the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Bath Abbey and Westminster Abbey are no longer cathedrals.
Coventry has had three cathedrals: the first, St Mary's from 1043 to 1539; the second, St Michael's, from 1918 to 1940, when it was destroyed by German bombardment; and its replacement, also St Michael's, built alongside the old cathedral, consecrated in 1962.
Note that the City of London covers only the "square mile", and is usually just referred to as "the City".
The larger conurbation of Greater London has no city charter, and consists of the City of London, the City of Westminster and 31 other London boroughs.
This can be compared to the City of Brussels, within Brussels.
City status was confirmed by Letters Patent dated July 9, 1974.
The city status extends to the entire district, although the district council calls itself "St Albans District Council" or "St Albans City and District".
Letters Patent under the Great Seal conferring City Status were issued to the unitary authority of York on April 1, 1996, confirming the right of the Lord Mayor to be styled "Right Honourable", in continuation to those granted to the previous City Council abolished March 31, 1996.
Letters Patent under the Great Seal were issued on March 29, 1996 ordaining that the counties of Swansea and Cardiff should have the status of cities from April 1, 1996.
The counties replaced the previous district councils which had enjoyed city status.
According to the Municipal Year Book, 1972 the royal burghs of Perth and Elgin officially enjoyed city status.
The royal burghs of Brechin, Dunfermline and Kirkwall had also been officially described as "cities".
As all burghs were abolished in 1975, these areas are now often called "former cities".
Although Brechin does not have city status, the community council formed for the area uses the title "City of Brechin and District".
The Provost of Inverness is the Area Convenor of the Inverness Area Committee of Highland Council.
The Provost of Stirling is the civic head of the entire Stirling council area, although city status only extends to the town of Stirling.
Armagh had previously enjoyed city status, with St Patrick's Cathedral the site of the metropolitan primate of all Ireland.
The city status was lost in 1840 when the city corporation was abolished.
However, the successor urban district council and district council frequently used the title of city without official sanction prior to 1994.
City Status confirmed by Letters Patent issued under the Great Seal dated March 18, 1975.
City status granted by Letters Patent dated June 7, 1977.
City status granted to the "Town of Newport in the County Borough of Newport" and the "Town of Preston" by Letters Patent dated May 15, 2002.
Letters Patent dated January 31, 2001 ordained that "the Towns of Brighton and Hove shall have the status of a City".
Letters Patent dated January 31, 2001 ordained that "the Town of Wolverhampton shall have the status of a City".
Letters Patent dated November 4, 1980 ordained that the "Town of Lichfield shall have the status of a City".
A town council had been constituted in 1980 leading to the dissolution of the Charter Trustees of the City of Lichfield.
City status granted by Letters Patent  dated March 23, 1992.
City status was conferred on Hereford Town Council October 11, 2000.
The status had previously been confirmed to the district council formed in 1974.
When that council was abolished in 1996 charter trustees were formed for the City of Hereford.
On the formation of a town council for Hereford in April 2000 the charter trustees were dissolved, and the city status temporarily lapsed.
St. David's historically had city status because of the presence of St David's Cathedral.
This status was lost in the 19th.
century after local government reorganization.
Letters Patent dated September 16, 1994 ordained that the "Town of St. David's shall have the status of a City".
The title of City was used "by courtesy" after 1550 when Westminster ceased to be the see of a bishop.
By Letters Patent dated October 27 1900 city status was conferred on the newly created Metropolitan Borough of Westminster from November 1.
This status was continued on the creation of the City of Westminster as a london borough in 1965.
A letter from the Home Secretary to the Mayor of Leicester confirming that the city status would be bestowed, noted that this was a "restoration to your ancient town of its former status of a city."
Declaration that the Chief Magistrate and Officer of the City to bear the style and title of Lord Mayor due to the city's high position in the roll of ports of [the] kingdom June 26, 1914
Declaration that the Chief Magistrate of the City to bear the style and title of Lord Mayor July 10, 1928 in consideration of its antiquity and importance
Letters Patent dated May 10, 1935, in commemoration of his Majesty's silver jubilee
Style of "Right Honourable" conferred on Lord Mayor by Letters Patent dated October 26, 1956.
The city was designated the capital of Wales at that date.
The Lord Mayoralty was granted in 1910 in view of the position occupied by that city as the chief city of East Anglia and of its close association with his Majesty
The present council areas are designated  "cities" by virtue of the Local Government etc. (
Scotland) Act 1994, which also reserves the post of Lord Provost for the convener of the four councils.
The previous local government districts and district councils created by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 enjoyed the same privileges.
Government list of UK cities
BBC News: Rochester loses city status
Local government in the United Kingdom
The P-38 Lightning is a World War II fighter aircraft made by Lockheed.
It was mainly used by the United States Air Force.
It first flew in 1939.
It was different from other fighters because it had two engines instead of one, and was twice the size of other fighters.
The plane fought in the Pacific and in Europe.
It could carry 4 50-caliber machine guns and a 20mm cannon.
With a top speed of over 400 miles per hour the P-38 was one of the fastest fighters of its time.
The P-38 is also accounted for capturing 90% of all aerial footage over Europe.
By 1944, it was replaced by the faster P-51 Mustang in Europe.
The P-38 was the only American fighter being built at the beginning and the end of the war.
The Germans called it the "fork tailed devil."
