the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
This is the period between the Roman victory at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC and the establishment of Byzantium by Constantine as the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD.
The final phase of antiquity is the period of Christianization during the later 4th to early 6th centuries.
It ended with the closure of the later version of Plato's Academy by Justinian I in 529 AD.
In the 8th century B.C., the Greeks learned how to read and write a second time.
They had lost literacy at the end of the Mycenaean culture, as the Mediterranean world fell into the Dark Ages.
The Greek Dark Ages (~1100 BC–750 BC), or Bronze Age collapse, is a period in the history of Ancient Greece and Anatolia from which there are no written records, and few archaeological remains.
The Greeks learned about the alphabet from another ancient people, the Phoenicians.
They made some adjustments to it.
In particular, the Greeks introduced regular letters for vowels, which was necessary for their language.
Their alphabet was, in turn, copied by the Romans, and much of the world now uses the Roman alphabet.
Ancient Greece had one language and culture but was not unified until 337 BC, when Macedonia defeated Athens and Thebes.
That marked the end of the Classic period and the start of the Hellenistic period.
Even then, the conquered cities were merely joined to Philip II of Macedon's Corinthian League; they were not occupied and ruled themselves.
City states in Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred more-or-less independent city states.
This was different from other societies, which were tribal, or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories.
Undoubtedly the geography of Greece—divided and sub-divided by hills, mountains and rivers—contributed to the nature of ancient Greece.
On the one hand, the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were 'one people'; they had the same religion, same basic culture, and same language.
Yet each city-state or "polis" was independent; unification was something rarely discussed by the ancient Greeks.
Even when, during the second Persian invasion of Greece, a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece, most poleis remained neutral, and after the Persian defeat, the allies quickly returned to infighting.
Its fragmentary nature.
There was not one country, but many little countries called "city-states".
The focus on cities in tiny states.
The colonies they set up around the Mediterranean were independent of the founding city.
However, they were sympathetic to their 'mother city'.
Conquest or direct rule by another city-state was quite rare.
The cities grouped themselves into leagues, and members sometimes quit one league and joined another.
Later, in the Classical period, the leagues were fewer and larger, and dominated by one city (particularly Athens, Sparta and Thebes).
Often cities would be compelled to join under threat of war (or as part of a peace treaty).
After Philip II of Macedon 'conquered' the heartlands of ancient Greece, he did not attempt to annex the territory or unify it into a new province.
However, he did force most of the cities to join his own Corinthian League.
Some cities were democratic, some were aristocratic, and some were monarchies.
Some had many revolutions in which one kind of government replaced another.
One famous Greek kingdom is Macedon, which became briefly the largest empire the world had seen at the time by conquering the Persian empire (including ancient Egypt) and reaching into modern-day India.
Other famous kingdoms are Epirus and Thessaly.
Monarchies in ancient Greece were not absolute because there was usually a council of older citizens (the senate, or in Macedonia the congress) who gave advice to the King.
These men were not elected or chosen in a lottery like they were in the democratic city-states.
Citizens that could participate in government in Ancient Greece were usually men who were free-born in that city.
Women, slaves and (usually) residents born elsewhere, did not have the right to vote.
Details differed between cities.
Athens is an example: The residents of Athens were of three groups: citizens, metics (resident aliens) and slaves.
Citizens were residents whose forebears had been Athenians for three generations.
Male citizens had the rights of free men and could be chosen to fulfill any official state position. "
Of the estimated 150,000 residents of the city-state of Attica, only about one fifth held the privilege of citizenship".
Women who were citizens in Athens could not participate in political offices, but in Sparta they could.
The number of Greeks grew and soon they could not grow enough food for all the people.
When this happened, a city would send people off to start a new city, known as a colony.
Because the terrain was rough, most travel was by sea.
For this reason, many new cities were established along the coastline.
First new cities were started in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and later along the Black Sea, in Cyprus, in southern Italy, in Sicily, and around what today is Benghazi in Libya.
They even started a city, Naucratis, on the river Nile in Egypt.
The cities of today, Syracuse, Naples, Marseille and Istanbul started as the Greek cities Syracusa, Neapolis, Massilia and Byzantium.
The big four
By the 6th century BC some cities became much more important than the others.
They were Corinth, Thebes, Sparta, and Athens.
The Spartans were very well-disciplined soldiers.
They defeated the people who lived near them and those people had to farm the land for the Spartans.
These "helots" had to give the Spartans part of the food they grew and so the Spartans did not have to work.
Instead, they learned how to be better soldiers.
There were not many Spartans but there were many helots.
Spartan military strength controlled the helots.
The Spartans had two hereditary kings who led them in war.
At home they were also ruled by a group of old men called the Gerousia (the Senate).
Athens became a democracy in 510 BC.
The men came to a place in the center of the city and decided what to do.
It was the first place in the world where the people decided what their country should do.
They would talk and then vote on what to do at the Boule (the parliament).
But the women did not vote.
Athens  had slaves.
These slaves were owned by their masters and could be sold to someone else.
The Athenian slaves were less free than the Spartan helots.
Every year, Athenian citizens elected eight generals who led them in war.
