the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
"Don't let the grass grow under your feet" means "Do something".
"A snake in the grass" is about a person that will not be honest and will trick others.
Grass is sometimes used as a slang term for cannabis (also called pot, weed, or marijuana)
The cacao tree is a small tree originally grown in tropical South America.
It only grows to 4 to 8 meters in height.
Its seeds are called cocoa and are used to produce cocoa butter, chocolate drinks, and chocolate.
Now the trees are grown in plantations in many tropical countries.
Cacao is planted on over 70000 square kilometres worldwide with 40% of production coming from Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Indonesia.
Each country produces about 15%, with smaller amounts coming from Brazil, Nigeria, and Cameroon.
A tree begins to bear fruit when it is 4 or 5 years old.
In one year, when mature, it may have 6,000 flowers, but only about 20 pods.
About 300-600 seeds (10 pods) are required to produce around 1 kg of cocoa paste.
There are three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate.
The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo Group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya.
Only 10% of chocolate is made from the Criollo, which is less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean.
The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero Group.
Forastero trees are significantly hardier than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans.
Trinitario, a hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, is used in about 10% of chocolate.
For details of processing, see cocoa.
Cacao beans were commonly used as currency in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.
In some areas, such as Yucatán, they were still used in place of small coins as late as the 1840s.
The food of the Gods - the nature, growth, cultivation, manufacture and history of Cocoa, by Brandon Head, from Project Gutenberg
Sterculiaceae
Mahabad and Piranshahr (, ); (Old name: سابلاخ: Sablakh, which may be of Mongolian origin) is a city in Iran.
It is in the north-west of the country, in the region of Iranian Kurdistan and the province of West Azarbaijan.
The city is south of Lake Urmia in a narrow valley 1,300 metres above sea level.
There are about 162.434 people who live in the city.
Mahabad is connected by road with Tabriz 300 km north, Urmia 150 km north and Arbil, in Iraqi Kurdistan.
The city is one center and symbol of the Kurdish nationalism.
The reason is  because in 1945 it was the capital of the newly founded people's Republic of Mahabad.
The republic was conquered by Iranian forces in  16 December 1946.
The president was Qazi Muhammad.
The majority of the population is Kurdish.
During the revolution in Iran, on 3 September 1979 the city was bombed and occupied by Iranian forces.
After the death of Shivan Qaderi, a student and opposition activist in July 9 2005, the Kurdish population protested against the Iranian government.
Cities in Iran
Shivan Qaderi (or Sivan Ghaderi or Schuaneh Ghaderi; died 9 July 2005 in Mahabad) was a student and opposition activist in Iran.
After his death in 2005, the Kurds protested and the Iranian government had to send more than 100,000 soldiers to this region.
The Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran reported, that about 50,000 people had protested after his death on the Chuwarchira Square.
Humans Rights First say that, after he was shot, Iranian soldiers tied Ghaderi's body "to a military vehicle and dragged it through the city, obviously trying to frighten the population so that they would not organize any more protests."
Anti-Kurdism
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor with the Bureau of Public Affairs Washington, DC: Iran: Voices Struggling To Be Heard 3.11.2005
Qaderi, Shivan
20th-century births
In cooking, a sauce is a liquid mixture added to another food for flavour.
Sauces are not normally eaten by themselves; they add flavour, moisture, and visual appeal to another dish.
Sauces are an essential element in cuisines all over the world.
The main sauces of French cuisine are built on a basis of roux, which is just flour and the liquid part of butter.
Examples from Italian cuisine are the egg, cheese and ham sauce called Carbonara; the ground meat sauce called bolognese, and the herbs and garlic sauce called pesto.
Bottled sauces can be poured over food when it is served.
An example would be the tomato-based sauce that is usually poured over spaghetti.
Gravy is a brown sauce served with meat.
Sauce is a French word taken from the Latin salsus, meaning salted.
Possibly the oldest sauce recorded is garum, the fish sauce used by the Romans.
Sauces may be used for savoury dishes or for desserts.
They can be prepared and served cold, like mayonnaise, prepared cold but served lukewarm like pesto, or can be cooked like bechamel and served warm or again cooked and served cold like apple sauce.
Some sauces are commercial products like Worcestershire sauce, HP sauce, soy sauce or ketchup.
In French cuisine they are freshly prepared by the chef.
Sauces for salads are called salad dressing.
A cook who specializes in making sauces is a saucier.
There were hundreds of sauces in the culinary repertoire, and were a major defining characteristic of French cooking of the 19th and 20th centuries, until nouvelle cuisine.
In the 19th century, the chef Antonin Carême classified sauces into four families, each of which was based on a mother sauce (Also called grandes sauces).
Carême's four mother sauces were:
Béchamel, based on milk, thickened with a white roux.
Espagnole, based on brown stock (usually veal), thickened with a brown roux.
Velouté, based on a white stock, thickened with a blonde roux.
Allemande, based on velouté sauce, is thickened with egg yolks and heavy cream.
In the early 20th century, the chef Auguste Escoffier updated this classification to five mother sauces.
Sauce Béchamel, Milk based sauce, thickened with a white roux.
Sauce Velouté, White stock based sauce, thickened with a roux or a liaison.
Sauce Tomate, Tomato based sauce, thickened with a roux.
Sauce Espagnole, Roasted veal stock based sauce, thickened with a brown roux.
Sauce Hollandaise, an emulsion of egg yolk, butter and lemon juice or vinegar.
