the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
A similar plan had been used a year earlier at the Demyansk Pocket.
The director of Luftflotte 4, Wolfram von Richthofen, tried to get this decision stopped.
The forces under 6th Army were almost twice as large as a regular German army unit, plus there was also a corps of the 4th Panzer Army trapped in the city.
The maximum  they could deliver a day was far less than the minimum  needed.
To add to the limited number of Junkers Ju 52 planes the Germans used other planes like the Heinkel He 177 .
General Richthofen told Manstein on 27 November that the Luftwaffe could not supply 300 tons a day by air.
Manstein now saw the problems of a supply by air.
The next day he made a report which said that the supply by air would be impossible.
He said the Sixth Army should try to escape.
He said that giving up Stalingrad would be a difficult loss, but that it would keep the Sixth Army intact.
Hitler said that the Sixth Army would have to stay at Stalingrad and that the air force would supply it until the Germans could attack the Soviets.
The Luftwaffe was able to deliver an average of  of supplies per day.
The most successful day, 19 December, delivered  of supplies in 154 flights.
In the early parts of the operation, more fuel was shipped than food and ammunition because the Germans thought they could escape from the city.
Transport airplanes also flew out sick or wounded men from the city.
The German attack did not reach the 6th Army.
The air supply operation continued.
The 6th Army slowly starved.
160 German transport aircraft were destroyed and 328 were heavily damaged.
Some 266 Junkers Ju 52s were destroyed.
Operation Winter Storm
Soviet forces grouped together around Stalingrad.
Violent fighting to attack the Germans began.
Operation Winter Storm (Operation Wintergewitter), the German attempt to rescue the trapped army from the south, was at first successful.
By 19 December, the German Army had pushed to within 48 km (30 mi) of Sixth Army's positions.
Some German officers asked Paulus go against  Hitler's orders and try to escape out of the Stalingrad.
Paulus refused.
On 23 December, Manstein's forces had to defend themselves from new Soviet attacks.
Operation Little Saturn
On 16 December, the Soviets launched Operation Little Saturn.
It attempted to make a hole through the Axis army (mainly Italians) on the Don and capture Rostov.
The Germans set up a defence of small units.
15 Soviet divisions—supported by at least 100 tanks—attacked the Italian Cosseria and Ravenna Divisions.
The Soviets never got close to Rostov because of the Italian defence.
The 6th Army could no longer hope to escape.
The 6th Army did not have enough fuel.
As well, the German soldiers have found it very hard to break through the Soviet lines on foot in the cold winter conditions.
Soviet victory
The Germans retreated from the suburbs of Stalingrad to the city itself.
The loss of the two airfields, at Pitomnik on 16 January 1943 and Gumrak on the night of 21/22 January, meant an end to air supplies and to the flying out the wounded.
The third and last runway was at the Stalingradskaja flight school, which had the last landings and takeoffs on the night of 22–23 January.
After that, there were no landings except for air drops of ammunition and food.
The Germans were now not only starving, but running out of ammunition.
They continued to fight because they thought the Soviets would execute any Germans who surrendered.
A Soviet group (Major Aleksandr Smyslov, Captain Nikolay Dyatlenko and a trumpeter) carried an offer to Paulus: if he surrendered within 24 hours, he would receive a guarantee of safety for all prisoners, medical care for the sick and wounded, prisoners allowed to keep their personal belongings, food rations, and be sent to any country they wanted after the war.
Paulus was ordered not to surrender by Hitler, so he did not respond.
On 30 January 1943, the 10th anniversary of Hitler coming to power, Goebbels said "The heroic struggle of our soldiers on the Volga should be a warning for everybody..." Also on that day Hitler promoted Paulus to Generalfeldmarschall.
Since no German Field Marshal had ever been taken prisoner, Hitler assumed that Paulus would fight on or kill himself.
The next day, the southern group in Stalingrad was defeated by the Soviets.
Soviet forces reached the entrance to the German headquarters.
General Schmidt surrendered the headquarters.
Paulus said he had not surrendered and refused to order the remaining German forces to surrender.
Four Soviet armies attacked the remaining northern group.
On 2 February, General Strecker surrendered.
Around 91,000 tired, ill, wounded, and starving prisoners were taken, including 3,000 Romanians (the survivors of the 20th Infantry Division, 1st Cavalry Division and "Col.
Voicu" Detachment).
The prisoners included 22 generals.
Hitler was angry and said that Paulus should have killed himself, but instead "he prefers to go to Moscow."
Paulus was Roman Catholic and therefore did not.
The German public was not officially told of the loss until the end of January 1943, though positive media reports had stopped in the weeks before the announcement.
Stalingrad marked the first time that the Nazi government publicly admitted a failure in its war effort.
It was a major defeat where German losses were almost equal to those of the Soviets.
Prior losses of the Soviet Union were generally three times as high as the German ones.