P-38
The Messerschmitt Bf 109 was a fighter aircraft usually called the Me 109.
It was a German World War II aircraft.
Made by Messerschmitt, it first flew in 1935, and was used by the Luftwaffe during the Spanish Civil War and throughout World War II.
It was one of the first modern fighters of the time.
It had an all-metal construction, a closed cockpit, and retractable landing gear.
It was powered by a liquid-cooled, inverted-V12 aero engine.
There were many variations designed for special purposes.
Overall, the Me 109 was the most produced fighter aircraft in history, with a total of 33,984 airframes produced from 1936 up to April 1945.
The design of the plane caused some problems on the ground, and with take-off and landing.
At least 10% of all Bf 109s were lost in takeoff and landing accidents, 1,500 of which occurred between 1939 and 1941.
A new fixed tailwheel helped correct the problem.
Bf 109 was used by Luftwaffe together with FW 190.
The Messerschmitt had two machine guns and one cannon while FW 190 had two machine guns and four cannons.
Bf 109 was much lighter than FW 190, by 1500 kg.
Despite that Bf 109 was almost as fast as FW 190 (Fw 190 A-8 was only 16kph faster than Bf 109 G-6) and climbed at 17 m/s, 2 m/s faster than FW 190.
P-51 Mustang
World War II German aircraft
The Me 262 was a German fighter aircraft flown during late World War II.
It was the first jet to be used in war.
It began test flights in 1942, but was not used in combat by the German air force, the Luftwaffe, until 1944.
Very few were built because Germany's enemies were bombing factories.
It saw little action because the war was nearly over.
The jet engines of the new machine often caused problems, that's why a lot of machines had deathly accidents.
Osmosis (/ɒzˈmoʊ.sɪs/) is the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a selectively permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides.
It may also be describe how any solvent moves across a selectively permeable membrane (permeable to the solvent, but not the solute) separating two solutions of different concentrations.
Osmosis can be made to do work.
Osmotic pressure is defined as the external pressure required to be applied so that there is no net movement of solvent across the membrane.
Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, meaning that the osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute but not on its identity.
Osmosis is a vital process in biological systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable.
In general, these membranes are impermeable to large and polar molecules, such as ions, proteins, and polysaccharides, while being permeable to non-polar or hydrophobic molecules like lipids as well as to small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and nitric oxide.
Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size.
Water molecules travel through the plasma membrane, tonoplast membrane (vacuole) or protoplast by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer via aquaporins (small transmembrane proteins similar to those responsible for facilitated diffusion and ion channels).
Osmosis provides the primary means by which water is transported into and out of cells.
The turgor pressure of a cell is largely maintained by osmosis across the cell membrane between the cell interior and its relatively hypotonic environment.
Hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic
Solutions may have more or less solute per unit of solvent.
The one with less is called Hypotonic.
When the two solutions have equal concentration, they are isotonic.
The one with more is Hypertonic.
When the hypotonic solution is outside the cell,and hypertonic solution inside, the cell becomes swollen and distorted.
Cell membranes
The plasma membrane of a cell is semi-permeable, which means it allowed the entry of certain molecules in or out, it lets small molecules pass through, but blocks larger molecules,.
The membrane also has ports or gateways which get certain macromolecules through.
This is active transport, which uses energy and is selective.
It is outermost covering of the animal cell.
It is made up of proteins and lipids.
Example:- Exchange of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide.
The MiG-17 Fresco is a fighter aircraft made by Mikoyan, a Russian company.
It first flew in 1950, and was supposed to replace the MiG-15 in the Korean War, but it did not arrive fast enough.
It was used by the North Vietnamese in the Vietnam War.
It carried 3 guns on it, and later versions carried missiles.
Today, it is used as a trainer in other air forces.
Mikoyan is a Russian company that designs fighter airplanes.
The company was first formed in December 1939 as a design office called Mikoyan-Gurevich or MiG, this was because its designers were Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich.
Mikoyan will join other Russian airplane companies in a new company called United Aircraft Corporation.
In 1939 Russia was part of the Soviet Union and was communist.
In the Soviet communist system there were two types of airplane companies, companies that designed aircraft known as design offices or OKB, and companies that made airplanes called zavods.
Artom Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich had been designers in another design office helping a designer called Nikolai Polikarpov.
One airplane design that Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich worked on at Polikarpov was called the I-200.
When Nikolai Polikarpov lost the trust of the Soviet leader Stalin, Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich were given the I-200 design to finish.
This airplane was given a new name and was called the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-1.
As it was being made, ways to make the MiG-1 into a better airplane were found and airplanes with these changes became known as the MiG-3 and later the MiG-7.
However even with changes the MiG fighter airplanes were not as good as the fighter airplanes designed by the design offices of Lavochkin or Yakovlev.
After World War II Mikoyan-Gurevich designed jet aircraft.
In the Soviet system the airplane designs of the design offices would compete to see which was the best.
When the best design had been found the design would be built by the airplane manufacturing company.
Even though Mikoyan-Gurevich airplanes in World War II had not been as good as airplanes by Lavochkin or Yakovlev.
Mikoyan-Gurevich jet aircraft won more of the competitions to be sent to the zavods and in the time of the Cold War Mikoyan-Gurevich, together with another design office called Sukhoi, became one of the two most important design offices of fighter planes in the Soviet Union.
In the Soviet system decisions were made to protect the government from its own soldiers.