Béarnaise sauce (sauce béarnaise) is a "child" of hollandaise, meaning it is a variation on the theme.
A sauce which is based on one of the mother sauces is sometimes called a small sauce, minor sauce, or secondary sauce.
Most sauces commonly used in classical cuisine are small sauces, or derivatives of one of the above-mentioned mother sauces.
Mother sauces are not commonly served as they are; instead they are augmented with additional ingredients to make small (derivative) sauces.
For example, Bechamel can be made into Mornay by the addition of Gruyère or any cheese one may like, and Espagnole becomes Bordelaise with the addition and reduction of red wine, shallots, and poached beef marrow.
Spaghetti, also known as pasta, is a long, string-shaped bolognese.
The word spaghetti was first used in 1849 as sparghetti in Eliza Acton's Modern Cookery.
It comes from Italian spaghetto, which means "string".
Spaghetti is made from wheat noodles, which are boiled in water for a short time.
Spaghetti can either be served as a side dish, or as a main dish.
As a main dish, a sauce is added.
There are many different kinds of sauces.
Simpler ones are made of butter, more complicated ones include tomatos, garlic, olive oil and various other herbs.
Different varieties with mussels, fish or meat also exist.
Ground Parmesan cheese is often added.
In Italy the sauce is usually mixed with the spaghetti while they are being prepared.
Usually, spaghetti are eaten only with a fork, or with a fork and a spoon.
Sometimes, they are cut with a knife for small children.
Many Italians see using a knife to eat spaghetti as bad manners, except to prepare them for small children.
In the United States, there is a kind of spaghetti called "Alvaro's spaghetti" which is served with alfredo sauce.
In some countries,like United States or Canada, meatballs are often in the spaghetti sauce.
In China, spaghetti is often made by hand.
In Italy, spaghetti is made with a machine so that large amounts can be made quickly.
Italy is the biggest producer and consumer of spaghetti in the world.
The Emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) is a penguin that lives in Antarctica.
It is the tallest and heaviest penguin.
They are the only birds that can lay their eggs on ice.
Emperors are the biggest of the 18 species of penguin found today, and one of the largest of all birds.
They are approximately 120cm tall (about the height of a six year old child) and weigh in at around 40 kg, though their weight does fluctuate dramatically throughout the year.
Emperor penguins are about  tall, weigh up to , and have a wingspan of .
Emperor Penguins are black and white like all penguins, and the sides of their neck and chest are golden.
They can dive deeper than any other bird, including other penguins.
Emperor penguins are also the largest penguins in the world.
There are approximately 595,000 adult Emperor penguins in Antarctica.
But due to a lack of research, there is still so much we don't know about these magnificent polar creatures.
That's why we're funding research in the Antarctic, because the more we know, the better we can protect them.
This will encourage the formation of Marine Protected Areas and will help in protecting the species in the face of climate change.
Emperor penguins do not build nests they lay their eggs on the ice through their legs.
Like other penguins, emperors leap into the air while swimming, which is called porpoising.
Emperors live in the coldest climate on earth.
Temperatures can drop as low as -140 degrees Fahrenheit (-95.6 °C) on the Antarctic ice.
They breed at the beginning of the Antarctic winter (March and April), on the ice all around the Antarctic continent.
They live in large groups, called colonies, that can have up to 20,000 birds.
They huddle close together to keep warm.
Emperor penguins live for about 20 years, although some have been known to live for 40 years.
They dive at their food and they stay in small groups
The shape of their body helps them to survive.
They have short wings that help them swim and to dive up to  to catch larger fish.
The deepest dive recorded is .
They can swim up to  for a short time, which lets them escape their main enemy, the leopard seal.
They can stay warm because they have a thick layer of blubber.
The layer of downy feathers trap air that keeps the body heat in and cold air and water out.
They also have large amounts of body oil that help in keeping them dry in the water.
While they are very fast in the water, on land the birds can only walk very slowly.
On ice they can lie on their stomachs and use their wings to slide along, like a sled.
Emperor penguins spend most of their time in the water, coming to the shore to breed.
There is nothing on the ice to make a nest, so after the female lays her one egg in winter, the male puts the egg on his feet to keep it warm until spring.
This can be from 65 to 75 days.
He has a special fold of skin on his stomach which can fold over and cover the egg to keep it warm.
This is a difficult action to swap the egg from the female to the male; if it sits for too long on the ice it will freeze.
He does not eat during this time, and can lose up to half his weight.
To keep warm, all the male penguins huddle together.
Those on the outside of the group will slowly shuffle their way into the middle; the group is always moving and can move as much as  in 24 hours.
The female comes back in spring when the egg hatches, while the male will go back to sea to eat, but comes back to help look after the chick.
The chick lives on its parents feet for about 50 days until it becomes strong enough to survive the cold.
The Australian movie Happy Feet was based on the story of an emperor penguin who is unable to sing and get a mate because he was left for too long on the ice when still an egg.
The documentary March of the Penguins is about emperor penguins moving across the ice to lay eggs.
Emperor Penguin photos
The Snares penguin (Eudyptes robustus), is a crested penguin.
It is probably a subspecies of the Fiordland penguin.
It is a penguin from New Zealand.
It is between 50 and 70 centimetres in height and weighs between 2.5 and 4 kilograms.
Chuar-chira Square (, ) (meaning Square of the four candles), is a known square in center of city of Mahabad where after Iranian invasion in 1947, Qazi Muhammad the president of Republic of Mahabad was hanged in public as well as other leaders of the republic in Mahabad and Bukan.
