the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Siegessäule (Statue of Victory)
Tiergarten (Central Park)
Unter den Linden (Main boulevard)
The Berlin cuisine and culinary offerings vary greatly.
23 restaurants in Berlin have been awarded one or more Michelin stars in 2021, which ranks the city at the top for the number of restaurants in Germany.
Many local foods originated from north German culinary traditions and include rustic and hearty dishes with pork, goose, fish, peas, beans, cucumbers, or potatoes.
Typical Berliner fare include popular street food like the Currywurst Buletten (meat balls) and the Berliner doughnut, known in Berlin as .
German bakeries offering a variety of breads and pastries are widespread.
One of Europe's largest delicatessen market is found at the department store KaDeWe.
Among the world's largest chocolate stores is Fassbender & Rausch.
Berlin is also home to a diverse gastronomy scene reflecting the immigrant history of the city.
Immigrants brought their culinary traditions to the city, such as the modern fast-food version of the doner kebab.
Asian cuisine like Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, Indian, Korean, and Japanese restaurants, as well as Spanish tapas bars, Italian, and Greek cuisine, can be found in many parts of the city.
In 2018, the GDP of Berlin totaled €147 billion.
The city is the largest metropolitan economy in Germany and the third largest in the European Union.
Berlin's economy is dominated by the service sector, with around 85% of all companies doing business in services.
In 2019, the total labor force in Berlin was about 2.0 million.
Important economic sectors in Berlin include life sciences, transportation, information and communication technologies, media and music, advertising and design, biotechnology, environmental services, construction, e-commerce, retail, hotel business, and medical engineering.
Research and development are important for the city.
Berlin is part of the Eurozone.
Berlin has partnerships with 17 cities.
Each of the 12 boroughs also has their sister cities, sometimes called twin cities.
- Official page www.berlin.de
Berlin Sightseeing Tours
EXBERLINER - English City Magazine
Berlin City Panoramas - Panoramic Views and virtual Tours of Berlin
1933 – Adolf Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany
1933 – Prohibition ends in the United States
1939 – The start of World War II
Nancy Drew books debut
King Faisal I (Iraq)
King Ghazi (Iraq)
King Faisal II (Iraq)
President of the Executive Council W.T. Cosgrave (Irish Free State)
President of the Executive Council Éamon de Valera (Irish Free State)
Taoiseach Éamon de Valera (Éire)
Emir Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah (Kuwait)
Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar (Portugal)
Sultan Mohammed V (Morocco)
Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage (New Zealand)
Prime Minister James Barry Munnik Hertzog (South Africa)
General Secretary Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)
President Alcalá Zamora (Spain)
Prime Minister Manuel Azaña (Spain)
Prime Minister Alejandro Lerroux (Spain
President Bahij al-Khatib (Syria)
Bey (Crown Prince) Ahmad II (Tunisia)
President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (Turkey)
King Edward VIII (United Kingdom)
King George VI (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain (United Kingdom)
President Franklin D. Roosevelt (United States)
Holy Father Pope Pius XI (Vatican)
Adolf Hitler, German politician
Pope Pius XI, Pope in the 1930s
George V, British king
Joseph Stalin, leader of the USSR
Benito Mussolini, Italian politician
Hirohito, Emperor of Japan
Louis Armstrong, Jazz musician
Dionne Quintuplets, Canadian siblings, first quintuplets to survive infancy
1940 – Retreat at Dunkirk
1941; Attack on Pearl Harbor, which followed by U.S join the war then.
1944 – Normandy invasion
1945 (August 6 and 9) – first use of the atomic bomb in warfare.
1945 – World War II ends
1945 – Start of the Cold War
1945-1946 – Nuremberg Trials
1946 – baby boom begins in the United States.
1947 – Independence for India and other colonies.
1947-1949 – Indo-Pakistani War
1948-1949 – Arab-Israeli War
1949 – Communists take power in China.
Pope Pius XII, Pope in the 1930s
George VI, British king
Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
Mahatma Gandhi, leader of India
Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party of China
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, President of the United States (until 1945)
Harry S Truman, President of the United States
1950–1953 Korean War.
1953 – Structure of DNA published by James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins.
1953 – Edmund Hillary is the first man on Mount Everest.
1954 – Battle of Dien Bien Phu ends France's colonization of Vietnam and leads to division of Vietnam into North and South.
1956 – Hungarian Revolution of 1956
1956 – Suez Crisis
1958 – Treaty of Rome
1959 – Fidel Castro becomes the Prime Minister of Cuba.
1957 – Sputnik launched.
Konrad Adenauer, German chancellor
Chuck Berry, American rock & roll musician
Fidel Castro, president of Cuba
René Coty, president of France
James Dean, American actor
Paul Newman, American actor
Bo Diddley, American rock & roll musician
Elizabeth II, British queen since 1952
Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the US  1953–1961
Ludwig Erhard, German chancellor
Francisco Franco, Caudillo of Spain
Charles de Gaulle, president of France
George VI, British king until 1952
David Ben-Gurion, prime minister of Israel
Alfred Hitchcock, writer
Pope John XXIII, Pope from 1958
Nikita Khrushchev, General Secretary of the Soviet Union
Marilyn Monroe, American actress
Gamal Abdel Nasser, president of Egypt
Jawaharlal Nehru, prime minister of India
Josip Broz Tito, President of Yugoslavia
Juan Perón, President of Argentina
Pope Pius XII, Pope until 1958
Elvis Presley, American singer
Buddy Holly, American singer
Joseph Stalin, General Secretary of the Soviet Union
Harry S. Truman, President of the US until 1953
Kim Il-Sung, Supreme Leader of North Korea
Hamburg, or in full Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (, Low German: Friee un Hansestadt Hamborg), is a city in the north of Germany on the banks of the River Elbe, 18 km away from the North Sea.
