the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
He made drawings of bodies in the Solar System, and made the first attempts to measure the distance of certain stars.
Robert Hooke was appointed the Royal Society's first Curator of Experiments in 1662, and he rose to be Secretary of the Royal Society.
He took responsibility for experiments performed at its weekly meetings.
This was a position he held for over 40 years.
On 8 July 1680, Hooke observed the nodal patterns associated with the mode of vibration of glass plates.
He ran a bow along the edge of a glass plate covered with flour, and saw the nodal patterns emerge.p101
Hooke did some fundamental work on gravitation and the motion of the planets.
Forever after, he was convinced that Newton and the world had cheated him of the creditp389
He was also known for his work in natural history  (biology and geology).
He reported on his microsope use in a book called Micrographica in 1665.
He was the first person to see biological cells, and was the first to use the word 'cell' to describe them.
Hooke achieved fame in his day as Surveyor to the City of London and chief assistant of Christopher Wren.
Hooke helped Wren rebuild London after the Great Fire in 1666.
He also worked on the Royal Greenwich Observatory, and the infamous Bethlem Royal Hospital (which became known as 'Bedlam').
Many other buildings were designed by Hooke, including the Royal College of Physicians (1679).
Hooke's collaboration with Christopher Wren included St Paul's Cathedral, whose dome uses a method of construction conceived by Hooke.
Hooke also participated in the design of the Pepys Library, which held the manuscripts of Samuel Pepys's diaries, the most frequently cited eyewitness account of the Great Fire of London.
In the reconstruction after the Great Fire, Hooke proposed redesigning London's streets on a grid pattern with wide boulevards and arteries, a pattern later used in the renovation of Paris, Liverpool, and many American cities.
This proposal was thwarted by arguments over property rights, as property owners were surreptitiously shifting their boundaries.
Hooke was in demand to settle many of these disputes, due to his skill as a surveyor and his tact as an arbitrator.
1635 births
1703 deaths
English biologists
English architects
Emission is a word that originally comes from Latin.
Originally it means something that is sent out.
Several things can be sent out:
The most common use talks about emission of toxic gases.
Those gases get produced by factories and motors, like motors in cars.
People talk about radio emissions.
Those are programmes that people can listen to if they have a radio receiver.
There could be emissions of loud noise, someone might be making loud noises.
There also are emissions of light.
Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy (9 September 1828  20 November 1910) was a Russian novelist and anarchist, famous for writing the books War and Peace and Anna Karenina, and many other works.
He was a Christian and believed in non-violence and practiced simple living.
His work The Kingdom of God is within you has influenced people like Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King.
Tolstoy died in 1910, at the age of 82.
When he was young his parents died, so he and his siblings were brought up by relatives.
At the age of 16, he began studying law and oriental languages.
Unfortunately, he left University in the middle of his studies and spent much of his time in Moscow and Saint Petersburg.
Later on in his life, he joined the Army with his brother after running up some heavy gambling debts.
It was at that time that he started writing.
His conversion from a wealthy society author to the non-violent and spiritual anarchist of his later days was notable.
It was caused by his experience in the army as well as two trips around Europe in 1857 and 1860–61.
Others who followed a similar path were Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin and Peter Kropotkin.
During his 1857 visit, Tolstoy saw a public execution in Paris, an experience which marked the rest of his life.
After Anna Karenina, Tolstoy concentrated on Christian themes, and his later novels such as The Death of Ivan Ilyich (1886) and What Is to Be Done? (
1886) develop a radical Christian philosophy which led to his excommunication from the Russian Orthodox Church in 1901.
1828 births
Disease-related deaths in Russia
Russian Christians
People have made wine in the American state of California for a long time.
California has become recognized as making some of the world's best wine.
California makes most of the wine that is made in America.
People first made wine in California in 1769.
Missionaries from Mexico brought their wine plants to produce wine for the mass.
Later, people coming from Europe improved the making of wine.
They had brought their own kinds of wine plants.
Before 1920, there was more wine made every year.
Then Prohibition began.
During Prohibition, it was not allowed to sell alcoholic drinks in the United States.
It almost ended the making of wine in California.
Californian wine-making took a long time to recover.
In 1990, the USA sent less than five percent of its wine to other countries.
After that, exports of wine from California increased.
Today, the USA is one of the big wine industries.
Wine comes in different colors.
Most wines are called "red" or "white".
White wine is not really white, it just has a very light color.
54 percent of the Californian wines are white wines.
Some examples of white wines are Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc.
Some examples of red wines are Zinfandel, Cabernet-Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinot Noir.
Cool climate viticulture
Grapes for wine used to need warm weather.
People wanted to grow more grapes, so they learned how to grow them where the weather was not as warm.
That way of growing grapes is called "cool climate viticulture".
Vines are now planted in colder places, up to  above sea level.
Monterey County was the first place where that was done.
In California, there are more than 800 wine cellars.
Wine cellars are big rooms were wine is stored.
They are part of a winery, the place where wine is produced.
Two of the most famous growing areas for wine in California are Napa County and Sonoma County.
The wines from those places are some of the best in the world.
Some examples of the wines made there are Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon.
3000 word report - Comprehensive overview Pinot Noir Wine
Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid is a 1969 American movie from 20th Century Fox.
George Roy Hill directed it, and John Foreman produced it.
It stars Paul Newman and Robert Redford as two robbers in Wyoming who go to Bolivia to escape the law.