In 2005 the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran reported that about 50.000 persons had demonstrated against the Iranian gouverment.
The reason was the death of Shivan Qaderi.
It is now officially called Shardari Square.
Photo of the Chuwar Chira Square
Buildings and structures in Iran
A complex number is a number, but is different from common numbers in many ways.
A complex number is made up using two numbers combined together.
The first part is a real number, and the second part is an imaginary number.
The most important imaginary number is called , defined as a number that will be -1 when squared ("squared" means "multiplied by itself"): .
All the other imaginary numbers are  multiplied by a real number, in the same way that all real numbers can be thought of as 1 multiplied by another number.
Arithmetic functions such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division can be used with complex numbers.
They also follow commutative, associative and distributive properties, just like real numbers.
The set of complex numbers is often represented using the symbol .
Complex numbers were discovered while attempting to solve special equations that have exponents in them.
These began to pose real problems for mathematicians.
As a comparison, using negative numbers, it is possible to find the x in the equation  for all real values of a and b, but if only positive numbers are allowed for x, it is sometimes impossible to find a positive x, as in the equation .
With exponentiation, there is a difficulty to be overcome.
There is no real number that gives −1 when it is squared.
In other words, −1 (or any other negative number) has no real square root.
For example, there is no real number  that solves the equation .
To solve this problem, mathematicians introduced a symbol i and called it the imaginary unit.
This is the imaginary number that will give −1 when it is squared.
The first mathematicians to have thought of this were probably Gerolamo Cardano and Raffaele Bombelli.
They lived in the 16th century.
It was probably Leonhard Euler who introduced writing  for that number.
All complex numbers can be written as  (or ), where a is called the real part of the number, and b is called the imaginary part.
We write  or  for the real part of a complex number .
So, if , we write .
Similarly, we write  or  for the imaginary part of a complex number ; , for the same .
Every real number is also a complex number; it is a complex number  with .
A complex number can also be written as an ordered pair , where both a and b are real numbers.
Any real number can simply be written as , or as the pair .
Sometimes,  is written instead of .
In electrical engineering for instance,  means electric current, so writing  can cause a lot of problems because some numbers in electrical engineering are complex numbers.
The set of all complex numbers is usually written as .
Operations over complex numbers
Addition, subtraction, multiplication and exponentiation (raising numbers to exponents) are all possible with complex numbers.
Division is also possible with complex numbers—as long as the divisor is not zero, Some other calculations are also possible with complex numbers.
Let , then , and .
Another notable operation for complex numbers is conjugation.
A complex conjugate  to  is .
It is pretty simple, but is important for calculations, because  is actually a real number for all complex :
Other forms of describing complex numbers
Complex numbers can be shown on a so-called complex plane.
If you have a number , you can go to point a on the real axis and point b on the imaginary axis, and draw a vector from  to .
The length of this vector can be calculated using the Pythagorean theorem, and the angle of this vector is simply the angle between the positive real axis and this vector—going counterclockwise.
The length of a vector for a number  is called its modulus or absolute value (written as ), and the angle is called its argument ().
This leads to the trigonometrical form of describing complex numbers: by the definitions of sine and cosine, it follows that for all :
With the introduction of complex numbers to math, every polynomial with complex coefficients has roots in complex numbers.
This introduction also helped to open a path to the creation of another kind of numbers, which could help resolve and explain many different problems.
These include the hypercomplex numbers, sedenion, hyperreal numbers, surreal numbers and many others.
For more, see types of numbers.
A search for complex number at Wikibooks
Frederick I of Prussia (), (11 July 1657–25 February 1713) of the Hohenzollern dynasty was the first King in Prussia (1701–1713).
1657 births
1713 deaths
The Siege of Jerusalem took place from September 20 to October 2, 1187.
It was part of the war called the Third Crusade.
Balian of Ibelin defended Jerusalem against the armies of Saladin.
When he surrendered, the Muslims enslaved thousands of Christians but let many leave after they bought their freedom.
A fictionalized version of the siege (attack) is seen in the movie Kingdom of Heaven, directed by Ridley Scott.
Jerusalem (1187), Siege of
The Beer Hall Putsch was a failed coup d'état in Munich, Germany between the evening of 8 November and the morning of 9 November 1923.
The Nazi Party under Adolf Hitler tried to take over the government of Bavaria, a state in Germany.
They began trying to do this by taking several hundred people hostage in a beer hall (a large building where people got together to drink beer and sometimes listen to political speeches).
Several Nazis died when they got into a gun fight with police officers in another part of Munich, and Hitler then went to prison for eight months.
Hitler chose to do this for many reasons.
The Weimar Republic of Germany was weak because of fighting between right and left-wing parties.
Inflation had also left the Weimar Republic with very little support from the people, or money to keep working (paying bills, or even paying pensions and wages).
This happened because when Germany lost World War I, other countries made Germany pay for the entire war, and Germany had to make taxes very high so it could pay for the war.
This hurt the economy of Germany.
The Nazi Party was getting very strong.
Hitler was a strong leader.
In 1923, the year when the Weimar Republic was least popular, the Nazi Party grew from 6,000 members to 55,000 members.
Attempted coup
8 November 1923 - Hitler and his men charged into the Beer Hall and forced the people there to support him.
Hitler's men, the SA took over the Army Headquarters, but forgot to take over the telegraph office.
This meant that anybody could call in the police.
9 November 1923 - 16 Nazis and 4 Bavarian State Police officers were killed in a gunfight between the Nazis and the police in Residenzstraße.
