the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen gave up his duchy in return for becoming Duke of Saxe-Altenburg.
Hildburghausen was given to Saxe-Meiningen.
Hildburghausen was not one of the duchies in the Imperial circle, Altenburg was, so by swapping his land the duke gained in social rank, even though the Holy Roman Empire no longer existed
In 1868, four districts were established in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen.
Hildburghausen was one of these districts, with boundaries very similar to those of the former duchy.
It remained almost unchanged until 1993, when the former district of Suhl was dissolved and most of its municipalities joined the district.
Dukes of Saxe-Hildburghausen
Ernst II (1675 – 1715)
Ernst Frederick I (1715 – 24)
Ernst Frederick II (1724 – 45)
Ernst Frederick III (1745 – 80)
Frederick (1780 – 1825)
Augustine of Hippo (; ; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine, was a Christian philosopher and theologian.
Augustine was born in the year 354.
His mother is believed to have been of Berber origin.
After growing up, he began to learn and write a lot about Christianity, and became a bishop in Hippo Regius, which was in modern-day Annaba, Algeria.
He was highly influenced by archbishop Ambrose.
Later in life, Augustine moved to Italy, and over the next years his religious ideology grew stronger, and he became a teacher.
On Christian Doctrine, wrt397-426
Confessions, 397-398
The City of God, begun ca.
413, finished 426
On the Trinity, 400-416
Retractions: At the end of his life (ca.
426-428) Augustine revisited his previous works in chronological order and suggested what he would have said differently in a work titled the "Retractions", giving the reader a rare picture of the development of a writer and his final thoughts.
The Literal Meaning of Genesis
On Free Choice of the Will
The Story of Thought, DK Publishing, Bryan Magee, London, 1998,
aka The Story of Philosophy, Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2001,
(subtitled on cover: The Essential Guide to the History of Western Philosophy)
g Saint Augustine, pages 30, 144; City of God 51, 52, 53 and The Confessions 50, 51, 52
- additional in the Dictionary of the History of Ideas for Saint Augustine and Neo-Platonism
Augustine of Hippo.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967.
Gareth B. Matthews.
Blackwell, 2005.
O'Donnell, James J. Augustine: A New Biography.
New York:  HarperCollins, 2005.
Ruickbie, Leo.
Witchcraft Out of the Shadows.
London: Robert Hale, 2004. ,
57–8.
Tanquerey, Adolphe.
The Spiritual Life: A Treatise on Ascetical and Mystical Theology.
Reprinted Ed. (
original 1930).
Rockford, IL: Tan Books, 2000. ,
p. 37.
von Heyking, John.
Augustine and Politics as Longing in the World.
Columbia:  University of Missouri Press, 2001.
Orbis Augustinianus sive conventuum O. Erem.
S. A. chorographica et topographica descriptio  Augustino Lubin, Paris, 1659, 1671, 1672.
René Pottier.
Saint Augustin le Berbère.
Fernand Lanore, 2006.
Preview from Google
University of Pennsylvania, Augustine of Hippo - Texts, translations, introductions, commentaries (Webarchive), 2006-10-22
EarlyChurch.org.uk Extensive bibliography and on-line articles.
Life of St. Augustine of Hippo, from the Catholic Encyclopedia
Augstine of Hippo  , at Centropian
Texts by Augustine:
In Latin, at The Latin Library: books and letters by Augustine
At "Christian Classics Ethereal Library" Translations of several works by Augustine, incl.
Sant'Agostino - Vita, Scritti, Pensiero, Santità, Attualità Full Latin and Italian text resource
At "IntraText Digital Library": Works by Augustine in several languages, with concordance and frequency list
St. Augustine's Multilingual Opera Omnia
Texts on Augustine:
Augustine and 'other Catholics'
"Augustine's Concept of Freedom: The Dynamic of Sin and Grace" from Grace Incarnate (1989)
Augustine's Heavenly City and the Western Mind Pgs 22-24
Augustine on Hymns
On Original Sin ask Dan Santos
Augustine and Pelagius
Augustine and Thomas Aquinas on Original Sin
Original sin: a disputation
The Cambridge Companion to Augustine; 3 Augustine on evil and original sin
Links to the Augustinian Order
Augustine's writings
Audio books
City of God, Confessions, Enchiridion, Doctrine
Augustine and Orthodoxy
Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church
St Augustine the Bishop of Hippo Orthodox icon and synaxarion
354 births
430 deaths
The House of Wettin was a dynasty of German counts, dukes, prince-electors (Kurfürsten) and kings that ruled in what is known today as the German states of Saxony and Thuringia for more than 800 years.
Members of the Wettin family were also kings of Poland, as well as forming the ruling houses of Great Britain, Portugal, Bulgaria, Poland, Saxony, and Belgium.
Today only the British and Belgian lines still rule their countries, but the last Tsar of Bulgaria, Simeon II, was Prime Minister of Bulgaria between 2001 and 2005.
Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is the only ex-king who has ever returned to his country as an elected leader.
Origins: Wettins of Saxony
The oldest known member of the House of Wettin was Thiedericus (died 982).
Around 1000, as part of the German conquest of Slavic territory, the family got Wettin Castle and changed their name.
It was usual for noblemen to change their name to the name of their territory.
Wettin Castle is located in Wettin, Saxony-Anhalt in the Hosgau on the Saale River.
Branches of the House of Wettin
The House split into two main branches, the Ernestine and the Albertine.
The descendants of Ernest often subdivided their land and ended up with a lot of small duchies, but one (Saxe-Coburg and Gotha) became very important.
