the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Production of the first generation Punto was 3.429 million units, second generation 2.96 million units, and third generation 2.67 million units.
First generation Type 176 (1993–1999)
Petrol engines
1.1 8V 40 kW (55 hp)
1.2 8V 44 kW (60 hp) and 55 kW (73 hp)
1.2 16V 63 kW (85 hp)
1.4 8V Turbo 96 kW (130 hp) and 98 kW (133 hp)
1.6 8V 65 kW (88 hp)
Diesel engines
1.7 D 42 kW (57 hp)
1.9 TD 47 kW (63 hp) and 51 kW (70 hp)
Second generation Type 188 (1999–2011)
1.2 8V 44 kW (60 hp)
1.2 16V 59 kW (80 hp)
1.4 16V 77 kW (95 hp)
1.8 16V 96 kW (131 hp)
1.3 Multijet 16V 51 kW (69 hp)
1.9 D 8V 44 kW (60 hp)
1.9 JTD 8V 59 kW (80 hp) and 63 kW (86 hp)
1.9 Multijet 8V 74 kW (101 hp)
BiPower engines
1.2 Natural Power 8V CNG 51 kW (69 hp)
Third generation Type 199 (2005–2018)
1.2 8V 48 kW (65 hp)
1.4 8V 57 kW (78 hp)
1.4 StarJet 16V 70 kW (95 hp)
1.4 MultiAir 16V 77 kW (105 hp)
1.4 T-Jet 16V 88 kW (120 hp)
1.4 MultiAir Turbo 16V 99 kW (135 hp)
1.3 Multijet 16V 55 kW (75 hp) and 66 kW (90 hp)
1.3 Multijet II 16V 55 kW (75 hp) and 70 kW (95 hp)
1.6 Multijet 16V 88 kW (120 hp)
1.9 Multijet 8V 88 kW (120 hp) and 96 kW (130 hp)
1.4 Natural Power 8V CNG 51-57 kW (69-78 hp)
1.4 8V LPG 57 kW (78 hp)
fiatpunto.com
The Punto Van
Grande Punto EuroNCAP results
The Punto Power fan site
The Punto Sports Forum fan site
The Punto MK2 & MK2B Forum fan site
PuntoUK: a UK based Punto fan site
Grande-Punto.de - The German Community
FiatPunto.com.pl - The Polish Fiat Punto fan Forum
The Volkswagen Polo is a small car made by the German company Volkswagen since 1975.
The first generation was made from 1975 to 1981 with a facelift in 1979.
The second generation was made between 1981 and 1994 and was facelifted in 1990.
The third generation was made from late 1994 to early 2002 with a facelift in early 2000.
The fourth generation launched in early 2002 and featured distinctive twin round headlamps, they were dropped when it was facelifted in mid-2005.
The fifth generation arrived in 2009 and was facelifted in mid-2014.
The sixth generation launched in late 2017 and now only comes as a 5-door hatchback.
In the fall of 2020, the Polo was visually redesigned with the switch to the 2021 model year.
Since then, the vehicle has been supplied with the new Volkswagen logo and Polo lettering on the tailgate, which was once on the lower left , has now been positioned in a new font in the middle under the VW logo.
Technically, there has been an update to the "Modular Infotainment Kit 3" (MIB3).
The Volkswagen Fox is a car made by the German company Volkswagen.
It has four seats, four wheels and two doors.
The car is similar in size to the Ford Ka.
The Proton Savvy is a small car made by the Malaysian company Proton Holding.
It has 5 seats and 5 doors.
Automobiles Toyota
SEAT W MOTORI Renault Suzuki
Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi savvy
The Peugeot 107 is a car made by the French company Peugeot in the Czech Republic since 2005.
It has four seats and either two or four doors.
The car is related to the Toyota Aygo and the Citroën C1.
It was facelifted in early 2009 and again in early 2012.
It was replaced in 2014 with the 108.
1.0 50 kW (68 hp)
1.4 HDi 40 kW (54 hp)
The Toyota Aygo is a car made by the Japanese company Toyota in the Czech Republic since 2005.
The car has a 1-litre petrol or 1,4-litre diesel engine.
The car is similar to the Peugeot 107 and Citroën C1.
It entered its second generation in 2014.
1.0 VVT-i 50 kW (68 hp)
1.4 D4-D 40 kW (54 hp)
Aygo
The Airbus A380 (also called "Super-jumbo-jet") is a four-engined, double-decked airliner manufactured by Airbus.
It is the world's biggest passenger airplane, larger than the Boeing 747 Jumbo Jet.
However, it is not the biggest airplane in the world; the Antonov An-225 super-freighter is bigger.
The Airbus A380 can carry up to 850 passengers (but it usually carries about 525), and weighs over 550 tonnes.
It has four Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engines or four Engine Alliance GP7000 engines.
The companies General Electric and Pratt & Whitney make alliance engines.
Hundreds of A380-800 airplanes have been ordered by 20 airlines.
One has been ordered by a Saudi Arabian Prince, Al-Walid bin Talal and 10 by a company called ILFC (who gives other airlines airplanes for rent).
Emirates Airlines (an airline from the United Arab Emirates) has the most A380 aircraft, because they have ordered 123 aircraft.
Singapore Airlines took delivery of the first A380, which flew to Sydney in Australia on October 25, 2007.
Singapore Airlines has 19 A380s.
Other airlines which ordered the A380 are Qantas (from Australia, currently operating 12), Air France (formerly operated 10), China Southern Airlines, Lufthansa (the German airline, which has 8), Kingfisher Airlines (from India), Korean Air (from South Korea), Thai Airways, Malaysia Airlines, British Airways, Qatar Airways, Etihad Airways (from the United Arab Emirates), Virgin Atlantic (from the United Kingdom) and Air Austral (France).
