the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The compression would have created a cannon effect, with the powder first blowing up from the top of the barrel before, a millisecond later, blowing out.
In addition, mathematical calculations showed that Fawkes, who was skilled in the use of gunpowder, had used double the amount of gunpowder needed.
"Gunpowder 1605 in a paper inscribed by John Evelyn.
Powder with which that villain Faux (sic) would have blown up the parliament.",
"Gunpowder.
Large package is supposed to be Guy Fawkes' gunpowder".
"But there was none left!
WEH 1952
The Gunpowder Plot of 1605
Catholic Encyclopedia: The Gunpowder Plot
The Gunpowder Plot (Website exploring the history of the plot for younger users)
The Gunpowder Plot (House of Commons Information Sheet)
The Gunpowder Plot Society
iTV "Gunpowder Plot" Program
What If the Gunpowder Plot Had Succeeded?
A summary of the Gunpowder Plot events
Publications about the Gunpowder Plot
A contemporary account of the executions of the plotters
The Gunpowder Plot Game BBC
Interactive Guide: Gunpowder Plot  Guardian Unlimited
Analysis of the Sketch of the Plotters
17th century rebellions
John Knox (c. 1510 – 24 November 1572) was the man who brought the Protestant Reformation to Scotland.
He was one of the founders of the Presbyterian Church.
Knox joined the movement to change the Roman Catholic church in Scotland.
He married twice and had five children.
Knox preached until he died.
A  fight between Catholic France and Protestant England for Scotland began again because of the Reformation.
Sometimes France had more power.
Other times England had it.
Knox spent many months as a galley slave.
He also spent time in exile because of his Protestant beliefs.
During a trip to Scotland, Knox's preaching helped the Protestant movement.
Several Protestant noblemen came together and made a group called the Lords of the Congregation.
When the group had more power, they invited Knox back to Scotland to stay.
During 1500 and 1561, the Scottish Parliament accepted the Reformed confession of faith made by Knox and other people.
Knox argued many times with Mary, Queen of Scots.
In his book History of the Reformation in Scotland he writes about his five "conversations" with the Roman Catholic queen.
In one of these conversations, Mary asked Knox what right he had to rebuke the queen so directly and openly.
Knox replied, "...I am a worm of this earth, and yet a subject...but I am a watchman, both over the realm (land) and the Kirk [Church] of God...For that reason I am bound in conscience (it is my duty) to blow the trumpet publicly (openly)".
Mary's violent life finally made even her Catholic helpers lose their support.
She gave up the throne.
So, Knox was able to make the Protestant church in Scotland.
Because of him, the Presbyterian church was made.
1510s births
1572 deaths
British Protestants
Scottish Christians
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is one of the Nobel Prizes which were created by Alfred Nobel.
This award is decided by the Karolinska Institutet, a major medical center in Sweden.
The Prize is given every year to a person or persons who have done excellent work in the area of medicine (treating or stopping disease) or physiology (the way the body works).
1901 – Emil von Behring, Germany, for making a serum to stop people getting the disease diphtheria
1902 – Ronald Ross, United Kingdom, for work on malaria
1903 – Niels Ryberg Finsen, Denmark, for treating Lupus vulgaris (tuberculosis of the skin), with light radiation.
1904 – Ivan Pavlov, Russia, for his work on the way digestion works.
1905 – Robert Koch, Germany, for studying tuberculosis
1906 – Camillo Golgi, Italy and Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Spain for their work on the parts of the nervous system
1907 – Alphonse Laveran, France, for his work on the way protozoa can cause disease
1908 – Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, Russia, and Paul Ehrlich, Germany, for finding out how immunity fights disease
1909 – Emil Theodor Kocher, Switzerland, for his work on the thyroid gland
1910 – Albrecht Kossel, Germany, for his work on proteins and nucleic substances
1911 – Allvar Gullstrand, Sweden, for his work on light refraction and the eye
1912 – Alexis Carrel, France, for his work on joining blood vessels and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs
1913 – Charles Robert Richet, France, for his work on anaphylaxis
1914 – Robert Bárány, Austria, for his work on the ear and balance
1915 – Not awarded
1916 – Not awarded
1917 – Not awarded
1918 – Not awarded
1919 – Jules Bordet, Belgium, for his discoveries about immunity
1920–1929
1920 – August Krogh, Denmark, for his discoveries about capillaries
1921 – Not awarded
1922 – Archibald Vivian Hill, United Kingdom, for finding out how muscles make heat
1922 – Otto Fritz Meyerhof, Germany, for finding out how oxygen makes chemical changes in lactic acid in muscles
1923 – Frederick Grant Banting, Canada and John Macleod, Canada, for the discovery of insulin"
1924 – Willem Einthoven, The Netherlands, for inventing the electrocardiogram"
1925 – Not awarded
1926 – Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger, Denmark, for his discovery that an infection could lead to cancer
1927 – Julius Wagner-Jauregg, Austria, for his discovery that malaria inoculation helps the treatment of paralysis
1928 – Charles Jules Henri Nicolle, France, for his work on typhus
1929, Christiaan Eijkman, The Netherlands, for finding out how to use a vitamin to stop nerve pain"
1929 – Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins, United Kingdom, for his discovery of the vitamins that help growth
1930 – Karl Landsteiner, for discovery of human blood types.
1931 – Otto Heinrich Warburg, Germany, for his discovery of the respiratory enzyme.