The movie was loosely based on the real story of the two title characters (Butch Cassidy and his friend Harry Longabaugh, also called "Sundance").
But it made the legends of the two more popular.
It won four Academy Awards: for Best Cinematography (shooting work on a movie), Best Original Score, Best Song (Burt Bacharach's "Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head") and Best Original Screenplay (William Goldman).
It was also nominated for Best Picture, Best Director (Hill) and Best Sound.
Goldman won the BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay.
It was one of the largest-grossing movies of the 1960s (with $102.3 million in the United States).
It was number fifty on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list.
At first, Warren Beatty and Steve McQueen (even Marlon Brando) were called upon to play the title roles.
When Newman and Redford took their place, the roles were switched, with Newman as Sundance, and Redford as Cassidy.
The studio, 20th Century Fox, did not like Redford's role.
But the movie's director, Hill, wanted it that way.
1969 movies
1969 crime movies
1960s western movies
American crime movies
Movies set in Wyoming
Movies directed by George Roy Hill
War of the Roses in England.
Bartolomeu Dias of Portugal sails around Africa and on to India.
Spanish Inquisition begins.
Martin Luther, German monk and reformer
Raphael, Italian painter and architect
Huldrych Zwingli, Swiss religious reformer
Catherine of Aragon, queen of Henry VIII of England
Mehmed II, Ottoman Sultan
King Christian I of Denmark and Norway
Axayacatl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan
Mehmed II or Mehmed the conqueror (, Meḥmed-i sānī; Modern , ; 30 March 1432 – 3 May 1481) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire for a short time from 1444 to 1446, and later from 1451 to 1481.
At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople, bringing an end to the medieval Byzantine Empire.
Mehmed the Conqueror
Biography page at OttomanOnline
Sultans of the Ottoman Empire
1481 deaths
The Bold and the Beautiful is a popular American soap opera.
After The Young and the Restless, it is the highest-rated soap opera there.
The series is shown in over 100 countries.
About 300 million people watch it every day.
This makes The Bold and the Beautiful the most watched television series in the world.
The first episode was shown on March 23, 1987 on the CBS network.
The series was created by the soap opera writer William J. Bell and his wife, Lee Phillip Bell.
It is the only American soap opera to have its daily episodes translated into Spanish for the Hispanic viewers in the United States.
The series is set in Los Angeles, California.
It tells the story of the Forrester family, who owns a fashion empire called Forrester Creations.
The major members of the family are Eric Forrester (played by John McCook), the president of Forrester Creations, his wife Stephanie (Susan Flannery), their eldest son Ridge (Ronn Moss) and Brooke Logan (Katherine Kelly Lang), who was married to both the father and the son.
She owns most of Forrester Creations.
This is because she created BeLieF, a formula which earned much money for the company.
There used to be a second fashion company called Spectra Fashions.
It was Forrester’s main competitor.
The conflicts between the Forrester and the Spectra families was one of the major themes of the story.
The Bold and The Beautiful
The Bold and The Beautiful CBS Website
Primary colors (or primary colours) are sets of colors that can be combined to make a useful range of colors.
The primary colors are those which cannot be created by mixing other colors in a given color space.
For subtractive combination of colors, as in mixing of pigments or dyes for printing, the CMYK set of primaries is often used.
In this system the primary colors are cyan, magenta,and yellow.
Other sets include the RYB system of red, yellow, blue, especially used by artists.
Biological basis
Primary colors are not a fundamental property of light but are related to the physiological response of the eye to light (the way the eye works).
For humans, three primary colors are usually used, since human color vision is trichromatic.
Fundamentally, light is a continuous spectrum of the wavelengths that can be detected by the human eye, an infinite-dimensional stimulus space.
However, the human eye normally contains only three types of color receptors, called cone cells.
Each color receptor respond to different ranges of the color spectrum.
Humans and other species with three such types of color receptors are known as trichromats.
and blue.
Because of the response curves of the three different color receptors in
Additive mixing of red and green light, produce shades of yellow or orange.
Mixing green and blue produces shades of cyan, and mixing red and blue produces shades of purple and magenta.
Mixing equal proportions of the additive primaries results in shades of grey; when all three colors are fully saturated, the result is white.
The color space that is generated is called the RGB ("red, green, blue") color space.
Subtractive primaries
Media that use reflected light and colorants to produce colors are using the subtractive color method of color mixing.
In the printing industry, to produce the varying colors, apply the subtractive primaries yellow, cyan, and magenta together in varying amounts.
Subtractive color works best when the surface or paper, is white, or close to it.
Mixing yellow and cyan produces shades of green; mixing yellow with magenta produces shades of red, and mixing magenta with cyan produces shades of blue.
In theory, mixing equal amounts of all three pigments should produce shades of grey, resulting in black when all three are fully saturated, but in practice they tend to produce muddy brown colors.
For this reason, a fourth "primary" pigment, black, is often used in addition to the cyan, magenta, and yellow colors.
The color space generated is the so-called CMYK color space.
The abbreviation stands for "Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black" — K stands for "Kohle" (German for coal) and is used to represent black as 'B' could be confused with 'Blue'.
In practice, mixtures of actual materials like paint tend to be less precise.
Brighter, or more specific colors can be created using natural pigments instead of mixing, and natural properties of pigments can interfere with the mixing.
For example, mixing magenta and green in acrylic creates a dark cyan - something which would not happen if the mixing process were perfectly subtractive.