Freighter Version
Airbus was going to make a version of the A380 to carry cargo instead of people.
This would look almost the same as the normal passenger version, but with no windows and much bigger doors.
Some cargo companies ordered the plane, like FedEx and UPS.
Because Airbus took too long to make the A380, those orders were canceled.
Because Airbus has not got any orders for the plane anymore, they decided to not make the freighter version for a while and focus on making the passenger version of the A380.
On 4 November 2010, Qantas Flight 32 was flying from Singapore Changi Airport when the number 2 engine failed, causing some damage to the plane, and forcing it to return to Singapore.
Nobody was injured, but debris from the airplane fell onto the island of Batam, in Indonesia.
Investigations found that the Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engine leaked oil, causing an explosion.
Other Trent 900 engines had similar problems and many engines had to be replaced and the FAA issued that all Airbus A380s currently in service are required to go under mandatory inspections before takeoff to prevent future engine problems.
Airbus A380 website
Proper A380 website
Paris is a personality in Greek mythology.
He is an important person in the Trojan War, and Homer's Iliad.
Paris was the son of King Priam of Troy and his wife Hecuba.
Because it was prophesied that he would bring the end and destruction of Troy, he was left to die in the wilderness, but was found by another man, who took him as a son and named him Paris.
Three goddesses, Hera, Aphrodite, and Athena, had a beauty contest.
They all bribed Paris with different offers.
Hera offered him power, Athena offered him wisdom, and Aphrodite promised him the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen.
The problem was that Helen was already married to Menelaus, the brother of Agamemnon.
Paris took Helen home with him to Troy.
This caused the Trojan War.
In Greek mythology, Helen, also known as Helen of Troy (Ancient Greek: Ἑλένη, Helénē), was said to have been the most beautiful woman in the world.
The queen of Sparta, Helen was married to Menelaus, but later eloped with Prince Paris of Troy (most often depicted as being kidnapped) and taken to Troy, resulting in the Trojan War as the Achaeans set out to bring her back to Sparta.
She was believed to be the daughter of Zeus and Leda, the wife of King Tyndareos of Sparta, and was the sister of twins Castor and Pollux, and Clytemnestra.
RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) is an algorithm used by modern computers to encrypt and decrypt messages.
It is an asymmetric cryptographic algorithm.
Asymmetric means that there are two different keys.
This is also called public key cryptography, because one of the keys can be given to anyone.
The other key must be kept private.
The algorithm is based on the fact that finding the factors of a large composite number is difficult: when the factors are prime numbers, the problem is called prime factorization.
It is also a key pair (public and private key) generator.
RSA involves a public key and private key.
The public key can be known to everyone- it is used to encrypt messages.
Messages encrypted using the public key can only be decrypted with the private key.
The private key needs to be kept secret.
Calculating the private key from the public key is very difficult.
Concepts used
A one-way function that is easy to compute; finding a function that reverses it, or computing this function is very difficult.
RSA uses a concept called discrete logarithm.
This works much like the normal logarithm: The difference is that only whole numbers are used, and in general, a modulus operation is involved.
As an example ax=b, modulo n. The discrete logarithm is about finding the smallest x that satisfies the equation, when a b and n are provided
Generating keys
Choose two different large random prime numbers  and .
This should be kept secret.
Calculate .
is the modulus for the public key and the private keys.
Calculate the totient: .
Choose an integer  such that , and  is co-prime to .
i.e.:  and  share no factors other than : ; See greatest common divisor.
is released as the public key exponent.
Compute  to satisfy the congruence relation .
i.e.:  for some integer . (
Simply to say: Calculate  to be an integer)
is kept as the private key exponent.
Step 1: Numbers can be probabilistically tested for primality.
Step 3: changed in PKCS#1 v2.0 to  instead of .
Step 4: A popular choice for the public exponents is .
Some applications choose smaller values such as , , or  instead.
This is done to make encryption and signature verification faster on small devices like smart cards but small public exponents may lead to greater security risks.
Steps 4 and 5 can be performed with the ; see modular arithmetic.
The public key is made of the modulus  and the public (or encryption) exponent .
The personal key is made of p,q and the private (or decryption) exponent  which must be kept secret.
For efficiency a different form of the private key can be stored:
and : the primes from the key generation;
and : often called dmp1 and dmq1;
: often called iqmp.
All parts of the private key must be kept secret in this form.
and  are sensitive since they are the factors of , and allow computation of  given .
If  and  are not stored in this form of the private key then they are securely deleted along with other intermediate values from key generation.
Although this form allows faster decryption and signing by using the Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT) it is considerably less secure since it enables .
This is a particular problem if implemented on smart cards, which benefit most from the improved efficiency. (
Start with , and let the card decrypt that.
So it computes  or , whose results give some value .
Now, induce an error in one of the computations.
Then  will reveal  or .)
Encrypting message
Alice gives her public key  to Bob and keeps her private key secret.
Bob wants to send message  to Alice.
First he turns  into a number  smaller than  by using an agreed-upon reversible protocol known as a padding scheme.
He then computes the ciphertext  corresponding to:
This can be done quickly using the method of exponentiation by squaring.
Bob then sends  to Alice.
Decrypting message
Alice can recover  from  by using her private key  in the following procedure:
Given , she can recover the original distinct prime numbers, applying the Chinese remainder theorem to these two congruences yields
Here is an example of RSA encryption and decryption.