1932 – Sir Charles Scott Sherrington, United Kingdom, and Edgar Douglas Adrian, United Kingdom, for discoveries about neurons (nerve cells).
1933 – Thomas Hunt Morgan, United States, for his work on chromosomes and heredity".
1934 – George Hoyt Whipple, George Richards Minot, and William Parry Murphy, United States, for their work on how eating liver could cure anaemia.
1935 – Hans Spemann, Germany, for finding the organizer effect in embryonic development.
1936 – Sir Henry Hallett Dale, United Kingdom, and Otto Loewi, Austria for their discoveries about neurotransmitters and nerve impulses.
1937 – Albert Szent-Györgyi, Hungary, for his discoveries about cells, vitamin C and chemical changes of fumaric acid.
1938 – Corneille Heymans, Belgium, for work on the paranasal sinus and aortic mechanisms in the control of breathing.
1939 – Gerhard Domagk, Germany, for finding the antibacterial effects of prontosil.
1940–1949
1940 – Not awarded
1941 – Not awarded
1942 – Not awarded
1943 – Henrik Carl Peter Dam, Denmark, for his discovery of vitamin K
1943 – Edward Adelbert Doisy, United States, for work on vitamin K"
1944 – Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Gasser, United States, for their discoveries about single nerve fibres
1945 – Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst Boris Chain, United Kingdom and Howard Walter Florey, Australia, for the discovery of penicillin and making it into an antibiotic to cure infectious diseases
1946 – Hermann Joseph Muller, United States, for the discovery of mutations caused by X-ray irradiation
1947 – Carl Ferdinand Cori and Gerty Theresa Cori, née Radnitz, United States, for their work on catalytic conversion of glycogen
1947 – Bernardo Alberto Houssay, Argentina, for finding out how the hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe works in the metabolism of sugar
1948 – Paul Hermann Müller, Switzerland, for his work on DDT as a poison against several insects
1949 – Walter Rudolf Hess, Switzerland, for his discovery of the way the brain controls the internal organs
1949 – António Egas Moniz, Portugal, for using leucotomy (brain surgery) to cure some mental illnesses.
1950 – Philip French, Edward Kendall, United States, and Tadeusz Reichstein, Switzerland, for the hormones of the adrenal cortex.
1951 – Max Theiler, Union of South Africa, for his discoveries about yellow fever.
1952 – Selman Waksman, United States, for discovering streptomycin, the first antibiotic to work against tuberculosis.
1953 – Hans Krebs, United Kingdom, for his discovery of the citric acid cycle.
1953 – Fritz Lipmann, United States, for his discovery of co-enzyme A.
1954 – John Enders, Frederick Robbins, and Thomas Weller, United States, for discovering the poliomyelitis virus and growing it in a laboratory.
1955 – Hugo Theorell, Sweden, for his discoveries about enzymes changing with oxygen.
1956 – André Cournand, Dickinson Richards, United States, and Werner Forssmann, Federal Republic of Germany, for their discoveries about heart catheterization and changes in the circulatory system.
1957 – Daniel Bovet, Italy for his work on antihistamine and what they do to parts of the body.
1958 – George Beadle and Edward Tatum, United States, for finding out how genes work.
1958 – Joshua Lederberg, United States, for finding out how genetic recombination works in bacteria (transduction (genetics)).
1959 – Arthur Kornberg and Severo Ochoa, United States, for their discovery of how living things make ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
1960 – Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, Australia, and Sir Peter Medawar, United Kingdom, for their discovery of acquired immune tolerance.
1961 – Georg von Békésy, United States, for his discoveries about the cochlea (inner ear).
1962 – Francis Crick, United Kingdom, James D. Watson, United States, and Maurice Wilkins, New Zealand, for finding the structure of nucleic acids and its importance in coding information in living things.
1963 – Sir John Eccles, Australia, Alan Hodgkin, United Kingdom, and Andrew Huxley, United Kingdom, for their discoveries about nerve cell membrane.
1964 – Konrad Bloch, United States, and Feodor Lynen, Federal Republic of Germany, for finding out how cholesterol and fatty acid work in the body.
1965 – François Jacob, André Lwoff, and Jacques Monod, France, for finding out how genes control viruses.
1966 – Peyton Rous, United States, for his discovery that viruses can cause tumours.
1966 – Charles Brenton Huggins, United States, for using hormonal treatment of prostate cancer.
1967 – Ragnar Granit, Sweden, Haldan Keffer Hartline, and George Wald, United States, for their discoveries about how the eye works.
1968 – Robert W. Holley (U.S), Har Gobind Khorana (India), and Marshall W. Nirenberg, United States, for their understanding of the genetic code and its role in protein synthesis.
1969 – Max Delbrück, Alfred Hershey, and Salvador Luria, United States, for finding how viruses reproduce.
1970 – Julius Axelrod, Ulf von Euler, Sweden, and Sir Bernard Katz, United Kingdom, for finding out about transmittors in the nerve terminals and how they work
1971 – Earl W. Sutherland, Jr., United States, for his discoveries about hormones
1972 – Gerald M. Edelman, United States, and Rodney R. Porter, United Kingdom, for finding out the chemical structure of antibodies
1973 – Karl von Frisch, Federal Republic of Germany, Konrad Lorenz, Austria, and Nikolaas Tinbergen, United Kingdom, for their discoveries about individual and social behaviour patterns
1974 – Albert Claude, Christian de Duve, Belgium, and George E. Palade, United States, for their discoveries about cells
1975 – David Baltimore, Howard Temin, and Renato Dulbecco, United States, for finding what happens when tumour causing viruses infect normal cells.
