the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Messier was born in Badonviller in the Lorraine region of France.
Six of his brothers and sisters died as children and in 1741, his father died.
Charles became interested in astronomy after he saw the great six-tailed comet in 1744 and by a solar eclipse on July 25, 1748.
Messier object
List of Messier objects
Messier marathon
Amateur Photos of Charles Messier Objects
Messier Marathon  Tries to find as many Messier objects as possible in one night.
New General Catalog and Index Catalog revisions
Clickable table of Messier objects
Astronomical spectroscopy is the science of using spectroscopy to figure out what elements astronomical bodies, such as stars, planets and nebulae, are made of.
It can also be used to work out how those objects are moving, using doppler shift.
The study of spectroscopy and spectra is used in astronomy to help scientists study the whole spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, which radiates from stars and other hot celestial objects.
Spectroscopy can be used to find properties of distant stars and galaxies.
It can find out their chemical composition, temperature, density, mass, distance, luminosity, and relative motion using doppler effect measurements.
Chemical properties of stars
It was not until the 1850s that Gustav Kirchoff and Robert Bunsen explained the dark lines.
Hot solid objects produce light with a continuous spectrum, and hot gasses emit light at specific wavelengths.
However, hot solid objects surrounded by cooler gasses show a near-continuous spectrum with dark lines corresponding to the emission lines of the gasses.
By comparing the absorption lines of the
William Huggins was born at Cornhill, Middlesex in 1824.
He married Margaret Lindsay, who was also an astronomer.
Huggins built his own observatory from where he and his wife looked at spectral emission lines and absorption lines of astronomical objects.
He was the first person to figure out the difference between nebulae and galaxies.
Stars, galaxies and other objects emit energy in the form of radiation.
It is measured in joules per second, which are equal to watts.
A watt is one unit of power.
Just as a light bulb is measured in watts, the Sun can also be measured in watts.
The sun gives off .
This amount of power is known as 1 sol, the symbol for which is .
There are other ways to describe luminosity.
The most common is apparent magnitude, which is how bright an object looks to an observer on Earth.
It only applies to light, that is, visible wavelengths.
Apparent magnitude is contrasted with absolute magnitude, which is an object's intrinsic brightness at visible wavelengths, irrespective of distance.
The apparent magnitude is the less, for objects more than 32.6 light years away.
Solar mass is a unit of measurement of mass.
It is equal to the mass of the Sun, about 332,950 times the mass of the Earth, or 1,048 times the mass of Jupiter.
Masses of other stars and groups of stars are listed in terms of solar masses.
Its mathematical symbol and value are:
(kg being kilograms)
In astronomy, the interstellar medium (sometimes called the ISM) is the tenuous gas and dust that fills the void between stellar systems in galaxies, that consisting mainly of huge clouds of ionized, neutral, or molecular hydrogen.
This gas and dust not distributed uniformly in interstellar space, but displays significant variations in density, temperature, and ionisation state.
Various gases exist in outer space.
Most common are hydrogen and helium.
Interstellar cosmic dust makes nebulae.
Myopia, also called near-sightedness or short-sightedness, is a problem with the focusing ability of the eye.
It is when the eye is not able to focus properly on objects in the distance.
This condition is very common and it often occurs with many members of the same family.
It happens when the lens becomes a different shape (too curved) from usual, or when the eye is longer than normal, so light entering the eye focuses on a point in front of the retina, rather than right on it.
This makes distant objects look blurry.
People with myopia often squint while watching television or trying to see distant objects.
Sudden myopia can often be the first symptom of Type II Diabetes.
Luster (or lustre) is a description of the way light interacts with the surface of a crystal, rock, or mineral.
For example, a diamond has an adamantine lustre and pyrite has a metallic lustre.
The term is also used to describe other items with some kind of sheen (for example, fabric, especially silk and satin, or metals).
Carbonation is the process of carbon dioxide dissolving in a liquid.
For example, carbon dioxide is added to flavored water under pressure to make it "fizz" as a carbonated water soft drink.
When rain passes through the atmosphere, it takes in or mixes with carbon dioxide, turning it into a weak carbonic acid.
When the rain falls in limestone, it dissolves the calcium carbonate in the rock, turning it into calcium bicarbonate and taking it away.
Holes and large cracks can form in the rock.
Such a place is called karst.
If a stream or river passes through it, it could be swallowed up by a hole called a swallow hole.
It  can go through a series of underground caves and may appear on the surface again.
An example of a karst area is the Burren National Park, in County Clare, Ireland.
Carbon dioxide is weakly soluble in water, therefore it separates into a gas.
The process of carbon dioxide bubbling out (effervescing) from a solution is represented by the following chemical reaction.
This shows aqueous carbonic acid converts to carbon dioxide and water:
Carbonation also describes the incorporation of carbon dioxide into chemical compounds.
Carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO.
This carbonation process is so important that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme.
Feynman diagrams are used in quantum mechanics.
A Feynman diagram has lines in different shapes—straight, dotted, and squiggly—which meet up at points called vertices.
The vertices are where the lines begin and end.
The points in Feynman diagrams where the lines meet represent two or more particles that happen to be at the same point in space at the same time.
The lines in a Feynman diagram represent the probability amplitude for a particle to go from one place to another.
In Feynman diagrams, the particles are allowed to go both forward and backward in time.