The prime numbers used here are too small to let us securely encrypt anything.
You can use OpenSSL to generate and examine a real keypair.
Choose two random prime numbers  and :
and ;
Compute :
Compute the totient :
Choose  coprime to :
Choose  to satisfy :
, with .
The public key is (, ).
For a padded message the encryption function  becomes:
The private key is (, ).
The decryption function  becomes:
For example, to encrypt , we calculate
To decrypt , we calculate
Deriving RSA equation from Euler's theorem
Starting with Euler's theorem,we must show that decrypting an encrypted message, with the correct key, will give the original message.
Given a padded message m, the ciphertext c, is calculated bySubstituting into the decryption algorithm, we haveWe want to show this value is also congruent to m.
The values of e and d were chosen to satify,Which is to say, there exists some integer k, such thatNow we substitute into the encrypted then decrypted message,We apply Euler's theorem, and achive the result.
Padding schemes
When used in practice, RSA must be combined with some form of padding scheme, so that no values of M result in insecure ciphertexts.
RSA used without padding may have some problems:
The values m = 0 or m = 1 always produce ciphertexts equal to 0 or 1 respectively, due to the properties of exponentiation.
When encrypting with small encryption exponents (e.g., e = 3) and small values of the m, the (non-modular) result of  may be strictly less than the modulus n. In this case, ciphertexts may be easily decrypted by taking the eth root of the ciphertext with no regard to the modulus.
RSA encryption is a deterministic encryption algorithm.
It has no random component.
Therefore, an attacker can successfully launch a chosen plaintext attack against the cryptosystem.
They can make a dictionary by encrypting likely plaintexts under the public key, and storing the resulting ciphertexts.
The attacker can then observe the communication channel.
As soon as they see ciphertexts that match the ones in their dictionary, the attackers can then use this dictionary in order to learn the content of the message.
In practice, the first two problems can arise when short ASCII messages are sent.
In such messages, m might be the concatenation of one or more ASCII-encoded character(s).
A message consisting of a single ASCII NUL character (whose numeric value is 0) would be encoded as m = 0, which produces a ciphertext of 0 no matter which values of e and N are used.
Likewise, a single ASCII SOH (whose numeric value is 1) would always produce a ciphertext of 1.
For systems which conventionally use small values of e, such as 3, all single character ASCII messages encoded using this scheme would be insecure, since the largest m would have a value of 255, and 2553 is less than any reasonable modulus.
Such plaintexts could be recovered by simply taking the cube root of the ciphertext.
To avoid these problems, practical RSA implementations typically embed some form of structured, randomized padding into the value m before encrypting it.
This padding ensures that m does not fall into the range of insecure plaintexts, and that a given message, once padded, will encrypt to one of a large number of different possible ciphertexts.
The latter property can increase the cost of a dictionary attack beyond the capabilities of a reasonable attacker.
Standards such as PKCS have been carefully designed to securely pad messages prior to RSA encryption.
Because these schemes pad the plaintext m with some number of additional bits, the size of the un-padded message M must be somewhat smaller.
RSA padding schemes must be carefully designed so as to prevent sophisticated attacks.
This may be made easier by a predictable message structure.
Early versions of the PKCS standard used  constructions, which were later found vulnerable to a practical adaptive chosen ciphertext attack.
Modern constructions use secure techniques such as optimal asymmetric encryption padding (OAEP) to protect messages while preventing these attacks.
The PKCS standard also has processing schemes designed to provide additional security for RSA signatures, e.g., the Probabilistic Signature Scheme for RSA (RSA-PSS).
Signing messages
Suppose Alice uses Bob's public key to send him an encrypted message.
In the message, she can claim to be Alice but Bob has no way of verifying that the message was actually from Alice since anyone can use Bob's public key to send him encrypted messages.
So, in order to verify the origin of a message, RSA can also be used to sign a message.
Suppose Alice wishes to send a signed message to Bob.
She produces a hash value of the message, raises it to the power of d mod n (just like when decrypting a message), and attaches it as a "signature" to the message.
When Bob receives the signed message, he raises the signature to the power of e mod n (just like encrypting a message), and compares the resulting hash value with the message's actual hash value.
If the two agree, he knows that the author of the message was in possession of Alice's secret key, and that the message has not been tampered with since.
The Original RSA Patent as filed with the U.S. Patent Office by Rivest; Ronald L. (Belmont, MA), Shamir; Adi (Cambridge, MA), Adleman; Leonard M. (Arlington, MA), December 14, 1977, .
PKCS #1: RSA Cryptography Standard (RSA Laboratories website)
The PKCS #1 standard "provides recommendations for the implementation of public-key cryptography based on the RSA algorithm, covering the following aspects: cryptographic primitives; encryption schemes; signature schemes with appendix; ASN.1 syntax for representing keys and for identifying the schemes".
Thorough walk through of RSA
Prime Number Hide-And-Seek: How the RSA Cipher Works
Onur Aciicmez, Cetin Kaya Koc, Jean-Pierre Seifert: On the Power of Simple Branch Prediction Analysis
A New Vulnerability In RSA Cryptography, CAcert NEWS Blog
Example of an RSA implementation with PKCS#1 padding (GPL source code)
Kocher's article about timing attacks
An animated explanation of RSA with its mathematical background by CrypTool
An interactive walkthrough going through all stages to make small example RSA keys
Hacking Secret Ciphers with Python, Chapter 24, Public Key Cryptography and the RSA Cipher
How RSA Key used for Encryption in real world
Prime Numbers, Factorization, and their Relationship with Encryption
Hector (, Hektōr) was a Trojan prince and one of the central figures of the Iliad.