Greco-Persian Wars
In 499 BC, the Greek cities in Anatolia rebelled.
They did not want Persia to rule them anymore.
Athens sent 20 ships to fight the Persians on the sea.
The Greeks in Anatolia were defeated.
The Persian King, Darius decided to punish Athens.
He sent soldiers and ships to fight Athens.
Athens asked for help from Sparta.
Sparta wanted to help but could not; they had a religious festival at that time.
Athens sent her soldiers against the Persian soldiers: at the Battle of Marathon (490 BC) they defeated the Persians.
Then the help from Sparta came.
At the Battle of Thermopylae The Spartans were led by Leonidas, and resisted the huge Persian army.
After a couple of days, a traitor called Ephialtes led the Persians around the pass behind the Greek army.
Realizing that defeat was inevitable, Leonidas released many of his men.
Those who stayed knew it would be a fight to the death.
Leonides kept elite hoplites (foot soldiers) who had living sons at home.
There were also allied Thespians and Thebans who volunteered to stay.
On the third day, Leonidas led his 300 Spartan hoplites and their allies against Xerxes and his mighty army.
The Spartan-led forces fought this Persian force to their deaths in order to block the pass long enough to keep Xerxes and his army occupied while the rest of the Greek army escaped.
After Thermopylae, many Greeks wanted to go south to the Peloponnese.
Because the Isthmus of Corinth, the way into the Peloponnese, is very narrow, many wanted to fight the Persians there.
Athens was north of Corinth and she had a navy.
Athens' leader Themistocles wanted to fight the Persians by the island of Salamis.
Xerxes decided to send his fleet against the Greek fleet before the Greek ships could go to the Peloponnese.
The Greek fleet defeated the Persians at the Battle of Salamis.
Xerxes then went home with many of his soldiers but a Persian army stayed in Greece.
This army was defeated at the Battle of Platea in 479 BC.
Athens against Sparta
After the Persians were defeated at Platea, the Spartans did very little.
However, Persia was still dangerous.
Athens asked the Greek cities on the islands in the Aegean and in Anatolia to join her.
The cities agreed because they were afraid of Persia.
These cities formed the Delian League and Athens was their leader.
Many of the cities of the Delian League had to pay Athens tribute money.
Athens used the money to build many ships and the Parthenon.
Sparta was still strong on land, but Athens was stronger on the sea.
Several times there was war between Athens and Sparta.
Then Athens decided to send many ships to Sicily to fight against the city Syracuse.
Sparta sent help to Syracuse, and Athens was defeated.
None of the Athenian ships came back.
Now Sparta wanted to build ships to fight Athens.
It took a long time for Sparta to defeat Athens, but then at the Battle of Aegospotami, the Spartans destroyed most of Athens's ships.
The Athenians used an advanced type of ship called triremes.
These ships had their combat systems and were propelled by oarsmen.
On the front of the Trireme was a large bronze battering ram.
The oarsmen would row the trireme at an enemy boat, and ram a hole into its hull.
This was the most effective way for the trireme to destroy other boats.
The soldiers (hoplites) on the trireme would board the enemy ship and capture it.
Nevertheless, the Athenian fleet of triremes was destroyed in a battle in 405 BC.
Athens surrendered the following year and the war was over.
Daily life
Men, when not working, fighting or discussing politics, could (at festive times) go to Ancient Greek theatre to watch dramas, comedies or tragedies.
These often involved politics and the gods of Greek mythology.
Women were not allowed to perform in the theatre; male actors played female roles.
Women did domestic work, such as spinning, weaving, cleaning, and cooking.
They were not involved in public life or politics.
Women from rich families however, had slaves to carry out domestic work for them.
Ancient Greek games
The famous Olympic games were held at Olympia every four years.
They were for men only, and women were not allowed to attend, even as spectators.
The sports included running, javelin throwing, discus throwing and wrestling.
The Games were unusual because the athletes could come from any Greek city.
Another competition, the Heraean Games, was held for women.
It was also held at Olympus at a different time from the men's event.
The rules for girls in Sparta were different from other cities.
They were trained in the same events as boys because Spartans believed that strong women would produce strong babies who would become future warriors.
Their girl athletes were unmarried and competed nude or wearing short dresses.
Boys were allowed to watch the athletes, in the hopes of creating marriages and offspring.
Pickering, David 2007.
Ancient Greece.
Ancient Greece — links for Middle School students from Courtenay Middle School
http://www.ancientgreece.com/s/Life/
Malaria is an infectious disease caused by a parasite: it is spread by the bite of an infected mosquito.
People catch malaria when the parasite enters the blood.
The parasite causes a deadly infection which kills many people each year (from 75 million cases in 1950s to 0.1 million cases in 1960s).
However, due to the development of insecticide resistance among mosquitoes and other factors, it staged a comeback in the mid 1970s (6.47 million cases in 1976), and continues to prevail in endemic/subendemic proportions, so that 80% indian population lives in malaria risk areas.
Malaria is produced by 4 species of the protozoal parasite Plasmodium, is endemic in many tropical countries.
It is one of the most common health problems.