When a particle is going backward in time, it is called an antiparticle.
The meeting points for the lines can also be interpreted forward or backwards in time, so that if a particle disappears into a meeting point, that means that the particle was either created or destroyed, depending on the direction in time that the particle came in from.
All the lines and vertices have an amplitude.
When you multiply the probability amplitude for the lines, the amplitude for the particles to go from wherever they start to wherever they meet, and to the next meeting point, and so on, and also multiply by the amplitude for each meeting point, you get a number that tells you the total amplitude for the particles to do what the diagram says they do.
If you add up all these probability amplitudes over all the possible meeting points, and over all the starting and ending points with an appropriate weight, you get the total probability amplitude for a collision in a particle accelerator, which tells you the total probability of these particles to bounce off one another in any particular direction.
Feynman diagrams are named after Richard Feynman, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics.
His diagrams are very simple in the case of quantum electrodynamics (QED), where there are only two kinds of particles: electrons (little particles inside atoms) and photons (particles of light).
In QED, the only thing that can happen is that an electron (or its antiparticle) can emit (or absorb) a photon, so there is only one building block for any collision.
The probability amplitude for the emission is very simple—it has no real part, and the imaginary part is the charge of the electron.
He was the son of Raymond VI of Toulouse and Joan of England.
During the Albigensian Crusade in May of 1216, he set out from Marseille and besieged Beaucaire, which he captured on August 24.
He fought to get the county of Toulouse back from Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester and later Simon's son Amaury VI of Montfort.
When Raymond died, Alphonse became count of Toulouse, and after Alphonse's death the county was captured by France.
Raymond VII was buried beside his mother Joan in Fontevrault Abbey.
1197 births
1249 deaths
A rival is a  person or group of people who are trying to do the same thing as someone else, and trying to do it better.
They are "competing" against one another.
Usually they are about equally good.
Two (or more) businesses may be rivals.
For example: they may be selling ice creams in the same area.
Brothers and sisters may be rivals.
For example: they may both be trying to get their mother's attention.
Countries may be rivals.
For example: they may be trying to have power over the same thing.
This can be a dangerous thing which, in some cases, can lead to war.
In sport, two teams may be rivals.
This is a more friendly kind of rivalry.
A seneschal was an officer in the houses of important nobles in the Middle Ages.
In the French administrative system of the Middle Ages, the sénéchal was also a royal officer in charge of justice and control of the administration in southern provinces, equal to the northern French bailli.
Grand maître de France - the Great Officer of the Crown of France in charge of the Royal Household (the "Maison du Roi")
February 25, 516 BC — The Temple in Jerusalem is completed.
Trimbach is a municipality in the district of Gösgen.
It is in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.
Stoke is one of the most common place names in the United Kingdom and in historical documents.
Originally from the Old English  'stoc' meaning 'place', it came to be used in two special senses, i) a religious place and ii) a secondary settlement (see Roome )
Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire
Stoke-upon-Trent, a town in the city of Stoke-on-Trent
Stoke, Chester, Cheshire
Stoke, Crewe and Nantwich, Cheshire
Stoke, Devon
Stoke, Hampshire
Stoke, Hayling Island, Hampshire
Stoke, Kent
Stoke, Suffolk in Ipswich
Stoke Abbott, Dorset
Stoke Ash, Suffolk
Stoke Bardolph, Nottinghamshire
Stoke Bishop, Bristol
Stoke Bliss, Herefordshire
Stoke Bruerne, Northamptonshire
Stoke by Clare, Suffolk
Stoke-by-Nayland, Suffolk
Stoke Canon, Devon
Stoke Charity, Hampshire
Stoke Climsland, Cornwall
Stoke d'Abernon, Surrey
Stoke Doyle, Northamptonshire
Stoke Dry, Rutland
Stoke Edith, Herefordshire
Stoke Ferry, Norfolk
Stoke Fleming, Devon
Stoke Gabriel, Devon
Stoke Gifford, Bristol
Stoke Golding, Leicestershire
Stoke Goldington, Milton Keynes
Stoke next Guildford, Surrey
Stoke Hammond, Buckinghamshire
Stoke Heath, Shropshire
Stoke Heath, Worcestershire
Stoke Holy Cross, Norfolk
Stoke Lacy, Herefordshire
Stoke Lyne, Oxfordshire
Stoke Mandeville, Buckinghamshire
Stoke Newington, London
Stoke on Tern, Shropshire
Stoke Orchard, Gloucestershire
Stoke Poges, Buckinghamshire
Stoke Pound, Worcestershire
Stoke Prior, Herefordshire
Stoke Prior, Worcestershire
Stoke Rivers, Devon
Stoke Rochford, Lincolnshire
Stoke Row, Berkshire
Stoke Row, Oxfordshire
Stoke St Gregory, Somerset
Stoke St Mary, Somerset
Stoke St Michael, Somerset
Stoke St. Milborough, Shropshire
Stoke-sub-Hamdon, Somerset
Stoke Talmage, Oxfordshire
Stoke Trister, Somerset
Stoke, New Zealand
Stokes (in particular, stoke is an erroneous singular of stokes (sing.
and pl), a unit of kinematic viscosity)
Stoked, a film
Human T-lymphotropic virus is a virus.
It is a kind of retrovirus.
Human T-lymphotropic virus causes leukemia as well as other diseases.