The umbilicus (also called navel or bellybutton) is a place on the body of mammals that is left after a baby loses its umbilical cord.
The umbilicus of humans is in the middle of the abdomen.
It is usually only easy to see on humans, and is a thin line on many other mammals.
In humans, they can be split into two different kinds, the kind that goes in (innie) and the kind that goes out (outie).
Different people have different navels that can be different in size, shape, and looks, but these differences are not genetic (you do not get them from looks passed down in your family).
The hepatic portal vein passes from the umbilical vein to the liver.
When a person becomes fat, the fat usually goes around the umbilicus.
It marks the water shed line of the body.
The venus blood & lymph do not cross the umbilical plane.
Captain James Cook, FRS (27 October 1728 – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator and cartographer.
He made three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, mapping many areas and recording several islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time.
He is most notable for the British finding the east coast of Australia, finding the Hawaiian Islands and for making the first maps of Newfoundland and New Zealand.
During his lifetime, he sailed twice around the world.
He crossed the Antarctic Circle and found new islands and landscapes in North America and the South Pacific.
During his trips, he spent a lot of time on science experiments, and mapping new areas.
He also wrote a lot of books about what he found.
Cook's life
Cook was born on 27 November 1728 in Marton in Yorkshire in England.
He was a son of a Scottish farmer.
He was educated at the school in Great Ayton, and at 17 he began work in a shop at Staithes.
At 18, Cook became a sailor, and became an apprentice to John Walker of Whitby.
Walker's business was transporting coal.
Cook learned mathematics and navigation from Walker.
He studied as much as he could about navigation and science.
He was sent on three expeditions with the ship called Endeavour all over the world.
to find the Southern continent (terra australis incognita)
to make astronomical measures of Venus
to map new lands
to take over the land for King George III
to watch for good places for new military bases
to find new routes between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean
to establish an observatory in Tahiti
Cook's Family
Their names were Elizabeth Cook, Hugh Cook, George Cook, Nathaniel Cook and  Joseph Cook.
His father’s name was James Cook.
He had 3 sisters and 2 brothers.
Their names were Mary Cook, who died at age 4, Margaret Cook, William Cook, Jane Cook and John Cook.
1728 births
1779 deaths
People from Yorkshire
The offside rule is one of the oldest football rules, but is still a much discussed rule.
This is probably because of the relatively complicated set of provisions provided by the sport's law-making body, the IFAB for deciding if a player in an offside position is actually guilty of an offside offence by becoming involved in active play.
It can also be a difficult decision for the referee or assistant referee to make as they need to watch the ball, the player playing the ball and also the attacker who is seeking to receive the ball at the same time.
It is a common misconception that the ball must be played forward for an offside offence to be committed.
This is incorrect however, as an offside offence is related to the position of the player in relation to the last two opponents, the ball and the opponent's goal line rather than the direction the ball is played.
If the player is closer to the opponent's goal line than both the ball and the second-last opponent when it is played by a team mate, she or he is in an offside position.
Players cannot be offside in their own half of the field.
It is not possible to be offside from a throw-in, corner kick or goal kick.
If the ball is deliberately played by a member of the opposing team, an attacker cannot be offside.
A player who is behind the other team's goal line is considered to be on the goal line for the purposes of offside.
It is an offence to leave or re-enter the field of play without permission but not if it is part of a natural playing movement.
If the player is behind the ball when it is played, he or she cannot be offside.
An attacker who is exactly in line with the 2nd last defender or the ball is not considered to be offside.
If a player does not become involved in active play, then it is not an offside offence even if that player is in an offside position (the concept of passive offside introduced in 1924).
A player can become involved in active play by touching the ball (either directly from a team mate's touch or after it rebounds off the goal frame or an opponent) or interfering with another player's ability to play the ball.
Football (soccer) terminology
cs:Ofsajd#Fotbal
fi:Paitsio
Valentine's Day is a celebration that happens on February 14.
It is the day of the year when lovers celebrate their love.
This can be done by giving flowers, chocolates, Valentine's cards or just a nice gift.
Love notes can be given to one another.
These notes that people give out are also called valentines.
Some people pick one person and call them their "Valentine" as a gesture to show love and appreciation.
Valentine's Day is named for the martyred Christian saint named Valentine.
He was a bishop that married forbidden couples.
Since the 14th century, Valentine's pairs are formed in England.
English emigrants then took the Valentine's custom to the United States.
After  World War II, US soldiers brought this festival to Europe.
In the third century A.D., Valentine was the bishop of Terni (Italy).
He performed weddings for couples who were not allowed to get married.
They may not have been allowed to get married because the parents did not agree with the connection or because the bridegroom was a soldier or a slave, so the marriage was forbidden.
Valentine gave the married couple flowers from his garden.
That's why flowers play a very important role on Valentine's Day.
This did not please the emperor.
On February 14, 269 AD, Valentine was beheaded because of his Christian faith.
An expansion of the legend combines the day of death of Valentine with the Roman festival Lupercalia.
It was the festival of the great goddess Lupa, which is the feminine word for wolf.
She was the Great She-Wolf who nursed the twin babies, Romulus and Remus, who later became the founders of Rome.
During the annual ceremony, the temple priestesses (lupae) wrote their names on strips of papyrus.
These were picked by young men.
After the lottery, the youngsters walked through the city and got the blessings of the citizens.