It is also one of the States of Germany.
With a population of about 1.85 million (1850000), it is the biggest German city after Berlin and the sixth largest city of the European Union.
The religion is about 37% Protestant, 10% Catholic, 8% Muslim, 38% agnostic, 2% Pagan.
Since it was an important member of the Hanseatic League, the city's official name still includes Hansestadt (Hanseatic city).
Other German cities that do the same today are: Lübeck, Rostock, Wismar, Stralsund, Bremen, Greifswald and Demmin.
The membership in this trade alliance has influenced the architecture of the city to a great extent.
It has also left some marks in the region around the city.
Strategic bombing in World War II devastated the city.
The area of Hamburg is .
Hamburg's harbour is, by shipments, the second largest harbour in Europe (after Rotterdam) and among the ten largest in the world.
It is a very important gate to the countries along the Baltic Sea and Eastern Europe.
There are about 120,000 businesses in Hamburg.
The company Airbus has an assembly plant for large civil aircraft in Hamburg.
30,000 people are employed in Hamburg's aircraft industries.
There are only two other locations worldwide in this scale, Seattle in the United States and Toulouse in France.
About half of Germany's nationwide newspapers and magazines are made in Hamburg.
Germany's most-viewed television news Tagesschau is broadcast from Hamburg.
, Saint Petersburg, since 1957
, Marseille, since 1958
, Shanghai, since 1986
, Dresden, since 1987
, León, since 1989
, Ōsaka, since 1989
, Prague, since 1990
, Chicago, since 1994
Imperial free cities
It is one of the diseases that make up chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
This is a set of diseases where the flow of air in the lungs is obstructed.
Emphysema is most often caused by smoking but can be caused by other diseases or have no known cause at all.
It occurs when the very small air sacs (called the alveoli) at the ends of the airways in the lungs start to break down from many sacs to form much bigger sacs.
The alveoli are the areas of the lung where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged into and out of the blood.
Emphysema makes it hard for people to blow air out of the lungs because air gets trapped inside the broken alveoli due to the collapse of the walls.
The trapped air in the lungs creates the characteristic "barrel chest" of emphysema.
There is no cure for emphysema.
Treatment includes stopping smoking and taking medicines ('broncho-dilators' and sometimes corticosteroids).
Supplemental oxygen is recommended in those with low oxygen levels at rest.
It decreases the risk of heart failure and death if used 15 hours per day, and may improve people's ability to exercise.
In those with normal or mildly low oxygen levels, oxygen supplementation may improve shortness of breath.
There is a risk of fires and little benefit when those on oxygen continue to smoke.
Emphysema is commonly associated with chronic bronchitis.
As it is rather difficult to delineate "pure" cases of emphysema or chronic bronchitis they are classed together into chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
Global initiative for chronic obstructive lung disease
Oxygen is a chemical element.
It has the symbol O and atomic number 8.
It is the third most common element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium.
Oxygen is more than a fifth of the Earth's atmosphere by volume.
In the air, two oxygen atoms usually join to make dioxygen (), a colourless gas.
This gas is often just called oxygen.
It has no taste or smell.
It is pale blue when it is liquid or solid.
Oxygen is part of the chalcogen group on the periodic table.
It is a very reactive nonmetal.
It makes oxides and other compounds with many elements.
The oxygen in these oxides and in other compounds (mostly silicate minerals, and calcium carbonate in limestone) makes up nearly half of the Earth's crust, by mass.
Most living things use oxygen in respiration.
Many molecules in living things have oxygen in them, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and fats.
Oxygen is a part of water, which all known life needs to live.
Algae, cyanobacteria and plants make the Earth's oxygen gas by photosynthesis.
They use the Sun's light to get hydrogen from water, giving off oxygen.
Oxygen gas () was isolated by Michael Sendivogius before 1604.
It is often thought that the gas was discovered in 1773 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in Sweden, or in 1774 by Joseph Priestley, in England.
Priestley is usually thought to be the main discoverer because his work was published first (although he called it "dephlogisticated air", and did not think it was a chemical element).
Antoine Lavoisier gave the name oxygène to the gas in 1777.
He was the first person to say it was a chemical element.
He was also right about how it helps combustion work.
At the top of the Earth's atmosphere is ozone (), in the ozone layer.
It absorbs ultraviolet radiation, which means less radiation reaches ground level.
Oxygen gas is used for making steel, plastics and textiles.
It also has medical uses and is used for breathing when there is no good air (by divers and firefighters, for example), and for welding.
Liquid oxygen and oxygen-rich compounds can be used as a rocket propellant.
Early experiments
One of the first known experiments on how combustion needs air was carried out by Greek Philo of Byzantium in the 2nd century BC.
He wrote in his work Pneumatica that turning a vessel upside down over a burning candle and putting water around this vessel meant that some water went into the vessel.
Philo thought this was because the air was turned into the classical element fire.
A long time after, Leonardo da Vinci worked out that some air was used up during combustion, and this forced water into the vessel.
In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle found that air is needed for combustion.
English chemist John Mayow added to this by showing that fire only needed a part of air.
We now call this oxygen (O2).
He found that a candle burning in a closed container made the water rise to replace a fourteenth of the air's volume before it went out.
The same thing happened when a live mouse was put into the box.
From this, he worked out that oxygen is used for both respiration and combustion.
Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov and Pierre Bayen all made oxygen in experiments in the 17th and 18th centuries.
None of them thought it was a chemical element.
This was probably because of the idea of the phlogiston theory.