On 31 January, German state radio played the Adagio movement from Anton Bruckner's Seventh Symphony, followed by the announcement of the defeat at Stalingrad.
On 18 February, Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels gave the Sportpalast speech in Berlin, encouraging the Germans to accept a total war.
Out of the nearly 110,000 German prisoners captured in Stalingrad, only about 6,000 ever returned.
They were sent to prisoner camps and later to labour camps all over the Soviet Union.
Some 35,000 were eventually sent on transports, of which 17,000 did not survive.
Some were kept in the city to help rebuild.
Some senior officers were taken to Moscow and used for propaganda purposes.
Some of them joined the National Committee for a Free Germany.
Some, including Paulus, signed anti-Hitler statements that were broadcast to German troops.
Paulus testified for the prosecution during the Nuremberg Trials.
He remained in the Soviet Union until 1952, then moved to Dresden in East Germany.
General Walther von Seydlitz-Kurzbach offered to raise an anti-Hitler army from the Stalingrad survivors, but the Soviets did not accept.
It was not until 1955 that the last of the 5-6,000 survivors were repatriated (to West Germany).
Orders of battle
During the defence of Stalingrad, the Red Army used six armies (8th, 28th, 51st, 57th, 62nd and 64th Armies) in and around the city.
An additional nine armies in the final attack on the Germans.
The nine armies used for the final attack were the 24th Army, 65th Army, 66th Army and 16th Air Army from the north as part of the Don Front offensive and 1st Guards Army, 5th Tank, 21st Army, 2nd Air Army and 17th Air Army from the south as part of the Soviet Southwestern Front.
Counting how many people were killed and wounded in the battle of Stalingrad is hard.
One way is to only count the fighting within the city and suburbs.
Another way of counting is to count all the fighting on the southern part of the Soviet-German front from the spring of 1942 to the winter of 1943.
Different scholars have made different estimates depending on how widely you consider the battle.
The Axis had from 500,000 to 850,000 casualties (killed, wounded, captured) among all branches of the German armed forces and its allies and only 5-6,000 returned to Germany by 1955.
The remainder of the POWs died in Soviet captivity.
On 2 February 1943, the fighting of Axis troops in Stalingrad stopped.
Out of the 91,000 prisoners taken by the Soviets, 3,000 were Romanian.
The Red Army had a total of 1,129,619 total casualties; 478,741 men killed or missing and 650,878 wounded.
These numbers are for the whole Don region; in the city itself 750,000 were killed, captured, or wounded.
Anywhere from 25,000 to 40,000 Soviet civilians died in Stalingrad and its suburbs during a single week of aerial bombing by Luftflotte 4 as the German 4th Panzer and 6th Armies got close to the city; the total number of civilians killed in the regions outside the city is unknown.
Scope of the battle
In the original 1942 plan, the occupation of Stalingrad had not been a goal.
Based on the military successes of the Germans in the first month of the attacks, Hitler decided to expand the military goals.
Hitler thought that the Soviet forces across the Don river were weak.
The new goals included Stalingrad and even capturing the Volga.
Once the Armies began to fight in the for the city, both sides began to feel that it was very important to win.
The Germans sent a lot of troops into the city.
This meant that their side did not control the Don river and the Soviet bridges.
The German side made steady progress in the fighting and eventually held about 90% of the city.
The German focus on the city made them not think of the weakness of their defenses along the Don and the massive buildup of Soviet forces on their sides.
After the Soviet breakthrough, the Germans were very disorganized.
The 6th Army was eventually reorganized in time for the Battle of Kursk, but was made up mostly of new soldiers and was never as strong as it had once been.
Germany failed at Stalingrad because they expanded the goals in the second half of July.
After one month of success, the Germans started believing they could win the battle.
Hitler ordered too many goals and he did not think Soviet reserves were as strong as they were.
To the south of Stalingrad, Army Group A was trying to capture the oilfields.
Then its goals were expanded to include the whole of the Black Sea coast.
Stalingrad was a turning point in the war.
It also showed the discipline and determination of both the German Wehrmacht and the Soviet Red Army.
The Soviets first defended Stalingrad against a strong German attack.
Newly arrived Soviet  soldiers often died in less than a day.
Soviet officers often died in three days.
Historians have talked about how much terror there was in the Red Army.
Beevor noted the bravery of the Soviet soldiers.
Richard Overy says that some people think that in the "summer of 1942 the Soviet army fought because it was forced to fight,” but he says this is not true A historian talked to Soviet veterans about terror on the Eastern Front.
Many soldiers said they were relieved at the order not to retreat.
Infantryman Lev Lvovich’s said he felt better.
For the heroism of the Soviet defenders of Stalingrad, the city was awarded the title Hero City in 1945.
Twenty-four years after the battle, in October 1967, a monument, The Motherland Calls, was built on Mamayev Kurgan, the hill overlooking the city.