Hitler was arrested two days later.
Hitler and several of his friends were taken to court for treason, because they took up arms against the government.
In the end, Hitler was sent to prison for about eight months, and the Nazi Party broke up (however, it would later get back together).
More people learned about Hitler.
Before this happened, he was unknown.
But after this, he was a hero to many.
Many Germans at that time wanted a strong leadership after the governments of the Weimar Republic.
Hitler also took the time he had to spend in prison to write a book, called Mein Kampf or "My Struggle".
It sold millions and told people about his ideas.
Mein Kampf also made Hitler popular. (
Hitler did not actually write the words down himself.
Instead, he told another Nazi, Rudolf Hess, what to write down, and Hess wrote the words down.)
Hitler also had to re-think his strategy.
He realised he could not take power the same way that Mussolini had done.
Instead, he had to get power through being elected.
Causalities
Felix Alfarth
Andreas Bauriedl
Theodor Casella
William Ehrlich
Martin Faust
Anton Hechenberger
Oskar Körner
Karl Kuhn
Karl Laforce
Kurt Neubauer
Klaus von Pape
Theodor von der Pfordten
Johann Rickmers
Lorenz Ritter von Stransky
Wilhelm Wolf
A revision site for IGSCE students
Events of the Putsch in detail
Events of the Beer Hall Putsch before and after
1923 in Europe
1920s in Germany
20th century rebellions
Coups d'état
20th century in Munich
Rebellions in Europe
November events
Verona is a city in the Veneto region of Italy with 260,000 inhabitants.
It is famous for being the setting for the Shakespeare play Romeo and Juliet and because of the Roman Arena.
This city is built on the Adige river.
Kyiv or Kiev () is the capital and largest city of Ukraine.
It is in north-central Ukraine on the Dnieper River.
Almost three million people live there.
The city hosted the UEFA Euro 2012 final.
Kyiv also hosted the Eurovision Song Contest in 2017.
Kyiv has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Köppen climate classification).
Mikhail Bulgakov, Russian writer and playwright
Victor Skumin, Russian professor, philosopher, writer, psychologist, psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and medical doctor
5th-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in Ukraine
482 establishments
It is home to over 1.6 million people.
It was known as Salisbury from its foundation on September 12, 1890 until April 18, 1982.
Harare is Zimbabwe's biggest and most important financial, commercial, and communications centre, and a trade centre for tobacco, maize, cotton, and citrus fruits.
Manufactured goods include textiles, steel and chemicals, and gold is mined in the area.
The city's suburbs include Borrowdale, Mount Pleasant and Avondale.
The richest neighbourhoods are to the north.
The University of Zimbabwe, the country's oldest university (founded in 1952), is in Mount Pleasant, about 6 km (3.7 mi) north of the city centre.
The country's main Test cricket ground, Harare Sports Club is in the city.
The Dynamos F.C. in Harare is Zimbabwe's most successful association football team.
The Seventh-day Adventist Church is a Protestant Christian group.
It is different from most other Protestant groups because the followers believe that the seventh day of the week, Saturday, is the day to rest from working and worship God.
The Bible calls this day the "Sabbath".
The Sabbath is the seventh day of the week (Gen 2:1-3) in Judaism and in the Seventh-Day Adventist Church.
This is why they are called "Seventh-day Adventists".
Although the abbreviation "SDA" is commonly used, "Adventist" is the church's preferred shortening of "Seventh-day Adventist".
The Seventh-day Adventist Church came from the Millerite movement in the United States.
This included people from many denominations.
The Millerites started in the middle part of the 19th century.
The Millerites were people who followed the teachings of William Miller.
Miller preached that Jesus is coming very soon, in the Second Coming or Second Advent.
The church name "Adventist" came from the word "Advent."
The Seventh-day Adventist Church started in 1863.
In many ways, the religious teachings of the Seventh-day Adventist church are like evangelical teachings such as the Trinity and Biblical inerrancy.
Teachings that are different include the doctrine of an investigative judgment, the unconscious state of the dead (which means that when people die, they will not wake up until Christ resurrects them), and that the wicked will be destroyed forever by fire (rather than forever burn in Hell).
The church is also known for its message on health.
It teaches that being healthy helps us to make good decisions, understand God’s Word, be productive in God’s service, and otherwise glorify God with our bodies as temples.
Adventists who eat meat typically do not eat meat from pigs, certain fish, and other animals that the Bible names as unclean.
Many Adventists are vegetarian (no meat) or vegan (no animal products, such as milk or eggs).
They tend to stay away from smoking, drinking and other things known to be harmful or mind-altering.
Exercise, being outdoors, resting, and drinking lots of water are other parts to healthy living usually taught by Adventists.
In 2005, a National Geographic cover story identified the Adventists living in Loma Linda, California, as one of five Blue Zones of people living longer than the rest of the world.
The church also promotes religious liberty.
When it comes to culture, it is more conservative.
Among the founders of the Church was Ellen G. White.
She wrote many texts that are still thought to be very important in the church today.
She was a dedicated Christian who believed she got visions from God about the end of the world and what heaven will be like.
At a world level, the Seventh-day Adventist Church is run by a General Conference.
Smaller regions are administered by divisions, union conferences and local conferences.
It is present in over 200 countries and territories and is ethnically and culturally diverse.
The church runs many schools, hospitals and publishing houses worldwide, as well as a famous organization that helps people in trouble, known as the Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA).
There are about 18.5 million people in the Seventh-day adventist church worldwide.