This was what most people believed caused combustion and corrosion.
J. J. Becher came up with the theory in 1667, and Georg Ernst Stahl added to it in 1731.
The phlogiston theory stated that all combustible materials were made of two parts.
One part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned.
Materials that leave very little residue when they burn, like wood or coal, were thought to be made mostly of phlogiston.
Things that corrode, like iron, were thought to contain very little.
Air was not part of this theory.
Polish alchemist, philosopher and physician Michael Sendivogius wrote about something in air that he called the "food of life", and this meant what we now call oxygen.
Sendivogius found, between 1598 and 1604, that the substance in air is the same as he got by heating potassium nitrate.
Some people believe this was the discovery of oxygen while others disagree.
Some say that oxygen was discovered by Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele.
He got oxygen in 1771 by heating mercuric oxide and some nitrates.
Scheele called the gas "fire air", because it was the only gas known to allow combustion (gases were called "airs" at this time).
He published his discovery in 1777.
On 1 August 1774, British clergyman Joseph Priestley focused sunlight on mercuric oxide in a glass tube.
From this experiment he got a gas that he called "dephlogisticated air".
He found that candles burned more brightly in the gas and a mouse lived longer while breathing it.
After breathing the gas, Priestley said that it felt like normal air, but his lungs felt lighter and easy afterwards.
His findings were published in 1775.
It is because his findings were published first that he is often said to have discovered oxygen.
French chemist Antoine Lavoisier later said he had discovered the substance as well.
Priestley visited him in 1774 and told him about his experiment.
Scheele also sent a letter to Lavoisier in that year that spoke of his discovery.
Lavoisier's research
Lavoisier did the first main experiments on oxidation.
He was the first person to explain how combustion works.
He used these and other experiments to prove the phlogiston theory wrong.
He also tried to prove that the substance discovered by Priestley and Scheele was a chemical element.
In one experiment, Lavoisier found that there was no increase in weight when tin and air were heated in a closed container.
He also found that air rushed in when the container was opened.
After this, he found that the weight of the tin had increased by the same amount as the weight of the air that rushed in.
He published his findings in 1777.
He wrote that air was made up of two gases.
One he called "vital air" (oxygen), which is needed for combustion and respiration.
The other (nitrogen) he called "azote", which means "lifeless" in Greek. (
This is still the name of nitrogen in some languages, including French.)
Lavoisier renamed "vital air" to "oxygène", from Greek words meaning "sour making" or "producer of acid".
He called it this because he thought oxygen was in all acids, which is wrong.
Later chemists realised that Lavoiser's name for the gas was wrong, but the name was too common by then to change.
Later history
John Dalton's theory of atoms said that all elements had one atom and atoms in compounds were usually alone.
For example, he wrongly thought that water (H2O) had the formula of just HO.
In 1805, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
By 1811, Amedeo Avogadro correctly worked out what water was made of based on Avogadro's law.
By the late 19th century, scientists found that air could be turned into a liquid and the compounds in it could be isolated by compressing and cooling it.
Swiss chemist and physicist Raoul Pictet discovered liquid oxygen by evaporating sulfur dioxide to turn carbon dioxide into a liquid.
This was then also evaporated to cool oxygen gas in order to turn it into a liquid.
He sent a telegram to the French Academy of Sciences on 22 December 1877 telling them of his discovery.
Properties and molecular structure
At standard temperature and pressure, oxygen has no colour, odour or taste.
It is a gas with the chemical formula  called dioxygen.
As dioxygen (or just oxygen gas), two oxygen atoms are chemically bound to each other.
This bond can be called many things, but simply called a covalent double bond.
Oxygen gas is very reactive and can react with many other elements.
Oxides are made when metal elements react with oxygen, such as iron oxide, which is known as rust.
There are a lot of oxide compounds on Earth.
Allotropes
The common allotrope (type) of oxygen on Earth is called dioxygen (O2).
This is the second biggest part of the Earth's atmosphere, after dinitrogen (N2).
O2 has a bond length of 121 pm and a bond energy of 498 kJ/mol Because of its energy, O2 is used by complex life like animals.
Ozone (O3) is very reactive and damages the lungs when breathed in.
Ozone is made in the upper atmosphere when O2 combines with pure oxygen made when O2 is split by ultraviolet radiation.
Ozone absorbs a lot of radiation in the UV part of the electromagnetic spectrum and so the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere protects Earth from radiation.
Tetraoxygen (O4) was discovered in 2001.
It only exists in extreme conditions when a lot of pressure is put onto O2.
Oxygen dissolves more easily from air into water than nitrogen does.
When there is the same amount of air and water, there is one molecule of O2 for every 2 molecules of N2 (a ratio of 1:2).
This is different to air, where there is a 1:4 ratio of oxygen to nitrogen.
It is also easier for O2 to dissolve in freshwater than in seawater.
Oxygen condenses at 90.20 K (-182.95°C, -297.31 °F) and freezes at 54.36 K (-218.79 °C, -361.82 °F).
Both liquid and solid O2 are see-through with a light-blue colour.
There are three stable isotopes of oxygen in nature.
They are 16O, 17O, and 18O. About 99.7% of oxygen is the 16O isotope.
Oxygen is the third most common element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium.
About 0.9% of the Sun's mass is oxygen.
Apart from iron, oxygen is the most common element on Earth (by mass).
It makes up nearly half (46%
to 49.2% of the Earth's crust as part of oxide compounds like silicon dioxide and other compounds like carbonates.
It is also the main part of the Earth's oceans, making up 88.8% by mass.
Oxygen gas is the second most common part of the atmosphere, making up 20.95% of its volume and 23.1% of its volume.