Ernest's younger brother was Albert.
His descendants became Electors of Saxony, and in 1806, Kings of Saxony
The House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
kings of Belgium (from 1831) and
Bulgaria (1908 - 1946)
Portugal (Ferdinand II of Portugal) and
the United Kingdom (Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria).
The wife of the Emperor of Mexico (Carlota of Mexico) was also a member of the house of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
As such, the British, Portuguese, and for a time, Mexican, thrones became a possession of persons who belonged to the House of Wettin.
During World War I the British Royal Family changed the name as well as their personal surnames  to Windsor by an Order-in-Council of King George V. The Kings of Belgiums now do not use the Saxe-Coburg and Gotha name, but have never officially changed it.
List of branches of the House of Wettin
Margraves of Meissen
Dukes of Saxony, Landgraves of Thuringia
Electors of Saxony
Dukes of Saxe-Coburg
Dukes of Saxe-Altenburg (first line of Altenburg)
Dukes of Saxe-Eisenach
Dukes of Saxe-Gotha
Dukes of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg (second line of Altenburg)
Dukes of Saxe-Hildburghausen, then Dukes of Saxe-Altenburg (third line of Altenburg)
Dukes of Saxe-Coburg (Gotha later added)
Kings and Queen of the United Kingdom (House of Windsor)
Princes of Saxe-Coburg-Kohary
Kings of Portugal (Saxe-Coburg-Braganza, last reigning Royal House of Portugal)
Kings of Bulgaria (sometimes had been known as "Kohary" and as "Sakskoburggotski")
Kings of Belgium
Dukes of "Saxe-Dresden"
Kings of Saxony, currently Prinz/ Prinzessin von Sachsen
Saxe-Zeitz
Saxe-Merseburg
Saxe-Weissenfels
Dukes of Saxony, Landgraves of Thuringia, Dukes of Luxembourg
Saxe-Landsberg
Saxe-Lauenberg
Rulers of Saxony, a list containing many Wettins
Wettin, Saxony-Anhalt, the city from which the Wettin dynasty originated
The House of Wettin
Genealogy of the Wettin dynasty from Genealogy.eu
Genealogical tables of the Saxony families  from An Online Gotha
Durham is a city in the North East of England.
It is within the County Durham local government district, and is the county town of the larger ceremonial county.
It lies to the south of Newcastle upon Tyne, Chester-le-Street and Sunderland and to the north of Darlington.
Durham is well known for its Norman Cathedral and 11th-century  castle, and is home to Durham University.
HM Prison Durham is also close to the city centre.
Durham Castle and Cathedral is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Archeological evidence shows settlement in the area since 2000 BC.
The present city can clearly be traced back to AD 995, when a group of monks from Lindisfarne chose to settle there with the body of Saint Cuthbert, which had previously lain in Chester-le-Street.
Despite a brief translation back to Holy Island during the Norman Invasion the saint's relics remain enshrined to the present day.
Saint Bede's bones are also entombed in the cathedral, drawing the mediaeval pilgrim to the city.
Durham’s geographical position has always given it an important position in the defence of England against the Scots.
The city has played an important part in the defence of the north and Durham Castle is the only Norman castle keep never to have suffered a breach.
The Battle of Neville's Cross which took place near the city on 17 October 1346 between the English and Scots was the most famous battle of its age.
Prince Bishops
As the north east was so far from Westminster the bishops of Durham enjoyed extraordinary powers.
They had the ability to hold their own parliament, raise their own armies, appoint their own sheriffs and Justices, administer their own laws, levy taxes and customs duties, create fairs and markets, issue charters, salvage shipwrecks, collect revenue from mines, administer the forests and mint their own coins.
Basically, William the Conqueror delegated many powers to bishops in the furthest reaches of England.
They were his men, and most had fought at the Battle of Hastings.
This style of delegation ran for many centuries afterwards.
This applied especially in the north and west of England, which were several days ride from London.
“There are two kings in England, namely the Lord King of England, wearing a crown in sign of his regality and the Lord Bishop of Durham wearing a mitre in place of a crown, in sign of his regality in the diocese of Durham”.
Every Bishop of Durham from 1071 to 1836 was a Prince Bishop except for the first Norman-appointed Bishop Walcher who was styled an Earl-Bishop.
The last Prince Bishop of Durham Bishop William Van Mildert founded Durham University.
Henry VIII cut some of the Prince-Bishop's powers and, in 1538, ordered the destruction of the shrine of Saint Cuthbert.
Legal System
The Prince Bishops also had their own court system, most notably the Durham Court of Chancery.
The county also had its own attorney general, whose authority to bring an indictment for criminal matters was tested by central government in the infamous case of Rex v. Mary Ann Cotton (1832).
The courts and judicial posts for the county were finally abolished in 1873.
The Council is made up of 50 councillors elected every four years (last elections 2007).
In 2007, the council was made of Liberal Democrat (30), Labour (17), and Independent (3) members.
Liberal Democrats first took control of the council in the 2003 elections.
Labour had held overall control of the City Council continually since the early 1980s.
Local Government Committee for England Final Recommendations on electoral arrangements in Durham City
Local History Publications from County Durham Books
The Angelic Upstarts are an anti-fascist Oi!
punk rock band who started in South Shields, North-East England in 1977.
Anti-fascism is the opposition to fascist ideologies, organizations, governments and people.
Anti-fascism started in Europe in the 1920s.
At the same time, fascist political parties were getting popular in Europe.
Anti-fascism was most popular during and after World War II, when fascist governments were very powerful in Europe.