1976 – Baruch S. Blumberg and D. Carleton Gajdusek, United States, for their discoveries about the beginnings and spreading of infectious diseases
1977 – Roger Guillemin, Andrew W. Schally, United States, for their discoveries about how the brain makes peptide hormone
1977 – Rosalyn Yalow, United States, for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones
1978 – Werner Arber, Switzerland, Daniel Nathans, United States, and Hamilton O. Smith, United States for finding restriction enzymes and their use in molecular genetics"
1979 – Allan M. Cormack, United States, and Godfrey N. Hounsfield, United Kingdom, for the development of computer assisted tomography
1980 – Baruj Benacerraf, United States, Jean Dausset, France, and George D. Snell, United States, for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that control immunological reactions
1981 – Roger Sperry, United States, for finding out the role of the cerebral hemispheres of the brain
1981 – David Hubel, United States, and Torsten Wiesel, Sweden, for their discoveries about information processing in the visual system"
1982 – Sune Bergström, Bengt I. Samuelsson, Sweden, and John R. Vane, United Kingdom, for their discoveries about prostaglandins.
1983 – Barbara McClintock, United States, for her discovery of mobile genetic elements
1984 – Niels K. Jerne, Denmark, Georges Köhler, Germany, Federal Republic of Germany, César Milstein, Argentina and the United Kingdom, for theories about the development and control of the immune system and the discovery of monoclonal antibodies are made
1985 – Michael S. Brown, and Joseph L. Goldstein, United States, for finding out how cholesterol is controlled
1986 – Stanley Cohen, United States, and Rita Levi-Montalcini, Italy and the United States, for their discoveries of growth factors
1987 – Susumu Tonegawa, Japan, for his discovery how the genes make different antibodies
1988 – Sir James Black United Kingdom, Gertrude B. Elion, and George H. Hitchings, United States, for finding important rules for drug treatment
1989 – J. Michael Bishop and Harold Varmus, United States, found how disturbing a large family of genes that control the normal growth and division of cells, can cause normal cells to change into cancer cells.
1990 – Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnall Thomas, United States, for their discoveries about organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of disease.
1991 – Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann, Federal Republic of Germany, for finding what single ion channels do in cells.
1992 – Edmond H. Fischer, Switzerland and the United States, and Edwin G. Krebs, United States, for finding reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological control mechanism.
1993 – Richard Roberts, United Kingdom, and Phillip Sharp, United States, for their discoveries of split genes.
1994 – Alfred G. Gilman, and Martin Rodbell, United States, for finding G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells.
1995 – Edward B. Lewis, United States, Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, Federal Republic of Germany, and Eric F. Wieschaus, United States, for finding how embryonic development is changed by genes.
1996 – Peter C. Doherty,Australia,and Rolf M. Zinkernagel, Switzerland, for finding how the immune system knows which cells are virus-infected.
1997 – Stanley B. Prusiner, United States, for his discovery of prions, proteins that make people sick.
1998 – Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro and Ferid Murad, United States, for finding how nitric oxide works as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system.
1999 – Günter Blobel, United States, for the discovery that proteins have built-in signals that control their transport and localization in the cell.
2000  Arvid Carlsson, Sweden, Paul Greengard, United States, and Eric Kandel, United States, for their discoveries about signal transduction in the nervous system.
2001  Leland Hartwell, United States, Tim Hunt, United Kingdom, and Sir Paul Nurse, United Kingdom, for finding the main controls in the cell cycle.
2002  Sydney Brenner, United Kingdom, H. Robert Horvitz, United States, and Sir John Sulston, United Kingdom, for their finding the genetic controls of organ development and programmed cell death.
2003  Paul Lauterbur, United States, and Sir Peter Mansfield, United Kingdom, for inventing magnetic resonance imaging.
2004  Richard Axel and Linda Buck, United States, for finding small receptors and the organization of the olfactory system, (how we smell things).
2005  Barry Marshall and Robin Warren, Australia, for finding the bacterium Helicobacter pylori that causes gastritis and peptic ulcer disease.
2006  Andrew Fire and Craig Mello, United States, for finding how RNA interference can switch genes on or off.
2007  Mario Capecchi, United States, Sir Martin Evans, United Kingdom, Oliver Smithies, United States, for finding a way to switch off genes in mouse embryonic stem cells.
This leads to genetically changed mice.
2008  Harald zur Hausen, Germany, for finding the human papilloma viruses causing cervical cancer.
Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier, France, for finding the human immunodeficiency virus.
2009  Elizabeth Blackburn, Australia, Carol Greider, US, and Jack Szostak, England, for their work on chromosomes.
2010  Robert Edwards, U.K., for the development of in vitro fertilization.
2011  Bruce Beutler, U.S.A., Jules Hoffmann, France, for their discoveries about how innate immunity is activated.
Ralph Steinman, Canada/U.S.A. for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity. (
awarded posthumously)
2012  John Gurdon, U.K.,  and Shinya Yamanaka, Japan, for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become stem cells.
2013  James Rothman, Randy Schekman, both US, and Thomas G. Sudhof, Germany for "discovering the molecular basis of neutrotransmitters release".
2014  John O'Keefe U.K./U.S., May-Britt Moser & Edvard Moser Norway for "discovering the cells that make a positing system in the brain" (the hippocampus as a mental map for spatial memory).