Currently, four kinds are known (labelled I to IV).
Bon Scott (9 July 1946 – 19 February 1980) was a Scottish-Australian singer-songwriter.
He was the lead singer of hard rock band AC/DC from 1974 until he died of alcohol poisoning in 1980.
Scott was born in Forfar, Scotland and brought up in Kirriemuir, Scotland.
He and his family moved to Fremantle, Australia in 1952.
He left school when he was 15 and spent a short time in a juvenile institution.
In 1964, he formed a band called The Spektors.
They later became a different band called The Valentines.
When the Valentines broke up in 1970, Scott joined a band called Fraternity.
Fraternity left Australia and went to Europe, but came back soon after.
Scott then joined a band called the Mount Lofty Rangers.
In 1974 he had a motorcycle accident and was in hospital for a few months.
After he left hospital he joined AC/DC.
AC/DC's first two albums were High Voltage and T.N.T.. They were only released in Australia.
Their first worldwide album was released in 1976.
It had songs from both High Voltage and T.N.T., and was also called High Voltage.
They released another album that year called Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap.
Their next albums were Let There Be Rock, Powerage, and a live album called If You Want Blood You've Got It.
AC/DC's last album with Scott as their singer was Highway to Hell.
Scott died of alcohol poisoning in London on 19 February 1980.
He was 33 years old at the time.
Brian Johnson became AC/DC's new lead singer.
There is a bronze statue of Bon Scott in Fremantle.
Shortly after his death, AC/DC released a tribute album to Scott, Back in Black.
Bon Scott story
Bon Scott's death
Australian rock singers
British rock drummers
Entertainers from Western Australia
The Hubble Deep Field, sometimes called the HDF, is an image of a small part of the night sky.
The image was taken in the direction of the constellation Ursa Major by the Hubble Space Telescope in 1995.
Because of the time it takes for light from these galaxies to reach Earth, many in the picture look exactly as they did over 10 billion (10,000,000,000) years ago.
Because of this it allows scientists to look at what the Universe was like at that time, and how it changed to become what it is now.
Add to this the cosmological principle, which suggests that on large scales the Universe is roughly the same no matter what direction you look, and the HDF becomes a very important tool for astronomers studying how the Universe has changed.
Hubble Ultra Deep Field
Orem is a city in Utah County in the state of Utah, United States.
As of the year 2000, about 84,300 people live in Orem.
Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari.
Acetonitrile (also known as ACN) is a kind of chemical compound with formula CH3CN.
It is a clear liquid and is the simplest molecule in a group called nitriles.
Acetonitrile is made when plastics are being made so is quite cheap.
Chemists use it as a solvent for chemical reactions and in cromatography.
Safety Data
Ranunculales is an order of flowering plants.
Of necessity it contains the family Ranunculaceae, the buttercup family.
Ranunculaceae is a family of flowering plants also known as the "buttercup family" or "crowfoot family".
Members include Anemone (anemones), Ranunculus (buttercup), Aconitum (aconite), and Clematis.
Interlingue is a constructed language.
It was called Occidental between 1922 and 1947.
Edgar de Wahl, one of the first Esperantists, created it.
De Wahl was from the city of Tallinn in Estonia, which was in the Russian Empire but later became its own country.
He spoke German, Russian, Estonian and French since he was a child and had natural ability in languages.
He is often called de Wahl.
Interlingue looks a lot like languages in the Romance language family: French, Spanish, Italian, and so on.
De Wahl made a rule called De Wahl's rule that made changing verbs to nouns easier and more regular.
For example, the change of d in the word exploder (to explode) to s (making explosion and explosiv) is a regular change when following this rule.
De Wahl was not happy with Esperanto.
He decided to create a language called "Occidental".
He published it in 1922.
In 1949 the users of Occidental voted to change the name to Interlingue.
There were already many types of constructed languages during de Wahl's time.
Some of them, like Esperanto and Ido, are called schematic because they follow their own design even if the words look more artificial.
Others, like Latino sine flexione and Idiom Neutral, are called naturalistic because they try to look like natural languages.
The difficulty was that creators had to choose between being regular or looking natural.
Louis Couturat, the creator of Ido, wrote the same thing in 1903, and called it a paradox: "The international words are not regular, and the regular words are not international."
The language that de Wahl made had a goal to be a language that was both regular and natural at the same time.
How Occidental (Interlingue) started
De Wahl announced his language in the magazine Kosmoglott in 1922, and this is where the Occidental activities can be seen.
However, de Wahl started making the language long before this.
Between 1906 and 1921 he started experimenting with his own language, and it changed a lot.
At the time he called it Auli, or "auxiliary language" (auxiliary means helpful).
The other nickname for Auli is proto-Occidental (which means "old Occidental").
When de Wahl announced his language in 1922, it was almost but not quite done.
He actually wanted to wait a bit longer, but there was big news in 1921: the League of Nations was looking at the idea of an international language.
De Wahl had also sent a letter and got a positive reply from the League of Nations in September 1921.
People began using Occidental because it was easy to read and understand, even without grammars and dictionaries.
Kosmoglott changed its name to Cosmoglotta in 1927 and began promoting Occidental over other languages.
In January of the same year, they moved Cosmoglotta's office to Vienna in the region of Mauer (now part of Liesing).
This helped Occidental have success during this period because the office was now in a central location.