The martyr Valentine became the patron saint of the lovers.
Still in the Middle Ages, as in France or in Belgium, people were chosen by the lottery to live a year with each other and people prayed to Saint Valentine to make love potions and charms.
United States and Europe
In the 19th century, the custom of sending Valentine's Cards became very popular.
The cards usually have pictures of hearts or flowers and contain some sort of poem, message, or code.
Codes and simple messages give some people the  to show their true feelings to the person they love.
Today, some people still use mysterious codes to show their love.
People can use newspapers to give a coded message to their loved one, giving other readers a view of the couples' intimacy with one another.
Sometimes they will give each other chocolates.
In China, a holiday called Qi Xi is also called "Chinese Valentine's Day", especially by younger people.
Qi Xi is traditionally held on the 7th day of the 7th month of the lunar calendar.
In recent years, it has become more like Valentine's Day in other countries.
February events
The Canary Islands are a group of islands off the coast of Morocco.
They are an autonomous community of Spain (they make their own laws).
There are seven main islands.
The people who live there speak Spanish.
The autonomous community has two capital cities, of equal status: Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.
Like the other islands of Macaronesia, they were created by volcanoes on the bottom of the sea.
Those volcanoes slowly rose above the water and became islands.
This process lasted many thousands of years.
The islands have a very long and interesting history.
When Europeans first came to the Canary Islands, they found people already living there.
These people were called the Guanches.
Many of the Guanches were killed in 15th century battles with the Spanish, and the ones who remained adopted the Spanish way of life.
After the Spanish conquest many battles were also fought against pirates.
Most recently Morocco was interested in them.
After the Spanish conquest many Europeans settled there.
Portuguese and Spaniards, and also Belgians and Maltese were among the early settlers.
Recently many people from all over Europe, America, India and Africa have also become citizens or permanent residents.
The seven islands are: La Palma, La Gomera, El Hierro, Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, and Fuerteventura.
People from La Gomera have a whistle language that children there learn at school.
Tenerife has the highest mountain in the Canary Islands and Spain too, the Teide.
The Teide is actually a volcano, but it has not been active in more than 300 years.
The islands are popular with tourists because of their warm climate and nice beaches.
The local farmers grow lots of exotic fruits including papayas and bananas.
Edinburgh Airport (IATA EDI, ICAO: EGPH) is an airport in Scotland.
It is one of seven airports in the United Kingdom owned by the company BAA, which also owns Glasgow Airport and Aberdeen Airport in Scotland.
It is served by many different airlines including Scot Airways, British Airways, EasyJet, BMI, Continental Airlines, Air France, and Lufthansa.
The airport has good road links to the city centre with a bus running every 10 minutes from the airport to the centre of Edinburgh, a number of taxis are always available.
Just over 9 million people a year use the airport, but there are plans to make the airport bigger in the future.
On 19th October 2011, BAA Limited said that it is going to sell Edinburgh Airport.
This was done following a decision by the UK's Competition Commission which said that BAA needs to sell either Glasgow or Edinburgh Airport.
In February of 2001 a Shorts 360 crashed shortly after taking off from Edinburgh Airport.
Both pilots were killed but there were no passengers on board as it was a mail-carrying flight.
Edinburgh Airport official website
Airports in Scotland
Lufthansa is the largest airline in Germany, and the second-largest in Europe.
Some of Lufthansa's hubs are Frankfurt am Main and Munich, Germany.
A hub is an airport where people who fly from one city to a second city can transfer or change airplanes.
Lufthansa buys airplanes from Boeing and Airbus.
Lufthansa has big airplanes for flights to North America, Asia, and Africa.
These flights are called long-haul flights because they are between cities that are far apart from each other.
Lufthansa also has small airplanes for flights in Europe.
These flights are called short-haul flights.
Lufthansa is a member  of the Star Alliance, which means it is a partner with other airlines like United Airlines and Air Canada.
Members of the Star Alliance cooperate or work together to schedule their flights better so that travelling is easier for passengers or people.
The name of Lufthansa's frequent flyer program is Miles and More.
People earn points for flights they travel on.
When they have enough points, they can get a free flight.
Lufthansa has "Miles and More" to encourage people to fly with Lufthansa.
Lufthansa website
Airlines of Germany
IATA members
Orlando Jonathan Blanchard Bloom (born 13 January 1977, in Canterbury, Kent, England) is an English actor.
He is most known for his first major movie role as the elf Legolas Greenleaf in The Lord of the Rings movie trilogy.
In 1993, he moved to London to improve his career, doing bit parts in TV series like Casualty.
Then he played some theatres like The Seagull, Twelfth Night, and Trojan Women.
This is a role that he received some days before graduating the drama school in London.
Wilde (1997)
The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001)
Black Hawk Down (2002)
The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002)
Ned Kelly (2003)
The Calcium Kid (2003)
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)
Troy (2004)
Haven (2004)
Kingdom of Heaven (2005)
Elizabethtown (2005)
The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug (2013)
The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies (2014)
Actors from Kent
Somerton becomes the capital of the Kingdom of Wessex.
Alfred the Great succeeds as king of Wessex after Ethelred of Wessex's death.
January 25 – The British Parliament passes the Constitutional Act of 1791, splitting the province of Quebec (a colony in North America spreading from the Gulf of Mexico coast to Hudson Bay)
March 2 – A semaphore machine is revealed to the public in Paris.