The first-born son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba, Hector was the heir apparent to the throne and the greatest of Troy's warriors in the defense of the city.
Hector fought against a various number of the Greeks through the course of the Trojan War, including Protesilaus and Ajax.
He was married to Andromache, with whom he had a son, Astyanax, whom the Trojans called Scamandrios.
Hecuba (also Hekuba or Hekabe) was a person in Greek mythology.
She was the wife of King Priam of Troy.
Her children with Priam were: Sons: Hector, Paris, Deiphobos, Helenos, Pammon, Polites, Antiphus, Hipponous, Polydoros.
And daughters: Ilione, Creusa, Laodice, Polyxena, and Kassandra.
Priam (Priamos or (Latin) Priamus) is a person in Greek mythology.
He was the King of Troy during the Trojan War.
Priam had several wives, but his principal wife was Hecuba.
With her he had his favourite son Hector; and Paris the cause of the war.
In Book II of Virgil's Aeneid, he was killed during the destruction of Troy by Achilles' son Neoptolemus.
Achilles (Ancient Greek: Ἀχιλλεύς, Akhilleus) was a hero of the Trojan War and is the central character of Homer's Iliad.
The son of the mortal hero Peleus and the Nereid Thetis, he is the leader of the Myrmidons, and is described as the greatest of all the Achaean warriors.
The Iliad, which is set in the ninth year of the Trojan War, starts with a quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon, the commander of the Greek forces.
Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was his slaying the Trojan prince Hector outside the gates of Troy, as revenge against Hector for killing his lover, Patroclus.p53   While Achilles' death is not presented in the Iliad (as the poem ends with Hector's funeral), other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the war by Paris, who shot him in the heel with an arrow.
Later stories depict Achilles as being invulnerable in all of his body except for his heel, as that is where his mother Thetis held him when she dipped him in the River Styx as an infant.
As such, the term "Achilles' heel" has come to mean a point of fatal weakness.
Because of that, his heel was still vulnerable.
However, the Iliad does not say this.
According to the legend, Achilles was killed by Paris, who shot his heel with a poisoned arrow.
Achilles was shot many times by the arrows of Paris but the only arrow found on his body was through his heel.
A nymph is a kind of female nature entity/spirit in Greek mythology.
They are often companions of Greek gods and goddesses.
Nymphs can be divided into different kinds, such as:
Dryads (trees)
Naiads (fresh water)
Oreads (mountains)
the Okeanids, the daughters of Okeanos, and the Nereids, the daughters of Nereus (seas)
the Pleiades (stars)
Romantic music is music written in the 19th century.
This was the period called the “Romantic period” by musicians.
In literature and some other arts the “Romantic period” is often said to begin and finish earlier: around mid 18th to mid 19th century.
In the Classical period artists liked to see clear forms.
18th century architecture nearly always shows a lot of symmetry.
The gardens of the palace at Versailles are a good example of this with their very tidy patterns of straight paths, circular ponds and neatly clipped hedges.
In the Romantic period artists thought that feeling and passions were more important than formal plans.
This can be seen in the gardens designed by Capability Brown, e.g. in at Blenheim Palace, Oxford.
The gardens are made to blend into nature.
In music the Romantic composers may still use plans like sonata form, but feelings and passions are important.
They often write what is called programme music which means: music that describes something or tells a story.
Beethoven’s Sixth Symphony is called the “Pastoral” which means that it is about the countryside.
Although Beethoven is usually called a composer of the Classical period he is also an early Romantic.
Later composers such as Felix Mendelssohn wrote pieces like Hebrides Overture which describes the sea coming into Fingal’s Cave in the Inner Hebrides Islands in Scotland.
Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) wrote a lot of music which tells a story.
His Symphonie Fantastique is about an artist madly in love.
Berlioz’s whole way of life was wild and romantic.
He fell in love with an actress he saw on stage playing the part of Juliet in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet and he actually married her!
Other composers who wrote a lot of programme music include Franz Liszt (1811-1886) and Richard Strauss (1864-1949).
Strauss always wrote in a late-Romantic style even although he lived well into the 20th century.
The Romantic period was also the period of Nationalism.
"Nationalism" means being proud of one's country.
In the 19th century  a lot of European countries as we know them were being formed.
In music a lot of composers were writing music which was typical of their country.
They often did this by using folk music.
Antonín Dvořák (1841-1904) and Bedřich Smetana (1824-1884) wrote music which sounds very Czech.
Pyotr Tchaikovsky (1840-1893)  wrote music with Russian folk songs in them.
Gustav Mahler (1860-1911) used German folk songs in his symphonies, and Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872-1958) collected English folk songs and put them in his music.
One of those pieces was a Fantasy on the famous tune Greensleeves.
In Greek mythology, the Nereids ( Nereides) are sea nymphs, the fifty daughters of Nereus, the Old Man of the Sea, and the Okeanid Doris.
Thetis - Wife of Peleus and mother of Achilles, she was often considered the leader of the Nereids.
Amphitrite - Wife of Poseidon and queen of the sea.
Thoosa - mother of the Cyclops Polyphemus.
Something related to Ancient Rome
Romance language, a language based on Latin, including Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian
Chivalric romance, a style of medieval and Renaissance fiction
Romance (love), love focusing on feelings over sex
Romantic friendship, a close but non-sexual relationship between friends that includes a degree of physical closeness
Romantic orientation, indicates which sex or gender people are likely to have a romantic relationship with
Romanticism, a style of art that started in France in the late 1700s.