Many different kinds of political parties have believed in anti-fascism.
Some of these parties have been Marxist, nationalist, anarchist, socialist, pacifist, social democratic, conservative, and liberal.
The History of the Peloponnesian War tells the story of the Peloponnesian War in Ancient Greece.
It was written by Thucydides, an Athenian general who served in that war.
The war was fought between the Peloponnesian League (led by Sparta) and the Athenian league (led by Athens).
The war lasted more than 20 years.
Many historians regard this History of  Thucydides as one of the earliest scholarly works of history.
Thucydides' History made a number of contributions to early historiography.
Many of his principles have become standard methods of history writing today, though others have not.
One of Thucydides' major innovations was to use a strict standard of chronology, recording events by year, each year consisting of the summer campaigning season and a less active winter season.
As a result, events that span several years are divided up and described in parts of the book that are sometimes quite distant from one another, causing the impression that he is oscillating between the various theatres of conflict.
This method contrasts sharply with Herodotus' earlier work The Histories, which jumps around chronologically.
Another feature of the work is that Thucydides writes dozens of speeches of the most important figures who were engaged in the war.
Thucydides heard some of these speeches himself but some of the speeches he wrote without knowing exactly what was really spoken.
Neutral point of view
Thucydides wanted his writings "to last for ever" (1.22.4).
Therefore he tried to be as neutral as possible though as general of Athens that was difficult for him.
Role of religion
The gods play no active role in Thucydides' work.
This is very different to Herodotus, who frequently mentions the role of the gods.
Instead, Thucydides regards history as being caused by the choices and actions of human beings.
The History concentrates on the military aspects of the Peloponnesian War, but it uses these events as a medium to suggest several other themes as well, for instance to show degenerative effects of war on humanity itself.
For the most part, the History does not discuss topics such as the art and architecture of Greece, but speaks of the development of military technologies
The History explains that the cause of the Peloponnesian War was the "growth in power of Athens, and the alarm which this inspired in Sparta" (1.23.6).
The Spartans represent a more traditional and less expansive power.
Thucydides almost never names his informants.
This is in contrast to Herodotus, who frequently mentions multiple versions of his stories and allows the reader to decide which is true.
Thucydides' History has been enormously influential in both ancient and modern historiography.
Outline of the Work
The state of Greece from the earliest times to the commencement of the Peloponnesian War, also known as the Archaeology.
1.1-1.19.
Methodological excursus.
1.20-1.23.
Causes of the war (433-432 BCE) 1.24-1.66.
The Affair of Epidamnus.
1.24-1.55.
The Affair of Potidaea.
1.56-1.66.
Congress of the Peloponnesian League at Lacedaemon.
1.67-1.88
The Speech of the Corinthians.
1.68-1.71.
The Speech of the Athenian envoys.
1.73-1.78.
The Speech of Archidamus.
1.80-1.85.
The Speech of Sthenelaidas.
1.86.
From the end of the Persian War to the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, also known as the Pentacontaetia.
1.89-1.117.
The progress from supremacy to empire.
Second congress at Lacedaemon and the Corinthian Speech.
1.119-1.125.
Diplomatic maneuvering.
1.126-1.139.
Excursus on Cylon.
1.126-1.127.
Excursus on Pausanias and Themistocles.
1.128-1.138
Pericles' first speech.
1.140-1.145.
Book 2 (431-428 BCE)
War begins with Thebes' attempt to subvert Plataea.
2.1-2.6.
Account of the mobilization of and list of the allies of the two combatants.
2.7-2.9.
First invasion of Attica.
2.10-2.23.
Archidamus leads the Peloponnesian army into Attica.
2.10-2.12.
Athenian preparations and abandonment of the countryside.
2.13-2.14.
Excursus on Athenian synoikism.
2.15-2.16.
Difficult conditions in Athens for refugees from countryside.
Archidamus ravages Oenoe and Acharnai.
2.18-2.20.
Athenian fury and anger at Pericles.
2.21-2.22.
Athenian naval counter-attacks along coast of Peloponese and islands.
2.23-2.32.
Pericles' Funeral Oration.
2.34-2.46.
The plague of Athens.
2.47-2.54.
Second invasion of Attica and Athenian naval counter-attacks.
2.55-2.58.
Pericles' third speech, defending his position and policy.
2.59-2.64.
Thucydides' estimate of Pericles' qualities and the causes for Athens' eventual defeat.
2.65.
Diplomacy and skirmishes in Thrace, the islands, and the Northeast.
2.66-2.69.
Fall of Potidaea.
2.70.
Investment of Plataea.
2.71-2.78.
Naval victories of Phormio in the Northeast.
2.80-2.92.
Threat of raid on the Piraeus.
2.93-2.94.
Thracian campaign in Macedonia under Sitalces.
2.95-2.101.
Book 3 (428-425 BCE)
Annual invasion of Attica.
Revolt of Mytilene.
3.2-3.50.
Speech of Mytilenian envoys to Sparta at Olympia, asking for help.
3.9-3.14.
Sparta accepts Lesbos as an ally and prepares to counter the Athenians.
3.15.
Mytilene surrenders to Athens despite Spartan support.
Mytilenian Debate.
3.37-3.50.
Fall of Plataea.
3.20-3.24, 3.52-68.
Some Plataeans escape.
3.20-3.24.
Plataea surrenders.
3.52.
Trial and execution of the Plataeans.
3.53-3.68.
Speech of Plataeans, 3.53-3.59.
Speech of the Thebans.