The hill actually used to be much larger, but had been flattened due to constant artillery fire.
The statue forms part of a war memorial that includes ruined walls from the battle.
The Grain Silo, as well as Pavlov's House can still be visited.
Many women fought on the Soviet side, or were under fire.
At the beginning of the battle there were 75,000 women and girls from the Stalingrad area who had finished military or medical training, and all of whom were to serve in the battle.
Women staffed a great many of the anti-aircraft batteries that fought not only the Luftwaffe but German tanks.
Soviet nurses not only treated wounded men under fire but brought wounded soldiers back to the hospitals under enemy fire.
Many of the Soviet wireless and telephone operators were women who often suffered heavy injuries and deaths.
Though women were not usually trained as infantry, many Soviet women fought as machine gunners, mortar operators, and scouts.
Women were also snipers at Stalingrad.
Three air regiments at Stalingrad were entirely female.
At least three women won the title Hero of the Soviet Union while driving tanks at Stalingrad.
The German Army showed a lot of discipline after being surrounded.
Many German soldiers starved or froze to death.
Yet, discipline was continued until the very end.
General Friedrich Paulus obeyed Hitler's orders and did not attempt to escape out of the city.
German ammunition, supplies, and food became scarce.
Generals from both sides suffered from massive stress because of the battle and also because of the fact that they had to report to the most brutal leader in their nation's history.
Many generals suffered health problems because of their stress.
Paulus followed his orders and fought to the very end.
He asked for permission to surrender, but it was denied.
Hitler promoted him to the rank of Generalfeldmarschall.
No German field marshal had ever surrendered, and the implication was clear.
Hitler believed that Paulus would either fight to the last man or commit suicide.
Paulus was taken prisoner.
After his capture, Paulus told the Soviets that he had not surrendered.
He refused to issue an order for the Germans to surrender.
In the novel The Book Thief, one character was presumed to have died or been captured in The Battle of Stalingrad.
In the 2011 video game Red Orchestra 2: Heroes of Stalingrad, the game shows famous locations of the battle, such as Pavlov's House, the Red October Factory and Mamayev Kurgan, among others.
The 2013 game, Company of Heroes 2, showed the battle in certain missions.
It was criticized by Russian players for being untrue and on August 7 sales in Russia were stopped.
WW2DB: Battle of Stalingrad
Detailed summary of campaign
Information, Photos, and Original Maps of the Battle
Stalingrad-info.com, many Pictures from the battle and the city
Volgograd State Panoramic Museum official homepage
Stalingrad Battle  This site is sponsored by the main historical and culture organizations of Volgograd.
The Battle of Stalingrad in Film and History Written with strong Socialist/Communist political under and overtones.
The Battle of Stalingrad The Battle of Stalingrad in detail.
Roberts, Geoffrey. "
Victory on the Volga", The Guardian, February 28, 2003
Operation Blau
The Soviet counter-offensive: Operation Uranus
Disaster of 6th Army
The Great Battle on the Volga  on Google Video
German Newsreels of the Battle of Stalingrad on YouTube
1943 in Europe
In January 1921, the total sum due was decided by an Inter-Allied Reparations Commission and was set at 132 billion gold marks, about £6.6 billion or $33 billion (roughly $393.6 billion US dollars as of 2005).
This was a sum that many economists believed to be too much.
Later that year, the amount was reduced to 132 billion marks, which still seemed too much for most German observers, both because of the amount itself as well as the terms.
Germany stopped paying the reparations after Hitler's Nazi Party took power in 1933, with about one-eighth of the reparations having been paid by then.
The final payments were made on the day exactly 20 years after German reunification.
Evolution of Reparations
There was large debate about the justice and likely impact of the reparations decided.
John Maynard Keynes resigned form the British Treasury in 1919 to protest this high sum of money demanded.
The 1924 Dawes Plan changed Germany's reparation payments.
In May 1929, the Young Plan reduced further payments to 112 billion gold marks ($28.35 billion over a period of 59 years, which was 1988).
In addition, the Young Plan divided the yearly payment, set at two billion gold marks (US$473 million), into two parts: one part equal to one third of the sum and could not be postponed and a postponable part for the remaining two-thirds.
Because of the Great Depression there was an attempt to delay further payments.
It failed, but
in the Lausanne Conference of 1932, it was decided to cancel reparations.
By this time Germany had paid one eighth of the sum required under the Treaty of Versailles.
But Germany refused to continue paying upon Hitler's rise to power.
Opinions in Germany
Only a few German people accepted that they lost the war.
The German High Command blamed many civilian parts in the society, especially socialists, communists and Jews.
The idea was known as Dolchstoßlegende (stab-in-the-back myth).
The Germans were unhappy with the sum of reparations, which seems terrible, partly because German leaders could not represent in the decision.