Romantic painting
Romance novel, a style of written fiction
Romance movie, a style of movies
Romance comics, a style of comics
The movement said that feelings, imagination, nature, human life, freedom of expression, individualism and old folk traditions, such as legends and fairy tales, were important.
It was a reaction to the aristocratic social and political ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution.
The movement showed most strongly in arts like music, and literature.
However, it also had an important influence on historiography, education, and natural history.
During the same period as Britain, there was a notable romantistic movement in Germany.
Important motifs in German Romanticism are traveling, nature, and Germanic myths.
Involved were such figures as:
Goethe as a younger man.
Dictionary of the History of Ideas , Romanticism
Romantic Circles Electronic editions, histories, and scholarly articles related to the Romantic era
Dictionary of the History of Ideas , Romanticism in Political Thought
Romanticism in the "History of Art"
Romanticism in the Art History Archive
Art movements
Cultural history
The Seveso disaster was a chemical accident on 10 July 1976, at the small Italian town of Meda, 20 km from Milan in Lombardy.
There was an leak at a chemical factory which released a lot of the toxic poison dioxin, TCDD, into the air.
The cloud of poison gas covered an area 6 km long and 1 km wide.
It was named after the municipality of Seveso.
It resulted in the highest known exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in residential populations  There were many studies and new regulations after the accident.
The European Union directive covering the protection against such accidents is known as Seveso-II-directive today.
The company where the accident happened was called Icmesa.
It was owned by Givaudan, who is  owned by Roche.
Icmesa produced Trichlorophenol, which is used to produce the disinfectant Hexachlorophene.
The company was located in four communes; one of them Seveso.
None of the 20,000 people who lived in Seveso died, but the poison killed 3,000 farm animals and pets.
Another 70,000 animals had to be killed to stop the dioxin from getting into the food chain.
Long term problems
Thirty years after the accident, scientists reported that babies born in the area affected by the dioxin were six times more likely to have thyroid problems.
The affected people, now in their forties, are being studied to see if it stopped them growing properly, or reduced intellectual development (IQ).
1976 in Europe
1970s crimes in Europe
1970s disasters in Europe
1970s in Italy
Disasters in Italy
July events
Junichiro Koizumi is the former Prime Minister of Japan.
He was born on January 8, 1942 in Japan.
He stepped down in 2006.
Born in Yokosuka, Kanagawa on 8 January, 1942, Koizumi was taught at Yokosuka High School and Keio University, where he studied economics.
He went to University College London before returning to Japan in August 1969 when his father died.
Yasukuni Shrine and Junichiro
While he was prime minister of Japan, he made China and South Korea very angry by continuing to visit the Yasukuni Shrine.
He was succeeded by Shinzo Abe.
Prime Ministers of Japan
Alumni of University College London
Politicians from Kanagawa Prefecture
Keio University alumni
"Majulah Singapura" is the national anthem of Singapore.
It was written and composed by Singaporean musician Zubir Said in 1958.
Seven years later, the anthem was adopted.
This song must be sung in Malay, although there are translations provided in the country's three other official languages—English, Mandarin Chinese, and Tamil.
Official Malay
Mandarin Chinese translation
May our noble aspirations
bring Singapore success
Come, let us all unite
In a brand new spirit
Music score for Wind band (instrumental parts)
Singaporean culture
Abruzzo is one of the twenty regions of Italy, in Southern Italy on the Adriatic Sea.
The capital is the city of L'Aquila.
Abruzzo is the 13th largest region in Italy, with a total area of .
The main rivers in the region are:
Aterno-Pescara,  long.
Sangro,  long.
Vomano,  long.
Tordino,  long.
Liri,  long,  in Abruzzo.
The Tronto river is  long but flows mainly in the Marche region.
Largest municipalities
Official Tourist Information
Teramo is an Italian city in Abruzzo.
Teramo is the capital of the Province of Teramo.
In 2020, Teramo had about 53,000 people.
Cities in Abruzzo
The Aegean Sea is part of the Mediterranean Sea.
It is between Greece and Anatolia.
It is connected (attached) in the north to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus.
The large islands of Rhodes and Crete mark the south end.
In ancient times two groups of people lived near the sea  the Minoans of Crete, and the Myceneans of the Peloponnese.
The city-states of Athens and Sparta came later and were part of Ancient Greece.
Persians, Romans, the Byzantine Empire, the Venetians (people from Venice), the Seljuk Empire, and the Ottoman Empire later started around the Aegean Sea.
The people near the Aegean were very advanced (powerful and clever) in Ancient history and they sailed across it to talk to each other.
There are seven groups of Aegean islands: the Thracian Sea group, the East Aegean group, the Northern Sporades, the Cyclades, the Saronic Islands (or Argo-Saronic Islands), the Dodecanese and Crete.
The word archipelago used to mean these islands.
Many of the Aegean islands, or chains of islands, are part of the mountain ranges on the mainland.
One chain goes across the sea to Chios, another one goes across Euboea to Samos, and a third one goes across the Peloponnese and Crete to Rhodes.
This one divides (splits, cuts) the Aegean from the Mediterranean.
Many of the islands have safe harbours and bays, but sailing in the sea is difficult.
Many of the islands are volcanos, and marble and iron are mined on other islands.
The bigger islands have some green valleys and plains.
Two big islands on the Aegean Sea are part of Turkey: Bozcaada () and Gökçeada ().
William de Wiveleslie Abney (24 July 1843 – 3 December 1920) was an English astronomer, chemist, and photographer.
Abney was a member of many scientific organizations.
He was best known for his discovering and measuring the effect of adding white to a hue, in 1910.
The effect is generally known as the Abney effect.
