the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Mount Chimaera, the region in Lycia that some believe inspired the myth
Chimera (plant)
Chimera (virus), a virus with genetic material from other organisms
Chimera or fusion protein, a hybrid protein made by the splicing of two genes
Chimera (paleontology), a fossil put together with parts from different species
Heterochromia means "different colours", and is most used for the description of different coloured eyes.
Some people, and animals, have differences between the irises of their eyes.
There are many different causes for this condition.
Genetic causes for heterochromia include genetic mosaicism, where changes may take place in the dividing cells leading up to iris formation in the embryo.
Or, environmental damage may occur to the eyes.
Or, various diseases and medical conditions may result in changes in eye colour.
Similar events may happen in other tissues, and sometimes result in visible tissue differences.
However, the condition is most easily seen in the iris of the eye.
The terms Hetrochromia iridis (= different colour of the iris), Heterochromia iridum (plural form) and Heterochromia iridium (a mistake in Latin grammar) are variously used when it is the eye colour which is specifically mentioned.
Endogamy is the idea that a person ought to marry another person from the same group as them.
The type of group is not always the same; it could be based on a religion, a class or a social group.
Often group endogamy is enforced by arranged marriages, this is a system based on benefits for the group rather than marriage for love.
Group adherence
By marrying a person with the same group characteristics, it means that the partners will have similar views or beliefs about something.
Many people marry endogamously for reasons of compatibility, which can be due to choice.
But there are also other reasons when there is less choice involved or there is disapproval if it is not followed.
By doing this it keeps the numbers of a group to a minimum and thus creates stronger group bonds.
For example, when moving to another country, a Sikh family may actively look for other Sikh families to mix with in order to facilitate Sikh marriages.
By merging, they create a stronger bond between their own communities and can be a way to deal with being a minority.
If a group has been marrying endogamously for a long period of time the gene pool may be smaller and there is a greater chance of genetic disease.
For example, within the Jewish community Tay-Sachs disease is a common genetic disease.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/186956/endogamy
Levi-Strauss, C. (1969) The Elementary Structures of Kinship.
Beacon Press
http://www.jewishgenetics.org/?q=content/tay-sachs-disease
In most places, exogamy is practiced in order to avoid incest, which is taboo in many groups across the world.
This is to avoid some of the effects that endogamy creates such as genetic diseases.
If two parents have very different genes then there is a lesser chance of a child inheriting both copies of that gene.
Exogamy is used to make a connection between two groups.
For example, when a person marries another they become part of the family.
This connection may be for reasons of inter-group cohesion.
In other words, creating an alliance with another group.
Dual exogamy
Claude Levi-Strauss, an anthropologist, argued that when two families are connected by the marriage of two people it creates more relationships for trading other things such as food.
It also means that they have more people to rely on.
In order to keep this going, groups will trade sisters/daughters for wives and trade back in return.
McCallum, C. (2001) Gender and Sociality in Amazonia: How Real People Are Made.
Oxford: Berg Publishers.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/198244/exogamy
A slightly different explanation focuses on the loss of the essential while holding on to what is not essential.
In other words, the idiom also makes sense when someone might throw out the baby and keep the bath water.
This idiom comes from a German proverb, das Kind mit dem Bade ausschütten.
In 1512,  Narrenbeschwörung (Appeal to Fools) by Thomas Murner includes a woodcut picture showing a woman tossing a baby out with waste water.
Alternate expressions
Throw out the champagne with the cork
Empty the baby out with the bath.
The Lurking Horror is an interactive fiction computer game released by Infocom in 1987.
The game was  inspired by the horror writings of H. P. Lovecraft.
It was released for several platforms simultaneously thanks to the Z-machine.
Tuvalu has been in the Olympic Games one time.
They were in the 2008, with 3 athletes.
They have not been at the winter games.
Tuvalu profile at London2012.com
Pope Gregory XII (; c. 1326 – 18 October 1417) was the 206th Pope.
He was born Angelo Corrario at Venice, Italy.
He became Bishop of Castello in 1380, titular Patriarch of Constantinople in 1390, a cardinal in 1405, and finally Pope Gregory XII on 30 November 1406.
He held office during the years of the Western Schism.
In 1415, he resigned during the Council of Constance.
He died at Recanati in 1417.
His papal resignation was the last until Pope Benedict XVI resigned in February 2013.
"Gregory XII", Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911
Catholic Hierarchy,  Pope Emeritus Gregory XII
Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church,  Cardinal Correr
1417 deaths
Vanuatu was first at the Olympic Games in 1988.
Vanuatu profile at London2012.com
A team from New Zealand was first at the Olympic Games in 1908.
For their first two Games in 1908 and 1912, New Zealand was with Australia in a combined Australasia team.
New Zealand first sent an independent team in 1920.
New Zealand athletes have won a total of 103 medals at the Summer Games.
The most successful sport is athletics.
New Zealand has only won a single medal at the Winter Games.
The silver medal won by Annelise Coberger in alpine skiing at the 1992 Winter Olympics was the first medal won at the Winter Games by a Southern Hemisphere nation.
National Olympic Committee
The New Zealand Olympic Committee (NZOC) is the National Olympic Committee for New Zealand.
The NZOC was formed in 1911, and recognized by the IOC in 1919.
Being in the remote South Pacific, New Zealanders had to take long sea voyages to attend the early Olympics.
It wasn’t until 1920 that New Zealand sent its first team.
Before that three New Zealanders won medals for Australasian teams in 1908 and 1912.
