue is that of influence and not of theory, as Adam Smith perceived that no group of business men ever met other than to exploit the consumer.
Economic theories
Cattle is a word for certain mammals that belong to the genus Bos.
Cattle may be cows, bulls, oxen, or calves.
Cattle are the most common type of large domesticated hoofed animals.
They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae.
Cattle are large grazing animals with two-toed or cloven hooves and a four-chambered stomach.
This stomach is an adaptation to help digest tough grasses.
Cattle can be horned or polled (or hornless), depending on the breed.
The horns come out on either side of the head above the ears and are a simple shape, usually curved upwards but sometimes down.
Cattle usually stay together in groups called herds.
One male, called a bull will usually have a number of cows in a herd as his harem.
The cows usually give birth to one calf a year, though twins are also known to be born.
The calves have long strong legs and can walk a few minutes after they are born, so they can follow the herd.
Cattle are native to many parts of the world except the Americas, Australia and New Zealand.
Cattle have been domesticated for about 9,000 years.
They are used for milk, meat, transport, entertainment, and power.
Word use
The word cattle has been used in English for about 1,000 years and the meaning has changed.
In books such as the King James Version of the Bible, the word is used for all sorts of farm animals, including horses, sheep and goats.
The word comes from the Old French word,'chattels', meaning all the things that a person owns.
The word cattle is used for some wild animals as well as for domesticated cattle.
Wild cattle include the water buffalo from South East Asia, the musk ox and yak from Central Asia, the bison of North America and Europe and the African buffalo.
The last aurochs, wild cattle of Europe, were killed in Masovia, Poland in 1627.
This article uses the word 'cattle' in the modern way.
This article is about the domestic farm animal, and not the wild cattle which still live in some parts of the world.
The word "head" is used by farmers when they count the number of cattle that they own.
A farmer might say "My land runs 5,000 head of cattle" though the term "one head of cattle" is not usually used.
Cattle vocabulary
An intact male bovine is called a bull.
A young male bovine is called a bullock.
A mature female that has given birth to at least one or two calves is called a cow.
A young bovine between birth and weaning is called a calf.
Two or more of these young bovines are calves.
A female that has never had a calf is called a heifer, (pronounced "heffer").
Calving is the act of a cow or heifer giving birth to a calf.
Because very few bulls are needed to breed with many cows and heifers and to form a complete breeding herd, most male cattle are used for meat.
They are castrated by removing the testicles to prevent them from being able to breed other cows and heifers, and to take away the male characteristics that are common with bulls.
A male that has been castrated before reaching puberty is called a steer.
An ox is a male bovine that has been castrated after puberty and is trained and used for draft purposes, such as pulling a plow or a wagon.
Cattle can either be horned, which are two bony points coming out on either side of a beast's head, one on each side, or polled, where no horns are grown but a somewhat pointy poll is found at the top of a cow's head.
Cattle are found all over the world, from as far north as Canada and Russia to the dry inland of Australia.
The only continent they are not found on is Antarctica.
Different types and breeds of cattle are suited to different environments.
Bos indicus cattle such as the Brahman breed are suited to subtropical and tropical areas, whereas Bos taurus cattle such as Angus cattle are more suited to temperate or colder climates.
Their large wide hooves are good in both wet areas and dry grassland.
Their hairy coat grows much longer in the winter and has an extra fluffy layer to hold in warmth.
They shed this extra layer in springtime in preparation for the hot summer ahead.
Most cattle, except those of the Bos indicus subspecies do not have sweat glands in their skin, but their wet nose is a useful cooling system.
They can also pant like a dog as well.
Cattle can make a range of noises, from a gentle "moo" to a low growl in warning or to attract females, especially among bulls.
When they are angry or upset, they can bellow or bawl quite loudly.
Calves are said to bawl, cows moo and bulls bellow.
Cattle are herbivorous, meaning that they are plant-eating (primarily grass) animals.
Eating grass is called "grazing".
They have very strong tongues and strong lower front teeth that help them to graze.
Unlike a horse, cattle do not have any upper front teeth.
A cow often swallows grass whole.
After a cow has eaten its fill and is resting, they return or regurgitate the grass from their stomach to their mouth and rechew it with their very large back teeth to break it down further.
This is called "chewing the cud".