3.61-3.67.
Revolution at Corcyra.
3.70-3.85.
Thucydides' account of the evils of civil strife.
3.82-3.84.
Athenian campaigns in Sicily.
3.86, 3.90, 3.99, 3.103, 3.115-3.116.
Campaigns of Demosthenes in western Greece.
3.94-3.98, 3.100-3.102, 3.105-3.114.
Spartans establish Heracleia in Trachis.
3.92-3.93.
Athenians purify Delos.
3.104.
Book 4 (425-423 BCE)
Athenians en route to Sicily occupy Pylos in the Peloponnese.
4.2-4.6.
King Agis of Sparta cuts short the invasion of Attica to return to the Peloponnese.
Concerted Spartan attack on the Athenian fort at Pylos.
4.8-4.15.
The Athenian general Demosthenes coordinates the defense of Pylos and rouses the troops with a speech.
4.9-4.10.
The Spartan commander Brasidas distinguishes himself for bravery.
4.11-4.12.
The Athenians defeat the Spartan assault on Pylos and cut off a garrison of Spartiates on the adjacent island of Sphacteria.
4.13-4.14.
The Spartans, concerned for the men on the island, conclude an immediate armistice and send an embassy to Athens to negotiate peace.
4.13-4.22.
The speech of the Spartan ambassadors offers to peace and alliance to Athens in exchange for the return of the men on Sphacteria.
4.17-4.20.
The Athenian Cleon, speaking in the Assembly, encourages the Athenians to demand the return of the territories surrendered by Athens at the conclusion of the First Peloponnesian War.
4.21-4.22.
Events in Sicily.
4.24-4.25.
Siege of the Spartiates on Sphacteria continues without result.
4.26-4.27.
Cleon takes command at Pylos.
4.27-4.29.
With the siege of Sphacteria yielding no results, the Athenians grow angry at Cleon for encouraging them to reject the Spartan offer of peace.
4.27.1-.4.27.3.
Cleon blames Nicias and the generals for ineptitude.
4.27.5.
Nicias yields command to Cleon.
4.28.
Battle of Sphacteria results in the capture of all the Spartiates trapped there.
4.29-4.41.
Nicias leads an Athenian attack on Corinth.
4.42-4.45.
End of Corcyraean revolution.
4.46-4.48.
Athenians capture Cythera, an island off the Peloponnese, and Thyrea, a town in the Peloponnese.
Sparta is hemmed in on all sides and desperate.
4.53-4.57.
Sicilian cities make peace in conference at Gela, frustrating Athenian designs on the island.
4.58-65.
Speech of Hermocrates at Gela.
4.59-4.64.
Athenian attack on Megara.
4.66-4.74.
Capture of Nisaea.
4.69.
Inconclusive engagements at Megara.
4.73.
Megara eludes Athenian capture.
4.74.
Invasion of Boeotia.
4.76, 4.89-4.101.2.
Athenians occupy temple at Delium.
4.90.
Battle of Delium results in Athenian retreat.
4.91-4.96.
Boeotians refuse to return Athenian dead until Athenians relinquish the shrine of Delium.
4.97-4.99.
Boeotians assault the Athenian in the temple and burn it down.
4.100.
Brasidas marches through Thessaly to Thrace and begins to cause Athenian subject cities to revolt.
4.78-4.88.
Speech of Brasidas to the Acanthians.
4.85-4.87.
Fall of Amphipolis to Brasidas.
4.102-4.108.
Continued successes of Brasidas in Thrace.
4.111-4.135.
Brasidas secures the revolt of the garrison of Torone.
4.110-4.116.
One-year armistice between Athenians and Spartans.
4.117-4.118.
Scione revolts from Athens to Brasidas.
4.120-4.123.
Truce breaks down.
4.122-4.123.
Athenians retake Mende and besiege Scione.
4.129-4.131.
Book 5 (422-415 BCE)
Death of Cleon and Brasidas
Peace of Nicias
Feeling against Sparta in the Peloponnese
League of the Mantineans, Eleans, Argives, and Athenians
Battle of Mantinea and breaking up of the League
The Melian Dialogue
Fate of Melos
Book 6 (415-414 BCE)
The Sicilian Expedition
Affair of the Hermae
Departure of the expedition to Sicily
Parties at Syracuse
Story of Harmodius and Aristogiton
Disgrace of Alcibiades
Inaction of the Athenian army
Alcibiades at Sparta
Investment of Syracuse
Book 7 (414-413 BCE)
Arrival of Gylippus at Syracuse
Fortification of Decelea
Successes of the Syracusans
Arrival of Demosthenes (general)
Defeat of the Athenians at Epipolae
Folly and obstinacy of Nicias
Battles in the Great Harbour
Retreat and annihilation of the Athenian army
Book 8 (413-411 BCE)
Revolt of Ionia
Intervention of Persia
The war in Ionia
Intrigues of Alcibiades
Withdrawal of the Persian subsidies
Oligarchical coup d'état at Athens
Patriotism of the Athenian army at Samos
Recall of Alcibiades to Samos
Revolt of Euboea and downfall of the Council of the Four Hundred
Battle of Cynossema
Secondary Sources
Connor, W. Robert, Thucydides.
Princeton: Princeton University Press (1984). .
Hornblower, Simon, A Commentary on Thucydides.
Oxford: Clarendon (1991-1996).
(vol.
1),  (vol.
Hornblower, Simon, Thucydides.
London: Duckworth (1987). .
Orwin, Clifford, The Humanity of Thucydides.
Princeton: Princeton University Press (1994).