Earth is strange compared to other planets, as a large amount of its atmosphere is oxygen gas.
Mars has only 0.1%  by volume, with the other planets having less than that.
The much higher amount of oxygen gas around Earth is because of the oxygen cycle.
Photosynthesis takes hydrogen from water using energy from sunlight, which gives off oxygen gas.
The hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide to make carbohydrates.
Respiration then takes oxygen gas out of the atmosphere and turns it into carbon dioxide and water.
This happens at the nearly same rate, so the amount of oxygen gas and carbon dioxide doesn't change much because of it.
O2 is a very important part of respiration.
Because of this, it is used in medicine.
It is used to increase the amount of oxygen in a persons blood so more respiration can take place.
This can make them become healthy quicker if they are ill.
Oxygen therapy is used to treat emphysema, pneumonia, some heart problems, and any disease that makes it harder for a person to take in oxygen.
Life support
Low-pressure O2 is used in space suits, surrounding the body with the gas.
Pure oxygen is used but at a much lower pressure.
If the pressure were higher, it would be poisonous.
Smelting of iron ore into steel uses about 55% of oxygen made by humans.
To do this, O2 gas is injected into the ore through a lance at high pressure.
This removes any sulfur or carbon from the ore that would not be wanted.
They are given off as sulfur oxide and carbon dioxide.
The temperature can go as high as 1,700 °C because it is an exothermic reaction.
Around 25% of oxygen made by humans is used by chemists.
Ethylene is reacted with O2 to make ethylene oxide.
This is then changed to ethylene glycol, which is used to make many products such as antifreeze and polyester (these can then be turned into plastics and fabrics).
The oxidation state of oxygen is −2 in nearly every compound it is in.
In a few compounds, the oxidation state is −1, such as peroxides.
Compounds of oxygen with other oxygen states are very uncommon.
Oxides and other inorganic compounds
Water () is an oxide of hydrogen.
It is the most common oxide on Earth.
All known life needs water to live.
Water is made of two hydrogen atoms covalent bonded to an oxygen atom (oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen). (
this is the basic principle of covalent bonding)
There are also electrostatic forces (Van de'r Waals forces) between the hydrogen atoms and adjacent molecules' oxygen atoms.
These pseudo-bonds bring the atoms around 15% closer to each other than most other simple liquids.
This is because Water is a polar molecule (Net asymmetrical distribution of electrons) due to its bent shape, giving it an overall net field direction, mainly due to oxygens 2 non bonding pairs of electrons, pushing the bonding H's further together than the linear arrangement with lower enthalpy (see CO2).
This property is exploited by microwaves to oscillate polar molecules, especially water.
And its responsible for the extra energy needed to disassociate H20.
Because of oxygen's high electronegativity, it makes chemical bonds with almost all other chemical elements.
These bonds give oxides (for example iron reacts with oxygen to give iron oxide).
Most metal's surfaces are turned into oxides when in air.
Iron's surface will turn to rust (iron oxide) when in air for a long time.
There are small amounts of carbon dioxide () in the air, and it is turned into carbohydrates during photosynthesis.
Living things give it off during respiration.
Many organic compounds have oxygen in them.
Some of the classes of organic compounds that have oxygen are alcohols, ethers, ketones, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, esters, and amides.
Many organic solvents also have oxygen, such as acetone, methanol, and isopropanol.
Oxygen is also found in nearly all biomolecules that are made by living things.
Industrial production
One hundred million tonnes of O2 are gotten from air for industrial uses every year.
Industries use two main methods to make oxygen.
The most common method is fractional distillation of liquefied air.
N2 evaporates while O2 is left as a liquid.
O2 is the second most important industrial gas.
Because it is more economical , oxygen is usually stored and transported as a liquid.
A small steel tank of 16 liters water capacity with a working pressure of 139 bar (2015 psi) holds about 2150 liters of gas and weighs 28 kilograms (62 lb) empty.
2150 liters of oxygen weighs about 3 kilograms (6.6 lb).
The other main method of making oxygen is by passing a stream of clean, dry air through a pair of zeolite molecular sieves.
The zeolite molecular sieves soaks up the nitrogen.
It gives a stream of gas that is 90% to 93% oxygen.
At high pressures, oxygen gas (O2) can be dangerous to animals, including humans.
It can cause convulsions and other health problems.
Oxygen toxicity usually begins to occur at pressures more than 50 kilopascals (kPa), equal to about 50% oxygen in the air at standard pressure (air on Earth has around 20% oxygen).
Premature babies used to be placed in boxes with air with a high amount of O2.
This was stopped when some babies went blind from the oxygen.
Breathing pure O2 in space suits causes no damage because there is a lower pressure used.
Combustion and other hazards
Concentrated amounts of pure O2 can cause a quick fire.
When concentrated oxygen and fuels are brought close together, a slight ignition can cause a huge fire.
The Apollo 1 crew were all killed by a fire because the air of the capsule had a very high amount of oxygen.
Blood is a liquid in humans and many animals.
Blood is pushed through the organism by the heart, and brings nutrients and oxygen to our tissues.
It also takes away waste and carbon dioxide from tissues.
Blood is made up of blood plasma and various cells — red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
Platelets help blood to clot.
Hemoglobin is in red blood cells.
White blood cells help fight infections and heal wounds.
Blood plasma is the yellow liquid in which blood cells float.
Plasma is made up of nutrients, electrolytes (salts), gases, non-protein hormones, waste, lipids, and proteins.
These proteins are albumin, antibodies (also called immunoglobulins), clotting factors, and protein hormones.
Plasma that does not have the protein fibrinogen is called serum and cannot clot.
Adults have about 3 liters of plasma.