Other ruminants like deer, sheep and goats also do this.
Horses do not.
This means that cattle do not need as much food as horses, even though they are about the same size.
Cattle are ruminants which mean they have a stomach with several chambers which helps digest their food more efficiently.
A cow's stomach has four chambers called the reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum.
The reticulum is known as the "hardware" stomach because it is mainly used as a storage area for hard things that the cow might accidentally swallow like  nails, rocks and other objects.
The rumen is the largest chamber in a ruminant's stomach, and in cattle it can hold up to 50 gallons feed.
It is the chamber where fermentation takes place to help break down the grass that the cow has eaten.
The omasum, also known as "many piles" is a compartment that squeezes or absorbs all the water that has accumulated from the digestion that has gone on in the rumen.
The fourth chamber is the abomasum which  similar in function to a human's stomach, and so is called the "true stomach."
Cows have "breasts" called udders which are joined together in a large sac, often pink in colour, found hanging between the back legs.
The udder is divided into four parts, or quarters, each with a large teat that the calf is able to grasp with its mouth to suckle from.
Cows begin milk production a few days before a calf is born, and can continue to produce milk when bred again and when pregnant with their next calf.
Heifers, unless they have given birth to their first calf, do not produce milk.
Dairy cows tend to have much larger udders than beef cows, and as such, these type of cows will usually produce more milk than what is needed to feed one calf.
Dairy cows are female cattle that are raised to produce lots of milk for human consumption.
Beef cows, on the other hand, are female cattle that are used to raise a calf from birth that is used for beef later in its life.
Both types of cows will keep producing milk as long as it is demanded, either by the calf, by the milking machine, or by the human that is hand-milking them.
When milk from them is no longer needed, they will not explode: they simply "dry up," where the milk they produce is absorbed or taken back in by their bodies.
Cows are pregnant for around 9 months, or an average of 280 days.
Bulls can often be fierce and dangerous, especially in the presence of their herd of cows and heifers.
In the wild, they will often fight each other over mating rights and their herds of cows and will use their horns to gore each other.
Some bulls will fight to the death: others will fight until either one of the bulls decides to run off.
They also protect the herds from other animals such as wolves, jackals, bears, tigers and lions.
On farms, bulls are usually quieter and more docile and can be led by a nose-ring by their owners, but they can be aggressive with other bulls and with strange people or animals who might get too near his herd.
Dairy bulls like Jerseys and Holsteins tend to be more aggressive than bulls of beef breeds like Hereford and Angus.
Not all cattle have horns.
Bulls with no horns fight by head-butting the other's head, neck, side or belly, and will use their heads to push each other around.
For the reasons above, most male cattle are either sent to slaughter while they are still calves or are castrated so that they are much less likely to fight each other, or be aggressive towards the farmer that is raising them, making them safer to handle and keep until it is time to send them to market.
Steers have no other purpose except to be raised, sold and slaughtered for beef.
Uses of Cattle
Ever since people started using cattle in prehistoric times, cattle have been a sign of wealth.
In many countries, particularly in Africa and Asia, a person's wealth is judged by the number of cattle they own.
Different breeds are used differently.
Cattle are very useful animals.
Their flesh can be eaten as meat.
Their milk can be drunk and turned into cheese and yoghurt.
Their skin can be used as leather.
They can pull carts and plows.
They can make the power to turn flour mills or pump water.
The food that they eat is not expensive, and often not in competition with what people eat.
Dairy cattle are kept and raised specially for milking.
Herds of cows are kept and are regularly mated with a bull, so that they produce calves.
This keeps the milk supply going.
However, most commercial dairy farms do not keep bulls because of the concern that such bulls are very dangerous when being handled.
Instead, cows are artificially inseminated with bull semen that is stored kept frozen in liquid nitrogen, and is "bred" by a person who artificially inseminates cows for a living.
Some large dairy herds, especially those used to produce organic or "free-range" milk are kept on pasture where there is a good supply of grass and the fields are relatively small, but not so small that they are not able to graze regularly during the season when grass is growing.
This is because the cows need to be brought in for milking every day, twice a day, and should not have far to travel.
A number of dairy herds are kept in barns or sheds for most of their lives and are given feed that has been especially made for them.
This feed contains grain like corn, hay including grass and alfalfa or clover, and fermented chopped feed called silage that is usually made from corn, wheat or barley.