Impact on German economy
The economic problems from the payments was said to be an important factor that led to the end of the Weimar Republic and the beginning of dictatorship of Adolf Hitler.
John Maynard Keynes, a British economist, said this would weaken German economy as well as German politics.
However, many historians disagreed with him.
Margaret MacMillan, a Canadian historian, showed her idea that Germany could have paid all the payments if they wanted to.
She said that the problem was Germany would not like to pay.
Sally Marks, an American historian, also thought that Germany could pay the reparations.
She said the Germans paid the reparations in full and on time as long as the French occupied Düsseldorf in 1921, but stopped after the French were no longer stationed there in 1922.
Later that year, the problem became more serious as French and Belgian representatives urged an occupation of the  Ruhr Area to force Germany to pay, while the British wanted to lower the reparations.
Occupation of the Ruhr began in January 1923.
The Allies was quite sure that the German government intended to refuse paying to test if the Allies willed to enforce reparations.
As a "quiet fight" in the Ruhr, the German government began the hyperinflation that destroyed the German economy in 1923.
In 2008, a British historain Richard J. Evans said that the German government was responsible for the hyperinflation as they preferred this to paying reparations.
The Germans won the world's pity, and after that, the French were forced to agree to the Dawes Plan of April 1924, which lowered the reparations.
Under this new plan, Germany paid 1 billion marks in 1924 and reached the total of 2.25 billion by 1927.
After that year, Germany was able to pay 2.5 billion marks per year.
However, the Germans still stop paying the reparations.
To deal with this, the Allies met in a conference in London in July-August 1924, and was the first time that Germany challenged the Versailles Treaty.
The Germans complained that payments under the Dawes Plan were still too high, so the Young Plan of 1928 was set up and the Germans were not required to pay higher than 2.5 billion until 1988.
Gustav Stresemann demanded that Rhineland must returned to Germany in order that Germany accept the plan.
Under strong pressure, the French left Rhineland in June 1930.
Modern Reparation Discussions
Richard III is a history play written by William Shakespeare.
It is one of Shakespeare's most famous and popular plays.
Shakespeare probably wrote Richard III around the year 1593.
The play was first printed in a book in 1597.
Like other history plays written by Shakespeare, Richard III is about people and events from earlier in English history.
The real Richard III was king of England from 1483 to 1485.
Shakespeare used the history books of his own time to create his play, though many modern experts do not think those early histories, or Shakespeare's play, are accurate and free of bias.
Richard III is different from many plays, because its leading character is a villain, not a hero.
In his play, Shakespeare shows the king as a cruel tyrant who does many evil acts, before he is defeated in battle and killed by Henry Tudor.
Tudor then becomes Henry VII of England, the next English king and the first of the Tudor dynasty.
The play contains black comedy, especially because Richard III keeps telling people he is a good man despite behaving like a villain.
Shakespeare lived and wrote before modern ideas of freedom of speech and freedom of the press had become accepted.
The English government of Shakespeare's day practiced censorship of books and plays.
Elizabeth I of England, who was queen from 1558 to 1603, was the granddaughter of Henry VII and the last Tudor ruler.
Her government saw Richard III as a villain and the man who replaced him, Henry VII, as a hero, and censored any other point of view.
If Shakespeare had wanted to write a play with Richard III as a hero, he would not have been allowed to do so.
A famous movie version of Richard III was made in 1955.
Laurence Olivier directed the movie and played the leading role.
Other movie and television versions, and many modern stage productions, have also been done.
Lojban is a constructed language that some people speak.
It is an unusual language because it is based on predicate logic, and because it is made to have no syntactic ambiguity.
These qualities make many people call Lojban a "logical language."
People from all countries can learn and speak Lojban.
A person who speaks Lojban is sometimes called a lojbanist.
Lojban was made between 1987 and 1997 by an organization called the "Logical Language Group".
The rules (grammar) of Lojban are written in a book called The Complete Lojban Language.
This book was published in 1997, and written by John Woldemar Cowen.