In many countries there is only one airforce, the Soviet Union had five airforces.
Two of these airforces were the main users of Soviet fighter airplanes.
One airforce was called PVO Strany, this airforce was used to defend the cities and land of the Soviet Union.
One airforce was called Frontal Aviation, this airforce was used to defend the Soviet Union's ground soldiers against enemy fighter airplanes, and to attack enemy ground forces.
Mikoyan-Gurevich became the main designer of aircraft for Frontal Aviation.
Aircraft made
Mikoyan MiG-1
Mikoyan MiG-3 (also called MiG-7)
MiG-9 Fargo
MiG-15 Fagot
MiG-17 Fresco
MiG-19 Farmer
MiG-21 Fishbed
MiG-23 Flogger
MiG-25 Foxbat
MiG-27 Flogger
MiG-31 Foxhound
Companies of Russia
Juno (mythology), a major Roman goddess
June, the month named after Juno
3 Juno, one of the largest main belt asteroids
Juno (band), an American indie rock band
Juno (musical), a Broadway musical with score by Marc Blitzstein based on Sean O'Casey's play Juno and the Paycock
Juno Reactor, a trance music project of Ben Watkins
Juno Mak, a Cantopop artist
Juno Award, a Canadian music award
Roland Juno-60, Roland Juno-106 or Roland Juno-D (1983?-Present), synthesizers by Roland
"Juno", a song by Funeral for a Friend, from their debut EP Between Order & Model.
Later re-recorded for debut LP Casually Dressed and Deep in Conversation and released as a single under the name Juneau
Juno Records, an online music store
Juno (spacecraft), a planned NASA mission to Jupiter
HMS Juno, the name of seven vessels of Royal Navy
Jupiter-C (rocket), also known as Juno or Juno I
Jupiter (missile) also known as Juno II
Juno (1864 – 1884), one of the eight South Devon Railway Dido class steam locomotives
Juno, a Great Western Railway Banking Class 0-6-0ST steam locomotive.
Juno, a Spanish ship sank in 1802.
After its 1997 discovery in Assateague coast (Virginia) the Spanish government claimed ownership of the wreck.
Juno (movie) a 2007 comedy-drama movie directed by Jason Reitman
Juno (Dune), a Titan in the fictional Dune universe
Juno Beach, one of five beaches used as landing zones in the Battle of Normandy in World War II
3 Juno, the third asteroid to be discovered
Juno clump, a probable asteroid family near 3 Juno
Juno Online Services, an internet service provider in the United States
Project Juno, a British commercial venture that sent Helen Sharman to space
Juno, protagonist of the video game Jet Force Gemini
MegaMan Juno, a villain in the video game Mega Man Legends
Juno Skinner, a villain in the 1994 film True Lies
Juno Lighting, a company that specializes in commercial and residential lighting
Juno creator of Star Cross'd Destiny
Juno the game by Mountain King Studios
Juno, a powerful Denial of Service attack program, written in the C Programming Language
Juno, a German cigarette brand produced by Reemtsma
Juno Temple, an English actress
Neptune (Latin: Neptūnus) is the god of water and the sea in ancient Roman religion and mythology.
His Greek equivalent is the god Poseidon.
The Roman conception of Neptune was mainly influenced by the Etruscan god Nethuns.
Neptune was associated with fresh water as well as the sea, while Oceanus was the god of the world-ocean.
Like his Greek equivalent, Neptune was also worshipped by the Romans as the god of horses, and, under the name Neptune Equester, he was a patron god of horse-racing.
Poseidon -- Greek version of Neptune
Fortuna (Latin and Spanish: "fortune") can mean:
Fortuna, the Roman goddess of luck (from the Greek Tyche)
19 Fortuna, an asteroid
Fortuna, California, a town on the north coast of California
Fortuna, North Dakota, a town in the northwest of North Dakota, near the Canadian border.
Fortuna (SEPTA station)
Fortuna, Murcia, a town in the province of Murcia in Spain
Fortuna (Brazilian singer), a female singer and composer from Brazil of Jewish origin
Wojciech Fortuna, a former ski jumper and Olympic gold medallist
Fortuna (philosophy), Philosophy of the Fellowship of Fortuna Movement
Fortuna (PRNG), a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator design by Niels Ferguson and Bruce Schneier
Fortuna, a fictional planet from the Star Fox series of video games
Fortuna (cigarette), a cigarette brand owned by Altadis
"O Fortuna", widely recognizable opening movement of Carl Orff's Carmina Burana
Fortuna Saga, an original sprite-based webcomic set in the world of Final Fantasy VI.
A name for bagatelle, a game developed from billiard
For the folk music band, see Sol Invictus (band).
The earlier cult of Sol Indiges ("the native sun" or "the invoked sun") was agrarian.
The title Deus Sol Invictus was formed similar to the imperial titulature pius felix invictus ("dutiful, fortunate, unconquered").
The Romans held a festival on December 25 called Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, "the birthday of the unconquered sun."
The use of the title Sol Invictus allowed several solar deities to be worshipped together, including Elah-Gabal, a Syrian sun god; Sol, the patron god of Emperor Aurelian (AD 270-274); and Mithras, a soldiers' god of Persian origin.
Emperor Elagabalus (218-222) introduced the festival, and it reached the height of its popularity under Aurelian, who promoted it as an empire-wide holiday that was a possible inspiration of Christmas.