As of  1111 athletes have represented New Zealand at the Olympic Games.
bronze medal won by Harry Kerr in Men's 3500 metre walk in Athletics
gold medal won by Malcolm Champion as a member of the Men's 4x200 metre freestyle relay in Swimming
bronze medal won by Tony Wilding in Indoor men's singles in Tennis
New Zealand at Olympic.org
Athletics in the 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand has a paragraph on each Olympiad and Empire Games to 1964
The Olympics (NZHistory.net.nz)
The Joseph Romanos list of our best Olympians
Medal Count for NZ at DatabaseOlympics.com (total of 78 not complete)
The Austrian team missed the 1920 Summer Olympics due to its role in World War I.  The nation has twice hosted the Games in Innsbruck for the 1964 Winter Olympics and again for the 1976 Winter Olympics.
Austrian athletes have won a total of 86 medals at the Summer Olympic Games.
They have 185 medals at the Winter Olympic Games.
The National Olympic Committee for Austria is the Österreichisches Olympisches Comité.
It was formed in 1908 and recognized in 1912.
Medals by summer sport
Medals by winter sport
Austria profile at London2012.com
Sport in Austria
Azerbaijan first took part in the Olympic Games as an independent nation in 1996.
Before Azerbaijani athletes were part of the Soviet Union at the Olympics from 1952 to 1988.
In 1992 they were part of the Unified Team.
Azerbaijani athletes have won a total of twenty-six medals at the Summer Olympic Games.
The National Olympic Committee of the Azerbaijani Republic was formed in 1992 and recognized by the International Olympic Committee in 1993.
Medals by Summer Sport
Medals by Winter Sport
Azerbaijan at the Paralympics
"Azerbaijani Wrestler Namig Abdullayev Wins Olympic Gold," in Azerbaijan International, Vol.
8:4 (Winter 2000), p. 76.
"Zemfira Meftakhetdinova: Right on Target, Olympic Gold, Skeet Shooter," in Azerbaijan International, Vol.
8:4 (Winter 2000), p. 79.
"Vugar Alakbarov, Olympic Bronze in Boxing," in Azerbaijan International, Vol.
8:4 (Winter 2000), p. 78.
Azerbaijan profile at London2012.com
Belarus was first in the Olympic at the 1952 Summer Games in Helsinki, Finland as part of the Soviet Union.
After the Soviet Union disbanded in 1991, Belarus, along with four of the other fourteen former Soviet republics, were in the 1992 Winter Olympics (held in Albertville, France) as the Unified Team.
Later in 1992, eleven republics joined Belarus to compete as the Unified Team at the Summer Games in Barcelona, Spain.
Two years later, Belarus competed for the first time as an independent nation in the 1994 Winter Olympics, held in Lillehammer, Norway.
From 1952 until the 2006 Olympic Games in Turin, Italy, 168 Belarusian athletes won 200 medals either as part of the Soviet Union or as independent Belarus.
Flag bearers
Belarus profile at London2012.com
Official Website of the NOCRB
Olympic page
Embassy of the Republic of Belarus in the United States Olympic movement in Belarus
In navigation, the word bearing is used for different methods that try to find out the angle between an object used for this purpose, and a reference direction.
There are different systems of reference that can be used for this.
A system of reference that is commonly used is that of Cardinal directions, as they can be found with a compass.
The direction a ship is pointed can also be the reference.
Points that can easily be determined, and that move very little, can be taken as reference.
Such points include stars, mountains, the sun, and beacons.
Beacons come in the form of lighthouses on the coast, but also as electric beacons or other sea marks on the open sea.
Bearings can be measured different ways.
Optical bearings rely on visual information, other systems rely on radar for tools.
, also romanized as Kambun, was a  after Manji and before Enpō.
This period started in April 1661 and ended in September 1673.
Events of the Kanbun era
20 March 1662 (Kanbun 2, 1st day of the 2nd month): Earthquake in Heian-kyō (Kyoto) destroyed the tomb of Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
1620 (Kanbun 2): Tosa Hiromichi 土佐広通 (1561–1633) was ordered by the emperor to change his name to .
5 March 1663 (Kanbun 3, 26th day of the 1st month):  Emperor Go-sai abdicated; and his younger brother received the succession (senso).
Soon after, Emperor Reigen 's role as monarch was confirmed by ceremonies (sokui).
6 June 1663 (Kanbun 3, 1st day of the 5th month): An earthquake struck in Ōmi Province.
1668 (Kanbun 8, 1st day of the 2nd month): A major fire in Edo lasted 45 days.
1670 (Kanbun 10): The Bonin Islands were discovered by the Ogasawara clan.
1673 disestablishments
Athletes from Belgium competed for the first time was at the 1900 Games.
The nation was host to the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp.
Belgian athletes have won 142 medals at the Summer Olympic Games, and another five at the Winter Olympic Games.
Belgium profile at London2012.com
Belgium at Olympic.org
Bosnia and Herzegovina were first at the 1992 Summer Olympics.
Independence from Yugoslavia was in 1991.
No athletes have won a medal.
Bosnia and Herzegovina profile at London2012.com
Sport in Bosnia and Herzegovina
or NACT is a museum in Roppongi, Minato, Tokyo, Japan.
NACT is a unique art museum.
It does not have a permanent collection.
Instead, it is a large venue for changing art exhibitions.
NACT has 14,000 square meters of exhibition space and an Art Library.
It also has educational programs.
The National Art Center building was completed in May 2006.