Engelbert Pigal, who is also from Austria, helped too with his article Li Ovre de Edgar de Wahl (The Work of Edgar de Wahl) which convinced some users of the Ido language to try Occidental.
By early 1930, people were using Occidental in Germany, Austria, Sweden, Czechoslovakia, Switzerland, and most recently in France.
Vienna period and World War II
When the magazine Cosmoglotta was based in Vienna, the users of the language had enough money for the first time.
This was thanks to two people: Hans Hörbiger, also from Vienna, and G.A. Moore, from London.
The world economy was not doing well at this time, but with the help of people like Hörbiger and Moore, Cosmoglotta was able to do well and gained readers.
But Hörbiger and Moore both died in 1931, so this period did not last long.
After this Cosmoglotta had to find money from other places: subscriptions, books, magazines, and so on.
The growing movement began a stronger campaign for the language in the early 1930s in which it promoted Occidental's easy understanding at first sight.
They contacted organizations with letters completely in Occidental, and these organizations often understood the letters and sent responses.
The Occidentalists also introduced the idea of Occidental being the answer to Europe's "tower of Babel".
The years 1935 to 1939 were even more active.
This is when Cosmoglotta started publishing a second edition.
The second edition first had the name Cosmoglotta-Informationes, but was soon called Cosmoglotta B. Cosmoglotta B had more discussions that were interesting to the users of Occidental such as the language's development, Occidental in the news, and how much money they had.
Meanwhile, the years before the World War II led to problems for Occidental and other planned languages because they were made illegal in Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia.
Their groups were forced to break up, the Gestapo watched their activities, and their educational materials were destroyed.
Germany had the largest number of Occidentalists, so making planned languages illegal in Germany was especially damaging.
World War Two suddenly started in 1939, and this stopped the publications of both Cosmoglottas until 1940.
This was when Cosmoglotta was most active.
One Cosmoglotta A or B was published every month between January 1937 and September 1939 when the war started.
Then one edition was published every month from September 1941 to June 1951.
During the Second World War, only Switzerland and Sweden were neutral countries.
Because of this, only the Occidentalists in these countries could carry on their activities.
During the war, telegrams were checked by censors before approving them to send.
The Occidentalists noticed that their telegrams were being sent, especially between Switzerland and Sweden.
This meant that the censors could probably understand it and maybe thought the language was Spanish or Romansch.
With this, the Occidentalists in Switzerland and Sweden could communicate with each other a bit.
The other centres of Occidental activity in Europe did not continue.
Contacts began again soon after the war by those who survived.
Cosmoglotta had subscribers in 58 cities in Switzerland a few months before the end of World War II in Europe, and Cosmoglotta A started again in 1946.
Setting up the language standard
One of these activities was language standardization.
De Wahl had created Occidental with some unchangeable features, but believed that it could follow a "natural evolution".
Orthography was another area in which several possibilities existed: etymologic orthography (adtractiv, obpression), historic orthography (attractiv, oppression), or simplified orthography (atractiv, opression).
Simplified orthography became the standard by 1939.
Much of the standardization of the language took place in this way through community preference (e.g. both ac and anc were proposed for the word "also" but the community quickly settled on anc), but not all.
As there was a lack of general material destined for the general public, much time during World War II was spend creating courses and standardizing the language.
In August 1943, as the war was still going on, it was decided to create an academy to officialize the process.
The Swiss Occidentalist, isolated from the rest of the continent, concentrated on developing educational materials.
The standardization efforts were based on actual usage.
IALA, Interlingua, and name change to Interlingue
The International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA), founded in 1924 to study and decide the best planned language for international communication, was at first viewed with disbelief by the Occidental community.
Many of its members, including its co-founder Alice Vanderbilt Morris, were Esperantists.
This made many Occidentalists including de Wahl himself believed that it had been set up as a pretext to give the impressoin of a "neutral and professional" committee that would finally choose Esperanto.
Relations soon improved, however, as it became clear that the IALA intended to be as impartial as possible by familiarizing itself with all existing planned languages.
In 1945, the IALA announced that it planned to create its own language.
It showed four possible versions under consideration.
They were naturalistic as opposed to schematic.
Some Occidentalists were happy that the IALA had decided to create a language almost the same as Occidental.
They believed that it supported their argument for a naturalistic auxiliary language.
The two languages had somewhat different spellings (e.g. filosofie in Occidental and philosophia in Interlingua for 'philosophy'), but besides this both languages had 90% the same vocabulary.
However, their structure and word creation systems were very different:
De Wahl's Rule in Occidental had eliminated Latin double stem verbs (verbs such as act: ager, act- or send: mitter, miss-), while Interlingua simply accepted them as an important part of a naturalistic system.
Occidental had a bigger Germanic substrate.
Interlingua also allowed optional irregular verbal conjugations (such as so, son and sia as the first-person singular, third-person plural and subjunctive form of esser, the verb 'to be') that Occidental had never even considered and viewed as incompatible with an easy international auxiliary language.
All of this happened in a time when Occidental, based in Europe, was still recovering from the war.
Besides the economic difficulties that the movement was suffering (not like the well-funded IALA, which was based in New York), the beginning of the Cold War created a difficult situation for the Occidental-Union, which had the same name as an anti-Russian political league.
In early 1948 the Czechoslovak Occidentalists had begun asking for the approval for a new name that would allow them to continue their linguistic activities without problems.