Lojban grammar terms are ordered in a structure:
lojbo gerna Lojban grammar
├ jufra sentence, in view of etymology from Chinese 句 jù, Spanish frase, Russian фра́за
│└ bridi predicate structure
│   ├ selbri verb construction consisting of brivo
│   │└ tanru consists of more than one brivo, derived from English metaphor, Chinese 隐喻 yǐnyù, Hindi रूपक rupak
│   │   ├ seltau left word in a tanru
│   │   └ tertau right word in a tanru
│   └ terbri argument structure
│       └ sumti argument, equalling subject/object
│           └ gadri initiating article such as la, le, lo, derived from Chinese 冠词 guàncí, Arabic أداة adah, Spanish artículo
└ valsi word, derived from Hindi वचन vachan, Russian слово, Chinese 词 sí
├ cmavo structure word, from ‘cmalu valsi’ = small word
│├ selma'o cmavo class
│└ terma'o (or cmavo smuni) cmavo meaning
├ brivo, brivla
│├ gismu 5-letter root word, from Chinese 根基源 gēnjīyuán, Hindi मूल mul
│├ lujvo compound word made from ‘rafsi’
││├ rafsi affix, suffix, prefix, derived also from Hindi प्रत्यय pratyay, Chinese 词缀 sízhuì
││├ reljvo, cibjvo, vonjvo, ... lujvo consisting of 2, 3, 4, ... rafsi
││├ jvotau (or veljvo) tanru or metaphor construct (without shortenings to rafsi) of lujvo
││├ zevlyjvo lujvo formed from zi'evla via a morphological extension using -(')y(')- hyphens
││├ nibysucyjvo implicit-abstraction lujvo
││├ (sizy)jvomi'u (concept of) equivalent, alternative lujvo form(s) with equal meaning, from ‘(si'o) lujvo mintu’
││├ jvova'i lujvo score, from ‘lujvo vamji’
││└ xlajvo bad / poorly-made lujvo, from ‘xlali lujvo’
│└ fu'ivla loanword, from ‘fukpi valsi’ = copied word
│   ├ pavyfu'ivla in stage 1 the original word’s spelling is kept
│   └ zevla, zi'evla (zifre valsi = ‘free word’)
│       └ relfu'ivla, cibyfu'ivla, ... in higher stages foreign spellings are changed
└ cmevo, cmevla property word ending in a consonant, ‘cmene’ is a cmevo word(s) construction
└ jvocmevo lujvo-like cmevo
Lojban is based on an earlier language called Loglan.
Loglan was the first "logical language".
It was created by a man named James Cooke Brown, who wanted to test a hypothesis called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis says that languages affect and limit how their speakers think.
As with Loglan, one of Lojban's goals is to test the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.
Lojban is meant to change how people think.
This is because it is unlike any natural language, and because it forces its speakers to focus on the logic of what they say.
Another goal of Lojban is to be simple and easy to learn, so Lojban only has 1300 main words.
Anyone can combine these "root words" to make more complex words.
If you speak Lojban correctly, it is unlikely for someone else to be confused by what you are saying.
This is because one goal of Lojban was to eliminate syntactic ambiguity from language.
One of the problems with natural languages like English is that they have very much ambiguity.
This means that not everything a person might say has one clear meaning in these languages.
mi'e is used when you are telling somebody your name.
There is no country where everyone speaks Lojban, so nobody is born with a name in Lojban.
But, some Lojbanists make up lojban names for themselves that they use.
Because they know most other people do not speak lojban, they usually keep their real name as well, and only use their lojban name when speaking to other lojbanists.
If someone is telling you their real name, they usually say mi'e la'oi (sounds like miheh lahoy) followed by the name.
go'i means "yes, I agree with you".
Sometimes in English, the word 'yes' is used to mean other things.
For example, you might say "Yes" (or "OK" or "uh-huh") to tell someone that you heard what they are saying.
In Lojban you do not say go'i for this; instead you say je'e (sounds like zhehheh).
This is part of the idea of lojban: to make words easier to understand by making sure that one word can only mean one thing.
Annulment is a method in the Roman Catholic Church of undoing a marriage, similar to divorce.
However, the difference is that an annulment says that the marriage never really happened.
At the time of the marriage, at least one was too young; the minimum age is set at 16 years for males and 14 for females.
There may be higher limits though
Ligamen, being already married
The man was ordained, either as a priest, or as a member of a monastery.
People are closely related.
Osroene (also spelled Osrohene, Osrhoene, from the Greek ;  ), also known by the name of its capital city, Edessa (modern Şanlıurfa, Turkey), was a historic kingdom located on the present-day border of Syria and Turkey.
The kingdom was Assyrian and enjoyed semi-autonomy to complete independence from the years of 132 BCE to 244 AD.
It was a Syriac speaking kingdom, and according to an ancient legend King Abgar V of Edessa was converted to Christianity by Thaddeus of Edessa, or Saint Addai, one of the Seventy-two Disciples.
By 201 AD or earlier, under King Abgar the Great, Osroene became the first Christian state.
Most successful acts
There have been many musicians that have won more than one award.
The table below shows those that have won more than four awards.
Sound of the Underground was a 2003 album by Girls Aloud.
It was their first album.
It was released in May 2003.
No Good Advice
Some Kind of Miracle
All I Need (All I Don't)
Life Got Cold
Mars Attack
Girls Allowed
Boogie Down Love
Don't Want You Back
The album was released again in December 2003.
It had other songs too.
You Freak Me Out
Girls Aloud albums
Dance-pop albums
What Will The Neighbours Say?
was a 2004 album by Girls Aloud.
It was their second album.
After the album was released Girls Aloud did their first tour, What Will the Neighbours Say?