As per latest WHO estimates (2011)* between 149–274 (median 216) million clinical cases and ~ 0.655 million deaths occur globally due to malaria each year, 90% of which are in Africa.
This amounts to one malaria death every minute.
In India, the National Malaria Eradication Programme (NMEP), started in 1958, achieved near complete disappearance of the disease in 1960s (from 75 million cases in 1950s to 0.1 million cases in 1960s).
The parasite that causes malaria is a protozoan called 'Plasmodium'.
Protozoa are organisms with only one cell, but they are not bacteria.
Bacteria are smaller and simpler than protozoans.
People usually get malaria from the Anopheles or Culex mosquitoes : they are the vectors of the disease.
The Plasmodium gets into people by the bites of mosquitoes.
The Plasmodium is in the mosquito's special saliva.
The mosquito's saliva injects an anticoagulant into the person to prevent their blood from clotting.
The person is then infected with Plasmodium as a by-product.
This makes the person have the disease we call malaria.
Only the female mosquito gives people malaria, because only the female mosquito consumes blood.
The male mosquito lives on the nectar of flowers.
The female uses blood as a source of protein for its eggs.
Some people do not get malaria from mosquitoes.
A baby can get it while inside its mother.
This is called maternal-foetal transmission.
People can also get malaria from a blood transfusion.
This is when someone gives blood to another person.
Another way people can catch malaria is by using a needle that someone with the disease used before them.
Malaria parasite life cycle
There are several species (kinds) of Plasmodium that cause malaria in humans:
serious disease:
milder disease:
Plasmodium malariae
Plasmodium ovale
Plasmodium vivax
species which normally infect other primates:
Plasmodium knowesli
P. vivax and P. falciparum cause the most malaria in people.
Falciparum malaria is the worst kind, and kills the most people.
When Plasmodium enters the blood, they are then called sporozoites.
Sporozoites go to the liver, where they make many more sporozoites.
Then they change into a different form of Plasmodium.
This form is the merozoite.
The merozoites go into the red blood cells, then they make many more merozoites.
The merozoites break out of the red blood cells again and again.
When they do this, the person gets very sick, and shows symptoms of malaria.
This happens every few days, and is called a paroxysm.
P. vivax and P. ovale can live in the liver for a long time.
A person can look well, but still have the Plasmodium in the liver.
This is called a dormant phase.
Weeks or months later, the Plasmodium can leave the liver to the blood, and the person will get sick again.
P. falciparum is the most dangerous type of malaria.
It makes people sicker than those with other types of malaria, because there are more of them in the blood.
Also, with falciparum malaria, the red blood cells are sticky.
This makes the red blood cells block blood vessels.
If blood vessels are blocked, this can hurt what the blood vessel brings blood to, and can hurt people's organs.
Who is affected by malaria
Pregnant women and children are hurt most by malaria.
When they get malaria, they get sicker.
40% of people live in a place where there is malaria.
Malaria is in these places:
Asia (mostly in India, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia)
Central and South America
South Pacific (the part of the Pacific Ocean south of the equator)
Every year, 300 to 700 million people get malaria.
It kills 1 million to 2 million people every year.
90% of the deaths occur in Africa.
Most of the people who die from malaria are children.
Even if children do not die, many have brain damage.
Many of these deaths might be stopped with medicine or mosquito control.
But many of the places malaria may be found are in poor countries.
These countries do not have enough money to stop the mosquitoes, or to give people medicine.
Money, however, is not the only problem.
A country must have an organised medical system to provide services.
Many countries in central Africa have been disrupted by warfare and conflict between groups, and general unrest.
Also, easy solutions to kill the parasites do not exist as they did 50 years ago.
This is because the insects are resistant to many insecticides, and the Plasmodium parasite is highly resistant to quinine and most other common drugs.
This is a normal evolutionary process: the chemicals weed out the non-resistant organisms, and the offspring of the few resistant organisms multiply.
Signs and symptoms of malaria
Symptoms are changes in someone's body that are signs for a disease.
Most people who get malaria get symptoms 10–30 days after they get infected (the Plasmodium gets in their blood.)
But some people can get symptoms after only a week, and some may be infected with malaria and not have symptoms for a year.
The most common symptom of malaria is fever, when the body temperature is high.
The fever from malaria usually comes very suddenly.
The people who have malaria often feel like they had influenza.
Arthralgia (pain in joints)
Headache (pain in head)
Feeling very tired or sleepy
Chills (feeling very cold)
Delirium (when people are very confused because of a disease.
They may look drunk.
They may not be able to talk.)
Coma (when people are not conscious.
They look like they are asleep, but they cannot be woken. )
Anemia (low red blood cell levels in the blood)
Jaundice (yellow skin and eyes)
Fast heart rate
Low blood pressure
Enlarged organs.
When something becomes enlarged or BIGGER than normal the word often ends in -megaly.
Hepatomegaly -enlarged liver, splenomegaly - enlarged spleen, or both hepatosplenomegaly.
When these organs become enlarged it may cause pain in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen.
Complications from malaria
Pregnant women and young children have more complications.