Kisho Kurokawa was the architect.
Kyoto National Museum (KNM)
Nara National Museum (NNM)
National Museum of Art, Osaka (NMAO)
National Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto (MOMAK)
National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo (MOMAT)
National Museum of Western Art (NMWA)
Tokyo National Museum (TNM)
The National Art Center, Tokyo website in English
Art museums in Japan
National museums in Japan
Minoru Miki (; 16 March 1930 – 8 December 2011 in Tokushima) was a Japanese composer.
He wrote opera and modern Japanese music.
He was one of the first members of the group Pro Musica Nipponia.
He died early in the morning on 8 December 2011.
Miki was 81 years old.
Treyarch is an American video game developer company.
Peter Akemann and Doğan Köslü started the company in 1996.
Activision bought it in 2001.
It is in Santa Monica, California.
As part of the 2007 Leipzig Games Convention, Activision announced that Treyarch would be one of three developers making their first James Bond game, Quantum of Solace.
The game started to be sold on 31 October 2008 in Europe and 4 November 2008 in North America.
Beenox and Vicarious Visions made the PC and handheld versions of the game.
Treyarch also plays an important part in developing the Call of Duty series.
They have made Call of Duty 2: Big Red One, Call of Duty 3, Call of Duty: World at War, and Call of Duty: Black Ops.
Call of Duty: Black Ops had the record for the biggest entertainment release ever for any kind of entertainment.
It broke the record during the first day it was sold Sales from the game worldwide reached US $650 million within five days after its release.
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 later broke the record again.
, also Empo, was a  after Kanbun and before Tenna.
This period started in September 1673 and ended in September 1681.
During this time, the reigning emperor was .
Events of the Enpō era
1673 (Enpō 1): A great fire destroyed much of Heian-kyō.
1673 (Enpō 1): Mitsui opened a dry goods store in Edo.
10 May 1674 (Enpō 2, 5th day of the 4th month): Ingen died at Mampuku-ji near Heian-kyō.
1675 (Enpō 3): A great fire in Heian-kyō.
1675 (Enpō 3): The Bonin Islands are explored by shogunate.
7 April 1680 (Enpō 8, 8th day of the 3rd month) : Tokugawa Ietsuna died.
11 September 1680 (Enpō 8, 19th day of the 8th month): Former-Emperor Go-Mizunoo died.
1681 disestablishments
1680s disestablishments in Japan
Roderick MacKinnon (born 19 February 1956) is a professor of Molecular Neurobiology and Biophysics at Rockefeller University.
He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry together with Peter Agre in 2003 for his work on the structure and operation of ion channels.
MacKinnon then transferred to Brandeis University after one year, and there he received a bachelor's degree in biochemistry in 1978, studying calcium transport through the cell membrane for his honors thesis in Christopher Miller's laboratory.
It was also at Brandeis where MacKinnon met his future wife and working-colleague Alice Lee.
He got his M.D. in 1982 and received training in Internal Medicine at Beth Israel Hospital in Boston.
He did not feel satisfied enough with the medical profession, so in 1986 he returned to Christopher Miller's laboratory at Brandeis for postdoctoral studies.
In 1989 he was appointed assistant professor at Harvard University where he studied the interaction of the potassium channel with a specific toxin taken from scorpion venom.
He learned how to purify proteins and to use X-ray crystallography.
In 1996, he moved to Rockefeller University as a professor and head of the Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology and Biophysics.
There, he started to work on the structure of the potassium channel.
These channels are of particular importance to the nervous system and the heart.
The channels enable potassium ions to cross the cell membrane.
Scientific contributions
Potassium channels demonstrate a seemingly strange activity: they permit the passage of potassium ions, whereas they do not allow the passage of the much smaller sodium ions.
Before MacKinnon's work, the detailed molecular architecture of potassium channels and the exact means by which they conduct ions remained speculative.
In 1998, despite barriers to the structural study of integral membrane proteins that had stopped most attempts for decades, MacKinnon and colleagues determined the three-dimensional molecular structure of a potassium channel from bacteria utilizing X-ray crystallography.
With this structure and other biochemical experiments, MacKinnon and colleagues were able to explain the exact mechanism by which potassium channel selectivity occurs.
1997 - Newcomb Cleveland Prize
1998 - W. Alden Spencer Award
1999 - Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
2000 - Elected to the U.S. National Academy of Sciences
2000 - Rosenstiel Award
2001 - Gairdner Foundation International Award
2003 - Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University
2003 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Interview with Roderick MacKinnon by Harry Kroto Freeview video provided by the Vega Science Trust.
Website of his lab at the Rockefeller University
Ion Channel Chemistry: The Electrical System of Life Transcribed video of a May 2008 talk by MacKinnon, sponsored by the Oregon State University Libraries.
Nobel Lecture by Roderick MacKinnon, 2003
Luis Raymond Villafuerte is a politician from the Philippines.
He is the son of former governor Luis Villafuerte Sr.
People from Quezon City
High arch is a human foot type, where the foot arch is higher than normal.
People with high arches often feel foot pain, and have to wear special shoes.
Gamophobia (prounced 'ga-me-PHO-bia', from the Greek 'gamo' meaning 'marriage') is the fear of getting married, being in a relationship, or commitment.
The opposite of 'gamophobia' is 'anuptaphobia'-it is the fear of not being in a relationship (to be single or alone).
A person who has gamophobia may like or love a person, but when he or she finds out about that person liking them back and attempting to be together, there is a possibility that their  would change to hate.