Cows are often kept in stalls where they have enough room to lay down comfortably.
Such large dairies must supply straw or saw dust for the cows to rest on without getting sore from the hard concrete floor.
Cows can be milked by hand, but in many countries where there are large dairies, the cows are milked by a milking machine.
The milk is collected in a large stainless steel container where it undergoes pastuerization, a process that heats milk to a very high temperature to kill any bacteria that are living in the milk.
The milk is then taken by truck to a milk or dairy factory to be made into the milk we drink by being separated to remove most of the cream.
It is then put into bottles or cartons to be sold.
Some milk is also turned into cheese, ice cream, butter, cream and even yogurt.
All of these dairy products are packaged or put into cartons or bottles and sold.
Many types of cattle are used for milk.
the Australian Illawarra, which is a deep red or roan with short inward-curving horns.
the Ayrshire, which is large, irregularly spotted red and white with short up-curving horns, or polled.
the Brown Swiss, which is large, (smaller than the Holstein), brownish-grey to dark brown (often grey as well) with a light-coloured muzzle, belly and udder.
the Guernsey, which is pale red to yellow and white, and also give a lot of cream.
the Holstein, which is large, spotted black and white (some cows can be mostly black or mostly white) with short inward-curving horns.
Some Holsteins are also polled or hornless.
the Jersey, which is small and fawn or dun colored with a dark face, or eye patches, black nose, hooves and front part of the lower legs.
Some Jerseys are also black with a fawn saddle patch over their back.
They do not give as much milk as the other breeds, but it is famous for the amount of cream they produce.
Jerseys can be horned or polled, with horns often being short and curving upwards.
the Milking Shorthorn, which is medium-sized to large, deep red to roan and short, upturned horns or polled.
The black and white cow is found in most places
Beef cattle are bred and raised specifically to provide meat or beef.
Steers are the best type for this purpose because they can be kept in herds without fighting each other.
Heifers are also often used for beef, especially those that are not suitable to be used in a breeding herd.
The cows of beef cattle are used to give birth to and raise calves for meat.
They are not usually used for milk, although some types of cattle, such as the Red Poll, Dexter or Red Devon (also known as the North Devon or Devon) are used for both.
These type of cattle are called dual purpose breeds.
Beef cattle are often allowed graze over large areas because they do not have to be brought in every day like dairy cattle.
The biggest farms in the world are cattle stations in Australia, ranches in North America and ranchos in Latin America where they run beef cattle.
Until the mid 20th century, beef cattle were often sent to market on the hoof.
Cowboys or drovers would herd the cattle along the roads or on trails to the cattle markets in big towns or cities, or to railway stations where they would be loaded and shipped to these towns or cities.
In Australia, sometimes the cattle would travel for hundreds of miles along roads known as 'Traveling Stock Routes'.
Big herds would have thousands of 'heads of cattle'. (
Cattle are counted by the "head".)
Nowadays cattle are usually sent to the market in huge lorries known as road-trains.
In North America, cattle are sent to auction marts, slaughter plants or other farms or ranches by large semi-trucks called cattle liners.
The meat from a calf is called 'veal' and from an older beast, 'beef'.
Meat that is cut into flat pieces for frying or grilling is called 'steak'.
Every part of a beast can be used.
The skin becomes leather.
The meat which is not used by humans becomes pet food and almost everything that is left over becomes garden fertilizer.
Many other products can be and are often made from cattle: for example, car tires, home insulation, paint, hand lotion, soap, jello, and many drugs are made from parts of cattle.
Cow's blood is often used in special effects in the creation of action or horror movies.
Bones from cattle can be made into knife handles or napkin rings.
Angus, which are medium-sized black, polled cattle, originating from Angus in Scotland.
Angus cattle are known for excellent quality beef, and ability to be used in cross-breeding, such as crossing Angus onto Hereford cows or heifers to get black-baldies.
Angus is the most popular beef breed in the United States.
Brahman, which are large cattle that have their origins in India, even though the breed itself was created in the United States from several breeds imported from India.
Brahmans are highly adapted to the hot, tropical climate of the southern USA due to the loose, thick skin, and large ears.
Bulls have large humps over their shoulders that are filled with fat, whereas cows only have small humps.