People who get malaria for the first time have more complications.
Falciparum malaria has the most complications.
Clinical diagnosis
A clinical diagnosis is based on the signs and symptoms of a disease, it is a diagnosis made without medical testing.
In the case of malaria one of the main symptoms which may lead to a clinical diagnosis of malaria is a fever.
Malaria rapid diagnostic test
A Malaria rapid diagnostic test is a blood test which can confirm a diagnosis of malaria in about twenty minutes.
RDTs are not foolproof and have a number of drawbacks, and as such a negative rapid diagnostic test should not be accepted at face-value and follow-up with malaria microscopy is necessary.
Malaria microscopy
To see if patients have malaria, doctors may do a blood test.
This test is called a Giemsa blood smear.
Blood is put on a slide which is a thin piece of glass.
The Giemsa stain is put on the slide.
This stain helps doctors see the malaria.
Then they look at the slide under a microscope.
The Plasmodium is seen in the red blood cells.
People with different kinds of malaria need different medicines.
The medicine that works for one kind of malaria may not for another kind.
So it is very important to know which species of Plasmodium the person has.
If the species is not known, the person should be given medicine and care like they have falciparum malaria  the worst kind.
It is also important to know where the person got malaria.
Plasmodium in some places is resistant to some medicines.
So the medicines to treat malaria in Africa are different from the medicines to treat malaria from South America.
Treatment of malaria other than falciparum
Everywhere except New Guinea, the treatment is the same.
In New Guinea most P. vivax is resistant to chloroquine.
It can be treated with quinine, but this medicine can make people sick.
Everywhere else, non-falciparum malaria is treated with chloroquine.
Chloroquine kills the Plasmodium in the blood.
But the Plasmodium in the liver is not killed by chloroquine.
P. vivax and P. ovale both stay in the liver a long time.
This is the dormant phase.
Another medicine must be given with chloroquine for P. vivax and P. ovale.
This is to kill the Plasmodium in the liver.
The medicine used to kill malaria in the liver is primaquine.
In southeast Asia, some P. vivax is resistant to primaquine.
Most other places, primaquine works very well.
Some people get very sick from primaquine.
So people have to be tested to see if they have G6PD-deficiency before they take primaquine.
Treatment of falciparum malaria
Falciparum is the worst kind of malaria.
People with falciparum malaria should be treated in a hospital if they are:
Very sick
Having malaria for the first time
Not able to take medicines by mouth
Even people who are treated with medicines at home should stay with the doctor for 8 hours.
This is to make sure they do not get sicker.
It also makes sure they can take the medicines by mouth.
Malaria does not start to become a life-threatening disease until it has been a couple of weeks after the bite without being treated.
Falciparum malaria also has more resistance to medicines.
This makes it much harder to treat.
Falciparum malaria is always treated with two or more medicines.
Doctors choose the medicines by where in the world the person got malaria.
Different places have P. falciparum that is resistant to different medicines.
The most important resistance is chloroquine-resistance.
In some places in the world, P. falciparum is killed by chloroquine.
In some places it is chloroquine-resistant.
This means chloroquine does not kill it.
In these places quinine can be used.
Quinine is taken by mouth.
How to prevent malaria
Control mosquitoes
Keep mosquitoes from biting
Take medicine to keep from getting sick after a bite, especially in those parts of the world where people get malaria.
Vector control is one way to stop malaria.
Vector means an organism that carries an infectious disease to another organism.
For malaria, the vector is the Anopheles mosquito.
The most used method of vector control is pesticides.
These are chemicals that kill the mosquito.
The first pesticide used for vector control was DDT.
DDT worked very well for vector control.
It killed mosquitoes.
It did not make people very sick at the time it was used.
It did not cost very much money.
Other chemicals for vector control had not been invented yet.
In many places mosquitoes became resistant to DDT.
This meant that DDT did not work anymore in these areas.
Scientists worried that DDT was making people and animals sick.
It killed a lot of wildlife too.
DDT also stays in the environment for a long time.
For these reasons, people mostly use other chemicals for vector control.
Organophosphate or carbonate pesticides are used, like malathion or bendiocarb.
Vector control is not the only way to stop malaria.
And DDT is not the only chemical that can be used for vector control.
The best way to stop malaria is to use a combination of methods.
In some places, DDT may be a useful part of a program to stop malaria.
This is why DDT is still allowed to be used for controlling malaria.
Keeping mosquitoes from biting
The mosquito that carries malaria comes more at dawn (when the sun comes up) and dusk (when the sun goes down.)
Be most careful at these times.
Wear long trousers and shirts with long sleeves.
Wear mosquito repellent (this is a chemical that mosquitoes do not like, so they do not bite.)
Mosquitoes will bite through thin cloth.
So repellent should be used on skin and clothes.
Pesticides can be used in rooms to kill mosquitoes.
When sleeping outside, people use a mosquito net.
This is made from cloth that air can go through but keeps mosquitoes out.
It is put over a bed where people sleep to keep mosquitoes out.
Sometimes people also use it when they are not sleeping.
It is best to use mosquito nets that have been treated with Permethrin, which repels and kills mosquitoes.