Rather than a phobia, such behavior is linked to a number of personality disorders and neuroses.
The majority of phobias are socially created, and are not found in any DSM Psychology manual.
The inability to allow oneself to  be vulnerable and show their 'bad parts' has a personality disorder.
When the individual displays reaction formation (love to hate) this is a neurotic defense mechanism.
This can also be known as commitment phobia.
The Hindu, 6 December 2011, Chennai, India
Cluny Abbey is a Benedictine abbey in Cluny.
It was built in Romanesque style and its three churches date rom the 10th to the 12th century.
It was founded by William I of Aquitaine in the year 910.
Soon the place was noted because it followed the Rule of St. Benedict more strictly than the place where the rule was developed, that is Subiaco in Italy.
Cluny became the leader of a movement called monasticism.
The abbey also started the Cluniac Reforms, and was subject only to the pope, Sergius III at the time.
The Benedictine order was very important for the stability of f European society at the time.
In 1790, during the French Revolution, the abbey was sacked, and mostly destroyed.
Today, only very little of the original remains.
Dating around 1334, the abbots of Cluny had a townhouse in Paris known as the Hôtel de Cluny, what is now a public museum since 1833.
Apart from the name, it no longer possesses anything originally connected with Cluny.
| strength2   = 40,000 militia30,000 British regulars~25,000 yeomanry~1,000 Hessians
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
The Irish rebellion of 1798 was an uprising of Irish people against British rule in Ireland.
It was led by Wolfe Tone and consisted primarily of a secret society called the United Irish.
It was aided by Republican France.
However, it never gained much traction due to its alliance with anti-Catholic France, because Ireland was primarily Catholic.
Despite the British government's anti-Catholicism, most Irish Catholics supported the Crown as the lesser of two evils because of the issue of Revolutionary France's involvement.
The uprising lasted several months.
A group called the United Irishmen were the main driving force in the rebellion.
They were influenced by revolutions taking place in America and France around the time.
The uprising is also known as United Irishmen Rebellion.
A volcanic winter is a climate cooling caused by an extremely large volcanic eruption.
Such an eruption releases ash and sulfur dioxide in huge quantities.
They form aerosols of sulfuric acid.
When they reach the stratosphere more sunlight is reflected, and some is absorbed by the stratosphere.
These reactions heat up the stratosphere, but lead to a drop in the temperature on the ground.
The Siberian Traps, Emeishan Traps, and Deccan Traps are huge flood basalt provinces caused by volcanism.
They are the cause, or part of the cause, of several mass extinctions, especially the Permian–Triassic extinction event.
In 1883, the explosion of Krakatoa (Krakatau) created volcanic winter-like conditions.
The next four years after the explosion were unusually cold, and the winter of 1887 to 1888 included powerful blizzards.
A paper written by Benjamin Franklin in the 1780s blamed the unusually cool summer of 1783 on volcanic dust coming from Iceland, where the eruption of Laki volcano had released enormous amounts of sulfur dioxide, resulting in the death of much of the island's livestock and a catastrophic famine which killed a quarter of the population.
Temperatures in the northern hemisphere dropped by about 1 °C in the year following the Laki eruption.
In 1600, the Huaynaputina in Peru erupted.
Tree ring studies show that 1601 was cold.
Russia had its worst famine in 1601 to 1603.
From 1600 to 1602, Switzerland, Latvia and Estonia had exceptionally cold winters.
The wine harvest was late in 1601 in France, and in Peru and Germany wine production collapsed.
In 1452 or 1453, a cataclysmic eruption of the submarine volcano named Kuwae.
It caused worldwide disruptions.
4Minute () is a five-member South Korean K-pop girl group.
Its members are Nam Ji-hyun, Heo Ga-yoon, Jeon Ji-yoon, Kim Hyun-ah and Kwon So-hyun.
They belong to Cube Entertainment in Korea.
Far Eastern Tribe Records in Universal Music Japan is responsible for 4minute's labels in Japan.
Their official fan club name is 4Nia.
This is a combination of 4Minute and mania.
Countdown on June 18, 2009 with their song "Hot Issue".
The name 4minute has two meanings.
One means that each of its member will attract audiences in 4 minutes and this is why all of their songs are shorter than 4 minutes.
The other meaning is that they will do their best for a minute (for every moment).
Kim Hyun-ah already released two singles.
She used to be a member of Wonder Girls and Kwon So-hyun was a member of girl group Orange.
Nam Ji-hyun is best in dance, Heo Ga-yoon in drama, Jeon Ji-yoon in music and Kim Hyun-ah is best in the Department of Theater and Film.
In December 2010, it released its first Japanese album, Diamond.
In 2011, the group released its first Korean full-length album, 4Minutes Left with the title track "Mirror Mirror" and the following years they have promoted 2 more mini albums and 2 chart topping hits "Volume Up" and "What's Your Name"
Hot Issue (2009)
For Muzik (2009)
Jingle Jingle (Hangul:징글 징글) (2009)
개인의 취향 OST Part.3 (2010)
Hit Your Heart (2010)
'Muzik (Single) (2010)
Superstar (2010)
I My Me Mine (Single) (2010)
지구대표 롤링스타즈 OST (2010)
First .
Dreams Come True (Standard Ver.) (
Diamond (2011)
Heart To Heart (2011)
4Minutes Left (2011)
FreeStyle (2011)
Volume Up (2012)
Love Tension (Japanese Single) (2012)
Name is 4Minute (2013)
4Minute World (2014)
Crazy (2015)
2010s disestablishments in Asia
The Brady Bunch is an American situation comedy created by Sherwood Schwartz.