2015 William C. Campbell (1/4)/ Satoshi Ōmura (1/4) / Tu Youyou (1/2) for therapy against (respectively) roundworm parasites, and malaria.
2016 Yoshinori Ohsumi, Japan, for autophagy.
2017 Michael Rosbash, Michael W. Young & Jeffrey C. Hall, all U.S., for "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm"
2018 James P. Allison, U.S, Tasuku Honjo, Japan for "discovery of cancer therapy by inhibitation of negative immune regulation".
2019 William Kaelin Jr., U.S., Peter J. Ratcliffe, U.K., Gregg L. Semenza, U.S. for "their discoveries of how cells sense and adapt to oxygen availability".
2020-
2020 Harvey J. Alter, U.S, Michael Houghton, U.K, & Charles M. Rice, U.S. for "the discovery of Hepatitis C virus".
2021 David Julius, U.S. and Ardem Patapoutian, U.S. for "discovories of receptors for temperature and touch".
The Nobel Prize in Literature is one of many Nobel Prizes given in honor of Alfred Nobel.
Every year, a writer is chosen by the Swedish Academy to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature.
They choose someone who they think has written something that has great value.
The prize was awarded the first time in 1901 to Sully Prudhomme of France.
List of laureates
The Nobel Prize in Literature - Laureates
Nobel Prize Winners in Literature
Written in Stone  - Burial locations of literary figures.
The Zuni, also called Zuñi or Ashiwi are a Native American tribe.
They live near the Zuni River.
This river flows into the Little Colorado River, in western New Mexico, United States.
They are famous for their language, which is not like other Pueblo or Native American languages.
It is a language isolate.
People from New Mexico
A fallacy is an incorrect argument in logic and rhetoric.
It gives a result which is not valid or lacks soundness.
In mathematics, a fallacy can occur when the reasoning violates the condition of its applicability.
Fallacies are either formal fallacies or informal fallacies.
Formal fallacies
A formal fallacy is an error in logic.
This shows in the argument's form.
All formal fallacies are types of non sequiturs (the conclusion does not follow from the premises).
Appeal to probability – A statement that takes something for granted because it would probably be the case (or might be the case).
Argument from fallacy – A statement assuming that if an argument for some conclusion is fallacious, then the conclusion itself is false.
Affirming the consequent – If A, then B; B, therefore A.
Denying the antecedent – If A, then B; not A, therefore not B.
Existential fallacy – An example would be: "Everyone in the room is smart".
It does not imply that there is a smart person in the room, because it does not state that there is a person in the room.
All students carry backpacks.
My grandfather carries a backpack.
Therefore, my grandfather is a student.
Everyone who carries a backpack is a student.
Informal fallacies
Informal fallacies are arguments that are fallacious for reasons other than structural flaws.
They usually need examination of the argument's content.
Some examples of informal fallacies include:
Argument from ignorance (appeal to ignorance, argumentum ad ignorantiam) – assuming that a claim is true because it has not been or cannot be proven false, or vice versa.
Argumentum ad hominem – evading of the actual topic by directing the attack at one's opponent.
Begging the question (petitio principii) – providing what is essentially the conclusion of the argument as a premise.
Equivocation – misleadingly using of a term with more than one meaning (by glossing over which meaning is intended at a particular time).
False dilemma (false dichotomy, fallacy of bifurcation, black-or-white fallacy) – holding two alternative statements as the only possible options, when in reality there are more.
Fallacy of many questions – someone asks a question that presupposes something that has not been proven or accepted by all the people involved, such as "Have you stopped beating your wife?"
Inflation of conflict – The experts of a field of knowledge disagree on a certain point, so the scholars must know nothing, and therefore the legitimacy of their entire field is put to question.
Ignoratio elenchi (irrelevant conclusion, missing the point) – an argument that may in itself be valid, but does not address the issue in question.
Mind projection fallacy – when one considers the way one sees the world as the way the world really is.
Moralistic fallacy – inferring factual conclusions from purely evaluative premises in violation of fact–value distinction.
For instance, inferring is from ought is an instance of moralistic fallacy.
Moralistic fallacy is the inverse of naturalistic fallacy defined below.
Moving the goalposts (raising the bar) – argument in which evidence presented in response to a specific claim is dismissed and some other (often greater) evidence is demanded.
Onus probandi – from Latin "onus probandi incumbit ei qui dicit, non ei qui negat" the burden of proof is on the person who makes the claim, not on the person who denies (or questions the claim).
It is a particular case of the "argumentum ad ignorantiam" fallacy, here the burden is shifted on the person defending against the assertion.
Post hoc ergo propter hoc Latin for "after this, therefore because of this" (faulty cause/effect, coincidental correlation, correlation without causation) – X happened, then Y happened; therefore X caused Y. The Loch Ness Monster has been seen in this loch.
Something tipped our boat over; it's obviously the Loch Ness Monster.
Psychologist's fallacy – an observer presupposes the objectivity of his own perspective when analyzing a behavioral event.
Red herring – a speaker attempts to distract an audience by deviating from the topic at hand by introducing a separate argument the speaker believes is easier to speak to.
Reification (hypostatization) – a fallacy of ambiguity, when an abstraction (abstract belief or hypothetical construct) is treated as if it were a concrete, real event or physical entity.
In other words, it is the error of treating as a "real thing" something that is not a real thing, but merely an idea.
Retrospective determinism – the argument that because some event has occurred, its occurrence must have been inevitable beforehand.