Taking medicine to not get sick
People can take medicine when they are in a place where there is malaria.
This reduces the chances that they contract malaria.
This is called prophylaxis.
Some people take prophylactic medicines for years.
Many people in areas where there is malaria do not have the money to buy this medicine.
People who live where there is no malaria usually have not had malaria.
The first case malaria is usually much worse.
So people from places where there is no malaria may take prophylactic medicines when they go to places where there is malaria.
The kind of prophylactic medicines people take depends on where they are.
This is because not all medicines work on the malaria in every place.
To make them work best, prophylactic medicines have to be taken the right way.
The medicine should start before going to an area with malaria.
Most medicines should be taken for 4 weeks after coming home.
One medicine (Malarone) only needs to be used for one week after coming home.
Resistance to malaria
There are some children in Tanzania who are naturally immune to malaria.
Researchers are using this to develop a new vaccine.
U.S. researchers have found the children produce an antibody which attacks the malaria-causing parasite.
Injecting a form of this antibody into mice protected the animals from the disease.
The researchers plan to do tests on primates, including humans.
It was Britain's Sir Ronald Ross, working in the Presidency General Hospital in the Kolkata, who finally proved in 1898 that malaria is transmitted by anopheles mosquitoes.
He did this by showing that certain mosquito species transmit malaria to birds.
He isolated malaria parasites from the salivary glands of mosquitoes that had fed on infected birds.
For this work, Ross received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Medicine.
After resigning from the Indian Medical Service, Ross worked at the newly established Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and directed malaria-control efforts in Egypt, Panama, Greece and Mauritius.
The findings of Finlay and Ross were later confirmed by a medical board headed by Walter Reed in 1900.
Its recommendations were used during construction of the Panama Canal.
This public-health work saved the lives of thousands of workers and helped develop the methods used in future public-health campaigns against the  disease.
The first effective treatment for malaria came from the bark of cinchona tree, which contains quinine.
This tree grows on the slopes of the Andes, mainly in Peru.
The indigenous peoples of Peru made a tincture of cinchona to control malaria.
The Jesuits noted the efficacy of the practice and introduced the treatment to Europe during the 1640s, where it was rapidly accepted.
It was not until 1820 that the active ingredient, quinine, was extracted from the bark, isolated and named by French chemists.
In the early 20th century, before antibiotics became available, Julius Wagner-Jauregg discovered that patients with syphilis could be treated by intentionally infecting them with malaria.
The resulting fever would kill the syphilis spirochaetes, and quinine could be administered to control the malaria.
Although some patients died from malaria, this was preferable to the almost-certain death from syphilis.
Malaria was the largest hazard encountered by U.S. troops in the South Pacific during World War II, where about 500,000 men were infected.
Sixty thousand American soldiers died of malaria during the North African and South Pacific campaigns.
malarial drugs side effect
Video: Life Cycle of Malaria Parasite in the Mosquito
WHO malaria information
US Centers for Disease Control: Malaria
Medline Plus about malaria
Diseases spread by insects
Diseases caused by protozoa
A blood vessel is a tube that carries blood in the circulatory system.
Blood vessels that take blood away from the heart are arteries.
Blood vessels that take blood back to the heart are veins.
Capillaries are between veins and arteries and they supply tissue with blood.
The heart plus all of the blood vessels in the body together are called the circulatory system.
Blood is moved by the pumping of the heart and carries oxygen to the tissues.
The expansion of blood vessels is called vasodilation, it helps the body to get rid of heat energy (vas- in Latin means "container" or "vessel").
Different parts of the body have different kinds of blood vessels for different parts of their work.
The vessel wall consists of three shells:
inner - represented by the endothelium (single-layer squamous epithelium), which is built of elongated endothelial cells located on the basement membrane, and the subendothelial layer, which is based on loose fibrous connective tissue;
middle - consists of circular bundles of smooth muscle cells with layers of elastic fibers;
external - is represented by loose fibrous connective tissue, which contains a lot of blood vessels and nerve fibers.
The structure of the vessel wall depends on hemodynamic conditions: blood flow velocity, volume and blood pressure.
Arteries located close to the heart are characterized by a predominance of elastic elements that are able to counteract high hemodynamic parameters.
As you move away from the heart, hemodynamic values decrease, the caliber of blood vessels decreases and the number of muscle elements in their walls increases, which are able to create additional force to push blood into the network of the smallest vessels.
"Jana Gana Mana" (hi.
जन गण मन) is the title for the national anthem of India.
The original words were written in the Bengali language.
It was originally a five-verse poem created in 1911 by Rabindranath Tagore—the same author for the Bangladeshi anthem.
In January 1950, just the first verse was made to be officially part of the national anthem of India per the Constituent Assembly of India.
In addition, the lyrics now contain many words of Sanskrit origin.
Second Option of Performance at YouTube
The circulatory system (also called the cardiovascular system) is the body system that moves blood around the body.
It consists of the heart and blood vessels.
The blood carries various materials that the body needs, and takes away waste or harmful substances.
Arteries divide into smaller arteries as they go away from the heart.