For example, adding white to red makes it slightly bluish (bluish red is known as pink), and adding white to yellowish green hues makes them less yellowish and thus greener.
1920 deaths
English astronomers
Giacomo Girolamo Casanova (, ; 2 April 1725 – 4 June 1798) was a famous Venetian adventurer and writer.
He is best known for having had many affairs with women.
He died in Dux, Bohemia, (now Duchcov, Czech Republic).
1725 births
1798 deaths
Colima is the capital city of the Mexican state Colima.
About 240,000 people live in this town.
A given name is a name given to a person at birth or baptism.
Given names are referred as first names.
It is different from a surname.
A surname is the last name or family name.
Example: A baby girl is born and someone decides to name her Hope.
Hope is her given name.
Someone can decide to give her a surname as it is commonly accepted for people to have a last name.
When she grows up, she can pick her own given name or surname if she does not like the one that was picked for her.
Family names are inherited and are not easily changed.
In most Western countries the given name comes first (before the last name or family name).
However, in many Eastern countries such as Japan and China it comes after the last name or family name, and occasionally also in Europe, e.g. in Hungarian.
Indian Name
A 'family name' is a name shared by people in the same family.
Different cultures have different arrangements for a person's family name and given name.
In English, the family name is always at the end, and it is called a 'last name' or 'surname'.
Children usually have the same family name as their father.
A married woman usually changes her family name to be the same as her husband.
For example, Mary Brown married John Smith and she changed her name to Mary Smith.
They had two children, David Smith and Kate Smith.
Smith is the family name shared by the parents Mary and John, and their children David and Kate.
Some languages put the family name first.
Some (for example Spanish)  give both parents' family names in the childrens' surnames.
In Russian most surnames change depending on the gender of the person (example: ...ski or ...sky for a male, and ...skaya for a female).
Some, such as Javanese, do not often give anyone a family name.
Sometimes a name is passed to generations,some people may have the same name like Mary Ann or Jane so don't worry about you having the same name as other people  have.
John the Baptist (also called John the Baptizer or Yahya the Baptizer) is viewed as a prophet by at least three religions: Christianity, Islam, and Mandaeanism.
According to the New Testament, he was a preacher who baptized people.
John called people to turn to God and to prepare for the coming of the messiah (Jesus).
He baptized Jesus in the Jordan River.
John was the son of Zechariah and Elizabeth, and a relative of Jesus.
He was known for living in the wild, wearing clothes made from camel's hair, and eating locusts and honey.
In Catholicism, his birthday is celebrated on June 24.
a common male given name
a family name
People, things and meanings named John:
Biblical meanings
John the Apostle (also called John the Evangelist)
John of Patmos, the author of the book of Revelation.
the Biblical texts: Gospel of John and Epistles of John (1 John, 2 John, 3 John)
There are over 20 popes with the name John:
People with the first and the last name John:
Newton John
The King of England was the supreme head of state and head of government of the Kingdom of England.
This is a list of the Kings and Queens of the Kingdom of England from 924 until England and Scotland joined together in 1707.
First kings
Athelstan (924–939)
Edmund I (939–946)
Edred (946–955)
Edwy the Fair (955–959)
Edgar the Peaceable (959–975)
St Edward the Martyr (975–978)
Ethelred the Unready (978–1013, 1014–1016)
Sweyn Forkbeard (1013–1014)
Edmund Ironside (1016)
Danish kings
Cnut the Great  (1016–1035)
Harold Harefoot (1037–1040)
Harthacanute (1035–1037, 1040–1042)
House of Wessex Restoration
St Edward the Confessor (1042–1066)
In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy invaded England.
He defeated King Harold II and became King.
Harold Godwinson (1066)  William the Conqueror (1066–1087)
William II (1087–1100)
Henry I (1100–1135)
Stephen (1135–1154)
Plantagenets
Angevins
Empress Matilda (1141)
Henry II (1154–1189)
Richard I, the Lionheart (1189–1199)
John (1199–1216)
Henry III (1216–1272)
Edward I (1272–1307)
Edward II (1307–1327) (deposed)
Edward III (1327–1377)
Richard II (1377–1399) (deposed, died 1400)
Lancastrians
Henry IV (1399–1413)
Henry V (1413–1422)
Henry VI (1422–1461 and 1470–1471)
Yorkists
Edward IV (1461–1470 and 1471–1483)
Edward V (uncrowned) (1483) (deposed 1483 possibly assassinated)
Richard III (1483–1485)
The Tudors were from Wales.
In 1536, Wales became part of England.
England had controlled Wales since 1284.
Henry VII (1485–1509)
Henry VIII (1509–1547)
Edward VI (1547–1553)
Jane (uncrowned) (1553) (deposed, beheaded 1554)
Mary I (1553–1558)
Elizabeth I (1558–1603)
Stuarts
The Stuarts were also kings of Scotland, with which kingdom England was in personal, but not legal union until 1707.
James I (1603–1625), also from 1567 King James VI of Scotland
Charles I (1625–1649), also King of Scotland
The Civil War in England from 1642 until 1652 stemming from a growing enmity between King and Parliament, led to the execution of King Charles I in 1649.
After the execution, England became a Commonwealth eventually led by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector after successive interim governments failed and handed Cromwell power, and so England became a protectorate.
Furthermore, both Ireland and Scotland became subjugated states under England and Cromwell at the end of the war.
Cromwell died in 1658 and his son, Richard, became Lord Protector.