Romilly, Jacqueline de, Thucydides and Athenian Imperialism.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell (1963). .
Rood, Tim, Thucydides: Narrative and Explanation.
Oxford: Oxford University Press (1998). .
Strassler, Robert B, ed.
The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War.
New York: Free Press (1996). .
Thomas Hobbes, 1628: full text
William Smith, 1753
Richard Crawley, 1874: full text
Benjamin Jowett, 1881: full text
Edgar C. Marchant, 1900
Charles Forster Smith, 1919
Rex Warner, 1954
John H. Finley, Jr., 1963
Walter Blanco, 1998
Historiography is about the writing of history and the use of historical methods.
Thus it looks at authors, sources, interpretation, style, bias, and audience.
It is sometimes called "the history of history".
The word historiography can also refer to a body of historical work.
The history of written history
For thousands of years people have been telling stories about the past, and making written records of the actions of kings and prophets and other famous persons.
After 500 BC, they began writing more organized histories.
Hellenic world
Written history appeared first with the ancient Greeks, whose historians greatly contributed to the development of historical methodology.
The very first historical works were The Histories composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC–ca.425 BC), who became later known as the 'father of history' (Cicero).
Thucydides was the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, and his successor Xenophon (ca.
431–355 BC) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis.
Roman world
The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, becoming the first people to write history in a non-Greek language.
The most famous writers are Julius Caesar's (100 BC–44 BC) Bellum Gallicum.
Plutarch (c. 46 - 127) and Suetonius (c. 69-after 130) introduced biography as a branch of history.
Tacitus (c. 56–c. 117) criticizes Roman immorality by praising German virtues.
Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages.
They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, the Church and of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers.
In the Early Middles Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year but this style tended to hampered the analysis of events and causes.
An example of this type of writing are Anglo-Saxon Chronicles which were the work of several different writers and start during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late 9th century and one copy of which was still being updated in 1154.
History was written about states or nations during the Renaissance.
The study of history changed during the Enlightenment and Romanticism.
Voltaire described the history of certain ages that were important according to him, instead of describing events in a chronological order.
History became an independent discipline.
It was not called philosophia historiae anymore, but merely history (historia).
The French Annales School radically changed history during the 20th century.
Fernand Braudel wanted history to become more scientific by demanding more mathematical evidence in history, in order to make the history discipline less subjective.
Furthermore, he added a social-economic and geographic framework to answer historical questions.
Other French historians, like Philippe Ariès and Michel Foucault described history of daily life topics such as death and sexuality.
They wanted history to be written about all topics and that all questions should be asked.
Historical journals
Historical journals for academic historians to exchange ideas started in the nineteenth century.
The early journals were similar to the academic journals used in the physical sciences, and were seen as a means by which history could be professionalised.
Journals also helped historians to establish various historiographical approaches, the most notable example of which was Annales.
Économies.
Sociétés.
Civilisations.
a publication instrumental in establishing the Annales School.
1840 Historisk tidsskrift (Denmark)
1859 Historische Zeitschrift (Germany)
1866 Archivum historicum, later Historiallinen arkisto (Finland, published in Finnish)
1871 Historisk tidsskrift (Norway)
1876 Revue Historique (France)
1881 Historisk tidskrift (Sweden)
1886 English Historical Review (UK)
1895 American Historical Review (USA)
1914 Mississippi Valley Historical Review (renamed 1964 the Journal of American History) (USA)
1916 The Journal of Negro History
1916 Historisk tidskrift för Finland (Finland, published in Swedish)
1918 Hispanic American historical review
1928 Scandia (Sweden)
1929 Annales.
Civilisations
1952 Past & present: a journal of historical studies (Great Britain)
1953 Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (Germany)
1956 Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria (Nigeria)
1960 Journal of African History (Cambridge)
1960 Technology and culture: the international quarterly of the Society for the History of Technology (USA)
1975 Geschichte und Gesellschaft.
Zeitschrift für historische Sozialwissenschaft (Germany)
1976 Journal of Family History
1982 Storia della Storiografia — History of Historiography — Histoire de l'Historiographie — Geschichte der Geschichtsschreibung
1982 Subaltern Studies (Oxford University Press)
1986 Zeitschrift für Sozialgeschichte des 20.und 21.
Jahrhunderts, new title since 2003: Sozial.
Geschichte.
Zeitschrift für historische Analyse des 20.
Jahrhunderts (Germany)
1990 Gender and history
1990 L'Homme.
Zeitschrift für feministische Geschichtswissenschaft (Austria)
1990 Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften (ÖZG)
1992 Women's History Review
1993 Historische Anthropologie
Approaches to history
The question of how a historian approaches historical events is one of the most important questions within historiography.
It is commonly recognised by historians that, in themselves, individual historical facts are not particularly meaningful.
Such facts will only become useful when assembled with other historical evidence, and the process of assembling this evidence is understood as a particular historiographical approach.
Annales School
Determinism means that historians view history as being caused more by certain factors than by other factors.
The two most common types of determinism are geographic determinism and economic determinism.
Geographic determinism means that historians think history is mostly caused by geography.
Frederick Jackson Turner was a proponent of geographic determinism.
Economic determinism means that historians think history is mostly caused by economics.
Charles Beard was a proponent of economic determinism.
Other historians believe that history is caused mostly by politics or mostly by a struggle for natural rights, but these are usually not labeled as determinism.
Theory and philosophy
Frank Ankersmit (ed), A New Philosophy of History, 1995,
Michael Bentley, Modern Historiography: An Introduction, 1999
Marc Bloch, The Historian's Craft [1940?]