The Adventist News Network reported  in June 2010 (during the 59th quinquennial General Conference Session of the Seventh-day Adventist Church held in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A.) that Seventh-day Adventists reached a membership of 16,300,000, according to the church's Office of Archives and Statistics.
The world church Secretary stated that when counting unbaptized children and family members who attend services, the church numbers between 25 and 30 million.
Mainstream doctrine
Seventh-day Adventists  believe in Protestantism.
Seventh-day Adventist believe in the 28 Fundamental Beliefs.
This statement of beliefs was adopted by the General Conference in 1980, with an extra belief (number 11) being added in 2005.
Lye is a caustic solution used for glass and soap making.
It may have in it:
sodium hydroxide (soda lye) or
less commonly, potassium hydroxide (potash lye).
Lye, West Midlands is the name of a small town in England, between Dudley and Stourbridge in the Black Country, Dudley Metropolitan Borough, West Midlands (it was in Worcestershire).
Lye is a commune of the Indre département, in France.
Luck can mean:
Something that happens to someone by chance
A superstitious feeling that brings good fortune or success
Antony and Cleopatra is a play by Shakespeare.
Shakespeare's source was Plutarch's Lives.
The play was first performed between 1606 and 1607.
It was probably first printed in the First Folio of 1623.
The play describes the romantic love and suicides of Antony and Cleopatra.
"Het Wilhelmus", fully known as "Wilhelmus van Nassouwe", is the national anthem of the Netherlands and the former national anthem of the Netherlands Antilles until 1964.
Known since at least the 16th century – around the time of the Dutch Revolt – this song contains the oldest melody among all national anthems of the world.
Its lyrics also date back to the 1500s, though the lyrics of "Kimigayo"—Japan's national anthem—are much older.
Because "Het Wilhelmus" is so old, the origins of the composer(s) and author(s) are uncertain, but the melody has been arranged by Dutch composer Adrianus Valerius in the 1600s.
It wasn't officially adopted as national anthem of the Netherlands until the 20th century.
January 4 – William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the "first practical steamboat".
January 30 – Monroe and Livingston sail for Paris to discuss, and possibly buy, New Orleans.
They end completing the Louisiana Purchase.
February 21 – Edward Despard and six others are hanged, drawn and quartered for plotting to assassinate king George III and to destroy the Bank of England
February 24 – The Supreme Court of the United States, in Marbury v. Madison, establishes the principle of judicial review.
March 1 – Ohio is admitted as the 17th U.S. state, retroactive from August 7, 1953.
April 30 – Louisiana Purchase made by the United States from France.
March 12 – Port Gibson, MS is chartered
May 18 – The United Kingdom redeclares war on France after France refused to withdraw from Dutch territory.
July 4 – The Louisiana Purchase is announced to the American people.
July 5 – The convention of Artlenburg leads to the French occupation of Hanover (which had been ruled by the British king).
July 23 – Robert Emmet's uprising in Ireland begins
July 26 – The wagonway between Wandsworth and Croydon is opened, being the first public railway line of the world.
August 3 – British begin Second Anglo-Maratha War against Sindhia of Gwalior
September 20 – Irish rebel Robert Emmet is executed
September 23 – The Battle of Assaye in India – British-lead troops defeat Maratha forces
October 20 – Senate ratifies the Louisiana Purchase Treaty, doubling the size of the United States.
November 30 – At the Cabildo building in New Orleans, Spanish representatives Governor Manuel de Salcedo and the Marqués de Casa Calvo, officially transfer Louisiana Territory to French representative Prefect Pierre Clément de Laussat (just 20 days later, France had transferred the same land to the United States as the Louisiana Purchase).
Aargau, Graubünden, St. Gallen, Thurgau, the Ticino, Vaud become Swiss cantons.
France – the Livre Tournois (Tours Pound) is replaced by the Franc.
William Osgoode, Chief Justice of Lower Canada, rules that slavery is inconsistent with British Law.
Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)
January 6 – The fifth monarchy men unsuccessfully attempt to seize control of London.
George Monck's regiment defeats them.
January 30 – The body of Oliver Cromwell is subjected to a posthumous execution.
February 5 – The Shunzhi Emperor of the Qing Dynasty of China dies and is succeeded by his son the Kangxi Emperor.
February 14 – George Monck’s regiment becomes The Lord General's Regiment of Foot Guards (which later becomes Coldstream Guards)
April 23 – King Charles II of England, Scotland, Ireland crowned in Westminster Abbey.
This is his second crowning.
April 28 – The University of Santo Tomas in Manila opens.
It is Asia's first University.
June 30 – The first Earl of Argyle is executed at the Mercat Cross in Edinburgh for treason.
August 6 – Portugal and the Dutch Republic sign the treaty of The Hague, whereby New Holland in present-day Brazil is ceded to Portugal.
December 30 – Drottningholm Castle in Stockholm is destroyed by fire.
Dutch rule ends in Taiwan.