Plasma is a liquid, mostly water (90%).
Plasma takes up 55% of blood volume.
Red blood cells
Another name for red blood cell is erythrocyte. '
Erythro' means red; 'cyte' means cell.
RBC is an acronym for red blood cell.
RBCs carry oxygen and carbon dioxide around our body.
Cells in our body need oxygen to live.
Cells also make carbon dioxide as a waste.
RBCs bring more oxygen around the body.
They also take away the carbon dioxide.
RBCs are filled with haemoglobin.
This is a protein.
It is made to carry a large amount of oxygen.
Haemoglobin has iron in it.
The iron and oxygen gives haemoglobin its red color.
This is why blood is red.
Erythropoietin promotes the creation of RBCs.
Blood type antigens are carried on the surface of red cells.
RBCs also help the blood stay normal pH. The blood needs a to be at a pH of 7.4.
If it is much more or less than 7.4 a person can get very sick or die.
RBCs are a buffer for the blood pH. Buffer means that it stops changes in pH. The proteins and the carbon dioxide in the RBC are buffers for the blood.
White blood cells
White blood cells are a big part of the immune system.
They attack things that do not belong in the body.
They kill germs such as bacteria and viruses.
They kill cancer cells.
White blood cells also help to fight other toxic substances.
White blood cells find where the germs are, and start to destroy them.
WBCs arrive in the blood.
They also go out of the blood in places where there is infection.
WBCs do this to fight the germs that make the infection.
If they go out of the blood to fight an infection, they may return in the lymphatic system.
So WBCs are in lymph nodes.
Another name for white blood cell is leukocyte.
Leuko means white.
-cyte means cell.
WBC is an acronym for white blood cell.
There are three main kinds of WBCs.
They are lymphocytes, granulocytes and monocytes.
Some of the WBCs mature into cells which do similar work in the tissues.
The different WBCs work in different ways.
Some WBCs kill and eat germs and cancer cells.
Some WBCs make antibodies.
These are proteins that stick to a cell and tell other WBCs to kill it.
Some WBCs make chemicals.
They release these chemicals to fight things that do not belong in the body.
These chemicals cause inflammation in a part of the body.
When a germ makes someone sick, the body shows it.
If a bacteria gets under someone's skin and causes an infection, the skin gets red, hot, and painful.
This redness, heat, and pain are signs of inflammation.
This shows that WBCs are fighting the infection and killing the bacteria.
Platelets
Platelets help make blood clot.
A clot is when the liquid blood becomes solid.
The body makes blood clot when the skin is cut.
This stops blood from going out of the skin too much.
For blood to be able to clot is essential.
But, rarely, some blood clots are bad.
If a blood clot happens in a blood vessel going to the brain, it can cause a stroke.
If it happens in a blood vessel going to the heart, it can cause a heart attack.
This does not usually happen to young, healthy people.
Platelets are not the only things that make clots.
There are proteins in the blood that help make clots.
Both platelets and clotting proteins are needed to make good clots.
Where blood comes from
Blood cells are made in the bone marrow and in the spleen.
The bone marrow is the soft material in the middle of bones.
Special cells in the bone marrow make most of the blood cells in your body.
Plasma proteins are made mostly by the liver.
The water and electrolytes in plasma come from the food and water that you eat.
Although blood is a fluid, in some respects it is a kind of connective tissue.
Its cells  originate in bone marrow and the spleen, and in the blood there are potential molecular fibres in the form of fibrinogen.
These are activated when a blood clot forms.
The 1960s was the decade that started on January 1, 1960 and ended on December 31, 1969.
Many things happened in the sixties, including the Space Race, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Vietnam War.
The 1960s term also refers to an era more often called the Sixties.
This was a set of cultural and political trends around the globe.
This "cultural decade" is loosely defined as beginning around 1963 and ending around 1974.
The social revolution of the 1960s was part of a wider counterculture.
Old ways were changed, new ways taken up.
Typical was the introduction of the birth control pill, and its effect on sexual activity, widespread use of certain drugs and a general disrespect for traditional ways.
Decolonization of much of Africa
1961 - Yuri Gagarin is first human in the space during Soviet Vostok 1 mission.
1961 – Berlin Wall built.
1961 – Bay of Pigs invasion.
1962 – Cuban Missile Crisis.
1963 – Assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22.
1965 – Indiainvades Pakistan on September 6.
1967 - Six-Day War.
1968 – Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.
1969 – Under the Apollo 11 program Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin become the first humans on the Moon.
Unix created.
Significant people
Stanley Kubrick, director
Orson Welles, director
The Rolling Stones, English rock band
Muhammad Ali, boxer
The Beatles, British rock band
Che Guevara, Argentine marxist, revolutionary
Sean Connery, actor
Bob Dylan, singer, songwriter, artist
Joan Baez, American Folk Singer
Jimi Hendrix, rock singer
Yuri Gagarin, astronaut
Alfred Hitchcock, filmmaker
Harold Macmillan, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
Alec Douglas-Home, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
Harold Wilson, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
Pope John XXIII, Pope until 1963
John F. Kennedy, President of the United States from 1961-1963
Lyndon Johnson, President of the United States from 1963-1969
Richard Nixon, President of the United States from 1969-1974
Martin Luther King Jr., a leader in the American Civil Rights Movement
Nikita Khruschev, Soviet leader
Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet leader
Pope Paul VI since 1963
Chiang Kai-shek, President of the Republic of China
Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India
Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India
Ho Chi Minh, President of North Vietnam
Charles de Gaulle, President of France
Konrad Adenauer, Chancellor Germany
Ludwig Erhard, Chancellor Germany
Kurt Georg Kiesinger, Chancellor Germany
Levi Eshkol, Prime Minister of Israel
Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of Egypt
Mary Quant, fashion designer
Lee Harvey Oswald, the assassin of John F. Kennedy
James Earl Ray, assassin of Martin Luther King Jr.