The Union responded that they were free to introduce the language as "Interlingue (Occidental)", or even remove the mention of Occidental if they felt it necessary.
Ric Berger began supporting a change of name from Occidental to Interlingue in 1948 which he also hoped would help in uniting it with Interlingua.
With a 91% support in a ballot done by the Occidental Union in 1949, Interlingue was made the official name of the language, with Interlingue (Occidental) also permitted, valid as of 1 September 1949.
Interlingue-Occidental suffered when Interlingua was announced in 1951.
This was because now it had a competitor in the field of naturalistic planned auxiliary languages.
In fact, Ric Berger, one of the most important Occidentalists, stopped supporting Interlingue to support IALA's project.
He also tried to convince other Occidentalists to do the same.
Pause and revival
Interlingue was quite weakened after many users moved to Interlingua, though the drop in activity was gradual and happened over decades.
Cosmoglotta B stopped publishing after 1950, and Cosmoglotta A was published less frequently.
Other bulletins in Interlingue continued to appear during this time.
Barandovská-Frank believed that the decrease of interest in Occidental-Interlingue happened at the same time as generation that was first drawn to it from other planned languages was getting older (translated from Esperanto):Most of those interested in Interlingue belonged to the generation that became familiar in turn with Volapük, Esperanto and Ido, later on finding the most aesthetic (basically naturalistic) solution in Occidental-Interlingue.
After that, many moved to IALA's Interlingua, which however did not prove to be much more successful despite the impression its scientific origin made, and those who remained loyal to Occidental-Interlingue did not succeed in giving their excitement to a new generation.
Activity in Interlingue eventually reached a low during the 1980s and early 1990s, when Cosmoglotta publication stopped for a some years.
According to Harlow, "in 1985 Occidental's last periodical, Cosmoglotta, ceased publication, and its editor, Mr. Adrian Pilgrim, is quoted as having described Occidental as a 'dead language.'"
A decade later, a documentary film in 1994 by Steve Hawley and Steyger on planned languages introduced Interlingue speaker Donald Gasper as "one of the last remaining speakers of the language Occidental".
The arrival of the internet helped many other planned languages, and the same happened for Interlingue which came back to life.
In the year 1999, the first Yahoo!
Group in Occidental was founded.
That same year, Cosmoglotta began publishing again from time to time.
Also in 1999, the language started being discussed in literature on auxiliary languages.
One example is The Esperanto Book published in 1995 by Harlow, who wrote that Occidental had an intentional emphasis on European forms and that some of its leading followers had an Eurocentric philosophy, which may have set back its spread.
Still, the opposite view was also common in the community and Occidental gained supporters in many nations including Asian nations.
An Interlingue Wikipedia was approved in 2004.
In recent years official meetings between Interlingue speakers have begun taking place again: a meeting in Ulm on 10 January 2013, another in Munich in 2014 with three participants, and a third in Ulm on 16 August 2015 with five participants.
Alphabet and pronunciation
Interlingue is written with 26 Latin letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. The letters of the alphabet are pronounced as a, be, ce, de, e, ef, ge, ha, i, jot, ka, el, em, en, o, pe, qu, er, es, te, u, ve, duplic ve, ix, ypsilon, and zet.
Accents are written on the five vowels to indicate irregular stress, with the acute accent (á é í ó ú) preferred, but others (è, ê, etc.)
permitted.
The vowels are usually pronounced as follows:
a as English father.
e open or closed, as  English bed and yes.
i as English machine.
o open or closed as in English door, hot.
u as English rule, pull.
y is a consonant after a vowel or beginning a word before a vowel, otherwise is pronounced as i.
The consonants are pronounced as in English, with the following exceptions:
c when before e and i = [ts]: cive, helice
g when before e and i = English s in pleasure: plage, giraffe; but elsewhere c and g are as in can, go
ss = [s] as in pass
s between vowels = [z]: rose, positiv
z = [dz]
zz = [ts]
ch = [ʃ], English sh: chambre
j = [ʒ], English s in pleasure
t as [t], except when followed by ia, io, iu, or ie and not preceded by an s. Thus the t in nation is pronounced [ts] but in bastion as [t].
Like English, Interlingue has a definite article and an indefinite article.
The definite article (the) is li, and the indefinite (a, an) is un.
Plural of a noun is made by adding -s after a vowel, or -es after most consonants.
To avoid pronunciation and stress changes, words ending in -c, -g, and -m only add an -s: un libre, du libres, un angul, tri angules, li tric, li trics, li plug, li plugs, li album, pluri albums, li tram, du trams.
Interlingue has two forms for the personal pronouns: one for the subject form (nominative), and the other for the object form (accusative or dative).
Grammatical endings are used, but less than in Esperanto and Ido.
Esperanto and Ido mark parts of speech with obligatory endings.
Only a few parts of speech (such as verb infinitives) in Interlingue have entirely obligatory endings, while many others either have endings the usage of which is optional and sometimes recommended.
Some grammatical endings are:
ar, er, ir: verb infinitive.
far (to do), posser (be able), scrir (to write)
e: the general noun ending used obligatorily to differentiate nouns from other parts or speech or for reasons of pronunciation.
Examples of obligatory -e endings: capitale (capital, noun) vs. capital (capital, adjective), contenete (content) vs, contenet (contained), sud (south, adjective) vs. sude (south as an independent noun, as in the north and the south).