First modern bank notes issued in Stockholm, Sweden
January 30 – Charles Rollin, French historian (d. 1741)
March 25 – Paul de Rapin, French historian (d. 1725)
April 16 – Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, English poet and statesman (d. 1715)
May 25 – Claude de Buffier, French philosopher and historian (d. 1737)
June 6 – Giacomo Antonio Perti, Italian composer (d. 1756)
June 9 – Tsar Feodor III of Russia (d. 1682)
July 20 – Pierre Le Moyne, French founder of the Louisiana colony (d. 1706)
September 2 – Georg Boehm, German organist (d. 1733)
October 11 – Melchior de Polignac, French diplomat (d. 1742)
November 1 – Florent Carton Dancourt, French dramatist and actor (d. 1725)
November 4 – Karl Philip, Elector Palatine (d. 1742)
November 6 – King Charles II of Spain (d. 1700)
November 15 – Christoph Graffenried, Swiss settler in America (d. 1743)
November 28 – Edward Hyde, 3rd Earl of Clarendon, Governor of New York and New Jersey (d. 1723)
December 5 – Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, English statesman (d. 1724)
December 18 – Christopher Polhem, Swedish scientist and inventor (d. 1751)
January 19 – Thomas Venner, Fifth Monarchist
February 2 – Lucas Holstenius, German humanist (b. 1596)
February 5 – Shunzhi Emperor of China (b. 1638)
March 1 – Richard Zouch, English jurist (b. 1590)
March 9 – Cardinal Mazarin, French cardinal and statesman (b. 1602)
April 4 – Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven, Scottish soldier (b. 1580)
April 7 – William Brereton, English soldier and politician (b. 1604)
May 27 – Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, Scottish dissenter (b. 1607)
August 7 – Jin Shengtan, Chinese editor, writer and critic (b. 1608)
August 16 – Thomas Fuller, English churchman and historian (b. 1608)
August 29 – Louis Couperin, French composer and organist (b. 1626)
September 11 – Jan Fyt, Flemish painter (b. 1611)
October 4 – Jacqueline Pascal, French child prodigy and sister of Blaise Pascal (b. 1625)
October 28 – Agustin Moreto y Cavana, Spanish playwright (b. 1618)
November 19 – Brian Walton, English clergyman and scholar (b. 1600)
December 29 – Antoine Gerard de Saint-Amant, French poet (b. 1594)
January 6 – The Union of Atrecht united the southern Netherlands under the Duke of Parma, governor in the name of king Philip II of Spain.
January 23 –  The Union of Utrecht united the northern Netherlands in a confederation called the United Provinces.
William I of Orange becomes Stadtholder, and the Duc d'Anjou, younger brother of Henry III of France is invited to become hereditary sovereign.
March – Capture of Maastricht by the Spanish under Parma.
June 17 – Sir Francis Drake, during his circumnavigation of the world, lands in what is now California, which he claims for Queen Elizabeth I.  With an English claim here and in Newfoundland, it becomes the basis for English colonial charters which will claim all land from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from "sea to sea."
Drake's claim is called "Nova Albion" (meaning, New England), and subsequent maps will show all lands north of New Spain and New Mexico under this name.
Pope Stephen II, pope for 3 days in March.
Pope Stephen III, succeeded Stephen II.
Retired Emperor Shōmu takes part in the dedication ceremony of the great statue of Vairocana Buddha at the Todaiji temple and declares himself a Buddhist.
1005 (MV) was a common year when the Julian calendar was used.
It was the fifth year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century.
Malcolm II succeeds Kenneth III as king of Scotland.
Pomerania revolts against the church.
Schaffhausen starts minting its own coins.
Spring – The Republic of Pisa conducts a military offensive against the Saracen strongholds in Southern Italy.
The Pisan fleet sacks the city of Reggio Calabria.
Pisa becomes one of the four commercial Maritime Republics (the other three are Genoa, Venice and Amalfi), which fight each other for control of the Mediterranean Sea.
King Macbeth of Scotland, Scottish royal (died 1057)
King Kenneth III of Scotland
Fortress of Kalan built.
Establishment of the Inquisition.
Mustansiriya University founded in Baghdad.
January 26 – Stanislaus I of Poland abdicates his throne
February 12 – Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor weds Maria Theresa, mother of Marie Antoinette
April 14 – Porteous Riots erupt in Edinburgh after execution of a smuggler Andrew Wilson when town guard captain John Porteous orders his men to fire at the crowd.
Porteous is arrested later
May 8 – Marriage of Frederick, Prince of Wales and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha.
May 26 – Battle of Ackia: British and Chickasaw Native Americans defeat French troops.
September 7 – Edinburgh crowd drags John Porteous out of his cell in Tolbooth prison and lynches him
A French expedition led by Pierre Louis Maupertuis is sent by King Louis XV to Lapland to measure the length of a degree of the meridian, and proves that the Earth is flattened at the poles
Real Arissona, namesake of the U.S. state Arizona is founded in what is now that state.
Isaac Newton Publishes his Method of Fluxions
Thomas Bayes publishes a defense of Isaac Newton's calculus
Leonhard Euler solves the mathematical problem known as the seven bridges of Königsberg
Europe has about 74 million inhabitants.
January 26 – King Edward III of England is declared King of France
June 24 – The Battle of Sluys is fought between the naval fleets of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France.
The former was under the command of Edward III of England and the latter under those of admiral Hue Quiéret and treasurer Nicholas Béhuchet assisted by Genoese mercenary galleys serving under Egidio Bocanegra.
The battle ends with the almost complete destruction of the French.
Both their commanders were among the casualties.
However the mercenaries manage to escape.
A son of deceased King Christopher II of Denmark is elected to the throne following eight years of Interregnum.
He will reign as Valdemar IV of Denmark.
Pope Honorius II recognizes and confirms the Order of the Knights Templar.
King Afonso I of Portugal, then Count of Portugal defeats his mother, Teresa of Leon, in battle and gains control of the county.
Geoffrey of Anjou marries Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England.