This breed has been used in creating several hybrid beef breeds such as Beefmaster, Brahmousin, Brangus, Simbrah, and Brahford.
Charolais, which are very large, white, often horned cattle (though many are also born polled) originating from France.
These cattle are very muscular, and known for lean meat.
They are also a good cross on Angus or Hereford-Angus cross calves for the meat market.
Hereford, which are medium to large-sized cattle (some cattle are small, like the Lowliness) red cattle with white faces, white nape over the neck (some lack this), white legs, belly and throat, and may be horned or polled.
Bulls tend to have horns growing down, whereas cows will have horns growing up and out.
Limousin, which are large, reddish coloured cattle with light around the eyes, muzzle, inside the legs, belly and up underneath the tail.
Like Charolais, they originate from France and are heavily muscled, also prized for meat quality and being used as a breed for cross-breeding to produce calves for beef.
They can be either horned or polled.
Red Angus, which are medium-sized red polled cattle, very similar in breeding to Angus cattle.
In the United States, Angus and Red Angus cattle are recognized as separate breeds.
Shorthorn, which are medium-sized to large red, white or roan cattle, sometimes horned or polled.
Simmental, which are quite large, reddish-brown to light-brown cattle often with a white face and a few white patches over the body.
Originating from Switzerland, these cattle were originally used as a dual-purpose breed, but in North America are primarily raised for beef.
This breed can be horned or polled.
Texas Longhorn, which are variable in colour and small to medium in size, but most noted for the very large, expansive horns.
The Texas Longhorn is one of the oldest and original breeds in North and Central America, originating from Spanish longhorn cattle brought over from Spain in the late 15th century.
This breed is also the breed where legends and stories of cowboys and ranching in the Old West or Wild West stem from.
Oxen are cattle trained as work animals.
The word "ox" is used to describe just one.
They are castrated males (steers).
An ox is over four years old and grown to full size when it begins to work.
Oxen are used for pulling plows and wagons, for hauling heavy loads like logs or for powering different machines such as mills and irrigation pumps.
Oxen are most often used in teams of two for light work such as plowing.
In past days, very large teams of fourteen to twenty oxen were used for heavy work such as logging.
The oxen are put into pairs and each pair must work together.
A wooden yoke is put about the neck of each pair, so that the work is shared across their shoulders.
Oxen are chosen from certain breeds with horns, since the horns hold the yoke in place when the oxen lower their heads, back up or slow down.
Oxen must be trained from a young age.
The owner must make or buy as many as a dozen yokes of different sizes as the animals grow.
Ox teams are steered by shouted commands, whistles or the noise of a whip crack.
Men who drove ox teams were called teamsters in America, wagoners in Britain, or in Australia, bullockies.
Many bullockies and teamsters were famous for their voices and for their foul language.
Oxen can pull harder and longer than horses, especially for very large loads.
They are not as fast as horses, but they are less often injured or less likely to startle than horses are.
Many oxen are still in use all over the world, especially in poor countries.
According to Hinduism, the cow is holy, and should not be eaten: "the cow is our Mother, for she gives us her milk."
See: sacred cow.
In Portugal, Spain and some Latin American countries, bulls are used for the sport of bullfighting.
In many other countries, this is illegal.
A mistaken idea about cattle (mostly bulls) is that they become angry when they see the color red.
Cattle cannot see red, because they do not have red receptors in their eyes.
They can, however, see colors such as blue, yellow and green because they have yellow and blue receptors in their eyes.
This mistake comes from seeing Matadors or bull-fighters using a red cape to encourage a bull to charge at them.
But really, red is a color that is only used as part of Spanish tradition and culture.
It is also a way to make the matador more visible from the crowd, and enables people in the crowd to easily see what is going on, and also as a way to excite them.
Thus, it is merely the motion of the cape that makes a bull charge, not the colour.
An angry bull or bull that is threatening you will charge if you move or if something, no matter the color, is waved in front of his face.
The Ox is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese Zodiac related to the Chinese calendar.
The constellation Taurus represents a bull.
Some close-up pictures
Water Buffalo and their importance
Cattle Breeds website - Oklahoma State University
PBS Nature: Holy Cow (about cows in general)  yeah
Bovines
Quick (restaurant chain), a French fast-food chain
Quick (automobile), an American-made car