It stars Robert Reed, Florence Henderson and Ann B. Davis.
It is about a large blended family who live in a suburban setting.
It ran ABC from 1969 to 1974.
Robert Reed as Mike Brady
Florence Henderson as Carol Brady
Ann B. Davis as Alice Nelson
Maureen McCormick as Marcia Brady
Eve Plumb as Jan Brady
Susan Olsen as Cindy Brady
Barry Williams as Greg Brady
Christopher Knight as Peter Brady
Mike Lookinland as Bobby Brady
Allan Melvin as Sam Franklin
Jack Collins as Mr. Phillips
Robbie Rist as Cousin Oliver
Herbert Anderson
Desi Arnaz Jr.
Deacon Jones
Bartell LaRue
James McDivitt
Tristania is a gothic metal band from Norway.
The band was created by Morten Veland.
The album Widow's Weeds (1998) is a mix of gothic rock, gothic metal and doom metal.
The album Beyond the Veil (1999) is a mix of gothic metal and doom metal.
The album World of Glass (2001) is a mix of gothic rock, gothic metal, alternative rock, symphonic metal and folk metal.
The double acute accent ( ˝ ) is a special mark called a diacritic.
It is usually used to make a vowel sound longer.
It is only used in the Latin alphabet.
The double acute accent is mainly used in Hungarian.
Because of this, it is sometimes called the hungarumlaut.
This is a way of writing Hungarian umlaut.
Ken Park is a 2002 American movie.
It is a co-direction by Larry Clark and Edward Lachman.
It was written by Harmony Korine, based off Clark's journals.
The movie was highly controversial because of its subject matter.
The movie was not rated by the MPAA but is similar to an NC-17 due to foul language and strong sexual material involving minors.
In Australia, Ken Park was rated Refused Classification due to content.
2000s erotic movies
The cosmic distance ladder (also known as the extragalactic distance scale) is the way astronomers measure the distance of objects in space.
No one method works for all objects and distances, so astronomers use a number of methods.
A real direct distance measurement of an astronomical object is possible only for those objects that are close enough to Earth (within about a thousand parsecs).
It is the larger distances which are the problem.
Several methods rely on a standard candle, which is an astronomical object that has a known standard luminosity.
The ladder analogy arises because no one technique can measure distances at all ranges encountered in astronomy.
Instead, one method can be used to measure nearby distances, a second can be used to measure nearby to intermediate distances, and so on.
Each rung of the ladder provides information that can be used to determine the distances at the next higher rung.
Direct measures
The astronomical unit is the mean (average) distance of the Earth from the Sun.
This we know quite accurately.
Kepler's Laws tell the ratios of the distances of planets, and radar tells the absolute distance to inner planets and artificial satellites in orbit around them.
As the Earth orbits around the Sun, the position of nearby stars will appear to shift slightly against the more distant background.
These shifts are angles in a right triangle, with 2 AU making the short leg of the triangle and the distance to the star being the long leg.
The amount of shift is quite small, measuring 1 arcsecond for an object at a distance of 1 parsec (3.26 light-years)
Standard candles
Objects of known brightness are called standard candles.
Most physical distance indicators are standard candles.
These are objects which belong to a class that has a known brightness.
By comparing the known luminosity of the latter to its observed brightness, the distance to the object can be computed using the inverse-square law.
In astronomy, the brightness of an object is given in terms of its absolute magnitude.
This quantity is derived from the logarithm of its luminosity as seen from a distance of 10 parsecs.
The apparent magnitude is the magnitude as seen by the observer.
It can be used to determine the distance D to the object in kiloparsecs (kiloparsec = 1,000 parsecs) as follows:
where m the apparent magnitude and M the absolute magnitude.
For this to be accurate, both magnitudes must be in the same frequency band and there can be no relative motion in the radial direction.
Some means of accounting for interstellar extinction, which also makes objects appear fainter and more red, is also needed.
The difference between absolute and apparent magnitudes is called the distance modulus, and astronomical distances, especially intergalactic ones, are sometimes tabulated in this way.
Two problems exist for any class of standard candle.
The principal one is calibration, finding out exactly what the absolute magnitude of the candle is.
The second lies in recognizing members of the class.
The standard candle calibration does not work unless the object belongs to the class.
At extreme distances, which is where one most wishes to use a distance indicator, this recognition problem can be quite serious.
A significant issue with standard candles is the question of how standard they are.
For example, all observations seem to indicate that Type Ia supernovae that are of known distance have the same brightness, but it's possible that distant Type Ia supernovae have different properties than nearby Type Ia supernovae.
Galactic distance indicators
With few exceptions, distances based on direct measurements are available only up to about a thousand parsecs, which is a modest portion of our own Galaxy.
For distances beyond that, measures depend upon physical assumptions, that is, the assertion that one recognizes the object in question, and the class of objects is homogeneous enough that its members can be used for meaningful estimation of distance.
Eclipsing binaries — In the last decade, measurement of eclipsing binaries offers a way to gauge the distance to galaxies.
Accuracy at the 5% level up to a distance of around 3 million parsecs.
RR Lyrae variables —  are periodic variable stars, commonly found in globular clusters, and often used as standard candles to measure galactic distances.
These red giants are used for measuring distances within the galaxy and in nearby globular clusters.
In galactic astronomy, X-ray bursts (thermonuclear flashes on the surface of a neutron star) are used as standard candles.