Halsberghe, L. 1972.
The Cult of Sol Invictus (Leiden)
Encyclopedia Britannica Online: Sol
Probus and Sol, includes images of coins
Roman-Emperors: Aurelian
Gibbon's Decline and Fall: Triumph of Aurelian
Gibbon's references for Aurelian's Temple of Sol Invictus
Clement A. Miles, Christmas in Ritual and Tradition, Christian and Pagan (1912): December 25 and the Natalis Invicti
Catholic Encyclopedia (1908): Christmas
An optical printer is a device.
It can be used to copy rolls of movies.
It is made of one or more movie projectors, which are linked to a movie camera.
It allows filmmakers to re-photograph one or more strips of movie.
The optical printer is used for making special effects for motion pictures or for copying and restoring old movie material.
Common optical effects include fade outs and fade ins, dissolves, slow motion, fast motion, and matte work.
More complicated work needs dozens of elements, all combined into a single scene.
Ideally, the audience in a theater should not be able to notice any optical printers work, but this is not always the case.
For economical reasons, especially in the 1950s, and later in TV series produced on movie, printer work was limited to only the actual parts of a scene needing the effect, so there is a clear change in the image quality when the transition occurs.
The first, simple optical printers were constructed in the early 1920s.
Linwood G. Dunn expanded the concept in the 1930s.
The development continued well into the 1980s, when the printers were controlled with minicomputers.
Sice the late 1980s, digital compositing began to replace optical effects.
Since the mid nineties the conversion to digital effects has been almost total.
Optical printing today is used most widely by artists working exclusively with movie.
As a technique, it proves particularly useful for making copies of hand painted or physically manipulated movie.
Lares (pl.)
were ancient Roman deities who protected the house and the family - household gods.
See also Genius, Larvae, Di Penates, Manes.
In the early Roman times, in every house there was at least one little statue.
Later, a sort of confusion connected their figure with those of Manes, deities of Hades (and the most virtuous dead persons of the family).
Finally the confusion included the Penates (other minor deities) as well.
Turan, the Etruscan love goddess
They are allowed by the Charter Trustees Act 1985, so that some of the privileges and dignities of former city can be carried on.
In Roman mythology, Quirinus was an early god of the Roman state.
In Augustan Rome, Quirinus was also a name of Janus, as Janus Quirinus.
Quirinus was originally most likely a Sabine god.
The Sabines had a settlement near the site of what was to become Rome, and erected an altar to Quirinus on the Collis Quirinalis, the Quirinal Hill, one of the Seven Hills of Rome.
When the Romans settled there, they absorbed the cult of Quirinus into their early belief system — previous to direct Greek influence — and he was said to be the deified Romulus.
The name kreisfreie Stadt (plural: kreisfreie Städte) is used for German towns that have their own government.
This town government is independent of the government of the next-higher level of authority, the Landkreis.
Today, most of the cities that have this statute, are big cities, with 100.000 people living there, or more.
The concept grew historically.
That means that there are big cities, with more than 100.000 people that do not have the statute.
There are also some cities who have only taken a part of the responsibilities of a Landkreis (or Kreis).
The smallest city with the statute is Zweibrücken.
About 35.000 people live there.
The biggest of these cities is Munich, with about 1.3 million people.
Hamburg and Berlin are bigger.
They are city states, though.
The city state of Bremen (state) is made of two kreisfreie Städte, the city of Bremen, and the city of Bremerhaven, about 60 km to the north.
About half a million people live in Bremen (1.5 million in the agglomeration), about 117.000 people live in Bremerhaven.
But not every big city with more than 100.000 inhabitants is a kreisfreie Stadt.
Some of them, for example Recklinghausen or Göttingen (both more 120.000 inhabitants) are part of a Landkreis.
There are very few cities, who only took part of the paperwork from the Landkreis.
Some of these are called Große selbständige Stadt (Translates to Big sovereign city).
They only seem to exist in Lower Saxony.
Celle, Cuxhaven, Goslar, Hameln, Hildesheim, Lingen, and Lüneburg.
Things like hunting permits cannot be delegated to the cities.
Other things, like what to do with the trash have sometimes been delegated.
Similar concepts to that of the kreisfreie Stadt are Unitary authorities in the United Kingdom, or that of independent city in the United States.
Jet aircraft are aircraft with jet engines.
Unlike propeller-powered aircraft, jet aircraft normally fly at altitudes as high as 100 to 1,5 meters, about 33 to .
At these altitudes, jet engines can achieve maximum efficiency over long distances.
The engines in propeller powered aircraft achieve their maximum efficiency at much lower altitudes.
The Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty was a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel.
It was signed by both countries in 1979, at the end of the Camp David Accords.
It was the first treaty with Israel from a Middle-Eastern Arabic nation.
After signing it, Egypt was removed from the Arab League.
1970s in Israel
Downtown (called a city centre in British English) is a word used in North America which refers to the main part of a city.
It is usually the central business district where most commercial and office areas are; many of them being in skyscrapers.
Tourism also concentrates there.
IEEE 802.11 is a series of protocols for wireless networking.
Often these are called Wireless LAN, WLAN, or Wi-Fi.
Such a protocol allows computers that have the needed radio parts to communicate with each other, without a cable.
There are many types of Wi-Fi standards, known as 802.11 a, b, g, n, and recently ac & ad.