Peter Burke, History and Social Theory, Polity Press, Oxford, 1992
E. H. Carr, What is History?
1961,
R.G. Collingwood, The Idea of History, 1936,
Geoffrey Elton, The Practice of History, 1969,
Richard J. Evans In Defence of History, 1997,
David Hackett Fischer, Historians' Fallacies: Towards a Logic of Historical Thought, Harper & Row, 1970.
Keith Jenkins, Rethinking History, 1991,
Keith Jenkins, ed.
The Postmodern History Reader (2006)
Arthur Marwick, The Nature of History, 1970,
Alun Munslow.
The Routledge Companion to Historical Studies (2000)
John Tosh, The Pursuit of History, 2002,
W.H. Walsh, An Introduction to Philosophy of History, 1951.
Hayden White, The Content of Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation, 1987,
Histories of historical writing
Geoffrey Barraclough, History: Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences, (1978)
Michael Bentley (ed.),
Companion to Historiography, Routledge, 1997,  990pp; 39 chapters by experts
Ernst Breisach, Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern, 2nd edition, 1994,
H. Floris Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry, Chicago, 1994,
Mark T. Gilderhus, History an Historiographical Introduction, 2002,
Georg G. Iggers, Historiography in the 20th Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (2005)
Susan Kinnell, Historiography: An Annotated Bibliography of Journal Article, Books and Dissertations, 1987,
Lloyd Kramer and Sarah Maza, eds.
A Companion to Western Historical Thought Blackwell 2006.
520pp; .
Arnaldo Momigliano, The Classical Foundation of Modern Historiography, 1990,
Philippe Poirrier, Aborder l'histoire, Paris, Seuil, 2000.
Philippe Poirrier,Les enjeux de l'histoire culturelle, Paris, Seuil, 2004.
Feminist historiography
Mary Ritter Beard, Woman as force in history: A study in traditions and realities
Gerda Lerner,  The Majority Finds its Past: Placing Women in History, New York: Oxford University Press 1979
Bonnie G. Smith, The Gender of History: Men, Women, and Historical Practice, Harvard UP 2000
Mary Spongberg, Writing women's history since the Renaissance, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002
Judith M. Bennett, History Matters: Patriarchy and the Challenge of Feminism, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006
Thematic and regional
John Ernest.
Liberation Historiography: African American Writers and the Challenge of History, 1794-1861.
University of North Carolina Press, 2004
Frank Farrell.
Themes in Australian History: Questions, Issues and Interpretation in an Evolving Historiography (1990)
Marc Ferro, Cinema and History, Wayne State University Press, 1988
R. Darcy and Richard C. Rohrs, A Guide to Quantitative History (1995)
Hudson, Pat.
History by Numbers: An Introduction to Quantitative Approaches (2002)
James W. Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong, Touchstone Books 1996
Tessa Morris-Suzuki, The Past Within Us: Media, Memory, History, 2005,
Gary Nash, Charlotte Crabtree, and Ross Dunn.
History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past, (2000)
Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (1988),
Thomas Söderqvist.
The Historiography of Contemporary Science and Technology (1997)
Sommer, Barbara W. The Oral History Manual (2003)
Jan Vansina, "Oral Tradition as History," University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1985
Yerushalmi, Yosef Hayim.
Zakhor: Jewish History and Jewish Memory (1982)
Cromohs — cyber review of modern historiography
History of Historiography
Series of accessible, interactive online lectures
BBC Historiography Guide
Summary of key historiographical schools
Philosophy of History  introduced at The Galilean Library
Scientific Historiography , explained in an interview with Aviezer Tucker at the Galilean Library
International Commission for the History and Theory of Historiography
Following Garraghan (in: A Guide to Historical Method, 168) puts six questions that should be answered as minimal standard for a sound historical method:
When was the source, written or unwritten, produced (date)?
Where was it produced (localization)?
By whom was it produced (authorship)?
From what pre-existing material was it produced (analysis)?
In what original form was it produced (integrity)?
What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?
Gilbert J. Garraghan, A Guide to Historical Method, Fordham University Press: New York (1946).
Louis Gottschalk, Understanding History: A Primer of Historical Method, Alfred A. Knopf: New York (1950). .
Martha Howell and Walter Prevenier, From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods, Cornell University Press: Ithaca (2001). .
C. Behan McCullagh, Justifying Historical Descriptions, Cambridge University Press: New York (1984). .
R. J. Shafer, A Guide to Historical Method, The Dorsey Press: Illinois (1974). .
Historical Sources Online by Marc Comtois
Philosophy of History  by Paul Newall
The Historian's Sources, online lesson by the Library of Congress
Federal Rules of Evidence in United States law
A primary source is an original document or other material that has not been changed in any way.
It is a reliable first-hand account usually written at or near the time the event(s) occurred.
Usually it was produced by someone with direct personal knowledge of the events that are described.
It is used as an original source of information about the topic.
Primary sources are distinguished from secondary sources.
Secondary sources are documents based on primary sources.
Thus, a memoir of a participant in an event is a primary source, whilst a history of that event based on several memoirs is a secondary source.
Different kinds of work have slightly different definitions of a primary source.
In journalism, for example, a primary source can also be a person.
Jules R. Benjamin.
A Student's Guide to History (2003)
Kathleen W. Craver.