Thomas Hagan, assassin of Malcolm X
Throughout the decade: decolonization continued: Angola, Mozambique, Papua New Guinea, Oman, the Bahamas, and many other countries gained independence.
1970, December 15 – spaceship Venera 7 lands on Venus.
1971 – Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
December 16 – Partition of Pakistan of East and West Pakistans into Bangladesh and Pakistan.
1972, March 2 – Pioneer 10 is launched (sent into space).
It becomes the first spaceship to fly near Jupiter and the asteroid belt.
1972 – Munich massacre
1973, April 6 – Pioneer 11 is launched.
It becomes the first the first spaceship to fly near Saturn.
1974 – August 9 Richard Nixon resigned as President of the United States due to the Watergate scandal.
1973 – 1973 Arab-Israeli War
1975 – end of the Vietnam War
1975 – communists take power in Cambodia.
1976, July 20 – spaceship Viking 1 lands on Mars.
1977, August 20 – Voyager 2 is launched.
It becomes the first spaceship to fly near Uranus and Neptune.
1977, September 5 – Voyager 1 is launched.
It is now the farthest spaceship from the Earth.
1977: The last cases of smallpox of the world.
1978 – year with three popes
1978, October 1 – Vietnam invades Cambodia.
1979 – the World Health Organization says it has eliminated smallpox.
ABBA, Swedish band
Queen, British band
Sex Pistols, British punk band
The Clash, British punk band
The Ramones, American punk band
Boney M, disco group
John Travolta, American actor
Edward Heath, Prime Minister of United Kingdom from 1970 to 1974
Harold Wilson, Prime Minister of United Kingdom from 1974 to 1976
James Callaghan, Prime Minister of United Kingdom from 1976 to 1979
Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of United Kingdom beginning 1979
Fidel Castro, Cuban leader
Augusto Pinochet, dictator of Chile
Willy Brandt, German chancellor until 1974
Leonid Brezhnev, leader of the Soviet Union beginning in 1964
Richard Nixon, President of the United States until 1974
Gerald Ford, President of the United States until 1977
Jimmy Carter, President of the United States beginning in 1977
Cher, American singer
Yitzhak Rabin, Prime Minister of Israel until 1977
Indira Gandhi, prime minister of India until 1977
Golda Meir, prime minister of Israel until 1974
Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader
Germaine Greer, Australian feminist
Hirohito, emperor of Japan
Pope John Paul I, pope only in the year 1978
Pope John Paul II, pope 1978–2005
Norman Lear, American TV producer
Pete Maravich, United States basketball player
Francisco Franco, dictator of Spain until 1975
Deng Xiaoping, leader in China beginning in 1978
Mao Zedong, leader in China until 1976
Pope Paul VI, pope until 1978
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran until 1979
Juan Perón, President of Argentina until 1974
Jorge Rafael Videla, dictator of Argentina beginning 1976
Muammar al-Gaddafi, dictator Libyan
Pelé, Brazilian football player
Pol Pot, prime minister of Cambodia from 1976 to 1979
Anwar Sadat, president of Egypt beginning in 1970
Helmut Schmidt, German chancellor beginning in 1974
Georges Pompidou, president of France from 1969 to 1974
Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, President of France beginning in 1974
Gloria Steinem, American feminist
Pierre Trudeau, Canadian prime minister until 1979
This decade (group of ten years) is sometimes called the "Greed decade" in English speaking countries.
Unlike the 1960s and 1970s, this is when the word yuppie was used to describe "young urban professionals" – young adults who lived in cities and started to get good jobs.
This was also the rise of a more conservative period in these countries – Ronald Reagan was president for most of this time in the United States, Margaret Thatcher was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and Brian Mulroney was Prime Minister of Canada.
The "eighties" are also well known for their extreme fashions, such as "big hair", New Wave, punk rock, funk, or preppies.
Rap music first started to get big in the 80s, and often went with breakdancing in what is now called the "old school" days.
Many developments were also made in computer technology during these years, and video games became popular.
In sports, Italy and Argentina won the FIFA World Cup.
The Philadelphia Phillies, Los Angeles Dodgers, St. Louis Cardinals, Baltimore Orioles, Detroit Tigers, Kansas City Royals, New York Mets, Minnesota Twins and Oakland Athletics won the World Series.
The Pittsburgh Steelers, Oakland Raiders, San Francisco 49ers, Washington Redskins, Los Angeles Raiders, Chicago Bears and New York Giants won the Super Bowl.
Finally, the Los Angeles Lakers dominated the NBA, with only the Houston Rockets winning a title.
Important events
1980 - 1988 – Iran-Iraq War
Solidarity movement in Poland.
Glasnost and Perestroika reforms in the Soviet Union.
1981 – AIDS is discovered for the first time.
1981 – Assassination attempts are made on Ronald Reagan and Pope John Paul II.
1982 – Falklands War between Argentina and the United Kingdom.
1979 - 1989 – Soviet-Afghan War
1984 - Sikh Genocide
1986 – Prime Minister Olof Palme is assassinated
1986 – The Space Shuttle Challenger explodes.
1986 – End of Marcos regime in the Philippines
1986 – The Chernobyl accident happens in Ukraine because of a test that went wrong.
It is the second-largest known nuclear accident, after the Mayak accident in 1957.
It is also one of the biggest disasters for the environment.
1987 – President Ronald Reagan travels to Berlin to deliver his "Tear down this wall!"