Holyrood Abbey founded in Edinburgh by David I, King of Scotland.
End of the reign of Emperor En'yū, emperor of Japan
Emperor Kazan ascends to the throne of Japan
Henry II, Duke of Bavaria abducts the child king Otto III
Antipope Boniface VII murders Pope John XIV
Bethoc, eldest daughter of Malcolm II of Scotland
Ch'oe Ch'ung, Korean scholar
Pope John XIV
January 14 – Connecticut's first constitution, the "Fundamental Orders," is adopted.
January 23 – Francisco Maldonado de Silva, Peruvian Jewish poet, executed by burning at the stake
March 13 – Harvard University is named for a clergyman named John Harvard.
November 24 – Jeremiah Horrocks observes the transit of Venus.
Charles I starts the first of the Bishops Wars against Scotland.
The Casiquiare canal, a river forming a natural canal between the Amazon River and Orinoco River basins, is first encountered by Europeans.
The Barbados House of Assembly meets for the first time.
The first printing press in North America is started in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Russian Cossacks advance over Urals to Pacific, to Okhotsk.
Montreal first settled.
1003 (MIII) was a common year when the Julian calendar was used.
It was the third year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century.
Sweyn I of Denmark begins his first invasion of England.
Humbert I becomes the first count of Savoy.
King Robert II of France invades Burgundy, but fails.
Pope John XVII succeeds Pope Silvester II.
Pope John XVIII succeeds Pope John XVII.
Boleslaus I of Poland becomes duke of Bohemia and Moravia.
Battle of Albesa: Muslim forces of the Caliphate of Cordoba defeat the northern Christian armies of León, Pamplona and Castile.
c.December 25 – Edward the Confessor, King of England and founder of Westminster Abbey in London (died 1066)
Prince Louis of France, French royal (died 1028)
Fuzzy logic is a sort of computer logic that is different from boolean algebra founded by Lotfi A. Zadeh.
It is different in the way that it allows values to be more accurate than on or off.
While boolean logic only allows true or false, fuzzy logic allows all things in between.
An example of this could be a computer game: A person is standing in a doorway while a thing explodes.
The character is hit or not hit if boolean logic is used, but the doorway protects him from the explosion.
Therefore, he might only be hit 20%, and takes less damage.
To put it in  more precise mathematical terms, classical logic has two values.
These values are usually called  false (0) or true (1).
With fuzzy logic, a (calculated) value of 0.8 or 0.971 is possible.
It is important to know the difference between fuzzy logic and chance.
A coin that is thrown has a chance of 0.5 for landing heads up.
If it is thrown 1000 times, it is expected that it will land with heads side up 500 times.
With fuzzy logic, a thing with a "truth value" of 0.5 will have a value of 0.5 no matter how many times it is done.
It is not a 50% chance of true or untrue, it is 50% true and 50% untrue at the same time.
Humans tend to use a combination of predicate logic and fuzzy logic.
If you are an outfielder catching a baseball hit into the air, then your precise logic will calculate trajectory and start you running to the point of intercept (catching).
However, once close to the ball the eyes and brain of the outfielder lacks the ability to accurately estimate distance and speed because the ball is coming straight at the outfielder.
The human brain switches to fuzzy logic that says "get me closer", "get me closer", and so on.
That is why you see outfielders in baseball run to a spot and then move around as the ball gets closer.
Predicate logic says calculate the point to be at to catch the ball.
Fuzzy logic says because of wind or other things you might not be in the correct place so just keep getting closer until you catch the ball.
In predicate logic it is the mathematics of calculating the path of the ball that determines your action.
In fuzzy logic it is the error of your calculations that determines your action.
Douala is the largest city in the African country of Cameroon.
It is the capital city of Littoral Province.
The city is placed near the Wouri River.
Its population is about 2,000,000 people.
The first European people who came to Douala were from Portugal.
They found Duala in about 1472.
Before 1884 it was named Cameroons Town.
In 1884 German people came to Duala and changed its name to Kamarunstadt ("Camaroon City") and made it the capital of German Kamerun.
In 1907 its name was changed to Duala.
It became the capital of French Cameroons in 1919.
From 1940 to 1946, it was the capital of Cameroon.
Duala is an expensive city.
It ranked 24th most expensive city of the world in 2007.
Douala is linked by rail to Yaoundé, Ngaoundéré, Kumba and Nkongsamba.
The largest port and the most important airport in Cameron are both in Douala.
Image of Douala from Google Earth
Settlements in Cameroon
Cities in Africa
1472 establishments
February 6 – The Virginia Minstrels perform the first minstrel show (Bowery Amphitheatre, New York City).
February 8 – Earthquakes in Guadeloupe magnitude 8.5, 5000 people report  killed.
February 11 – Giuseppe Verdi's opera I Lombardi premieres in Milan.
May 18 – The Disruption of the Church of Scotland took place in Edinburgh.
May 22 – The first major wagon train headed for the northwest sets out with one thousand pioneers from Elm Grove, Missouri, on the Oregon Trail.
July 19 – The SS Great Britain is launched from Bristol.
August 15  – Tivoli Gardens,  one of the oldest still intact amusement parks in the world, opened in Copenhagen, Denmark.
October 13 – In New York City, Henry Jones and 11 others found B'nai B'rith (the oldest Jewish service organization in the world).
November 28 – Ka La Ku'oko'a: Hawaiian Independence Day.
The Kingdom of Hawai`i was officially recognized by the United Kingdom and France as an independent nation.