Shotgun argumentation – the arguer offers such a large number of arguments for their position that the opponent can't possibly respond to all of them.
Special pleading – where a proponent of a position attempts to cite something as an exemption to a generally accepted rule or principle without justifying the exemption.
Sunk cost fallacy – where what we have invested leads us to invest more.
Wrong direction – cause and effect are reversed.
Faulty generalizations
Faulty generalizations are made when one reaches a conclusion from weak premises.
Unlike fallacies of relevance, in fallacies of defective induction, the premises are related to the conclusions—yet only weakly buttress the conclusions.
Accident – an exception to a generalization is ignored.
Cherry picking (suppressed evidence, incomplete evidence) – act of pointing at individual cases or data that seem to confirm a particular position, while ignoring a significant portion of related cases or data that may contradict that position.
False analogy – apples and oranges: an argument by analogy in which the analogy is poorly suited.
Hasty generalization (fallacy of insufficient statistics, fallacy of insufficient sample, fallacy of the lonely fact, leaping to a conclusion, hasty induction, secundum quid, converse accident) – basing a broad conclusion on a small sample.
Inductive fallacy – A more general name to some fallacies, such as hasty generalization.
It happens when a conclusion is made of premises that lightly support it.
Overwhelming exception – an accurate generalization that comes with qualifications that eliminate so many cases that what remains is much less impressive than the initial statement might have led one to assume.
Thought-terminating cliché – a commonly used phrase, sometimes passing as folk wisdom, used to quell cognitive dissonance, conceal lack of thought-entertainment, move onto other topics etc.
but in any case, end the debate with a cliche—not a point.
Slippery slope  relates to action: if we do this / if we do not do this, then... [various things will happen]
Red herring fallacies
A red herring fallacy is an error in logic where a proposition is, or is intended to be, misleading in order to make irrelevant or false inferences.
In the general case any logical inference based on fake arguments, intended to replace the lack of real arguments or to replace implicitly the subject of the discussion.
Red herring – argument given in response to another argument, which is irrelevant and draws attention away from the subject of argument.
Ad hominem – attacking the arguer instead of the argument.
Argumentum ad populum (appeal to widespread belief, bandwagon argument, appeal to the majority, appeal to the people) – where a proposition is claimed to be true or good solely because many people believe it to be so.
Appeal to equality – where an assertion is deemed true or false based on an assumed pretense of equality.
Association fallacy (guilt by association) – arguing that because two things share a property they are the same.
Appeal to authority (argumentum ab auctoritate) – where an assertion is deemed true because of the position or authority of the person asserting it.
Appeal to accomplishment – where an assertion is deemed true or false based on the accomplishments of the proposer.
Appeal to consequences (argumentum ad consequentiam) – the conclusion is supported by a premise that asserts positive or negative consequences from some course of action in an attempt to distract from the initial discussion.
Appeal to emotion – where an argument is made due to the manipulation of emotions, rather than the use of valid reasoning. *
Appeal to motive – where a premise is dismissed by calling into question the motives of its proposer.
Appeal to novelty (argumentum novitatis/antiquitatis) – where a proposal is claimed to be superior or better solely because it is new or modern.
Appeal to poverty (argumentum ad Lazarum) – supporting a conclusion because the arguer is poor (or refuting because the arguer is wealthy). (
Opposite of appeal to wealth.)
Appeal to tradition (argumentum ad antiquitam) – a conclusion supported solely because it has long been held to be true.
Appeal to nature – wherein judgment is based solely on whether the subject of judgment is 'natural' or 'unnatural'.
Appeal to wealth (argumentum ad crumenam) – supporting a conclusion because the arguer is wealthy (or refuting because the arguer is poor). (
Sometimes taken together with the appeal to poverty as a general appeal to the arguer's financial situation.)
Argument from silence (argumentum ex silentio) – a conclusion based on silence or lack of contrary evidence.
Genetic fallacy – where a conclusion is suggested based solely on something or someone's origin rather than its current meaning or context.
Naturalistic fallacy (is–ought fallacy, naturalistic fallacy) – claims about what ought to be on the basis of statements about what is.
Reductio ad Hitlerum (playing the Nazi card) – comparing an opponent or their argument to Hitler or Nazism in an attempt to associate a position with one that is universally reviled. (
See also – Godwin's law)
Straw man – an argument based on misrepresentation of an opponent's position.
Tu quoque ("you too", appeal to hypocrisy, I'm rubber and you're glue) – the argument states that a certain position is false or wrong and/or should be disregarded because its proponent fails to act consistently in accordance with that position.
Two wrongs make a right – occurs when it is assumed that if one wrong is committed, another wrong will cancel it out.
Damer, T. Edward 2009.
Attacking faulty reasoning: a practical guide to fallacy-free arguments.
6th ed, Wadsworth.
Flew, Antony 1984.
A dictionary of philosophy.
2nd ed, Macmillan.
Walton, Douglas 2008.
Informal logic: a pragmatic approach.
2nd ed, Cambridge University Press.
Logically Fallacious
Wild goat (Capra aegagrus)
Myanmar is a country in Southeast Asia.
Its full name is the Republic of the Union of Myanmar.
It is also sometimes called Burma.
Myanmar is a country in Southeast Asia that is not an island.
It is also part of South Asia.
It is bordered by China on the north, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, and the India on the northwest, with the Andaman Sea to the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the southwest.
There are over  of coastline.
The country was ruled by a  military junta led by General Ne Win from 1962 to 1988.