Optional -e endings: can or cane (dog), Pentecost or Pentecoste (Pentecost).
i: the general adjectival ending, similar to -e in usage.
Examples of obligatory -i endings: pigri (lazy) and acri (sharp) to enable pronunciation, verdi (green, adjective) to distinguish from verde (green, noun).
Examples of optional -i endings: etern vs. eterni (eternal), imens vs. imensi (immense).
a: nouns that end in e formed from an -ar verb are often written with the -a ending if one wishes to emphasize the verbal (active) aspect.
A me veni un pensa (a thought occurs to me) vs. Penses e paroles (thoughts and words).
The a ending also makes nouns feminine: anglese (English person), angleso (Englishman), anglesa (English woman).
This does not apply to nouns that on their own indicate the gender (patre, matre).
o: indicates the masculine gender in the same way a indicates the feminine.
Verbs in Interlingue have three endings: -ar, -er, and -ir.
Conjugation is performed with a combination of endings and auxiliary verbs.
The verb esser (to be) is exceptional in being written es in the present  tense, though the esse form is seen in the imperative.
Adverbs
Interlingue has primary adverbs and derived adverbs.
Primary adverbs are adverbs without special endings: tre (very), sempre (always), etc.
Derived adverbs are adverbs made by putting -men at the end of an adjective (rapid = quick, rapidmen = quickly).
The ending may be omitted when the meaning is clear: tu deve far it rapid(men) = you must do it quick(ly).
The main literary texts in Occidental appeared in Cosmoglotta.
There were also some works, both original and translated, published in Interlingue.
Other texts appeared in the magazine Helvetia but these were less common.
Micri chrestomathie is an example of a translated work, featuring a compilation of texts by Jaroslav Podobský, H. Pášma and Jan Kajš published in 1933.
Some original texts published as separate books are:
Krasina, raconta del subterrania del Moravian carst, published in 1938 by Jan Amos Kajš.
Li astres del Verne, a collection of original poetry by Jaroslav Podobský, published both in 1935 and 1947.
Li sercha in li castelle Dewahl e altri racontas, written and published by Vicente Costalago in 2021.
Some translations are:
Antologie hispan, written and published by Vicente Costalago in 2021.
Fabules, racontas e mites, written and published by Vicente Costalago in 2021.
Haas, Fritz.
Grammatica de Interlingue in Interlingue.
Interlingue-Servicie Winterthur (Svissia).
(in Interlingue)
Jacob, Henry.
1947 Occidental (1922) by Edgar de Wahl en  A Planned Auxiliary Language Publicate: London, Dobson, London.
1947   (in English)
Rodriguez, José María.
Breve gramática de Interlingue/Occidental en Gazeto Andaluzia (órgano oficial de la Asociación Andaluza de Esperanto) N° 57 marzo 1999.
(in Esperanto)
Stenström, Ingvar.
Occidental-Interlingue: Factos e fato de un lingua international.
Societate Svedese pro Interlingua. . (
in Interlingua)
Official Site of Interlingue-Union
Cosmoglotta
In cryptography, a commitment scheme is a way for a someone to tell something to someone without letting other people know.
Someone would do this to make sure they can prove who they are.
Someone also might do this to make sure that someone does not cheat.
This is done by using a one-way function to change a string into a hash.
This is called the commit phase.
Later, if someone needs to prove that they were the one who made the commitment, then they can tell people the original string they used.
This is called the reveal phase.
In cryptography, a one-way function is a function that is very simple to compute (figure out) in one direction.
There is a series of instructions that can be simply and easily applied to an input to give a complicated output.
However the reverse of going from the output to the input is made to be as difficult as possible.
In cryptography, the Secure Hashing Algorithms are a group of cryptographic hash functions released by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
The algorithms take an input and produce a hash value (often shown in hexadecimal).
The length of the hash depends on the digest length of the algorithm.
SHA-0: It was the name used for the original Secure Hashing Algorithm that was released in 1993.
It was no longer used because it was not safe to use and was quickly replaced with SHA-1.
SHA-1: It is the first name used for the official Secure Hashing Algorithm.
It was released after a weakness in SHA-0.
It was made by the National Security Agency (NSA).
It was also found to be weak and unsafe.
SHA-2: It is one the most popular type of SHA.
There are options to set the length (by changing the digest size) of the hash to 256 or 512 bits.
SHA256 and SHA512 refer to these algorithms.
It was also made by the National Security Agency.
SHA-3 (Keccak):  The latest type of SHA.
It was made by Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters and Gilles Van Assche.
It was selected after a competition held by the NIST.
The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the main routing protocol of the Internet.
It decides how data gets from one place to another on the Internet.
It was made to get rid of the EGP routing protocol to make the Internet more independent.
Most Internet users don't use BGP.
It is the ISPs who use it to talk to other ISPs so they can send and get data from each other.
It is one of the most important protocols of the Internet.
GPRS Tunneling Protocol (GTP) is a group of protocols to send and receive data over cellular phone networks.
Power metal is a type of heavy metal music that mixes traditional metal with thrash metal or speed metal.
There are two types of power metal.
One comes from North America that sounds more like speed metal, and a more popular one from Europe (especially Finland, Germany, Italy, Scandinavia) and Japan that usually sounds happier and usually uses keyboards.