Observations of X-ray burst sometimes show X-ray spectra indicating radius expansion.
Therefore, the X-ray flux at the peak of the burst should correspond to Eddington luminosity, which can be calculated once the mass of the neutron star is known (1.5 solar masses is a commonly used assumption).
Cepheid variables and novae
Cepheids are a class of very luminous variable stars.
The strong direct relationship between a Cepheid variable's luminosity and pulsation period, secures for Cepheids their status as important standard candles for establishing the Galactic and extragalactic distance scales.
Novae have some promise for use as standard candles.
For instance, the distribution of their absolute magnitude is bimodal, with a main peak at magnitude −8.8, and a lesser one at −7.5.
Novae also have roughly the same absolute magnitude 15 days after their peak (−5.5).
This method is about as accurate as the Cepheid variable stars method.
White dwarfs.
Because the white dwarf stars which become supernovae have a uniform mass, Type Ia supernovae produce consistent peak luminosity.
The stability of this value allows these explosions to be used as standard candles to measure the distance to their host galaxies, because the visual magnitude of the supernovae depends primarily on the distance.
Redshifts and Hubble's Law By using Hubble's law, which relates redshift to distance, one can estimate the distance of any particular galaxy.
Main sequence fitting
In a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram the absolute magnitude for a group of stars is plotted against the spectral classification of the stars.
Evolutionary patterns are found that relate to the mass, age and composition of the star.
In particular, during their hydrogen burning period, stars lie along a curve in the diagram called the main sequence.
By measuring the properties from a star's spectrum, the position of a main sequence star on the H-R diagram can be found.
From this the star's absolute magnitude is estimated.
A comparison of this value with the apparent magnitude allows the approximate distance to be determined, after correcting for interstellar extinction of the luminosity because of gas and dust.
In a gravitationally-bound star cluster such as the Hyades, the stars formed at approximately the same age and lie at the same distance.
This allows relatively accurate main sequence fitting, providing both age and distance determination.
The V-1 flying bomb (also called the Buzz Bomb or Doodlebug) was a World War II weapon.
It was a flying bomb, an early cruise missile.
Its jet engine made it travel at 350 mph (600 kmph).
The Luftwaffe aimed it at London, and also Antwerp in Belgium.
V-1s destroyed nearly as many houses as the Blitz did but killed fewer: 22,892 people were killed by the weapon.
The Allies tried to stop these attacks by bombing their launching places, by shooting at them in the air, and by flying fast planes close to them and nudging them off course using their wings.
They had a fairly crude guidance system.
Overall, only about 25 per cent of V-1s hit their targets.
Most were lost lost by defensive measures, mechanical unreliability or guidance errors.
Citrus Blast is a grapefruit flavored soft drink.
It is made by PepsiCo.
It was first sold in 2011.
da:Citrus Blast
Young Dracula is a British children's fantasy television series.
It is shown on CBBC.
The series is based on Young Dracula AND Young Monsters, a children's book by Michael Lawrence.
The series is directed by Joss Agnew.
It was first broadcast in 2006.
Young Dracula was nominated for Best Children's Drama in the 2008 BAFTA Awards.
A fourth series is now being filmed.
The Sagittarius Window Eclipsing Extrasolar Planet Search, or SWEEPS, was an astronomical survey.
It was carried out in 2006.
SWEEPS used the Hubble Space Telescope to look at 180,000 stars for seven days to find extrasolar planets.
Area looked at
The stars that SWEEPS monitored were all in the Sagittarius-I Window.
This is a rare transparent look at the huge group of closely packed stars at the Milky Way's centre (central bulge), in the Sagittarius constellation.
Our view to most of the stars in the centre of the galaxy is blocked by lanes of dust.
These stars are about 27,000 light years from Earth.
Planets discovered
Sixteen planets were discovered by SWEEPS.
They took from 0.6 to 4.2 days to go around the Sun.
Planets which took less than 1.2 days to go around the sun have not been detected yet; these have been called "ultra-short period planets" (USPPs) by the search team.
USPPs were discovered only around stars with a low mass.
This means that larger stars might have destroyed any planets orbiting so closely, or that planets could not move as far inward around larger stars.
SWEEPS-4 and SWEEPS-11 orbited stars that were very different to other stars close by.
This made it possible for these to be looked at again using the radial velocity method.
Their masses could then be found.
News Release Number: STScI-2006-34 Hubble Finds Extrasolar Planets Far Across Galaxy
was a  after Enpō and before Jōkyō.
This period started in September 1681 and ended in February 1684.
The nengō Tenna means "Peace of Heaven".
Events of the Tenna era
1681 (Tenna 1): Tokugawa Tsunayoshi is established as the fifth shogun of the Tokugawa shogunate.
5 February 1681 (Tenna 1, 28th day of the 12th month): The Great Tenna Fire in Edo.
1681 (Tenna 2): A famine afflicts Heian-kyō and the nearby areas.
1683 (Tenna 3): Tokugawa shogunate grants permission for Mitsui money exchanges (ryōgaeten) to open in Edo.
1683 (Tenna 4): Hotta Masatoshi is assassinated.
In Tenna, the first book was written about the coins of Japan.
The work was entitled Classified Collection of Coins (Kwacho Kuien).
1680s establishments in Japan
1684 disestablishments
Brown asbestos, also called grunerite or amosite, is one of the six types of asbestos.
It has the chemical formula Fe7Si8O22(OH)2.
It is less common than white asbestos but can be found in some construction materials.