March 4 – Vermont becomes a state in the United States.
May 3 – The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Sejm (Parliament) proclaims the Constitution of third May, the first modern codified, or legal code-like, constitution in Europe.
July 14 – The Priestley Riots happen in Birmingham, West Midlands, England.
June 20 – The French Royal Family is captured when they try to flee in disguise.
July 17 – The Champ de Mars Massacre occurs during the French Revolution.
August 4 – The Treaty of Sistova is signed, ending the Ottoman-Habsburg wars.
August 6 – Brandenburg Gate in Berlin is finished.
August 26 – John Fitch is given a patent for the steamboat in the United States.
September 25 – The Mission Santa Cruz is founded by Father Fermín Francisco de Lasuén, becoming the twelfth mission in the California mission chain.
September 30 – First showing of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's singspiel, a type of opera, Die Zauberflöte (Magic Flute) in the Freihaustheater in Vienna.
October 9 – The Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad, was founded by Father Fermín Francisco de Lasuén, becoming the thirteenth mission in the California mission chain.
December 4 – The first issue of The Observer, the world's first Sunday newspaper, is published.
December 15 – The states approve ten amendments to the United States Constitution, which become the Bill of Rights.
Two additional amendments are still being thought about, and one of these is finally approved in 1992, becoming the Twenty-seventh Amendment.
Undated Events
The first American ship reaches Japan.
Slave rebellion Haiti has begun.
January 15 – Franz Grillparzer, Austrian writer (d. 1872)
January 28 – Louis Joseph Ferdinand Herold, French composer (d. 1833)
February 12 – Peter Cooper, American Industrialist, inventor and philanthropist (d. 1883)
Carl Czerny, Austrian composer (d. 1857)
John Mercer, chemist and industrialist (d. 1866)
April 23 – James Buchanan, 15th President of the United States (d. 1868)
April 27 – Samuel Morse, American inventor (d. 1872)
July 26 – Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart, Austrian composer and pianist (d. 1844)
September 5 – Giacomo Meyerbeer, German composer (d. 1864)
September 21 – István Széchenyi, Hungarian politician and writer (d. 1860)
September 22 – Michael Faraday, British scientist (d. 1867)
September 26 – Théodore Géricault, French painter (d. 1824)
November 11 – Josef Munzinger, member of the Swiss Federal Council (d. 1855)
December 26 – Charles Babbage, British mathematician and inventor (d. 1871)
January 11 – William Williams Pantycelyn, Welsh hymnist (b. 1717)
March 2 – John Wesley, English founder of Methodism (b. 1703)
March 14 – Johann Salomo Semler, German historian and Bible commentator (b. 1725)
April 19 – Richard Price, Welsh philosopher (b. 1723)
May 9 – Francis Hopkinson, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1737)
June 5 – Frederick Haldimand, Swiss-born British colonial governor (b. 1718)
June 10 – Toussaint-Guillaume Picquet de la Motte, French admiral (b. 1720)
July 17 – Martin Dobrizhoffer, Austrian Jesuit missionary (b. 1717)
July 25 – Isaac Low, American delegate to the Continental Congress (b. 1735)
August 16 – Charles-François de Broglie, marquis de Ruffec, French soldier and diplomat (b. 1719)
November 4 – Richard Butler (general), American soldier (b. 1743)
September 25 – William Bradford, American printer (b. 1719)
December 5 – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Austrian composer (b. 1756)
May : Sack of Rome by the Normans of Robert Guiscard.
Chromium is a chemical element.
Its symbol on the periodic table (a list of all the elements) is Cr.
It always has 24 protons, so its atomic number is 24.
Its mass number (number of protons and neutrons) is about 54.
Most of the times it has 28 neutrons, but different isotopes have more or fewer neutrons.
As a metal, it has 24 electrons.
Its ions have fewer electrons.
Chromium is a shiny metal.
It is reactive, but it reacts with air to produce a very thin coating of chromium(III) oxide, which prevents it from rusting any more.
Chromium occurs in several oxidation states; +2, +3, and +6 are most common.
It forms chemical compounds that are colorful.
Chromium(II) oxide, black, rare, reducing agent
Chromium(II) chloride, blue when dissolved in water, unstable
Chromium(III) oxide, dark green
Chromium(III) chloride, green when containing water (hydrated), purple when not containing water (anhydrous)
Chromium(IV) oxide, black, used in cassettes
Chromium(VI) oxide, chromium trioxide, red, oxidizing agent, toxic.
Chromic acid is formed by dissolving chromium(VI) oxide in water.
Chromyl chloride, red liquid
Trivalent chromium
There are two main types of chromium ions, which are found in chromium compounds.
One type of chromium ion (Cr3+, trivalent chromium ) is required by our body and by those of other animals.
If we do not get enough chromium, certain parts of our body may not work properly.
We get most of the chromium we need from our food we eat.
Chromium is also put into vitamins to make sure that we get enough.
If we get too much of this type of chromium, it can harm our body.
Hexavalent chromium
Another type of chromium (Cr6+ (chromate, hexavalent chromium), in the +6 oxidation state) can cause cancer or make people sick, even though most people do not get exposed to it much.
It is found in places that make chromium metal, which is why they need to be cleaned up when they close.
Hexavalent chromium can be destroyed by reacting it with reducing agents, turning it into Cr3+ (trivalent chromium).
Chromates
The chromate ion is CrO42-.