It is usually characterized by high, clean, melodic vocals, fantasy based lyrics as well as complex and fast lead guitar solos.
Helloween (1984-Present) from Germany is one of the first, and most influential power metal bands.
Gamma Ray from Germany
Stratovarius from Finland
Sonata Arctica from Finland
Blind Guardian from Germany
Edguy/Avantasia from Germany
Kamelot from the U.S.A. but they are of a European style
HammerFall from Sweden
DragonForce from England
Power Quest from England, frequent use of keyboards
The Defense Support Program (DSP) is a group of satellites that orbit the Earth.
They are owned by the United States Air Force to run the Satellite Early Warning System used by the United States.
DSP satellites are used to detect missile and spacecraft launches.
DSP is also used to detect nuclear explosions.
It does this by using infrared sensors on the satellite.
Blackheath, London, England
Blackheath, Surrey, England
Blackheath, West Midlands, England
Blackheath, New South Wales, Australia
Blackheath (hundred), Kent, England
Black Heath (Chesterfield County), Virginia, USA
Blackheath village website
Villages in Surrey
en:Blackheath, Surrey
Bandipur National Park is a national park in India.
It contains Gaurs and Asian Elephants, as well as tigers.
In 1973 it was decided that Bandipur National Park would be protected as a place for tigers to live safely, as part of a project called 'Project Tiger'.
The national park has an area of 874.20 km2.
An urban legend is an often circulated story that is not necessarily based on truth, but merely conjecture and rumor.
However, there may or may not be a grain of truth from which the story originated.
Urban legends and the Internet
The Internet has made it easier for urban legends to spread, as people often spread them to their friends or family using e-mail.
As a result, some websites such as Snopes.com and TruthOrFiction.com, among others, have been made that look at urban legends and try to see whether or not they are true.
An example of an urban legend is a report that years after the defeat of St Clair in 1791 at Ft Recovery Mercer Country Ohio - a skeleton of a Captain Roger Vanderberg was found in Miami County Ohio inside a tree along with a diary; in fact no one of this name was a casualty of the 1791 battle - it was a story that orginated in 1864 from a Scottish novel!
Another example of a urban legend is a young woman and her mother going to visit the Paris Exposition; the mother falls ill, the daughter rushes off to get help only to find her mother gone!
The woman either goes insane or is told the truth-her mother had the plague which was the reason for the coverup.
This became the premise of a 1950s movie So Long at the Fair.
In fact the basis for the legend was a story in 1897 in a Philadelphia newspaper...and no other sources in fact!
Other urban legends concern the Chase Burial Vault in Barbadoes although the lone account has no other basis in fact.
Another urban legend concerns organized crime: In New York city at the turn of the century there was a "Murder Stable" where criminals killed one another.
In fact, the report was exaggerated.
Allegedly, an unknown killer named "Shotgun Man" committed dozens of murders with a shotgun in Chicago, Illinois after the turn of the century between 1910 and 1911 - although a check of a database of Chicago murders from that time period shows only one shotgun killings between 1900 and 1920.
Praha, Slovakia, a village
Prague, Nebraska
New Prague, Minnesota
Praha, Texas
The Thuringian Forest is a forest in the German state of Thuringia.
The highest elevation is the Großer Beerberg, at .
Gertrude is the biggest crater on Uranus's moon Titania that we know about.
It is nearly 326 kilometers across, which is about twenty percent of the moons' diameter.
Impact craters
Powell's Books is a bookstore in Portland, Oregon, United States.
It has seven locations.
It says it is the world's largest independent new and used bookstore in the world with more than one million (1,000,000) books on its shelves.
The main store covers an entire city block between West Burnside Street, NW Couch Street, NW 10th and 11th avenues.
In 2002, USA Today said Powell's was one of America's ten best bookstores.
Powell's wants to add as much as two floors to the store's southeast corner—at least .
The plan was submitted to the City of Portland to be approved in November 2008.
1970s establishments in Oregon
The Orange-bellied euphonia (Euphonia xanthogaster) is a species of bird in the Fringillidae (finch) family.
It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.
It was about twice as large as Hurricane Andrew, which if Floyd struck Florida it could have caused even more damage than Andrew.
The name Floyd got retired in the Spring of 2000.
The name Franklin was used in 2005 instead.
1999 in Canada
1990s in North Carolina
Hurricane Gert was the fourth of five major hurricanes in the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season.
It formed on September 11 of the coast of Africa.
It reached its greatest strength on September 15, when its winds were at 150 mph (240 km/h).
It gradually curved northwest and then north, passing a short distance east of Burmuda.
The hurricane's center did not make landfall, but it did cause many poweroutages.
On September 23, Gert became an extratropical storm as it turned northeast and became absorbed into another storm system.
While it passed southeast of Atlantic Canada, strong waves hit Newfoundland which caused heavy marine damage.
Hurricane Irene was an Atlantic tropical cyclone.
The storm caused heavy damage across Florida and North Carolina in October 1999.
Irene developed in the western Caribbean Sea on October 13 from a tropical wave.
Irene was a wet hurricane for Florida, similar to many hurricanes of the 1930s and 1940s.
In North Carolina and Virginia, the storm produced heavy rainfall of more than 10 inches.
Tropical Storm Katrina was a short-lived, weak tropical cyclone that produced minor damage across areas previously devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998.