Its political system today stays under the tight control of its military government.
In 1991, Senior General Than Shwe began ruling the country.
In 2011 Thein Sein was elected as a first president of the civilian government.
In 2016 Htin Kyaw became the second elected civilian leader.
Aung San Suu Kyi, who is prevented from becoming President by the constitution of Myanmar, will act as an advisor to Kyaw.
Origin and history of the name
In 1989, the military junta officially changed the English version of its name from Burma to Myanmar.
It also made a new name in English for places in the country, such as its former capital city, from Rangoon to Yangon.
The official name of the country in the Burmese language, Myanmar did not change, however.
The renaming was controversial, seen by some as linguistically bad.
Accepting the name change in the English-speaking world has been slow, with many people still using the name Burma to refer to the country.
Major news organizations like the BBC still call it Burma.
Some question the military junta's authority to "officially" change the name in English in the first place.
Aung San Suu Kyi, however, calls the country Myanmar now.
Myanmar had a strong kingdom in ancient times, but the nation was taken over by the British in the 1800s.
It was occupied by the Empire of Japan in the 1940s.
Myanmar became independent in 1948 as the Union of Burma, and had a democratic government at first.
However, in 1962, a coup d'état brought the military into power, where it has been ever since.
The founder of modern Myanmar, Aung San was assassinated months before independence.
His daughter Aung San Suu Kyi was placed under house arrest many times for leading the democracy movement.
In 1991, the military junta agreed to democratic elections, which were won by the National League for Democracy, and should have made Aung San Suu Kyi the Prime Minister.
However, the dictatorship ignored the results of the elections and continued ruling.
In November 2005, the military government stated that the national capital would be moved from Yangon to a location near Pyinmana, which was renamed Naypyidaw in March 2006.
Since independence in 1948 and the assassination of Aung San, Burma has had civil wars between its governments and minority ethnic groups like the Kachin, Karen, Shan and others.
These conflicts are known as the Internal conflict in Burma.
National symbols of Myanmar
Today, there are 14 sections.
7 are called states and the other 7 are called divisions.
The divisions are split into townships.
The townships are divided into villages and wards.
1940s establishments in Asia
1948 establishments
Sonni Ali, first Songhai king, conquers many of his African neighbors.
Thirteen Years' War ends in eastern Europe.
The Portuguese continue to explore the world.
Chimú Empire taken over by soldiers of the Inca Empire in South America.
King Louis XII of France
Emperor Go-Kashiwabara of Japan
Erasmus, Dutch thinker
Montezuma II, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlán
Juan de Zumárraga, first bishop of Mexico
Prince Henry the Navigator, Portuguese explorer
David of Trebizond, Byzantine Emperor
Zhengtong Emperor of China
Nicholas of Cusa, German mathematician and astronomer
Skanderbeg, Albanian national hero
Zara Yaqob, Emperor of Ethiopia
The first Portuguese navigators reach the coast of modern Sierra Leone.
March 5 – King Christian I of Denmark declares the unity of the two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein, who have been treated as one ever since (although under different national affiliations).
March 6 – Treaty of Alcacovas – Portugal gives Castile the Canary Islands in exchange for claims in West Africa
June – The Earl of Warwick and Edward, Earl of March, eldest son of the Duke of York, land in England with an army and seize London.
July 18 – Battle of Northampton – Warwick and March defeat a Lancastrian army and seize King Henry.
It is agreed that York will be Henry's heir, disinheriting the King's son Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales.
December 30 – Battle of Wakefield – A Lancastrian army under Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset and Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland defeats a Yorkist army under the Duke of York and his son, Edmund, Earl of Rutland.
Both York and Rutland are killed, the latter murdered after the battle.
York's son Edward becomes leader of the Yorkist faction.
January 22 – Battle of Ridanieh.
The Turkish forces of Selim I defeat the main Mamluk army in Egypt under Touman Bey.
February 3 – Capture of Cairo by the Turks.
First contact of organized western merchants with China.
August 15 – Portuguese merchant Fernao Pires de Andrade met Chinese officials through an interpreter at Pearl River estuary and landed at Hong Kong.
October 31 – Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses on the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church.
Conquest of Riazan by Grand Prince Vasili III of Muscovy.
Third outbreak of the sweating sickness in England, especially bad in Oxford and Cambridge
Jacques Peletier du Mans, French mathematician (died 1582)
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, English aristocrat (died 1547)
January 5 – Great fire in Eindhoven, Netherlands.
February – Thomas Wyatt surrenders to government forces in London.
February 12 – After claiming the throne of England the previous year, Lady Jane Grey is beheaded for treason alongside her husband.
March 17 – Princess Elizabeth imprisoned in The Tower.
April 12 – Mary of Guise becomes Regent of Scotland.
July 23 – 25 – Wedding of Queen Mary I of England and King Philip of Naples, only son of Emperor Charles V in Winchester, England.
August 12 – Battle of Renty.
French forces led by Francis, Duke of Guise turn back an invasion of Picardy by Charles V.
The French forces in Siena surrender to the Imperialists after a long siege.
Mikael Agricola becomes the bishop of Turku.
Jesuits establish São Paulo in Brazil.
May 16 – Sir Thomas More resigns as Lord Chancellor of England.
June 25 – Suleiman I leads another invasion of Hungary, which fails miserably.
September 1 – Lady Anne Boleyn is created Marchioness of Pembroke by her fiancée, King Henry VIII of England.