1989 – Japanese Emperor Hirohito dies.
1989 – Tiananmen Square massacre
1989 – The Berlin Wall is torn down.
Pope John Paul II, Pope in the 1980s
Hirohito, Emperor of Japan from 1926 to 1989
Akihito, Emperor of Japan since 1989
Kim Il-Sung, dictator of North Korea
Deng Xiaoping, leader in China from 1978 to 1990
Jimmy Carter, President of the United States from 1977 to 1981
Ronald Reagan, President of the United States from 1981 to 1989
George H.W. Bush, President of the United States from 1989 to 1993, Vice-President of the United States from 1981 to 1989
Margaret Thatcher, British Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990
Helmut Schmidt, German chancellor until 1982
Helmut Kohl, German chancellor from 1982 to 1998
François Mitterrand, French President from 1981 to 1995
Saddam Hussein, President of Iraq
Muammar al-Gaddafi, Libyan dictator
Hosni Mubarak, President of Egypt
Yitzhak Shamir, Prime minister of Israel
Arnold Schwarzenegger, Austrian actor
Sylvester Stallone, American actor
Michael Jordan, American basketball-player
Tom Cruise, American actor
Eddie Murphy, American actor
Duran Duran, English band
Eurythmics, music band
Prince, American singer
Madonna, American singer
Michael Jackson, American singer
Bob Geldof, musician and fundraiser
Iron Maiden, British heavy metal band
N.W.A, hip hop group
Ferdinand Marcos, President of the Philippines
Corazon Aquino, President of the Philippines
Indira Gandhi, prime minister of India until 1984
Rajiv Gandhi, prime minister of India from 1984 until 1989
Fidel Castro, leader of Cuba
Augusto Pinochet, Chilean dictator
Jorge Rafael Videla, dictator of Argentina until 1981
Leopoldo Galtieri, dictator of Argentina from 1981 to 1982
Nicolae Ceaușescu, Romanian dictator until 1989
Wojciech Jaruzelski, Polish communist leader
Lech Walesa, leader of Polish Solidarity movement
Ayatollah Khomeini, leader of Iran
Mikhail Gorbachev, the last chairman of the communist party of the Soviet Union.
Sandra Day O'Connor, the first woman on the Supreme Court, from Arizona.
Terry Fox, running across most of Canada in his Marathon of Hope.
Hulk Hogan, American pro-wrestler and actor
Steve Jobs, Founder of Apple Inc.
1990 - 1991 – Gulf War
1990 – German reunification
1991 – The end of the Cold War.
1991 – Breakup of Yugoslavia.
1991 – Dissolution of the Soviet Union
1992 – The European Union is founded.
1993 – Dissolution of Czechoslovakia.
1994 – Genocide in Rwanda
1994 – End of Apartheid in South Africa.
1997 – Handover of Hong Kong
Pope John Paul II, Pope in the 1990s (the last full decade he would serve as Pope until his death in 2005)
Andre Agassi, American tennis player
Pete Sampras, American tennis player
Michael Schumacher, German formula 1 driver
Backstreet Boys, American boy band
Slobodan Milošević, President of Serbia from 1989 to 2000
John Major, British Prime Minister from 1990 to 1997
Tony Blair, British Prime Minister from 1997 to 2007
George H. W. Bush, President of the United States until 1993
Bill Clinton President of the United States from 1993–2001
François Mitterrand, President of France from 1981 to 1995
Jacques Chirac, President of France from 1995 to 2007
Jiang Zemin, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 1989 to 2002
Alberto Fujimori President of Peru 1990–2000
Fidel Castro, leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008
Madonna, singer-songwriter
The Prodigy, electronic dance group
Britney Spears, American singer
Spice Girls, music group
Mariah Carey, singer
Celine Dion, singer
Whitney Houston, singer
Mel Gibson, actor
Mikhail Gorbachev, leader of the USSR 1985–1991
Boris Yeltsin, President of Russia from 1991 to 1999
Michael Jordan, American basketball player
Tom Hanks, American actor
Nicole Kidman, actress
Sandra Bullock, American actress
Robin Williams, American actor and comedian
Jim Carrey, Canadian-American actor and comedian
George Clooney, American actor
Brad Pitt, American actor
Eddie Murphy, American actor and comedian
Arnold Schwarzenegger, American actor
Oprah Winfrey, American talk show host
Ellen DeGeneres, American talk show host
Saddam Hussein, President of Iraq 1979–2003
Helmut Kohl, German chancellor until 1998
Nelson Mandela, President of South Africa 1994–1999
Thabo Mbeki, President of South Africa 1999–2008
Yitzhak Rabin, Israeli Prime Minister
Hosni Mubarak, President of Egypt from 1981 to 2011
Muammar al-Gaddafi, Libyan dictator from 1969 to 2011
Nirvana, rock band
Steven Seagal, American actor
Julia Roberts, American actor/actress
Gerhard Schröder, German Chancellor from 1998 to 2005
Lech Wałęsa, President of Poland from 1990 to 1995
Kim Il-Sung, dictator of North Korea from 1948 to 1994
Kim Jong-il, dictator of North Korea from 1994 to 2011
Tupac Shakur, American rapper
Gianni Versace, fashion designer
Bill Gates, co-founder of Microsoft
Steve Jobs, co-founder of Apple
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
http://m-w.com/
North Rhine-Westphalia (, Low Franconian: Noordrien-Wesfale, Low German: Noordrhien-Westfalen, Kölsch: Noodrhing-Wäßßfaale) is the federal state (Bundesland) with the highest population in Germany.
It is in the western part of Germany and has 18,033,000 inhabitants.
The capital is Düsseldorf, while the city with the most inhabitants is Cologne.