This was short lived though as he failed to gain the support of the army and so the nation, in 1660 power was given back to the Monarchy and the King In Exile, Charles II, was invited back to England
Stuarts (restored)
Charles II (1660–1685), also King of Scotland (backdated the start of his reign to 1649)
James II (1685–1688) (deposed, died 1701), also King James VII of Scotland
William III (1689–1702) and Mary II (1689–1694), as co-monarchs, also King and Queen of Scotland
Anne (1702–1714), though the English throne was replaced with that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707
In 1707, England and Scotland joined together.
For Kings and Queens after 1707, see British monarchs.
Lists of British monarchs
This is a list of the Kings and Queens of Scotland.
This list goes from 843 until when England and Scotland joined together in 1707.
Kenneth I (c. 843–858)
Donald I (858–862)
Constantine I (862–877)
Aed (877–878)
Eochaid (878–889) (disputed)
Giric (878–889)
Donald II (889–890)
Constantine II (900–943)
Malcolm I (943–954)
Indulf (954–962)
Dub (962–967)
Culen (967–971)
Amlaíb (971-977) (disputed)
Kenneth II (971–995)
Constantine III (995–997)
Kenneth III (997–1005)
Malcolm II (1005–1034)
Duncan I (1034–1040)
Macbeth (1040–1057)
Lulach (1057–1058)
Malcolm III (1058–1093)
Donald III (1093–1094)
Duncan II (1094)
Donald III (1094–1097)
Edmund (1094–1097)
Edgar (1097–1107)
Alexander I (1107–1124)
Saint David I (1124–1153)
Malcolm IV (1153–1165)
William I (1165–1214)
Alexander II (1214–1249)
Alexander III (1249–1286)
Margaret (1286–1290)
First Interregnum 1290–1292
William Fraser, Bishop of St Andrews
Duncan Macduff, 8th Earl of Fife
Alexander Comyn, 2nd Earl of Buchan
Robert Wishart, Bishop of Glasgow
James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland
House of Balliol
John (1292-1296)
Second Interregnum 1296–1306
Andrew de Moray (1297)
William Wallace (1297–1298)
Robert the Bruce, Earl of Carrick (1298–1300)
John Comyn (1298–1301)
William Lamberton, Bishop of St Andrews (1299–1301)
Sir Ingram de Umfraville (1300–1301)
John de Soules (1301–1304)
John Comyn (1302–1304)
Robert I the Bruce (1306–1329)
David II (1329–1371)
Edward Balliol (1329 – 1363)
House of Stewart (Stuart)
Robert II (1371–1390)
Robert III (1390–1406)
James I (1406–1437)
James II (1437–1460)
James III (1460–1488)
James IV (1488–1513)
James V (1513–1542)
Mary I (1542–1567) (executed 1587)
James VI (1567–1625), Union of the Crowns with Kingdom of England from (1603)
Charles I (1625–1649)
Charles II (1649–1685) (See also English Interregnum)
James VII (1685–1689)
Mary II (1689–1694), co-monarch
William II (1689–1702), co-monarch until 1694
Anne (1702–1714), though the Scottish throne was replaced with that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707
Disputed or unrecognized claims
Margaret, the Maid of Norway was unrecognized by some Scots (ruled 1286-1290)
Henry Lord Darnley proclaimed himself king in 1565 as Henry I of Scotland (ruled 1565-1567)
Charles II claimed to rule even during Oliver & Richard Cromwell's reigns (ruled 1649-1685)
James VII was recognized by France to rule after his deposal (ruled 1685-1702)
The same monarchs had ruled Scotland, England, and Ireland since James VI and the Union of the Crowns in 1603.
Its scientific name is Taraxacum, a large genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae.
Taraxacum are native to Eurasia, and have been widely introduced to North and South America and other continents.
They are an invasive species in some areas.
Two species, T. officinale and T. erythrospermum, are found as weeds worldwide.
All parts of both species are edible.
Their sharp leaves look a bit like lion's teeth.
Its seeds are like little parachutes that fly away with the wind, spreading and growing more dandelions.
They are used in China as medicine.
Dandelion pollen can often make people have allergies.
Like other members of the Asteraceae family, they have small flowers collected together into a composite flower head.
Each single flower in a head is called a floret.
Many Taraxacum species produce seeds asexually by apomixis, where the seeds are produced without pollination.
This results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent plant.
Al Razi around 900 (A.D.) wrote "the tarashaquq is like chicory".
A Muslim scientist and philosopher Ibn Sīnā around 1000 (A.D.) wrote a book chapter on Taraxacum.
Gerard of Cremona, in translating Arabic to Japanese around 1170, spelled it tarasacon.
The word Motet is a piece of music for a church service sung by a choir without using any instruments.
The words are usually in Latin.
If the words are written in English for the Anglican church, it is called an anthem.
Motets have been written since the Middle Ages.
Medieval motets often had very complex rhythms.
The tenor often had the tune, which might be a folk tune, and two voices would put quite complicated accompaniments on top.
The most famous medieval composer who wrote motets was Guillaume de Machaut (1300-1377)
In the Renaissance, motets were usually polyphonic.
That means that the different voices (soprano, alto, tenor, bass) would be singing different parts of the melody at the same time, making it very beautiful, but quite complicated to listen to.
Many composers of this time wrote motets.
The most famous was Giovanni da Palestrina (1525-1594).
In the Baroque period, one of the most famous composers was Heinrich Schütz(1585-1672), who wrote motets which he called “Cantiones Sacrae” (meaning: “sacred songs”).
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) wrote six wonderful motets with German texts.
Some people think that Bach may have used a few instruments to accompany these motets.
In three of them the choir divide into eight parts.