"The Show"
"Love Machine"
"I'll Stand By You"
"Deadlines and Diets"
"Big Brother"
"Hear Me Out"
"Graffiti My Soul"
"Thank Me Daddy"
"I Say A Prayer For You"
"100 Different Ways"
Chemistry was a 2005 album by Girls Aloud.
"Models"
"Biology"
"See the Day"
"Watch Me Go"
"Whole Lotta History"
"Long Hot Summer"
"Swinging London Town"
"It's Magic"
"No Regrets"
"Racy Lacey"
The Sound of Girls Aloud was a 2006 album by Girls Aloud that featured all of their most popular songs so far.
It was their fourth album.
I'll Stand By You
Something Kinda Ooooh
Tangled Up was a 2007 album by Girls Aloud.
It was their fifth album.
Close to Love
No No No...
Can't Speak French
Control of the Knife
What You Crying For
I'm Falling
Oil paint is a traditional method used for artists' painting.
In oil paint, pigments (colours) are held together by the medium of oil.
The most usual type of oil that is used in paint is linseed oil.
A picture that is painted using oil paint is called an "oil painting".
Oil paint takes a long time to dry.
Artists find this useful because they can keep working on the painting for a long time.
People say that Leonardo da Vinci worked on his painting of the Mona Lisa for four years, even though it is not a very large picture.
Oils paints, and oil paintings are often just called "oils" for short.
If someone talks about "painting in oils" they mean that the painting is done in oil paints.
No-one knows when oil paint was first used.
Caves in Afghanistan are decorated with ancient paintings in paint mixed with oils.
The Renaissance art historian, Giorgio Vasari, said that the art of oil painting came from northern Europe and the person who invented it was the famous Flemish painter Jan van Eyck.
Artists from the areas of modern Belgium and the Netherlands were the first artists to make oil painting their usual method of painting.
This trend spread to other parts of Northern Europe.
A famous painting called the Portinari Altarpiece by Hugo van der Goes arrived in Florence in the 1470s at a time when Leonardo da Vinci was young.
Oil paintings at this date were usually done on wooden panels, in the way that tempera pictures were.
Another influence on oil painting in Italy was an artist from Sicily called Antonello da Messina, who had learnt to paint in oils.
He travelled the length of Italy, from Sicily to Venice and did many small paintings including portraits and pictures of the Madonna and Child and Jesus.
He influenced many artists, particularly in Venice.
Giovanni Bellini, who was one of a family of well-known painters, was one of the first painters in Italy to paint very large pictures in oil paint.
Artists from other parts of Italy visited Venice and soon the new method of painting spread.
By 1540, there were very few painters who still worked in tempera, the previous method for painting on panels.
In Italy, many artists continued to decorate walls and ceiling with frescos.
However, it was discovered that oil paint, unlike tempera was flexible (it could bend).
This meant that it could be used on flexible surfaces like cloth without breaking away and falling off.
Once painting on canvas (heavy linen cloth) became usual, artists were able to do enormous pictures.
If the painting was too big to fit through a doorway, the artist could just roll it up.
Since the 1500s, oil painting has remained the favourite technique for artists who want to paint a picture that will last for a long time.
The gallery below shows works by some of the most famous artists who have worked in oil paint.
The famous artists of the 20th century are not shown here, because many of their works are copyright.
Famous modernist artists who have painted in oils include Picasso, Matisse, Mondrian, Chagall, Kandinsky, Malevich, Salvador Dali, Francis Bacon, Lucien Freud, and Jackson Pollock.
Alternative pigments
Up to about 1960 oils and water paints were overwhelmingly the leading materials chosen by painters.
In the years since then acrylic paints and water-mixable oil paints have been more and more used.
Linseed oil, which is the main type of oil used for oil painting, comes from the flax seed.
Flax has been an important crop for thousands of years, because linen cloth is made from it.
This means that the oil for painting and the cloth for painting on both come from the same plant.
To get different effects, artists would use mixtures of different oils.
These include pine resin, frankincense, poppy seed oil, walnut oil, and in more modern times safflower oil.
Artists use turpentine or mineral spirits to thin the paint if they wanted to make a fast-drying sketch that they can then paint over in more detail.
The oil paint on the artist's brushes is cleaned out with turpentine after use.
Modern chemists have made oil paints that can be used with water.
This makes the clean-up job at the end of painting much easier and less smelly.
Oil paint is usually dry to the touch in a day to two weeks, depending on how much oil and turpentine is in it.
An oil painting is generally varnished when it is finished, which gives a slight shine to the surface and protects it.
A painting should dry for several months before it is varnished.
An oil painting is not completely dry until it is 60 to 80 years old.
Varnishing used to be considered an important part of finishing a painting.
Many modern artists do not varnish their pictures at all.
Linen canvas is the traditional surface for an oil painting.