These specifications are different in terms of speed and how far away you can use them.
Later standards
The first Wi-Fi standard was made in 1997.
It is called IEEE 802.11.
It allows communication with 1-2 MBit per second.
Today it is outdated, and rare.
Later standards add a letter to the name.
They are labelled IEEE  802.11a to IEEE 802.11g.  There are plans for ones labeled h, i, j, n, p and s.  They are all compatible with each other.
Newer standards have a Bit rate of 54 MBit/s.  About 40-50% of this is usable in real-life situations.
As of 2007, the standards most widely used are IEEE 802.11g, and IEEE 802.11b.
Frequency bands
Data communication is either done in the 2.4 GHz band or in the 5 GHz band.
The 2.4 GHz band is a general use band.
Microwave ovens and Bluetooth are among the things that emit radio waves in this band.
The 2.4 GHz band has the problem that there are only very few channels that can be used at the same time, without the signals interfering.
There are three usable channels there.
When more than three networks operate in the same place, signals still get to the user correctly, but interference slows them.
The 5 GHz band can solve some of these problems, but it introduces others.
That band has 19 usable channels.
Overall the band is less used.
However there are more regulations.
Most devices need to be able to choose their channel to minimize interference.
Some channels require that those participating can do Transmitter Power Control.
This means they adapt the strength of the signal to what is actually needed.
This helps reduce the amount of interference between different networks.
In computing, Wireless LAN (WLAN) or Wireless local area network is a term to refer to a Local Area Network that does not need cables to connect the different devices.
Instead, radio waves and  IEEE 802.11 are used to communicate.
Benefits of Wireless LANs
People can access the network from where they want; they are no longer limited by the length of the cable
Some places and vehicles have a Wireless LAN hotspot.
This lets people access the internet even outside their normal work environment, for example in a restaurant or train.
Setting up a wireless LAN can be done with one box called wireless access point or wireless router.
This box can handle many connections at the same time.
Wired networks require cables to be laid.
This can be difficult for certain places.
Access points can serve a varying number of computers.
Disadvantages of Wireless LANs
Wireless LANs use radio waves to communicate.
Special care needs to be taken to encrypt information.
The signal is noisier than on wires, and more bandwidth needs to be spent on error correction.
A typical IEEE 802.11 access point has A range of meters from where devices can connect.
To extend the range more access points are needed.
There are many reliability problems, especially those connected to interference from other devices.
Wireless LANs are much slower than wired ones; this may not matter for most users though, because the bottleneck in a home network is usually the speed of the ADSL line or other Internet connection.
Technologies used
Today, most  technologies used for WLANs use Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing.
This means that several frequencies are used at the same time.
Signals that are close to each other, but that belong to different channels do not disturb each other, as they use different coding schemes.
Depending on the material used, it is possible to cover between 30 metres and 100 metres indoors; outdoors, the range is about 100-300m, if there are no obstacles.
Bluetooth is a protocol for wireless communication over short distances.
It was developed in the 1990s, to reduce the number of cables.
Devices such as mobile phones, laptops, PCs, printers, digital cameras and video game consoles can connect to each other, and exchange information.
This is done using radio waves.
It can be done securely.
Bluetooth is usually only used for relatively short distances, like a few metres.
Some signals can be up to 100 metres.
Data rates vary.
Currently, they are at 1-3 MBit per second.
Typical Bluetooth applications are to connect a headset to a mobile phone, or to connect a computer mouse, keyboard or printer.
Bluetooth devices use the ISM Band around 2.4 GHz.
This can be used worldwide, without the need to pay license fees, but many other devices, like DECT telephones (wireless phones), smart tags with RFID, baby phones use it too.
Bluetooth uses the same bands as some WLANs, but the modulation technique is different.
Bluetooth uses Frequency-hopping spread spectrum.
Comparing Bluetooth to Wireless LAN
There are many situations today where either Bluetooth or Wireless LANs can be used.
Examples include setting up networks, printing or transferring files and data from a PDA to a computer.
Both are versions of unlicensed wireless technology.
WLANs can span bigger distances and offer higher throughput.
Bluetooth does not require expensive hardware.
It also needs less power to operate.
Both use the same radio frequency range, but their modulation techniques are different.
Both have been developed to replace cabling.
Bluetooth wanted to get rid of the peripheral equipment cables, WLANs wanted to get rid of the cables needed to set up a LAN.
Bluetooth devices
Bluetooth exists in many products, such as telephones, the Wii or PlayStation 3.
It has recently been built into some electronic watches, modems and headsets.
The technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth situations.
Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data with telephones (i.e. with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-held computers (transferring files).
Bluetooth uses protocols that make it easy to discover devices that are nearby, and to set up a connection between these devices.
Bluetooth devices can advertise all the services they offer.
Using services becomes easier; a lot of the setup related to security, networking or permissions is automatic.
WLANs are more like traditional LANs.
More configuration is needed to set up the network, and to make resources accessible by other devices in the network.
WLAN devices also consume more power than Bluetooth ones.
Sometimes WLANs are called wireless Ethernet.
WLAN needs more resources to be set up, but it also offers faster transfer speeds.
The security is also better than that offered by Bluetooth.
Noraduz (or Noratus) is a site in the region of Gegharkunik in Armenia near Lake Sevan.
It was formed a church dedicated to Sainte-mère-de-Dieu (built in the ninth century), and an exceptional site of medieval tombs.