The smaller arteries that connect to the capillaries, are called arterioles.
Blood vessels that take blood towards the heart are veins.
Veins get bigger as they go towards the heart.
The smallest veins are called venules.
Pronounced (VEHN-yools)
Capillaries go between arteries and veins.
Capillaries are quite thin, hence the name which comes from the Latin capillus meaning "hair."
So blood moves: heart→artery→arteriole→capillary→venule→vein→heart.
This is called circulation.
There are two different circulations in the circulatory system.
The systemic circulation is how blood goes to most of the body.
The pulmonary circulation is how blood goes through the lungs. (
Pulmonary means ¨about the lungs¨).
This is how it works in mammals, including humans.
Circulatory systems of other vertebrates differ somewhat.
Systemic circulation
Blood that comes from the left side of the heart is full of oxygen and nutrients.
Nutrients are substances that your body needs to live, like protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals.
The blood brings the oxygen and nutrients to your body.
This blood in systemic arteries that is full of oxygen and nutrients is systemic arterial blood.
It is sometimes just called arterial blood.
The biggest systemic artery in the body is the aorta.
This is the large blood vessel that comes out of the heart.
Smaller arteries branch off from the aorta.
These arteries have smaller arteries that branch off from them.
The smallest arteries turn into arterioles.
The smallest blood vessels are capillaries.
Systemic arterioles turn into capillaries.
The blood from arterioles goes into the capillaries.
There oxygen and nutrients go out of the blood into the tissue around the capillaries.
The blood also picks up carbon dioxide and waste from the tissue.
The network of capillaries that brings blood to an area is called a capillary bed.
On the other end of the capillary, it turns into a venule.
Venules are the smallest veins.
Veins take blood back to the heart.
As veins go back to the heart, they merge and get bigger.
The biggest systemic veins in the body are the vena cava.
There are two vena cava.
The inferior vena cava takes blood from the lower part of the body to the right side of the heart. (
In anatomy, inferior means below.)
The superior vena cava takes blood from the upper part of the body to the heart. (
Superior means above.)
Pulmonary circulation
This same movement of blood goes through the lungs in the pulmonary circulation.
The blood that the vena cava vein takes to the heart is full of carbon dioxide.
It has much less oxygen than (systemic) arterial blood.
The right side of the heart pushes the venous blood into the pulmonary artery.
The pulmonary artery takes blood to the lungs.
In the lungs, the blood goes through the pulmonary capillary bed. (
The capillaries that are in the lungs).
Here it gets more oxygen.
It also drops off carbon dioxide. (
This is the opposite of what happens in capillary beds in the rest of the body.
In the systemic circulation blood drops off oxygen and picks up carbon dioxide).
After the pulmonary capillary bed, the blood goes to the pulmonary veins.
This pulmonary venous blood now is full of oxygen.
The pulmonary veins take blood to the left side of the heart.
Then the blood goes to the systemic circulation again.
The shunt
Veins from the gut shunt to the liver before returning to the right atrium and ventricle.
The shunt is called the hepatic portal vein.
The meaning of this is as follows.
The liver is the body's main chemical factory.
It takes in the flow of nutrients from the gut, and adjusts them to suit what the body needs.
It can store surplus nutrients, or release extra nutrients from store.
It can change the chemical make-up of many nutrients.
In this way it adapts to the many different kinds of food which the body digests.
American Medical Association Encyclopedia - The Circulatory System
Ohio Heart and Vascular Center - pictures
Circulatory system Citizendium
The pink triangle is one of the two big symbols of the LGBT community.
The other is the rainbow flag.
The pink triangle was first used in Nazi Germany to mark homosexual prisoners.
There was also a black triangle that marked anti-social women.
Many but not all of these women were lesbians.
Jews wore the famous yellow star of David.
If a prisoner was both Jewish and gay, he would wear a yellow triangle overlapped by a pink triangle, creating a star of David.
Homosexuality was illegal in Nazi Germany under a law called Paragraph 175, which made it a felony (a "very serious" crime).
About 100,000 people were arrested, with about 50,000 sent to prison.
Some were sent to mental hospitals.
Some were castrated (had their testicles removed).
Some homosexual men were also sent to concentration camps, especially Jewish homosexuals.
Between 15,000 and 600,000 homosexual men were sent to concentration camps.
Most of them died there.
We are not sure of the real number.
Prisoners who were Jewish and homosexual may not have been counted as homosexual.
Homosexual prisoners were treated worse than other prisoners.
Their death rates were higher than other anti-social groups.
One story by a gay man who lived in a concentration camp shows how it was.
Pierre Seel was sent to the Schirmeck concentration camp.
The Nazis said a public execution would happen.
A man was brought out.
Seel saw that the man was his 18 year old lover.
The Nazis took all the clothes of Seel's lover and put a bucket over his head.
Then Seel had to watch as the Nazis let German Shepherds (dogs) maul his lover to death.
After World War II, homosexual men were still not treated well in Germany.
The law continued.
It was used to hurt homosexuals and to put them in prison.
Many spent years in prison.
The pink triangle observes the memory of the homosexual people who died in the Holocaust.