Like other types of asbestos, being exposed to it can cause mesothelioma and asbestosis.
was a  after Tenna and before Genroku.
This period started in February 1684 and ended in September 1688.
Events of the Jōkyō era
The new era of  was created by the Imperial court.
After 1684, the power to create a calendar shifted to the shogunate.
The Tokugawa astrology bureau developed a calendar which was independent of Chinese almanacs.
1684 (Jōkyō 1): A fire burned the Imperial palace to ashes; and the reconstruction took a year.
1684 (Jōkyō 1): Chikamatsu Monzaemon began to write plays for the kabuki audience in Heian-kyō.
26 March 1685 (Jōkyō 2, 22nd day of the 2nd month): The former Emperor Go-Sai died; and a large comet appeared in the night sky.
13 April 1686 (Jōkyō 3, 21st day of the 3rd month): Emperor Reigen abdicated; and his younger brother received the succession (senso).
Soon after, Emperor Higashiyama's role as monarch was confirmed by ceremonies (sokui).
1689 (Jōkyō 6'): Calendar with seven-day week.
1684 establishments
1688 disestablishments
The Data Encryption Standard is a 56-bit cipher that was once recommended by the U.S. Government.
In 1998, it was defeated by a machine built by the Electronic Frontier Foundation.
It has been replaced by the Advanced Encryption Standard in most uses.
After DES was cracked, the NIST, the US institution for technology and also cryptography, developed 3DES.
It has 3 times more bits, but is otherwise the same as DES.
Theoretically, 3DES should provide 168 bits of security.
But because of the design, the NIST later said it only provides 80 bits of security.
That can be broken by a modern computer and thus the cipher should be considered broken.
The Geneva Protocol of 1925 (The Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare) was a law that made it illegal to fight with chemical or biological weapons in war.
The Geneva protocol was signed on June 17, 1925 and the protocol was entered into force on January 8, 1928.
Before, it was signed by some countries like the United Kingdom and France originally.
Any country who has signed this Protocol must follow it.
After World War I, the Geneva Protocol was made from the treaties signed with Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria.
The use of chemical weapons began in WWI when one million deaths resulted from chemical weapons.
After signing the treaty, some countries wanted to change it so that they would not have to follow it if the country fighting them did not follow the treaty.
Because of this, many countries like France and United Kingdom withdrew from it.
Others, like the United States still follow it but with this extra condition.
"Primary Documents- Geneva Protocol, 17 June 1925."
firstworldwar.com.
First World War.com, 22 Aug. 2009.
6 Dec. 2011.
"1925 Geneva Protocol."
un.org.
UNODA: United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs, n.d.
"Geneva Protocol."
fas.org.
FAS: Weapons of Mass Destruction, n.d.
Fledge is the stage in a young bird's life when the feathers and wing muscles become developed enough for flight.
It also describes the act of a chick's parents raising it until it is fully grown.
A young bird that has recently fledged but still needs care and feeding is called a  fledgling.
In ornithology, fledging has many meanings, depending on species.
Birds are sometimes considered fledged once they leave the nest, even if they still cannot fly.
Rat snakes are medium to large snakes that can be found mostly in the northern hemisphere.
They feed primarily on rodents and birds and, with some species being over 3 m (10 feet), they are on the top levels of some food chains.
Many species make attractive pets and one, the corn snake, is one of the most popular reptile pets in the world.
Other species can be very sensitive and sometimes aggressive, but the bites are not dangerous.
Rat snakes were long thought to be completely nonvenomous, but recent studies have shown that some do have harmlessly small amounts of venom in them.
When frightened, rat snakes may freeze, which is why a lot has been killed in traffic.
Rat snakes in captivity
Rat snakes are commonly kept as pets.
The corn snake especially is one of the most popular pet reptiles, and belongs to the rat snake family.
Information on a variety of Rat Snakes
Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) is a type of mass spectrometry that is highly sensitive.
It can see  a range of metals and several non-metals at concentrations below one part in 1012 (part per trillion).
It is based on hooking together an inductively coupled plasma as a method of producing ions (ionization) with a mass spectrometer as a method of separating and detecting the ions.
Many chemists use Argon as a carrier gas to make the plasma.
The machine sends the sample ions through a series of small cones.
The cones let the plasma ions slowly enter the vacuum chamber of the mass spectrometer.
In trace elemental analysis, the method has advantages of high speed, precision and sensitivity compared to atomic absorption techniques.
Analysis of lower concentrations at the same time is more prone to disruption by trace contaminants in labware and reagents used.
Some analytes can not work with ICP-MS.
Verification of analysis results requires additional work.
The variety of applications exceeds that of ICP-OES and includes isotopic speciation.
Because ICP-MS can help make atom bombs, ICP-MS hardware is a subject for special exporting regulations.
The Birds of America is a book by naturalist and painter John James Audubon.
It includes illustrations of a wide variety of birds of the United States.
It was first published between 1827 and 1838, in Edinburgh and London.
The work is of hand-coloured, life-size prints, made from engraved plates, measuring around .
It includes images of six birds that are now extinct: Carolina Parakeet, Passenger Pigeon, Labrador Duck, Great Auk,
Charles Wright (born August 25, 1935) is an American poet.
He was awarded the National Book Award (1983) for Country Music: Selected Early Poems and the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry (1998) for Black Zodiac.
4-H in the United States is a youth organization administered by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), with the mission of "engaging youth to reach their fullest potential while advancing the field of youth development."