Chromates are generally yellow.
Dichromates
The dichromate ion is Cr2O72-.
Dichromates are red or orange.
Sodium dichromate, used in chromium processing
Chromium occurs as chromite.
Chromite is a mixture of iron(II) oxide and chromium(III) oxide.
Its chemical formula is FeCr2O4.
It is heated with sodium carbonate to make sodium chromate, iron(III) oxide, and carbon dioxide.
The sodium chromate is reacted with sulfuric acid to produce sodium dichromate.
The sodium dichromate is reduced by carbon to chromium(III) oxide.
The chromium(III) oxide is reacted with aluminum to make chromium metal.
The chromates and dichromates are what make chromium production areas toxic.
Chromium is used in different metal products.
Stainless steel is the most common use.
It is also used in "chrome plating", where it makes things shiny and stops corrosion.
Some chromates were used as pigments, but they are toxic so people do not want to use them anymore.
Chromium metal is nontoxic.
But hexavalent chromium is toxic and carcinogenic, and trivalent chromium is mildly toxic in large quantities.
Chromium compounds
Neon is a chemical element on the periodic table.
It is part of the noble gas group and it has an atomic number of 10.
The word "neon" comes from the Greek word meaning "new" as it was discovered by William Ramsay and Morris W. Travers in 1898.
Neon does not react with other elements, so it is found in pairs by itself.
There is not much neon in the air, and it is clear, so we do not see it.
It was previously thought that Neon could not bond with any other elements, creating compounds.
However, there have been a few compounds that have been made with neon, such as NeAuF and NeBeS.
Neon gas is used in gas discharge lamps.
When electricity goes through the neon, it lights up red.
Due to this quality, it is used in light up signs.
Similar signs use other gases to make other colors, but they are also often called "neon signs".
Tin is a chemical element with symbol Sn (for ) and atomic number 50.
It is in Group 14 on the periodic table.
It is not radioactive.
Tin is a silver, somewhat soft metal.
It is a post-transition metal.
Its melting point is 231.93°C and its boiling point is 2602 °C.
It can melt easily in a flame.
It is malleable.
It makes a crackling sound called tin cry when a piece of it is bent.
Tin has more non-radioactive isotopes than any other element.
Tin is found in two allotropes: alpha-tin and beta-tin.
Alpha-tin is a brittle, dull, powdery, semimetallic form of tin.
It is made when very pure tin is cooled.
Beta-tin is the normal shiny, soft, conductive, metallic form.
It is made at higher temperatures.
The decay of tin by turning from beta-tin to alpha-tin is called tin pest.
Alpha-tin is not wanted in many places.
When small amounts of other elements like antimony are added, the tin cannot change into alpha-tin.
When alpha-tin is heated, it changes into beta-tin.
Tin can be hardened by adding antimony or copper, as well as some other elements.
These also make it resistant to tin pest.
Tin can also be made very shiny.
Tin can make an alloy with copper called bronze.
Tin resists many corrosive substances and is often used to protect other metals.
Salt water and fresh water do not affect tin.
It dissolves in strong acids to make tin salts.
It reacts with some strong bases.
Tin forms chemical compounds in two oxidation states: +2 and +4.
+2 compounds are reducing agents.
Some of them are colorless while others are colored.
+4 compounds are more unreactive and act more covalent.
Tin burns in air to make tin(IV) oxide, which is white.
Tin(IV) oxide dissolves in acids to make other tin(IV) compounds.
Tin(IV) chloride is a colorless fuming liquid when anhydrous and a white solid when hydrated.
It easily reacts with water to make tin(IV) oxide and an acid again.
Tin reacts with hydrohalic acids to make tin(II) halides.
For example, tin(II) chloride is made when tin dissolves in hydrochloric acid.
Tin(IV) halides are made when tin reacts with the halogens.
Tin(IV) chloride is made when tin reacts with chlorine.
Tin(II) sulfate is different as it does not oxidize to tin(IV) sulfate.
Tin(II) oxide is a blue-black solid that burns in air to make tin(IV) oxide.
They are about as common as +4 compounds.
Some are colorless, while others are colored.
Tin(II) bromide, yellowish solid
Tin(II) chloride, white solid
Tin(II) fluoride, white solid
Tin(II) iodide, orange solid
Tin(II) oxide, blue-black solid
Tin(II) sulfate, white solid
+4 compounds are unreactive.
Some are colorless.
Tin(IV) bromide, colorless solid
Tin(IV) chloride, colorless liquid or solid
Tin(IV) fluoride, colorless solid
Tin(IV) iodide, orange solid
Tin(IV) oxide, colorless solid
Tin(IV) sulfide, gold-colored solid
Tin is not found as a metal in the ground.
It is normally in the form of cassiterite.
Cassiterite is a mineral containg tin(IV) oxide.
The cassiterite is normally found downstream of the cassiterite deposit when it is by a stream or river.
Tin is also found in some complicated sulfide minerals.
Tin is made by heating cassiterite with carbon in a furnace.
China is the biggest maker of tin.
People discovered tin long ago and used it with other metals.
When copper and tin are mixed together, bronze is made.
Bronze was important in the past, because it was one of the strongest metals available, which meant it was useful in weapons and tools.
Bronze changed the world when it was first invented, starting the Bronze Age.
People organized themselves more, because making tools from bronze was harder than making them from rock and wood like they did before.
Tin is used in solder.