The tombstones are called Khachkars.
Noraduz is the most important place for Khachkars in Armenia.
Noraduz - Khachkars Field
Noraduz Village
The New York Yankees during 1921 (the 1921 season) was the 19th season for the Yankees in New York, and overall it was their 21st season.
The season ended in the team having a record (the number of wins and losses) of 98-55 (98 wins, 55 losses).
This was the first pennant won in Yankees history.
They won the American League game pennant, replacing the previous winners, Cleveland Indians.
The manager of their team was Miller Huggins.
The Yankees home games were played on the Polo Grounds.
Season standings
1921 New York Yankees team page at www.baseball-almanac.com
Yankees game log courtesy baseball-almanac.com
1921 New York Yankees
Sports in New York City
1920s in New York (state)
20th century in New York City
The hominids are members of the biological family Hominidae (the great apes).
This family includes humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. "
Great ape" is a common name rather than a taxonomic label, and people use it in different ways.
Sometimes people mean to include humans in the category of “great apes,” and sometimes they mean non-human apes.
Homo sapiens is definitely a hominid, as judged by all modern reference works.
Hominids range in weight from 48 kg to 270 kg.
Hominids are primates with no tails, strong bodies, and well-developed forearms.
Their thumbs (and big toes, except in humans) oppose the fingers, and form a grip.
All digits have flattened nails.
At present, the family Hominidae includes four genera and five species.
However, if fossil hominids were included, all of the Australopithecines and the genus Homo would be members of the Hominidae family.
Today, nonhuman great apes live only in the rainforests of equatorial Africa, Sumatra and Borneo.
The first hominid fossils are from the Miocene period.
Archaeologists found these in Asia and Europe.
Also in Asia, they found fossils of a huge version of the orangutan called Gigantopithecus, which is now extinct.
Fossils also show that Neanderthals were in Europe and western Asia for at least half a million years before modern humans appeared.
Scholars do not agree on exactly how to classify the family Hominidae.
Past versions
In the past, the family Hominidae have been classified this way:
Family Hominidae: Great apes
Subfamily Ponginae
Genus Pongo  orangutans
Subfamily Homininae
Genus Gorilla – gorillas
Genus Pan – chimpanzees
Australopithecus† and other extinct relatives
Genus Homo – humans
Modern version
A more recent classification shows humans and the Australopithecines as distinct from the rainforest apes.
Two major reference works have supported this approach.
Family Hylobatidae
Genus Hylobates
Family Hominidae
Subfamily Gorillinae
Tribe Panini
Genus Pan
Tribe Hominini
Subtribe Australopithecina/Hominina
Genus Ardipithecus
Genus Australopithecus
Genus Kenyanthropus
Genus Sahelanthropus
Genus Orrorin
Genus Paranthropus
The Acropolis of Athens is  the most famous acropolis.
It is a large hill in the center of Athens, on which the Parthenon and other Greek buildings were built.
It is often known as The Acropolis.
Ancient Athens
Toki Pona (in Toki Pona it means good language or simple language) is a constructed (made-up) language.
Sonja Lang (in past time Sonja Elen Kisa), a Canadian translator and linguist, made the language.
It is based on simple ideas that are known to all cultures.
It is not created to be an international auxiliary language (a language for communication between people speaking different languages).
It is meant to test ideas about minimalism and pidgins.
It is influenced by Taoist ideas.
It has only 120 root words, although there is over 50,000 different possible combinations.
Toki Pona relies very heavily on expressing ideas by using root words together.
For example, jan pona means friend in Toki Pona (literally it means: good person).
Normally Toki Pona uses the Latin alphabet, but many Toki Pona speakers create other systems of writing for this language.
There are some attempts to create a writing system based on pictograms, but they have not been very successful.
o weka e pali ike mi.
sama la mi weka e pali ike pi jan ante.
Toki Pona official website
Toki pona lessons
The Canadian Hurricane Centre (CHC) is a Canadian agency that is responsible for monitoring and tracking tropical cyclones that come near or affects Canadian territory.
The agency warns people about on-coming tropical cyclones and makes hurricane advisories when needed.
Its headquarters are in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia.
While Atlantic hurricanes are normally uncommon in Canada, they do approach or strike from time to time.
Among recent events are Hurricane Bob, which struck New Brunswick, in 1991, Hurricane Luis which struck Newfoundland in September 1995, Hurricane Hortense which struck Nova Scotia in September 1996, Hurricane Michael which struck Newfoundland in October 2000, and Hurricane Juan, which struck Nova Scotia in September 2003.
CHC website
Official Canadian Weather Warnings
Hurricane Bulletins for your wireless device
V-type asteroids or Vestoids are asteroids that are similar to 4 Vesta.
It is the largest asteroid in this class.
This is where the name "V-type" comes from.
Vulcans are a humanoid species in the fictional Star Trek universe who hail from the planet Vulcan, and are noted for their attempt to live by reason and logic with no interference from emotion.
They were the first
extraterrestrial species encountered by Humans, and later became one of the founding members of the United Federation of Planets.
Vulcans are featured in all six Star Trek series, four of which featured a Vulcan as a main character.
Vulcan, Alberta - a town in Canada that has incorporated Star Trek themes due to its name.
Star Trek: The Magazine v3#10 (February 2003 - "Romulan Propulsion Historical Overview" by Rick Sternbach & Tim Earls)
Spock's World Diane Duane Pg.