Using Internet Primary Sources to Teach Critical Thinking Skills in History (1999)
Thomas Cripps, "Historical Truth: An Interview with Ken Burns", American Historical Review 100 (1995), 741-64.
online at JSTOR
Michael Drake and Ruth Finnegan (Eds), Sources and Methods for Family and Community Historians: A Handbook, (Cambridge University Press in conjunction with the Open University, 1997)
Wood Gray, Historian's handbook, a key to the study and writing of history (Houghton Mifflin, 1964).
Martha C. Howell and Walter Prevenier.
From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods (2001)
Library of Congress, " Analysis of Primary Sources" online 2007
Richard A. Marius and Melvin E. Page.
A Short Guide to Writing About History (5th Edition) (2004)
Barbara W. Sommer and Mary Kay Quinlan, The Oral History Manual (2002)
- to primary sources repositories
A listing of over 5000 websites describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources
Find primary sources  in the collections of major research libraries using ArchiveGrid
- to all sources repositories
Wikisource – The Free Library – is the Wikimedia project that collects, edits, and catalogs all source texts.
- to essays and descriptions of primary, secondary and other sources
Ithaca College Library - Primary and secondary sources
"How to distinguish between primary and secondary sources" from the University of California, Santa Cruz Library
"Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary sources"  from James Cook University Library
Joan of Arc: Primary Sources Series -- Example of a publication focusing on primary source documents.
Finding primary sources from the University of California, Berkeley library
"Primary versus secondary sources"  from the Bowling Green State University library
Finding primary sources in world history
Source text, in research (especially in the humanities), a source of information referred to by citation
Primary source, firsthand written evidence of history made at the time of the event by someone who was present
Secondary source, written accounts of history based upon the evidence from primary sources
Tertiary source, compilations based upon primary and secondary source.
Source (UNSW), a community service provider that used to operate at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia
The Source by Circuit City, a Canadian electronics store
Source, in hydrology, is the origin of water for a river or stream
Source code for software, see also free software or open-source software
The Source (service), an online service provider founded in 1978
A terminal in a field effect transistor
Light source, an object emitting light
Sound source, an object emitting sound
Energy sources, are substances or processes with high concentrations of energy
Voltage source, any device or system that produces an electromotive force between its terminals
Current source, an electrical or electronic device that delivers or absorbs electric current
Source engine, a proprietary game engine developed by Valve Software for Half-Life 2
Counter-Strike: Source, a game utilizing the Source engine
Day of Defeat: Source, a game utilizing the Source engine
A SCSI endpoint
Communication source
The Source, a series of volumes by Graham Kendrick that are compilations of Christian church music
The Source (album), an album by Grandmaster Flash & the Furious Five
The Source, an album by Ali Farka Touré
The Source (musician), the production identity of UK electronic music record producer John Truelove
"The Source", a song by Built to Spill from their 1994 album There's Nothing Wrong with Love
Source, an album released by the band The Duskfall in 2003.
The Source (documentary), a 1999 documentary movie about the Beat generation
The Source (film), a 2002 science fiction movie, also known as The Secret Craft in the UK and The Surge for its American DVD release
The Source, the overarching entity in the machine city of the Matrix universe
The Source (Charmed), a fictional evil being in the television series Charmed
The Source, a character in the short-lived 1978 US television sitcom Quark
Highlander: The Source, the fifth film in the Highlander franchise
The Source (novel), a 1967 novel by James A. Michener
The Source (magazine), a magazine of hip-hop music and culture
Source (comics), a sentient entity who provides advice to the New Gods in the DC Multiverse
The Source, a book by Art Bell about paranormal matters
Journalism sourcing, a person, publication or other record or document that gives information
The Source (network), a radio network operated in the 1970s and 1980s by NBC
WVUR-FM, "The Source", Valparaiso University's student-run radio station
Source theory, any process that generates successive messages can be considered a source of information
Sources of law, the materials and processes out of which law is developed
Sources of international law, the materials and processes out of which the rules and principles regulating the international community are developed
Source (river or stream), the original point from which the river flows
Believers of the Source, a disbanded Faction of the Planescape universe
The secondary source depends on the  primary source or original source of the information.
Secondary sources interpret, evaluate or discuss information found in primary sources.
In historiography, a secondary source is a study written by a scholar about a topic.
Secondary sources frequently cite primary sources and other secondary sources.
They rarely cite tertiary sources.
The main use of secondary sources in law is to explain the law.
They also explain legal concepts.
They are used to analyze and describe laws as well as comment on them.
Judicial decisions and opinions by qualified experts are secondary sources.
Source text
Primary and secondary sources
Breinigerberg is a small village in the West of Germany, the state of North Rhine-Westphalia About 972 people live at the place.
It is close to the Naturpark Nordeifel, a large forest area in Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands.
In the last two centuries, Breinigerberg was famous for mining.
Even the ancient Romans dug for ore in the area.
It was used for the production of brass in the city of Stolberg.
Today there is no more mining but the remains are still present.
Big holes in the Schlangenberg area prove what had been left from the past.
Today the Schlangenberg is a natural reserve protecting rare flowers and insects.
Webside of Breinig and Breinigerberg
Villages in North Rhine-Westphalia
A document (noun) is a piece of information that one can use for communicating something.
In most of the cases it is a paper, that contains information in the form of ink marks.
But nowadays documents can be digital as well.
To document (verb) means to produce an object by collecting and representing information.