November 16 – Francisco Pizarro and his men capture Inca Atahualpa.
Atahualpa wins Inca civil war over Huáscar
The Prince is published five years after death of the writer Niccolò Machiavelli
Pantagruel is published by François Rabelais
Henry VIII grants the Thorne brothers a Royal Charter to found Bristol Grammar School.
Temujin becomes Genghis Khan of the Mongol people, he started the Mongol Empire
Qutb ud-Din starts the Mameluk dynasty in India, the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
Livonian Brothers of the Sword in alliance with Semigallians beats Livs
King Valdemar II and archbishop Andreas Sunonis made a raid to Saaremaa island, Estonia.
The islanders were forced to give up and the Danes built a fortress there, but they found no volunteers to stay there.
They burned it down themselves and left the island.
Béla IV of Hungary (died 1270)
Güyük Khan
Ikhtiyar al-Din Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khalji – Founder of Muslim rule in Bengal
April 7 – Frederick I, Duke of Lorraine
June 4 – Adèle of Champagne, queen of Louis VII of France
Muhammad of Ghor, Persian conqueror and sultan (born 1162)
Jamuqa, Mongol military and political leader
Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in the British Isles at  high.
It is in Scotland, near Fort William.
The mountain forms part of the Three Peaks Challenge and attracts an estimated 100,000 climbers per year,
The summit of Ben Nevis is a large stony plateau of about .
The highest point is marked with a large stone mound which sits an Ordnance Survey trig point.
The ruined walls of an observatory are also on the summit.
An emergency shelter has been built on top of the observatory tower for people caught out by bad weather.
The roof of the shelter is higher than the trig point by several feet, making it the highest man-made structure in the UK.
A war memorial to the dead of World War II is next to the observatory.
On 17 May 2006, a piano that had been buried under one of the cairns on the peak was uncovered by the John Muir Trust, which owns much of the mountain.
The piano is believed to have been carried up for charity by removal men from Dundee over 20 years earlier.
Mountains of the United Kingdom
Snowdon is the highest mountain in Wales.
Its top is known as Yr Wyddfa (Old Welsh meaning "the grave").
The English name Snowdon comes from Saxon "Snow Dun", meaning "snow hill".
It is in Snowdonia National Park.
As the highest mountain in Wales, Snowdon is one of three mountains climbed as part of the  Three Peaks Challenge.
Geography of Wales
Manaus is the principal city of the North Region of Brazil.
It is the capital of Amazonas.
Manaus had a great age when latex was discovered in the Amazon region.
Manaus developed economically and culturally.
After that great age, latex started to be produced in other countries, particularly Malaysia and Indonesia, where due the similar climate the plants start to grow even faster than in Brasil.
Manaus is considerated as the entrance door to the biggest ecological reservation in the planet: The Amazon rainforest.
Its name come from a tribe called Manaós that lived in this area and means "Mother of God".
The colonization started on 1669, with a small fort, and around it grew a settlement.
In 1833 it became a village, with the name of Manaus.
On October 24th of 1848 it receive the name of city and became the Capital of the state.
The American Charles Goodyear, inventor of vulcanization, developed a procedure to process the juice of the rubber tree into rubber.
The city became rich, and India rubber barons paid for a big biggest luxury from Europe, a copy the Grand Paris Opéra - the TEATRO AMAZONAS.
Other monuments from this time include the MERCADO MUNICIPAL, a copy of the famous market halls Les Halles in Paris, the arts centre RIO PALACIO NEGRO between fascinating Portuguese facades.
Today Manaus is a foreign trade zone.
Foreign enterprises pay here no import duties what guarantees a certain income for the city and the region.
Electronics, wood industry and oil refineries have settled in the outskirts in industrial areas.
The harbour is the most important trading centre for the care of the city with regional, national and international products.
It was nominated as one of the places for the Soccer World Cup 2014.
the city is growing rapidly and start to prepare for the event that will bring a lot of people.
Manaus in Facebook
The Opera house is the major cultural heritage of the Amazonas.
It was inaugurated in 1896 during the rubber boom.
In spite of the predominance of neoclassic elements, other styles were used, so the architecture is eclectic, with materials brought from Europe as well as artists like Domenico de Angelis, Giovanni Capranesi and Crispim do Amaral.
Preserved as a national heritage since 1965, today, with more than 100 years, it has room for 681 people including balconies and three floors of boxes.
After the restauration made by the state government in 1990, the theater rescued its splendor, with performances of famous operas, national and international musicians.
Cities in Amazonas State
1669 establishments
17th-century establishments in Brazil
Amazonas (Brazil), a state in Brazil
Amazonas Department, Colombia
Amazonas Region, Peru
Amazonas (Venezuela), a state in Venezuela
The War of Austrian Succession (1740–1748)
Louis XV of France (king from 1715 to 1774)
Afsharid dynasty of Persia
Nadir Shah, 1736–1747
Adil Shah, 1747–1748
Ebrahim Afshar, 1748
Shah Rukh, 1748–1750
George II of Great Britain (king from 1727 to 1760)
Philip V of Spain (king from 1700 to 1746)
Ferdinand VI of Spain (king from 1746 to 1759)
Marquis de Sade, French writer
Thomas Jefferson, third President of the United States
Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, the last of the Medicis
Alexander Pope, English writer
Jonathan Swift, Irish writer
Tocantins is a state in central Brazil.
The state was made in 1988 out of the northern part of Goiás, and construction began on the capital, Palmas, in 1989.