It is important not to ignore these deaths.
The killing of homosexuals both during WWII and after WWII ended is the secret story of the Holocaust.
Using the pink triangle symbol puts these victims in the public view.
It is in respect for those who died.
A chat room is a virtual place on the Internet where people can get together and type messages to each other using text.
People use programs like IRC to join a chat room and type messages or send pictures to the other people within that chat.
There are also other programs called instant messengers to stay in contact with friends, colleagues and other people.
Websites on the Internet often have types of chat rooms built into them, and lots of chat rooms also use .
Alan Wake is a video game made by Remedy Entertainment.
It is a "thriller" game and was voted best game of E3 in 2005.
It was released on Xbox 360 in May 2010 and Microsoft Windows in February 16, 2012.
Official forums
Official Community site
2008 video games
Xbox 360 games
Devil May Cry 4 is the fourth video game in the series of Devil May Cry.
It was released on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on February 5 2008.
Before to this game, all Devil May Cry games had only been released on the PlayStation video game consoles.
This one was the first game to be released on the Xbox as well as The PlayStation.
In January, gamers could download a demo at the PlayStation Store and Xbox Live Marketplace .
One big difference in this game is that Dante is no longer the main character.
A new character named Nero is the new hero.
Lady and Trish from older games return in this game.
This game has more new characters, such as Kyrie, Credo, Agnus, Gloria, and Sanctus and new demons and bosses for the player to fight.
This game is just like the first games.
It follows the usual Devil May Cry gameplay using a variety of melee and long-range weapons
PlayStation 3 games
PlayStation 4 games
Xbox One games
50 Cent (also known as Fitty" or "Fifty") is an American rapper, actor, entrepreneur and executive producer.
He was born in Queens, New York City on July 6, 1975.
50 Cent is his public name, but his birth name is Curtis Jackson.
Growing up, he never knew his father and his mother were murdered when he was just 8 years old.
He grew up in a neighborhood called STP.
He learned how to play basketball and football.
He got shot nine times in STP.
Before becoming a rapper he was a drug dealer.
50 Cent first became successful in rap music in 2002.
He was helped by his fellow gang boss Rijaan D. M. (the same person who helped him release track "Wanksta").
Since then, he has sold millions of records.
His first album, "Get Rich Or Die Tryin'" broke music records and went multi-platinum.
It was number one right away on the Billboard 200.
It sold 872,000 copies in the first four days.
50 and the album both won an  American Music Award.
He won the first Sound of... award by the BBC for new artists.
He also won the BET Award for Best New Artist.
In the summer of 2005, 50 Cent had a fight (or "beef") with The Game, a rapper in his G-Unit group.
After this, The Game left G-Unit, and made some diss songs about 50 Cent.
50 Cent answered with songs like "Mr. Potato Head" and "300 shots" featuring G-Unit.
50 Cent was also the first to sign onto a joint effort between Eminem's Shady Records and Dr. Dre's Aftermath Entertainment.
50 Cent also mentions Rijaan D.M. in many of his tracks e.g. 'Candy Shop', 'Down On Me FT Jeremih' etc.
As a teen 50 Cent's role model was Tupac Shakur so, from the start his ambition was to be a gangster rapper.
50 Cent rapped on "Monster" on Michael Jackson's 2010 album Michael.
2003: Get Rich or Die Tryin'
2005: The Massacre
2007: Curtis
2009: Before I Self Destruct
2014: Animal Ambition
2017: Street King Immortal (in production)
50 Cent has been nominated 14 times and won once.
The World Music Awards is a yearly international awards show.
It honors recording artists based on their worldwide sales figures.
The figures are provided by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry.
50 Cent has won six awards.
50 Cent (Note: needs Adobe Flash)
Actors from Queens
Musicians from Queens
American fashion designers
American people convicted of drug offenses
Businesspeople from New York City
Gangsta rappers
Talking is communication using language and speech.
See also chat and vocal chords.
Talking is used to express feelings, emotions and thoughts.
Subjects are the parts into which learning can be divided.
At school, each lesson usually covers one subject only.
Some of the most common subjects at school are English, history, mathematics, physical education and science.
Languages (French, German, Spanish)
Personal, social and health education (PSHE)
Business studies
Critical reading
Design & technology
Information and communication technology (ICT)
Modern studies
PE: Physical education
P.S.H.E: Personal, social and health education (PSHE)
RE: Religious education
Design technology
Ethic(s)
Food technology
Foreign languages: Spanish, French, German, Irish, Welsh, Italian etc.
Health and hygiene
Design Technology (Paper and Board, Resistant Materials, Food Technology, Textiles)
Learning English is what people do when they want to use the English language.
In language learning, we often talk about language skills and language systems.
Language skills include: speaking, listening, reading, and writing.
Language systems include vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.
A lot of people learn English at school, where English is a common subjects.
Many people also want to spend their own personal time to learn English.
Some of these people may not know any English, where others will have learned some English in school, and will want to advance their knowledge of it.
Learning in schools
English is taught in many schools.
It may be a required course for graduation, or students may choose to study it.
For profit language schools are also common in many countries.