The world's first commercial Christmas cards are printed by Sir Henry Cole in London.
December 17 – First publication of Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol.
James Joule quantifies the conversion of work into heat.
In Barbados, the first black man, Samuel Jackson Prescod, is elected to the House of Assembly.
The Danish government re-establishes the althing in Iceland as an advisory body.
The first tunnel under the Thames is finished.
Argentina supports Rosas of Uruguay and begins a siege of Montevideo.
Quaternions are discovered by William Rowan Hamilton.
The Economist is first published.
Bishop's University is founded.
Abbeville is founded by descendants of Acadians from Nova Scotia.
January 1 – Francis Scott Key, American lawyer and lyricist (b. 1779)
Thomas Aquinas, Italian theologian (died 1274)
Saint Isabel of France, daughter of Louis VIII of France
David VI Narin, King of Georgia (died 1293)
Michael VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (died 1282)
June 25: Battle of Fontenay – Louis the German and Charles the Bald defeat Lothar.
Battle at Magh-Ochtar in Kildare, Ireland, at which Feidlimid mac Cremthanin is defeated by the Southern Uí Neill.
Count Henry I of Champagne marries Marie de Champagne.
Uppsala is recognized as the seat of the Swedish metropolitan.
Antipope Paschal III elected by cardinals supporting Frederick Barbarossa.
Olaf II of Norway is canonized as Saint Olaf.
Archbishop Rainald of Dassel brings relics of the Magi from Milan to Cologne.
Thomas Becket contends with Henry II, leaves England to solicit support from the Pope and the King of France.
The first written record of Tver
Tiberius II Constantine succeeds Justin II as Byzantine Emperor
Kongo Gumi, world's oldest (construction) company founded in Osaka, Japan
January 1 – John V is crowned King of Portugal
May 1 – The Acts of Union 1707 become law, making the separate kingdoms of England and Scotland into one country, the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
April 25 – Allied army is defeated by Bourbonic army at Almansa (Spain) in the War of the Spanish Succession.
September 29 – Four British Royal Navy ships run aground near Scilly Isles because of faulty navigation – Admiral Sir Cloddisley Shovel and thousands of sailors drown
October 23 – First Parliament of Great Britain.
A fortress is founded on the future site of Ust-Abakanskoye (modern Abakan).
Mount Fuji in Japan erupts.
The Lao empire of Lan Xang officially ends and splits into the kingdoms of Vientiane, Luang Prabang, and Champasak.
February 1 - Frederick, Prince of Wales (d. 1751)
April 15 - Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician and physicist (d. 1783)
April 22 - Henry Fielding,  British writer (d. 1754)
May 23 - Carolus Linnaeus, Swedish botanist (d. 1778)
September 7 - Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, French scientist (d. 1788)
May 9 - Dieterich Buxtehude, German composer (b. c. 1637)
Collapse of the Moorish Caliphate of Córdoba.
Byzantine general George Maniaces captures Edessa.
Henry I becomes King of France
Bezprym seizes the throne of Poland from Mieszko II Lambert
France suffers from a famine (until 1033).
King Malcolm III of Scotland, Scottish royal (died 1093)
Matilda of Flanders, Queen consort of the Kingdom of England (died 1083)
Roger I of Sicily, Count of Sicily (died 1101)
July 20 – King Robert II of France (b. 972)
September 2 – Saint Emeric of Hungary
Sancho I of Aragon conquers Graus.
Alfonso VI of Castile conquers Talavera de la Reina.
Bosnia is conquered by Duklja.
June – Pope Gregory VII is besieged in Castel Sant'Angelo by Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor.
1027 (MXXVII) was a common year when the Julian calendar was used.
It was the twenty-seventh year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century.
March 26 – Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor.
May 14 – Henry I of France is crowned king of France at Reims Cathedral.
Aldred becomes abbot of Tavistock.
Start of the Tibetan calendar.
October 14 – William the Conqueror, King of England and Duke of Normandy (died 1087)
Richard, Duke of Normandy, French nobleman (born 960)
Pope John XXII elected to the papacy.
The Great Famine of 1315-1317.
Ala-ud-din-Khilji
The term thoroughbred was first used in the United States in an advertisement in a Kentucky gazette to describe a New Jersey stallion called Pilgarlick.
January 18 – Third Pacific expedition of Capt.
James Cook, with ships HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery, first see O'ahu then Kaua'i in the Hawaiian Islands, which he names the "Sandwich Islands".
February 5 – South Carolina becomes the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation.
February 6 – American Revolutionary War: In Paris the Treaty of Alliance and the Treaty of Amity and Commerce are signed by the United States and France beginning official recognition of the new republic.
February 23 – American Revolutionary War: Baron von Steuben arrives at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania and begins to train the Continental Army.
July 10 – American  Revolutionary War: Louis XVI of France declares war on the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
July 27 –  American Revolution: First Battle of Ushant – British and French fleets fight to a standoff.
August 26 – Triglav, at 2,864 metres above sea level the highest peak of Slovenia, was ascended for the first time by four brave men: Luka Korošec, Matevž Kos, Štefan Rožič and Lovrenc Willomitzer on Sigismund Zois's initiative.
September – The Massachusetts Banishment Act, providing punishment for Loyalists, is passed.
November 26 – In the Hawaiian Islands, Captain James Cook becomes the first European to discover Maui.
France introduced the first state-controlled brothel.
The first settlement was made in the area of what is now Louisville, Kentucky by 13 families under Col.
George Rogers Clark.