Different sorts of documents
Prototypical Documents: Letters, memos, legal forms, Instruction manual
Documents of Record: Newspapers and magazines
Books: Text book, Novels, Recipe books, Encyclopedia, Comic books
Canonical Documents: The Bible,Iliad and Odyssey,Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Quran, Code of Hammurabi,Tao Te Ching
Transactional Documents: Cheque, Contracts, Prescription, Receipt, Form (document), Postage Stamp
Functional Documents: PDF files, PostScript files, XML files, Email
Non-Prototypical Documents: Post-it notes, Fortune cookie strips, Maps, Paintings, milk cartons, cereal boxes
Non-Classical Digital Documents: Web Page, Weblog, Wiki
Boundary Examples: The plaque on the Pioneer 11 spacecraft, designed by astronomer Carl Sagan, and using information assumed to be universal is an extreme example of a document that is intended to communicate with aliens.
On the other hand, the recorded and printed signals of the SETI project would constitute documents if they were discovered to contain alien communication.
Everyday use
What most people understand, when they speak of a document one can see from the connotations and denotations that appear in a  search for document.
From these usages, one can infer the following typical connotations:
Writing that provides information (especially information of an official nature)
Anything serving as a representation of a person's thinking by means of symbolic marks
A written certificate of ownership or obligation
To record in detail; "The parents documented every step of their child's development"
A digital file in a particular format
To support or supply with references; "Can you document your claims?"
An artifact that meets a legal notion of document for purposes of discovery in litigation
Document life cycle management technology
Technology to manage documents has developed with documents themselves.
Of particular importances are practices concerning the preservation, archival, destruction and management of documents.
These together are called the "document life cycle"
Physical preservation: Documents in both traditional physical forms and in digital physical forms such as magnetic media must be physically preserved.
This aspect of document management deals with such issues as the aging of paper (the innovation of acid-free paper is an advance in preservation) and obsolescence of magnetic media.
Storage: This aspect includes management of scarce resources such as shelf space and disk space, and associated technologies such as optimal space utilization.
Modern libraries such as the University of Nevada and the University of Michigan often use complex space-saving technologies such as robotic retrieval systems for stacks and moving bookshelves.
In the digital realm, the entire discipline of compression technologies can be viewed as concerned with the storage of documents.
Cultural Preservation: This function, traditionally ascribed to librarians involves the selection, arrangement and storage of documents in safe places.
The importance of this part of document life cycle management can be seen in the impact of historical events such as the burning of the Library of Alexandria.
Today, library and information science has developed into an important academic discipline.
Bibliometrics: This aspect of document management involves functions of indexing, generating statistics and taxonomies, and improving the usability of large collections of documents.
The modern history of this management technology dates back to Melvil Dewey and the Dewey Decimal System.
Today, the science of bibliometrics is largely concerned with managing the impact of electronic technologies.
This aspect must also deal with ISBN numbers, Library of Congress data and other standards.
Digital Content Management: The explosion of digital content has resulted in technologies to manage large collections of digital information generated by organizations.
Such systems must manage access control and privileges, multiple electronic format, interface with printing infrastructures and enable collaborative workflows around documents.
Digital-Physical Interaction Management: As long as both paper and digital documents continue to have value, the modern management technologies to manage their interaction will continue.
Key to this management is the management of large scale and systematic scanning of physical documents (such as the Google book scanning project).
Destruction: With the increased cost of identity theft, corporate scandals and privacy concerns, the destruction of both paper and electronic documents  has become increasingly important to manage.
Technologies such as shredders play a role, as do verifiable processes of destruction of electronic documents to ensure compliance with privacy laws.
Security: Shannon's information theory has led to an entire discipline that concerns itself with the security of documents, and associated technologies such as encryption, as well as more physical security features such as watermarks and making currency documents safe from counterfeiting.
Transportation: The entire postal system, as well as modern courier systems, is largely built on the need to move documents physically from one location to the other.
Software for document creation
LaTeX (Open source)
LibreOffice (Open source)
Microsoft Office (made by Microsoft)
OpenOffice (Open source)
SATySFi (Open source)
Sellen, A. J. and Harper, R. H. R., 2001, The Myth of the Paperless Office
McLuhan, M., 1969, The Gutenberg Galaxy
McLuhan, M., 1964, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man
Landow, G. P., 2006, Hypertext 3.0: Critical Theory and New Media in an Era of Globalization
Bush, V., 1945, As We May Think, Atlantic Monthly, https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194507/bush
Kelly, K. 2006, Scan This Book!,
New York Times Magazine, http://www.kk.org/writings/scan_this_book.php
Owen, D., 2004, Copies in Seconds: How a Lone Inventor and an Unknown Company Created the Biggest Communication Breakthrough Since Gutenberg—Chester Carlson and the Birth of the Xerox Machine
Searle, J. R., 1997, The Construction of Social Reality
Anderson, B., 2006, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, New Edition
Levy, D., 2003, Scrolling Forward: Making Sense of Documents in the Digital Age
Gladwell, M., 2002, The Social Life of Paper, New Yorker Magazine, http://www.gladwell.com/2002/2002_03_25_a_paper.htm
Lewis, D. K., 2002 Convention: A Philosophical Study (Revised edition)
Pedauque, R. T., Document: Form, Sign and Medium, as Reformulated for Electronic Documents
Romano, F., 1989, Pocket Guide to Digital Prepress
Sweet, J., 2003, Document Boundaries Master's Thesis, Rochester Institute of Technology
Object (philosophy), a thing, being or concept
Physical entity, something that is tangible and within the grasp of the senses
Object (grammar), a sentence element, such as a direct object or an indirect object
Object (task), an aim, target or objective
The intended result of an action
Object (physics), a collection of masses
Object, an entity treated by mathematical category theory
3D model, a representation of a physical object