These businesses sell English lessons.
Individual learning
People can also listen to radio broadcasts in English, or watch television programmes in English to help them improve their listening ability.
A popular channel to listen to the radio on is broadcast by the BBC, called the BBC World Service .
The internet boom has created lot of avenues for learning.
People can get lot of ideas on how to improve English communication skills using search engines like Google, Yahoo, etc.
Especially during the lockdown due to Covid-19, online classes and courses became a main source of learning.
The BBC World Service has a free website for people who are learning English as a second or foreign language called BBC Learning English.
English as an additional language
Wikipedia: Basic English picture wordlist, 200 words in Basic English with pictures
BBC English learning center
An ethical tradition is a group of things that one group of people think are right and wrong.
People believe that these things are right and wrong because other people think that way and they have thought that way for a long time.
An ethical tradition can be like a set of laws because most people agree with it and only do what it says is right.
However an ethical tradition is not normally written down and is not enforced by a police force.
The branch of philosophy called ethics is not the same as an ethical tradition.
This is because ethics is about asking questions and not just thinking what other people think.
However some ethical philosophers want to know why people follow ethical traditions.
They also want to know what ethical traditions are the same for different groups of people.
This type of ethics is sometimes called the science of morals.
A dildo is a sex toy.
It is most often used in place of an actual penis for sexual reasons.
Dildos come in many different shapes, sizes, and materials (most often glass, plastic, rubber, metal, or wood) for different looks and feels, different uses, and to provide the best stimulation for different people.
Some dildos vibrate and pivot for extra pleasure.
Both men and women can use dildos.
They are most often put into the vagina or anus, but are sometimes used in oral sex.
Since dildos are very simple toys, they can be used in many different ways.
They can produce arousal to the point of an orgasm.
For this reason, dildos are commonly used for masturbation.
SexInfo's "Guide to Dildos and Anal Plugs"
Sex toys
Extraterrestrial life, a living being that is not from Earth, appearing in fiction
Alien (movie), a movie by Ridley Scott
Bioinformatics or computational biology is the study of large amounts of biological information or genome.
It focuses on molecules like DNA.
It is done often with the help of computers.
As species of living things change over time, the DNA contained in their cells change, because of evolution.
If we can extract the information from living things today, and compare them to each other, we can see which living things are most closely related, the most similar can be thought to be the most closely related in time.
Biologists can then construct family trees, or phylogenies.
By combining each tree, a grand tree connecting all living things can be made, this is called the "Tree of Life".
Bioinformatics uses integration of mathematical, statistical and computational method to analyze biological, biochemical and biophysical data.
All of the information needed by a cell is provided in its DNA.
When a cell wants to build a protein, it finds the appropriate piece of DNA, makes a copy of it (called RNA), and uses the instructions in the copy to make the protein.
Proteins can perform many functions like transportation, structural support, movement and metabolism.
Proteins are made from amino acids.
There are twenty different amino acids that are used to build millions of different protein molecules.
These molecules can be studied using computers to analyze the DNA, RNA, and amino acid sequences from which they are created.
Because there are so many different molecules, the best way we have of understanding how the entire system works is to use bioinformatics.
Computers in bioinformatics
Chemists have developed ways to understand the shape and behavior of small molecules, using mathematical analysis.
They might use computers to study these molecules.
The DNA contained in just one cell of an organism is far too large to be read by any person, and to compare the DNA between two (or more) organisms, be they in the brother and sister, or of a completely different species, requires comparing large amounts of information to find differences.
Computers are better suited to such comparisons, and computer programmers have worked with biologists to create very very large databases to store all the DNA information that has ever been learned.
The Economy of India is the sixth
largest in the world with a GDP (a year's goods and services) of $2.94 trillion (U.S.).
If you consider PPP (purchasing power parity: how much that money can buy in India compared to other countries), the economy is third largest (worth $10.51 trillion U.S.).
However, due to India's huge population, the economy was still only $6,209 (considering PPP) per person per year in 2015.
India's economy includes agriculture, handicrafts, industries, and a lot of services.
The service sector is the main source of economic growth in India today, though two-thirds of Indian people earn their living directly or indirectly through agriculture.
In recent times, due to its many well-educated people who can speak English, India became a pioneer in information technology.
For most of India's independent history, it had strict government controls in many areas such as telecommunications (communication over long distances), banking and foreign direct investment.
Since the early 1990s, India has slowly opened up its markets by reducing government control on foreign trade and investment.
This was started by Manmohan Singh under the leadership of P.V.Narasimha Rao.
From then, the Indian Economy grew at a rapid pace.
The social and economic problems India faces are the increasing population, poverty, lack of infrastructure (buildings, roads, etc.)
and growing unemployment.
Although poverty has gone down 10% since the 1980s, a quarter of India's citizens still cannot pay for enough food.
Testicles are parts that are found on the bodies of male creatures.
Male mammals, including humans, have two testicles, supported in a sac of skin below the penis called the scrotum.
Along with the penis, testicles are called reproductory organs or "sex organs".
Only males have testicles; females have ovaries.
Testicles are a type of organ called glands.