Hurricane Lenny was the last major hurricane, hurricane, named storm and depression of the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season.
There are three main reasons to remember Lenny.
One, it was strongest November Atlantic hurricane; two, the damage it caused in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands and three, it moved the opposite way storms usually moved across the Caribbean Sea.
Some people at the National Hurricane Center nicknamed it "Wrong Way Lenny".
Lenny left $330 million in damage, this amount is likely not all the damage.
This is because it was reported for U.S. territories only, such as Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Because the damage was high and likely higher, the name Lenny was retired.
In 2005 the name Lee was used instead.
The name Lee in 2005 was not retired, so Lee is on the list for 2011 and 2017.
20th century in Colombia
20th century in Puerto Rico
1990s in South America
The 1980 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1, 1980, and ended on November 30, 1980.
This season had about average activity with 15 storms, of which 11 got named.
This season featured the very powerful Hurricane Allen.
A nitrile is a chemical compound with a -C=N functional group.
It smells like a fruit, and can be a type of poison.
The 1981 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1, 1981 and ended on November 30, 1981.
However this season a storm formed on May 6.
This season was high in activity.
The only notable storms of this season were Hurricane Dennis, Tropical Depression Eight, and Hurricane Katrina.
Hurricane Dennis and Tropical Depression Eight caused the most damage.
However, Hurricane Katrina was the only storm that killed people in 1981.
Tropical Storm Jose
Subtropical Storm Three
No names retired in 1982.
As a result, all names would be repeated in 1987.
HPC Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Pages for 1981
Willem Wissing, also known as William Wissing (1656, Amsterdam or The Hague - 10 Sep 1687 Burghley House), was a Dutch portrait artist.
He painted many famous people of the day, including William III of England,Mary II of England,Anne of Great Britain.
There are five recognized species of teosinte: Zea diploperennis, Zea perennis, Zea luxurians, Zea nicaraguensis and Zea mays.
The Burj Al Arab is a hotel in Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
It is the fourth largest hotel in the world.
It is very expensive to stay at the Burj Al Arab.
It is known as the world's only 7 star hotel.
On the top of the Burj Al-Arab there is a helipad which is sometimes used as a tennis court for high paying guests.
The hotel was built by South African construction contractor Murray & Roberts.
The hotel cost $650 million to build.
The Bercian Association in Defense of the Leonese Language "El Toralín" (Asociación Berciana en defensa de la Llingua Llïonesa El Toralín, in Leonese language) was a Leonese association from El Bierzo that promoted Leonese language in that shire, born in 2006.
This association developed two Leonese language courses in Ponferrada (Province of Llión), and some campaigns for promoting the knwoledge of Leonese language in the shire.
They also participated in other activities as Leonese Language Day, Mother Language Day, and collaborated in publcations like "Cuentos del Sil", where writers from the shire wrote a collective book with simple stories in Leonese language.
APMLL
Asociación Berciana en Defensa de la Llingua Llïonesa El Toralín
Top Level Domain for Leonese Language
Cuentos del Sil, Collective Leonese language book
Leonese language associations
Cuentos del Sil (Tales of the Sil) is a Leonese language book written by nine leonese language writers.
It was sponsored by the Provincial Government of León, and Leonese language associations "El Fueyu" and "El Toralín".
The authors com from the Sil Valley, specially from El Bierzu and it is the collective book in the Leonese language where there are more authors.
Severiano Álvarez
Alejandro Díez
Daniel Fernández
Eva González
Roberto González-Quevedo
Xuasús González
Félix Llópez
Adrianu Martín
Leonese language writers
Cuentos del Sil website (in Leonese language)
Leonese Language Association from El Bierzu (in Leonese language)
Leonese Language Association "El Fueyu" (in Leonese language and English)
Top Level Domain for Leonese Language (Leonese language, English, Italian, Catalan, French Romanian, and other languages)
This is a list of writers who have worked  in the Leonese language (Llingua Llïonesa in Leonese), a language developed from Vulgar Latin with contributions from the pre-Roman languages which were spoken in the territory of the Spanish provinces of León, Zamora, and Salamanca and in some villages in the District of Bragança, Portugal.
The Leonese language belongs to Leonese or Astur-Leonese subgroup of Iberian languages.
Abel Pardo (1974-)
Adrianu Martín (1986-)
Alejandro Díez (1985-)
Amando Álvarez Cabeza
Caitano Bardón (1881-1924)
Daniel Fernández (writer) (1974-)
Emilce Núñez
Eva González (1918-2007)
Félix Llópez (1988-)
Germán Suárez Blanco
Gumersindo Álvarez Cabeza
José Aragón Escacena (1891-1945)
Roberto González-Quevedo (1953-)
Severiano Álvarez (1933-)
Xuasús González (1981-)
http://www.eltoralin.com/cuentosdelsil  Cuentos del Sil website (in Leonese language)
http://www.eltoralin.com Leonese Language Association from El Bierzo (in Leonese language)
http://www.elfueyu.net Leonese Language Association "El Fueyu" (in Leonese language and English)
http://www.puntuLLI.org Top Level Domain for Leonese Language (Leonese language, English, Italian, Catalan, French Romanian, and other languages)
In Australia, a stockman is the name given to a person who looks after the livestock on large farms known as a station.
Stations are owned by a  or a grazing company.