Palmas is much newer than most cities in the area.
The state is the border between the Amazon Rainforest and Brazil's grassy flatlands.
The state is very important for raising and selling cows and other farm animals.
1988 establishments in Brazil
The Amazon rainforest is the largest forest in the world.
It grows in the tropical basin of the Amazon River.
The forest lies in a basin drained largely by the Amazon River, with 1100 tributaries.
It is a moist broadleaf forest which covers seven million square kilometers (1.7 billion acres).
Of this, five and a half million square kilometers (1.4 billion acres) are covered by the rainforest.'
This region includes territory belonging to nine nations.
Most of the forest is in Brazil, with 60% of the rainforest, followed by Peru with 13%, and Colombia with 10%.
Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana have just a small amount of rainforest.
The Amazon has over half of the planet's remaining rainforests.
It is the largest and most species-rich tract of tropical rainforest in the world.
The forest was formed at least 55 million years ago, in the Eocene period.
Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome.
Tropical forests in the Americas have more species than African and Asian wet forests.
More than one-third of all species in the world live in the Amazon rainforest.
The region is home to ~2.5 million insect species,  tens of thousands of species of plants, and some 2000 species of birds and mammals and a similar number of fish.
The diversity of plant species is the highest on earth with some experts estimating that one square kilometre may contain over 75,000 types of trees and 150,000 species of higher plants.
One square kilometre of Amazon rainforest can have about 90,000 tons of living plants.
This is the largest collection of living plants and animal species in the world.
One in five of all the birds in the world live here.
To date, an estimated 438,000 species of plants of economic and social interest have been registered in the region with many more remaining to be discovered or cataloged.
Amazonian forests as a store of carbon dioxide
More than one fifth of the Amazon rainforest has already been destroyed.
The forest which remains is threatened.
People who care for the environment warn about the loss of biodiversity.
They also point out that releasing the carbon which is stored in the trees will increase global warming.
Environmentalists are concerned about loss of biodiversity due to the destruction of the forest, and about the release of the carbon in the vegetation, which would accelerate global warming.
Amazonian evergreen forests account for about 10% of the world's productivity on land and 10% of the carbon stores in ecosystems—of the order of 1.1 × 1011 metric tonnes of carbon.
Amazonian forests are estimated to have accumulated 0.62 ± 0.37 tons of carbon per hectare per year between 1975 and 1996.
Some people have calculated that it may even pay to save the forest.
They said that one hectare of Amazonian forest in Peru is worth about US $6280, if it is used to harvest fruits, latex and timber (wood).
If all the wood is cut down for timber, it has a value of about US $1000.
Obviously, this can only be done once; it is not sustainable.
When the forest has been cleared, the hectar of land can be used as a pasture, and is worth about US $148.
Not all people agree on the study; some have questioned the assumptions behind it.
The Brazilian Air Force has been using surveillance aircraft to monitor the forest.
At a conference in 2004, scientists warned that the rainforest will no longer be able to absorb the millions of tons of greenhouse gases annually, as it usually does, because of the increased speed of rainforest destruction.
9,169 square miles of rain forest were cut down in 2003 alone.
In Brazil alone, European colonists have destroyed more than 90 indigenous tribes since the 1900s.
With them have gone centuries of knowledge of the medicinal value of rainforest species.
As their homelands continue to be destroyed by deforestation, rainforest peoples are also disappearing.
Rubber boom
Once the process of vulcanization was invented, companies began to make many kinds of new rubber products, such as boots and seals for machines.
American and European companies began buying large amounts of latex from Brazil.
This boom in Brazilian rubber began around 1870, but the need for automobile tires brought the greatest wealth to the new rubber producers.
Other rain forest had rubber trees, but Amazonia had by far the best.
However, the trees could not be farmed on plantations because if they were next to each other, the insects would eat them.
Therefore, people had to find the trees in the rain forest, cut slits in them, leave cups to collect the latex, and come back later to get it.
Thousands of people moved to the rain forest to work collecting rubber.
Most of these people were hired by rich rubber merchants.
The rubber merchants loaned them money to come down the river and buy tools.
Each merchant’s collectors had to sell the rubber only to their rubber merchant at low prices and buy supplies only from them at high prices.
That meant the collectors were always in debt to their merchant and could not leave to do something else.
The rubber merchants quickly became very rich.
The center of the rubber trade was Manaus on the Rio Negro.
It became first a boom town and then a beautiful, wealthy city.
It had electricity before most of the cities in the United States did.
The newly rich merchants built huge expensive homes and brought in automobiles to travel on the city’s few roads.
They built a magnificent opera house with crystal chandeliers and decorated tiles brought all the way from Europe.
However, the rubber boom only lasted about forty years, ending by 1913.
Some men had taken the seeds of the Amazon rubber trees and began growing them in the Asian rain forests.
The trees grew well there, and they could be grown on plantations.
The insects that could destroy them were in South America.
So the price of rubber began to fall, and the rubber boom stopped.
Melillo, J.M. | display-authors = etal 1993.
Global climate change and terrestrial net primary production.
Nature 363:234–240.
Tian H. | display-authors = etal 2000.
Climatic and biotic controls on annual carbon storage in Amazonian ecosystems.
Global Ecology and Biogeography 9:315–335.
Some links to help save the rainforest for free by clicking once every day
Amazon burning
More info on the Amazon Rainforest
Regions of South America
Gosport is a town in Hampshire, England.