359 Pocket Books, a division of Simon & Schuster Inc.  1230 Avenue of the Americas, NY, 10020 Paperback Edition 1989.
The W. M. Keck Observatory is a pair of two large, ground-based telescopes located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii.
Sitting four km (more than two miles) above sea level, the paired telescopes are used to examine light from distant stars in great detail.
The primary mirrors of each of the two telescopes are 10 meters (33 feet) across, making them slightly smaller than the Gran Telescopio Canarias primary mirrors.
However, all of the light collected by the Keck Observatory primary mirrors (75.76m2) is sent to the secondary mirror and the instruments, compared to GTC's primary mirror, which has an effective light-collection area of 73.4m2, or 25.4 square feet less than each of the Keck Observatory primary mirrors.
Because of this fundamental difference in design, Keck Observatory's telescopes arguably remain the largest steerable, optical/infrared telescopes on Earth.
W.M. Keck Observatory (official site)
The Mauna Kea Observatory (official site)
Observatories in the United States
Vulcan (mythology), the blacksmith god of fire and volcanoes in Roman mythology
Hephaestus, the Greek god of smiths identified with Vulcan.
Vulcan (Star Trek), a race in the fictional Star Trek universe
Vulcan (Star Trek planet), home of the Vulcans
Vulcan!,
a 1978 Star Trek novel by Kathleen Sky
Vulcan (DC Comics), a character from DC Comics
Vulcan (comic), Ipc Comic produced in England from 1975-1976
Vulcan (Marvel Comics), a character in the Marvel Comics universe
Black Vulcan, a fictional African American superhero on the animated series Super Friends
Vulcan, a fictional planet featured in the Doctor Who serial The Power of the Daleks
Vulcan Raven, a character in Metal Gear Solid
Vulcan, Alberta, Canada
Vulcan Airport
Vulcan, Romania, in Hunedoara County in the Jiu Valley
Vulcan, Braşov, also in Romania in Braşov County
Vulcan, Michigan, United States
Vulcan, Missouri, United States
Vulcan (volcano), a volcano in Papua New Guinea
Vulcano, a small volcanic island  in the Tyrrhenian Sea
Vulcanair, an Italian based manufacturer of light twin-engined aircraft that took over Partenavia
Vulcan (cars), a Southport, England based car manufacturer
Vulcan Corporation, a materials manufacturing company in Clarksville, Tennessee
Vulcan Foundry, a former British locomotive builder
Vulcan Iron Works, a former United States locomotive builder
Vulcan Materials Company, a construction materials company headquartered in Birmingham, Alabama
Vulcan Inc., an investment company formed by Microsoft cofounder Paul Allen
Stettiner Vulcan AG, a former shipyard in Hamburg, Germany
Vulcan (shipyard) (1857–1944), the shipyard in Szczecin, Poland
Vulcan Media, an educational software company from Poland
Vulcan Software, a British computer game company
Vulcan Stoves, a maker of commercial ranges, ovens, steam equipment, fryers griddles and broilers
Avro Vulcan, British delta-wing subsonic bomber aircraft
Vickers Vulcan, a single engined biplane of the 1920s
Ford Vulcan engine, a 3.0L V6 automobile engine
Kawasaki Vulcan, a cruiser-type motorcycle
Kawasaki Vulcan 400 Classic
Kawasaki Vulcan 800 Drifter
M167 Vulcan, a towed short-range air defense gun
M163 VADS (Vulcan Air Defense System), a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun
Vulcan (1874-1892), one of the ten South Devon Railway Buffalo class steam locomotives
Vulcan (1951-1967), one of the BR 'Britannia' Class locomotives
Vulcan Railcars are a type of railcar found in preservation in New Zealand.
HMS Vulcan, either one of two Royal Navy ships, or a Royal Navy shore establishment at Dounreay, Scotland, dedicated to the development of nuclear power
Vulcan (hypothetical planet), a hypothetical planet between Mercury and the Sun, and Vulcanoid asteroids, hypothetical minor planets in the same place
Vulcanization, a chemical process to improve the strength and durability of rubber
Vulcan laser, the most intensely focused in the world, based at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in Chilton, Oxfordshire.
Vulcan processor, a type of central processing unit
VULCAN (operating system), an operating system for some 24-bit Datacraft/Harris Corporation minicomputers
Vulcan (programming language), a programming language, now known as dBase
The "Vulcans" are the nickname of California University of Pennsylvania's sports teams.
Vulcan statue, the largest cast iron statue in the world and the symbol of Birmingham, Alabama
Vulcan of the alchemists, the patron deity associated with Paracelsian alchemy
Birmingham Vulcans, a 1975 World Football League team
M61 Vulcan, a 20mm six-barreled gatling gun
Vulcan M-11-9, a semi-automatic, closed bolt pistol manufactured by Vulcan Armament
The Vulcans, an informal name of George W. Bush's foreign policy advisory team for the 2000 U.S. presidential election
The Vulcan, an occasional magazine from various organizations within the Young Fine Gael, the youth wing of the Irish Fine Gael political party
Vulcan, the title of an EP and a song by the rock band Snake River Conspiracy
Operation Vulcan, Allied action in Tunisia during World War II
Vulcana - Welsh female bodybuilder
The HED meteorites are a group of achondrite meteorite types:
Howardites
Eucrites
Diogenites
These are all thought to have come from the crust of the asteroid 4 Vesta.