Cotton canvas can also be used, and is cheaper.
The canvas must be stretched tightly over a frame called a "stretcher" and fixed into place with little tacks or staples.
Then it must be treated with a sort of glue called "size".
This is often made from boiled rabbit skins.
Some artists like to paint on board rather than canvas.
Painting an oil painting
Before an artist can paint on a board or canvas, they must prepare it with a "ground" or "undercoat" of plain white paint.
Then the artist can sketch a picture onto the surface using charcoal, or paint that is made thin and quick-drying with turpentine or mineral spirits.
The artist often works in a brownish or bluish colour, to suggest where the "tone" (light and dark) will be in the finished painting.
Then the colours and details are put on in layers.
Oil paint can be put on thin or thick.
Oil paint can be almost as smooth as glass, or lumpy, bumpy or streaky.
Oil paint can be transparent so that the layers underneath can be seen, or it can dense so that it covers everything underneath.
Oil paint can be put on with brushes; it can also be scaped on with a knife, dobbed and smeared with fingers, rubbed on with a cloth, and squeezed onto the painting straight out of the tube.
The first European artists to use oils liked to make the surface very smooth.
By the middle of the 1500s, some artists like Tintoretto were painting in a much streakier way.
Rembrandt, in the 1600s, used the oil paint in all sorts of ways to get different effects.
He used every technique that is described in the list above.
After Rembrandt, there were always some artists who liked to work in a smooth way, and others who used many different ways of putting on the paint.
This has continued through to Modern times.
John Law (baptized 21 April 1671 - 21 March 1729) was a Scottish economist who believed that money was only a means of exchange that did not have wealth in itself, and that national wealth depended on trade.
He is said to be the father of finance, responsible for the adoption or use of paper money or bills in the world today.
Millionaire: The Philanderer, Gambler, and Duelist Who Invented Modern Finance  by Janet Gleeson (2000). ()
Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds by Charles Mackay.
First published 1841, and still available.
Project Gutenberg Edition of Fiat Money Inflation in France: How ...
1671 births
1729 deaths
The Simpson family
Homer J. Simpson, the father, who is overweight, lazy and works at a nuclear power plant and likes doughnuts:)
Marge Simpson (née Bouvier), the mother, a housewife, who is very tolerant (understanding) of her family.
Bart Simpson, the 10-year-old son, who gets in trouble.
Lisa Simpson, the 8-year-old daughter, who is very smart.
Maggie Simpson, the baby girl, who can not talk.
She talks once and never speaks again.
She is always doing mischief.
"Grandpa" Abe Simpson, the father of Homer Simpson.
He lives in an old folk's home.
Patty and Selma Bouvier, Marge's sisters, who have rough voices and often smoke cigarettes.
Note that in one episode, Patty is revealed to be a lesbian.
Selma has been married several times.
Mona Simpson, the deceased mother of Homer Simpson; wife of Abe Simpson.
Santa's Little Helper, the family dog, a former racing greyhound.
Snowballs (I-V) and Coltrane, pet cats.
All have died at one point in the series.
The current cat is Snowball V (though she is called Snowball II)
Ling Bouvier, The adopted daughter of Patty and Selma
Amos Simpson, He is the oldest Simpsons relative known he is probably born in the 1500s or 1600s.
Jacqueline Bouvier, Marge's mother.
Clancy Bouvier, Marge's deceased father.
Montgomery Burns, Homer's greedy, evil boss
Waylon Smithers, Montgomery Burns' assistant
Moe Szyslak, a grumpy bartender
Barney Gumble, one of Homer's friends, a gifted alcoholic
Kent Brockman, a television news journalist
Mayor Quimby, the corrupt mayor of Springfield
Lenny Leonard and Carl Carlson, two of Homer's coworkers.
Krusty The Clown, TV star and host of a popular Children's/Comedy/Variety show who smokes and drinks a lot
Doctor Hibbert, the Simpsons' family doctor
Ned Flanders, the Simpsons' religious devout neighbor he has two shy children and his wife Maude died in season 11.
Rod and Todd Flanders, Ned's children.
Maude, Ned's dead wife.
Kang and Kodos, two aliens that appear in every treehouse of horror their other sibling roger doesn't appear in any other treehouse of horror except the first
Milhouse Van Houten, Bart's nerdy best friend his parents are Kirk and Luann
Sherri and Terri, they’re two twins there's not munch known about them
Nelson Muntz, school bully
Comic Book Guy, comic book store owner
Apu Nahasapeemapetilon, convenience store owner his wife is Manjula he has eight infant children.
There have been protests that he is a racist stereotype of South Asian people.
Martin Prince, he is the bully's target besides Milhouse and he is also very smart.
Seymour Skinner, principal of the school
Chief Wiggum, incompetent chief of police who's son is Ralph.
Ralph Wiggum, the weird son of Chief Wiggum.