The name represents four personal development areas for the organization's members: head, heart, hands, and health.
The organization has over 6.5 million members in the United States.
Members are  five to 19 years old, in approximately 90,000 clubs.
The goal of 4-H is to develop citizenship, leadership, responsibility and life skills of youth through experiential learning programs and a positive youth development approach.
Many people think of 4-H as an agriculturally-focused organization as a result of its history.
But 4-H today focuses on citizenship, healthy living, science, engineering, and technology programs.
Today, 4-H and related programs exist in over eighty countries around the world.
The organization and administration varies from country to country.
Each of these programs operates independently.
They cooperate in international exchanges, global education programs, and communications.
The start of 4-H began around 1900, with the work of several people in different parts of the United States.
The focal point of 4-H has been the idea of practical and hands-on learning, which came from the desire to make public school education more connected to rural life.
Early programs tied both public and private resources together to benefit rural youth.
During this time, researchers at agricultural experiment stations of the land-grant universities and USDA saw that adult farmers did not readily accept new agricultural discoveries, but educators found that youth would experiment with these new ideas and then share their experiences and successes with the adults.
So, rural youth programs became a way to introduce new agriculture technology to the adults.
A. B. Graham started one of the youth programs in Clark County, Ohio, in 1902, which is considered the birth of the 4-H program in the United States.
The first club was called  "The Tomato Club" or the "Corn Growing Club".
T.A. "Dad" Erickson of Douglas County, Minnesota, started local agricultural after-school clubs and fairs also in 1902.
Jessie Field Shambaugh developed the clover pin with an H on each leaf in 1910, and, by 1912, they were called 4-H clubs.
The national 4-H organization was formed in 1914.
When the United States Congress created the Cooperative Extension Service (CES) of the USDA by passage of the Smith-Lever Act of 1914, it included within the CES charter the work of various boys' and girls' clubs involved with agriculture, home economics and related subjects.
By 1924, these clubs became organized as 4-H clubs, and the clover emblem was adopted.
The first 4-H camp was held in Randolph County, West Virginia.
Originally, these camps were for what was referred to as "Corn Clubs".
Campers slept in corn fields, in tents, only to wake up and work almost the entirety of each day.
Superintendent of schools G. C. Adams began a boys' corn club in Newton County, Georgia, in 1904.
However, the city of Jacksboro, Texas, also stakes a claim to having the first forerunner to 4-H in 1910.
4-H membership hit an all-time high in 1974 as a result of its popular educational program about nutrition, Mulligan Stew, shown in schools and on television across the country.
4-H Canada
4-H Website Official website for more information about 4-H on all levels of the 4-H system
The National Collegiate 4-H website, the motto of the program is "Continuing to Share: Sharing to Continue"
National 4-H Council Non-profit partner of 4-H and the Cooperative Extension System
National 4-H Headquarters  Official 4-H government website by the USDA
The Emeishan Traps is a flood basalt volcanic province in Southwestern China, around Sichuan province.
Many igneous rock types can be found there.
This is known as large igneous province in geology.
Other names for the traps include Permian Emeishan Large Igneous Province, and other variations.
The Traps are the step-like rock made up of many layers of basalt, which were laid down by successive eruptions of magma.
The eruptions that lead to the Emeshian traps began about 260 million years ago.
The traps are much smaller than the Siberian Traps, which occurred not long afterwards, about 251 million years ago.
Despite this, the Emeshian traps were large enough to have an impact on the ecology of the time, and on paleontology.
They are part of the mass extinction events towards the end of the Permian period.
The Emeishan Traps are part of the scientific debate on the causes of mass extictions.
The end-Guadalupian extinction occurred at almost the same time as the Emeshian Traps were formed.
This supports the argument, that volcanism is the main driving force behind mass extinctions.
Another theory that has been proposed to explain mass extinctions is that meteor or comet impact events caused them.
In this context, the hypothesis is that impact events cause flood basalt eruptions, such as those which generated the Emeshian Traps.
This hypothesis is not widely supported.
Dobretsov N.L. 2005.
Large igneous provinces of Asia (250 Ma): Siberian and Emeishan traps (plateau basalts) and associated granitoids.
Geologiya i geofizika.
46, 870-890.
He, Bin et al 2003.
Sedimentary evidence for a rapid kilometer-scale crustal doming prior to the eruption of the Emeishan flood basalts.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters.
213, 391-405.
Hurricane Janet was a deadly hurricane in September 1955.
She killed 687 people in the Caribbean and in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico.
Janet peaked at Category Five strength: her winds reached the 175 mile per hour level.
The name Janet was later retired.
1950s in Mexico
RMS Carpathia was a passenger steamship of the Cunard Line.
Carpathia was built by Swan Hunter & Wigham Richardson.
The ship made her maiden voyage in 1903.
She was famous for rescuing the survivors of RMS Titanic after the RMS Titanic hit an iceberg and sank on 15 April 1912.
Carpathia was sunk in the Atlantic on 17 July 1918 during the First World War.
She sank after being torpedoed by an Imperial German Navy U-boat.
The captain of the Carpathia  was    A.H. Rostron.
Carpathia (1903–1918 ; 13,555 tons)
Maritimequest RMS Carpathia Photo Gallery
Carpathia 1907 photos by Marjorie Champlin Bowen
RMS Carpathia was a ship.
It rescued some survivors from the sinking of the RMS Titanic on April 15, 1912
Carpathian Mountains, part of a mountain range in Europe
There is also a mountain range on the moon called the Montes Carpatus.