Their differences are due to different geologic histories of the parent rock.
Their crystallization ages are between 4.43 and 4.55 billion years ago, by their radioisotope ratios.
A metamorphic rock is a type of rock which has been changed by extreme heat and pressure.
Its name is from 'morph' (meaning form), and 'meta' (meaning change).
The original rock gets heated (temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C) and pressured (1500 bars).
This causes profound physical and/or chemical change.
The original rock may be sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock.
There is always more pressure and higher temperature under the Earth's surface.
In the root of a mountain chain or a volcano these forces will be enough to change shape of the strata and the minerals it is made of.
Sedimentary rock which has been near such forces often looks as if a giant had twisted it and heated it over a fire.
Examples of metamorphic rock:
Marble is a metamorphic rock formed from limestone.
Slate is a metamorphic mudstone or shale.
Quartzite is a metamorphic sandstone.
The recrystallisation of minerals after heating generally causes the destruction of any fossils the rocks might have contained.
These rocks are formed when igneous or sedimentary rocks are subjected to extreme heat and pressure as result they undergo a complete change in their form and characteristics.
Such form rocks are called metamorphic rocks.
Types of metamorphism
Regional metamorphism
Regional metamorphism, or dynamic metamorphism, occurs in great masses of rock.
Rocks can be metamorphosed just by being at great depths below the Earth's surface.
There they get high temperatures and the great weight of the rock layers above.
Much of the lower continental crust is metamorphic, except for recent igneous intrusions.
Horizontal tectonic movements such as the collision of continents create orogenic belts.
High temperature, pressures and deformation occurs along these belts.
If the metamorphosed rocks are later uplifted and exposed by erosion, they are seen as long belts or other large areas at the surface.
Contact metamorphism
Contact metamorphism occurs when magma is injected into the surrounding solid rock (country rock).
The changes that occur are greatest where the magma comes into contact with the rock.
The temperatures were highest there and decreased with distance from it.
Metamorphic minerals
Metamorphic minerals are those that form only at the high temperatures and pressures of metamorphism.
These minerals, known as index minerals, include sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, and some garnet.
Other minerals, such as olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, feldspars, and quartz may be found in metamorphic rocks.
They are not necessarily the result of the process of metamorphism.
They are stable at high temperatures and pressures and may remain chemically unchanged during the metamorphic process.
Metamorphic textures - Middle East Technical University
Metamorphism - U. of Alabama
Types of metamorphism - Tulane U.
Contact metamorphism example
Extrusive means to the mode of igneous volcanic rock formation in which hot magma from inside the Earth flows out (extrudes) onto the surface as lava or explodes violently into the atmosphere to fall back as pyroclastics or tuff.
This is opposed to intrusive rock formation, in which magma does not reach the surface.
Extruded when talking about an artificial material like soft metals like aluminium, plastic or glass means that it is pushed out of a nozzle when the material is in a soft state.
The shape of the nozzle will vary depending on the shape required in the finished product
An intrusion is magma (melted rock) which cools and becomes solid under the Earth's surface.
It occurs when there are lines of weakness such as faults, joints, or bedding planes in the crust.
Then magma enters these lines of weakness.
By contrast, an extrusion is magma which cools into rock above the surface of the crust.
Both intrusive and extrusive rocks are classed as igneous rocks.
The process of forming intrusive rocks may take millions of years.
As the rock slowly cools into a solid, the different parts of the magma crystallize into minerals.
The crystals are usually larger than in extrusive rocks.
Many mountain ranges, such as the Sierra Nevada in California, are formed mostly by intrusive rock.
Often they are huge granite (or related rock) formations.
Intrusions vary widely, from mountain range sized batholiths to thin vein-like fracture fillings.
When exposed by erosion, these cores called batholiths may occupy huge areas of Earth's surface.
Large bodies of magma that solidify underground before they reach the surface of the crust are called plutons.
Intrusive structures may go between bedding planes of earlier 'country' rock.
A sill is an intrusion which makes a table along bedding planes.
A dyke is an intrusion which moves up, crossing older strata.
Radiation pressure is the pressure exerted upon any surface exposed to electromagnetic radiation.
If absorbed, the pressure is the energy flux density divided by the speed of light.
If the radiation is totally reflected, the radiation pressure is doubled.
This happens because the waves that make up electromagnetic radiation carry momentum with them and pass that momentum on when they reach a surface.
A Crookes radiometer appears to demonstrate the pressure of light, but instead it demonstrate the energy that light brings to a surface.
The black side of each paddle absorbs most of the light's energy an causes the air near that surface to have a higher pressure.
So, while a Crookes radiometer turns because of pressure, it is air pressure caused by the heat energy that light brings to the device.
Solar radiation at Earth
The solar radiation at Earth's distance from the Sun has an energy flux density of 1370 W/m2, and more than half of this energy reaches surface.
A calculation shows that this value of the flux would cause on an absorbing surface to experience 4.6 µPa of radiation pressure.
A convenient way to compare the Sun's energy flux and radiation pressure is to imagine the pressure and energy deposited on one square meter:
Power =  (or about 1.4 kilowatts.)
Force =
To understand how small a micro-newton is, convert calculate how much mass you need on Earth to get that force using :
Mass =  (or about ½ milligram.)