Solder used to contain a mixture of lead and tin.
Now the lead is removed because of its toxicity.
Tin is also used to make pewter, which is mainly tin mixed with a small amount of copper and other metals.
Babbitt metal also has tin in it.
Tin is used to coat several metals, like lead and steel.
Tin plated steel containers are used to store foods.
The pipes on a pipe organ are made of tin.
Tin foil was used before aluminium foil.
Tin was one of the first superconductors to be found.
Organotin compounds are more common than almost any other organometal compound.
They are used in some PVC pipes to stop them from decaying.
Organotin compounds are toxic, though.
Tin is not toxic, but tin compounds are very toxic to marine life.
They are a little toxic to humans.
Silicon is a chemical element.
Its atomic number is 14 on the periodic table.
Its symbol is Si.
It is a hard, brittle crystalline solid.
It is a tetravalent metalloid and semiconductor.
It is a member of group 14 in the periodic table.
Silicon looks like a metal, but cannot do everything that a metal can, like conduct electricity well.
Silicon is used a lot in today's computers and nearly every other electronic device as well.
Germanium can also be used in computers, but silicon is much easier to find.
For example, all of the sand found at the beach is made of small cubes of  silicon dioxide also known as  silica.
Glass is made by heating sand hot enough until it melts.
Glass made from silicon can be made in different colours by adding colouring compounds.
Many rocks and minerals are composed of compounds of silicon and oxygen called silicates.
Silicon in computers
Silicon is a semiconductor, and much used in computers.
A super-pure isotope of silicon, silicon-28, can now be made 40 times more pure than before.
It is very important for the next big development in computers.
This stores "qubits" in atoms of another element, like phosphorous, embedded in a tiny layer of ultra-pure silicon-28.
These qubits can simultaneously encode a one and a zero, for incredibly fast and complex calculations.
Semimetals
Cadmium is a metal.
It is element 48 on the periodic table.
Its symbol is Cd.
Its atomic number is 48 and its atomic mass is 112.4.
It is found in Group 12 on the periodic table.
Cadmium is a blue-gray soft metal.
It can be considered a transition metal or a post-transition metal.
It is malleable and ductile.
It is similar to zinc.
It melts at 321°C.
Cadmium has 8 natural isotopes.
5 are radioactive, but 3 have very long half-lives so their radioactivity is almost nothing.
Cadmium is a moderately reactive metal.
It corrodes in moist air and dissolves in acids.
It burns in air when powdered to make the brown cadmium oxide.
Cadmium forms chemical compounds in two oxidation states: +1 and +2.
The +1 state is rare and unstable.
The +2 state is much more common.
Most +2 compounds dissolve easily in water and are white to yellow.
Cadmium oxide can be brown, red, or white.
Cadmium sulfide is bright yellow.
Cadmium chloride and cadmium sulfate are colorless solids that dissolve easily in water.
Cadmium fluoride is slightly soluble.
Cadmium compounds are toxic when inhaled.
Cadmium bromide, pale yellow solid, dissolves in water
Cadmium chloride, colorless solid, dissolves in water
Cadmium fluoride, gray solid, does not dissolve good in water
Cadmium iodide, pale yellow solid, dissolves in water
Cadmium oxide, white, brown, or red solid, dissolves in acids
Cadmium sulfate, colorless solid, dissolves in water
Cadmium sulfide, bright yellow solid, does not dissolve in water
Cadmium telluride, black solid, semiconductor
Cadmium was found by two chemists, German chemist Friedrich Stromeyer discovered it in 1817, and Karl Herman also discovered it in 1818.
They were looking at an impurity in zinc carbonate and found cadmium.
For about 100 years, Germany made most cadmium.
Cadmium iodide was used as a medicine although it was toxic.
Cadmium ores are rare.
Greenockite, a cadmium sulfide mineral is the only main ore and it is found with sphalerite, a zinc sulfide.
Because of this, most cadmium comes from zinc processing.
Cadmium as a metal is very rare but is found in one place in Russia.
China makes the most cadmium.
South Korea and Japan also make cadmium.
Cadmium is taken from the zinc metal by heating the zinc metal in a vacuum.
Cadmium is boiled first.
The cadmium is condensed and used.
Cadmium is also taken by precipitating it from the solution of zinc sulfate used to make pure zinc by electrolysis.
In the 1930s and 1940s cadmium was mainly used to plate steel to prevent it from corroding.
Then cadmium sulfide was used as a pigment in paint.
Now, cadmium is mainly used in nickel cadmium batteries.
86% of cadmium is used in batteries as of 2009.
Some people are trying to stop using nickel-cadmium batteries because cadmium is toxic.
Cadmium is still used to electroplate steel to prevent corrosion.
Only about 6% of cadmium is used for this.
Cadmium is also used in lasers, nuclear reactors, phosphors, photoresistors, pigments, and semiconductors.
Wood's metal, an alloy that melts very easily, has cadmium in it.
Cadmium is used in some solder.
Cadmium is not used in the human body or any other animal.
A diatom uses cadmium, though.
Cadmium is a highly toxic metal.
Dust of cadmium or its compounds is very dangerous and can kill.
Some countries have banned cadmium from electronics.
Cigarette smoking is the most important source of cadmium.
Smokers have about 4 times more cadmium in their blood than nonsmokers (people who do not smoke).
Cadmium is thought to be carcinogenic, although people still debate whether it is other things with the cadmium that cause cancer, like arsenic.