1807-1813 — Westphalia is a kingdom.
1817 — Westphalia became a province of Prussia.
1824 — Jülich, Kleve, Berg and Niederrhein united to Rhine Province.
1919 — Belgium took Eupen and Malmedy.
1946 — Rhine Province, Westphalia and Lippe-Detmold united to North Rhine-Westphalia.
Geldern
Heinsberg
Köln
Mülheim an der Ruhr
A computer program is a list of instructions that tell a computer what to do.
Everything a computer does is done by using a computer program.
Programs stored in the memory of a computer ("internal programming") let the computer do one thing after another, even with breaks in between.
John von Neumann, a mathematician born in Hungary, came up with this idea in the late 1940s.
The first digital computer designed with internal programming capacity was the EDVAC (which means Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), built in 1949.
Operating system.
A web browser like Mozilla Firefox and Chrome can be used to view web pages on the Internet.
An office suite can be used to write documents or spreadsheets.
Video games are computer programs.
A computer program is stored as a file on the computer's hard drive.
When the user runs the program, the file is read by the computer, and the processor reads the data in the file as a list of instructions.
Then the computer does what the computer program tells it to do.
A computer program is written by a programmer.
It is very difficult to write in the ones and zeroes of machine code, which is what the computer can read, so computer programmers write in a programming language, such as BASIC, C, or Java.
Once it is written, the programmer uses a compiler to turn it into a language that the computer can understand.
There are also bad programs, called malware, written by people who want to do bad things to a computer.
Some are spyware, trying to steal information from the computer.
Some try to damage the data stored on the hard drive.
Some others send users to web sites that offer to sell them things.
Some are computer viruses or ransomware.
Computer program Citizendium
The word data means "known facts".
Data especially refers to numbers, but can mean words, sounds, and images.
It is used to find data.
Originally, data is the plural of the Latin word datum, from dare, meaning "give".
Datum is rarely used in English.
So data often gets used as if it were a singular word.
Some people like to say "data are", not "data is".
The 2000s, also known as the noughties was the decade that began on January 1, 2000 and ended on December 31, 2009.
November 7, 2000 – George W. Bush is elected President of the United States.
The results were not known until December 12, 2000 due to the state of Florida being too close to the results.
January 13, 2001 – A 6.6 magnitude earthquake strikes El Salvador killing at least 400 people.
February 20, 2001 – An outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease occurs in the United Kingdom and over 10 million sheep and cattle were killed.
July 2, 2001 – The first artificial heart is implanted in a human being.
September 11, 2001 – Terrorist attacks are carried out on the World Trade Center in New York City and The Pentagon in Washington, D.C. by members of the Islamic extremist group Al Qaeda.
The attacks involve the hijacking of four American passenger planes.
Almost 3,000 people die.
Two of these planes fly directly into the two towers of the World Trade Center, causing both towers to collapse.
A third plane flies into a section of the Pentagon.
A fourth plane crashes in a field in Pennsylvania after the terrorists are overpowered by passengers.
September 18, 2001 – Letters containing anthrax spores are mailed to several American media offices and two American senators.
Twenty-two people are exposed and 5 people die.
September 21, 2001 – A chemical factory explodes in Toulouse, France, killing 29 people and seriously wounding over 2,500.
2001 – War in Afghanistan (2001–present) begins as the United States, with help from other countries, invades Afghanistan.
2002 – May 20: East Timor gains independence from Indonesia
2002–2003 – SARS outbreak
2003 – Invasion of Iraq
2003 – December 26: earthquake in Bam, Iran
2004 – March 11: Bomb attacks on Madrid's train network
2004 – June 5: President Ronald Reagan dies at 93
2004 – September 1: Beslan School hostage crisis in Russia
2004 – Orange Revolution in Ukraine
2004 – December 26: tsunami in the Indian Ocean
2005 – April 2: Death of Pope John Paul II
2005 – July 7: Bomb attacks on the London Underground
2005 – October 8: earthquake in Kashmir
2005 – November 22: Angela Merkel becomes Chancellor of Germany
2005 – 2005 Atlantic hurricane season is the worst on record.
2006 – January 16: Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, in Liberia becomes the first female president on the African continent.
2006 – July – August: war between Israel and Lebanon
2006 – December 30: Saddam Hussein is executed in Iraq.
2007 – May 16: Nicolas Sarkozy becomes President of France.
2007 – June 27: Gordon Brown becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
2008 – February 24: Cuban President Fidel Castro retires.
He is succeeded by his brother Raul Castro.
2008 – May 3: Burma is hit by Cyclone Nargis.
2008 – May 12: China's Sichuan province is hit by a major earthquake.
2008 – November: Mumbai terrorist attacks
2008–2009 – war in the Gaza Strip
2009 – January 20: Barack Obama becomes the 44th President of the United States and the first African-American President.
2009-2010 – The flu pandemic turn out to be a global pandemic.
2009 – June 12:The end of analog television broadcast all across United States switch off analog transmitter and translation to Digital Television.
2009 – June 25: Death of Michael Jackson
Pope John Paul II, Pope from 1978 to 2005
Pope Benedict XVI, Pope from 2005 to 2013
Elizabeth II, Monarch of the United Kingdom and other commonwealth countries since 1952
Vladimir Putin, President of Russia from 2000 to 2008
Dmitry Medvedev, President of Russia from 2008 to 2012
Bill Clinton, President of the United States from 1993 to 2001
George W. Bush, President of the United States from 2001 to 2009
Barack Obama, President of the United States from 2009 to 2017
Joseph Estrada, President of the Philippines from 1998 to 2001
Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, President of the Philippines from 2001 to 2010