The most famous motet from the Classical period is Mozart’s Ave Verum Corpus.
musical forms
John D. Carmack II (born August 20 1970) is a well known video game creator.
He was one of the creators of id Software, a video game company, in 1991.
Carmack was the main programmer of the first-person shooter games Wolfenstein 3D, Doom, Quake, and their sequels.
In 1999, Carmack appeared as number 10 in TIME's list of the 50 most influential people in technology.
Carmack is married to Katherine Anna Kang since January 2000 and their son, Christopher Ryan, was born on August 13 2004.
In March 2006, Carmack was added to the Walk of Game, an event that names the most important people in video games.
Kushner, David (2003).
Masters of Doom: How Two Guys Created an Empire and Transformed Pop Culture, New York: Random House. .
Carmack, John
Scientists from Kansas
An anthem is a piece of music written for a choir to sing at an Anglican church service.
The difference between an anthem and a motet is that an anthem is sung in English.
Also most anthems are accompanied by an organ.
The word “anthem” has come to mean “a song of celebration”.
Anthems are also patriotic songs adopted by countries of the world.
It has 158 stanzas, written by the poet Dionysios Solomos (although the cut-down version is shorter than Uruguay's, which is more than five minutes long).
The anthem of Greece "Hymn to liberty" is the longest anthem in the world.
Anthems for the church have been composed ever since King Henry VIII argued with the Pope and did not want to be Roman Catholic any more.
He founded (started) the English Anglican church.
Church composers were told to write music in English.
The words usually come from the Bible.
We know that as early as 1502 the composer Fayrfax was paid 20 shillings for composing an anthem.
After the Reformation many anthems were composed.
At first they were like motets, but in English.
Soon the English anthem developed differently from the continental motet.
Two kinds of anthem developed: the “Full Anthem” in which the whole anthem was sung by the full choir, and the “Verse Anthem” which was usually longer and had several verses which would be sung by soloists, with choruses for the full choir in between.
Almost every music director of cathedrals or large churches has written anthems.
A few of the most famous composers of anthems are:
Chinese characters are symbols used to write the Chinese and Japanese languages.
In the past, other languages like Korean and Vietnamese also used them.
The beginning of these characters was at least 3000 years ago, making them one of the oldest writing systems in the world that is still used today.
In Chinese they are called hanzi (), which means "Han character".
In Japanese they are called kanji, hanja in Korean, and Han Nom in Vietnamese.
Chinese characters are an important part of East Asian culture.
Chinese characters may be considered to be abstract art, because of how the characters are made up of lines and dots.
The art of writing Chinese characters is called calligraphy.
Chinese characters are a type of logogram, which are written symbols that represent words instead of sounds.
Most earlier Chinese characters were pictographs, which are simple pictures used to mean some kind of thing or idea.
Today, very few modern Chinese characters are pure pictographs, but are a combination of two or more simple characters, also known as radicals.
While many radicals and characters show a word's meaning, some give hints of the word's pronunciation instead.
To better explain the different purposes and types of Chinese characters that exist, Chinese scholars have divided Chinese characters into six categories known as liushu (六书 / 六書), literally translated as the Six Books.
The six types of Chinese characters are:
Pictographs, xiàng xÍng (象形): characters that use a simple picture, or one radical, that directly represent concrete nouns, like persons, places, and things.
Simple ideograms, zhǐ shì (指事): characters that use one radical, to represent abstract nouns, such as ideas and abstractions.
Complex ideograms, huì yì (会意), or characters that use more than one radical to represent more complex ideas or abstractions.
Phonetic loan characters, jiǎ jiè (假借), or characters that borrow a radical from other characters because they sound similar, not because they have the same meaning.
These are called rebuses, or pictures/letters/numbers/symbols that are used to represent a word with the same pronunciation.
For example, someone writes the sentence, "I'll see you tonight" as "⊙ L C U 2nite".
Sometimes, a new character is made for the original word to not have any confusion between the different words.
Common examples of words using phonetic characters are the names of countries, such as Canada, which is pronounced Jiānádà (加拿大) in Chinese.
While the third character 大 dà, which has the meaning "big/large/great", seems to describe Canada well, since it is a big country, the first two characters 加 jiā, meaning "to add", and 拿 ná, meaning "to take", have no obvious relation to Canada.
Therefore, it is safe to say that these characters were chosen only because the pronunciation of each character sounds similar to the syllables of the English name of the country.
Semantic-phonetic compounds, xíng shēng (形声), are characters where at least one radical hints at the word's meaning and at least one radical hints at the word's pronunciation.
Most Chinese characters are these kinds of characters.
For example, the character 媽 / 妈 mā means mother, and the character is made of 2 radicals, 女 and 馬 / 马.
The semantic radical 女 means female/woman/girl, since the word's meaning is related to the radical, and even though the meaning of the phonetic radical 馬 / 马 mǎ has little to do with the word's meaning, if any at all, it sounds similar to the word 媽 / 妈 mā，so it is used to help the reader remember the word's pronunciation.
Transformed cognates, zhuan zhu (转注), or characters that used to be different ways of writing other characters, but have later taken on a different meaning.
Nobody knows exactly how many Chinese characters there are, but the biggest Chinese dictionaries list about fifty thousand characters, even though most of them are only variants of other characters seen in very old texts.
For example, the character 回 (huí) has also been written as the variant characters 迴，廻，囬，逥，廽，and 囘, although most Chinese people only know and use the variant 回.
Studies in China show that normally three to four thousand characters are used in daily life, so it is safe to say that someone needs to know three to four thousand characters to be functionally literate in Chinese, or be able to read everyday writing without serious problems.