Krypton is a stable noble gas.
It has an atomic number of 36.
The name krypton comes from the Greek word kryptos meaning hidden.
It is used in fluorescent lamps, flashbulbs, and as a wavelength standard.
The metre used to be defined as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in a vacuum of krypton gas.
Because it is a gas, it does not react with many elements.
It is clear and has no taste or smell.
The atmosphere is only about one millionth part krypton.
Krypton has very few compounds.
The main use for krypton is to make light.
There is one main type of krypton light bulbs.
This is called a gas discharge lamp.
There are three main types of these.
First is a low energy gas discharge lamp or "neon light".
Low energy gas discharge lights made from krypton are near white to green.
Second is a high energy short length of time gas discharge light or "flash bulb".
These are mostly used for photography.
They are bright blue-white.
Third is a high energy gas discharge light.
This third kind is mostly used to light airport runways.
They are also bright blue-white.
Krypton was found by Sir William Ramsay and Morris Travers in Great Britain in 1898.
Ramsay was given the 1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on noble gases.
It was a difficult gas to discover; Ramsay suspected it existed but only found it by removing other gases.
This is why he gave it the name Krypton.
There is no mineral called Kryptonite or planet called Krypton, which both feature in the Superman comics by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster.
The fictional planet is probably better known than the real chemical element called Krypton.
The noble gases are a group of elements that are all gases.
These elements are all in group 18 of the periodic table.
All of them are monoatomic, meaning each molecule is a single atom.
They almost never react with other elements.
This is because they have a full 8 electrons outer electron shell.
There are six noble gases:
All of these gases are found in air.
They make up around 0.96% of the atmosphere.
Noble gas compounds can be formed from noble gases.
When the noble gases are used in cold cathode tubes to produce light, each of them has a different colour.
Since Radon is radioactive, it is usually not used for lighting.
Here are pictures of what the others look like:
Oganesson (element 118) is probably the next noble gas after Radon because it is the next box down in the same group.
However it has a half life of 0.89 ms, after which it decays to Livermorium (Element 116).
This means its use is probably limited.
Noble gases were discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay.
Rayleigh won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1904 for his work on noble gas.
Ramsay won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1904 for his work with noble gas.
Polonium is a rare radioactive metalloid.
It is chemical element 84 on the periodic table and its symbol is Po.
It was discovered in 1898 by Marie and Pierre Curie.
Polonium is highly unstable, radioactive and toxic.
This makes it difficult to handle.
It can be dangerous, even in very small amounts.
One gram of Po will self-heat to a temperature of about .
It also vaporizes easily.
Polonium has 33 isotopes, and all of them are radioactive.
It is a very rare element in nature because of its short half-life.
It is a breakdown product of uranium, so it is found in uranium ores.
Bismuth is a chemical element.
It is element 83 on the periodic table and its symbol is Bi.
Its atomic mass is 209.
It is only slightly radioactive.
The radioactivity is minimal so it is typically seen as nonradioactive.
Bismuth is only naturally found as one isotope, which is the almost nonradioactive one.
Its radioactivity was predicted by scientists and proven by analyzing the metal.
It is in Group 15 on the periodic table.
Bismuth is a silver metal with a pink tinge to it.
This pink color is because of its oxide coating.
Bismuth is a post-transition metal.
It is one of the strongest diamagnetic metals.
It is almost as heavy as lead.
Its melting point is quite low , which is normal for post-transition metals.
It is quite brittle.
It can make crystals with a shiny surface.
As a liquid it is heavier than as a solid.
Another chemical that does this is water.
It does not conduct electricity or heat very well.
Bismuth is somewhat similar to antimony.
Bismuth makes a thin coating of bismuth(III) oxide when it is in air.
This makes the colors on the crystals.
It does not oxidize any more than the oxide layer.
It burns when powdered with a bright blue flame, making yellow bismuth(III) oxide fumes.
Bismuth reacts with sulfur when molten as well.
Bismuth reacts with nitric acid to make bismuth(III) nitrate and concentrated sulfuric acid to make bismuth(III) sulfate and sulfur dioxide.
It reacts with the halogens to make bismuth(III) halides.
With fluorine it makes bismuth(V) fluoride unless the fluorine is diluted, though.
Bismuth forms chemical compounds in two main oxidation states: +3 and +5.
+3 is more common.
+3 compounds are weak oxidizing agents and are normally light yellow.
Bismuthates are the most common +5 compounds.
Bismuth(V) fluoride is another +5 compound.
Bismuth(V) oxide is an unstable red solid.
Bismuth sulfide is a common ore of bismuth.
Bismuthine, a bismuth hydride, is very unstable and only can be made at very cold temperatures.
Bismuth makes many oxy- compounds like bismuth oxychloride.
These compounds are made when bismuth halides dissolve in water.
Trioxides
+3 compounds are weak oxidizing agents except for bismuthine.
They are normally pale yellow.
Bismuthine, unstable gas
Bismuth(III) bromide, pale yellow solid
Bismuth(III) chloride, pale yellow solid
Bismuth(III) fluoride, gray white solid
Bismuth(III) iodide, dark gray solid
Bismuth(III) oxide, pale yellow solid
Bismuth(III) oxychloride, whitish solid
Bismuth(III) sulfide, brown solid
Pentoxides
Bismuth(V) oxides (+5 compounds) are very strong oxidizing agents.