Jasper Beardly, friend of Grandpa's.
Captain McCallister, sea captain.
Otto Mann, bus driver.
Bumblebee Man, Spanish-speaking TV actor.
Itchy and Scratchy, cartoon cat and mouse who are a different more violent version of Tom and Jerry.
Jimbo Jones, leader of the bullies when Nelson is not around and strongest of the bullies.
Snake (Jailbird), robber and criminal.
Old Gil Gunderson, a salesman who has bad luck.
Sideshow Bob (Robert Terwilliger), was Krusty the Clown's assistant before he was jailed after framing Krusty for armed robbery.
He was married to Selma once, has tried to kill Bart several times, and has gone to prison.
Fat Tony, the town's chief gangster who has a group of mobsters, including Legs and Louie, and occasionally Icepick and Johnny Tightlips.
He died in Season 22 and was replaced by his slimmer cousin.
Sideshow Cecil (Cecil Terwilliger), Sideshow Bob's somewhat evil brother, who was also once a clown.
Janey, Lisa's best friend.
Ranier Wolfcastle, The Arnold Schwarzenegger-like Hollywood action hero of Springfield who is in a lot of movies in Springfield.
Mr. Largo, the Springfield Elementary music teacher.
Tobias, the stereotypical Australian boy telephoned by Bart in the "Simpson's in Australia" episode.
Superintendent Chalmers, The superintendent of all Springfield elementary schools who does not like Principal Skinner.
Agnes Skinner, The mean mother of Principal Skinner.
Mrs. Krabappel and Ms. Hoover, Bart and Lisa's teachers, who both do not want to teach because they do not have relationships.
Groundskeeper Willie, janitor at Springfield Elementary School.
Cletus, the hillbilly of Springfield, has a wife named Brandine and have about 30 children.
Hans Moleman, a man who drinks and says he's only 31 years old, while he looks old.
Sideshow Mel, Krusty's second assistant who replaced Bob after going to prison for trying to frame Krusty for armed robbery.
He does not say much on the Krusty show (talks with a whistle) and once tried to get gum out of his hair with a bone ....it just made matters worse.
Dolph Starbeam youngest of the bully trio
Professor Frink He is the nerd of the show.
Kearney Zzyzwick Toughest of the bullies.
Yes Guy Recurring character that answers everything with a strung out Y-y-y-y-e-e-e-e-s-s-s?
Squeaky Voice Teen, recurring character that has a squeaky voice and is known to have a job advertising burgers.
Wendell Borton, a kid that usually would throw up.
Troy McClure, an actor in TV, Radio and films he once almost married Selma.
Lionel Hutz, an incompetent lawyer.
Judge Roy Snyder, the main judge in Springfield's court.
Lou and Eddie, police cops of Springfield.
Legs and Louie, Mafia members.
Reverend Lovejoy, reverend of the church.
Helen Lovejoy, wife of the reverend.
Uter, German exchange student who eats chocolate.
Database, smartest of all the children in school.
Manjula, Apu's wife.
Kirk and Luann, Milhouse's parents.
Old Jewish man, one of Abe's friends.
Allison Taylor, one of Lisa's only friends.
Arnie Pye, Brockman's rival.
Blue Haired Lawyer, Burns lawyer.
Richard and Lewis, one of Bart's friends.
Marvin Monroe, psychologist.
Rich Texan, crazy Texan.
Drederick Tatum, boxer.
Wiseguy, has jobs everywhere.
Sanjay, Apu's brother.
Sam and Larry, barflies at Moe's.
Bernice, Hibbert's wife.
Mrs. Glick, Retirement castle resident.
Disco Stu, loves disco.
Hyman Krustofski, Krusty's father.
Lindsey Naegle, business woman.
Sophie Krustofsky, Krusty's daughter.
Martin Prince Sr.,
Martin's dad.
Martha Prince, Martin's mom.
Brandine Spuckler, Cletus's wife.
Luigi, Italian chef.
Radioactive man, Comic book character.
Duffman, mascot of duff.
Doris Freedman, Lunchlady and mother of Squeaky Voiced Teen.
Cookie Kwan, one of Marge's friend.
Benjamin, Doug and Gary, nerds at Springfield University.
Akira, Asian guy who works at the Happy Sumo.
Artie Ziff, Marge's prom date.
Arthur Crandall and Gabbo, ventriloquist and puppet.
Gerald, Maggie's enemy.
Bill and Marty, radio hosts of KBBL.
Billy, Troy McClure's assistant.
Birch Barlow, works at the radio.
Bleeding Gums Murphy, Lisa's saxophone teacher and idol.
Blinky, mutated fish with three eyes.
Booberella, vampire actor of children's television.
Brunella Pommelhorst, gym teacher.
Capitol City Goofball, mascot of Capitol City.
Lance Murdock, daredevil.
Charlie, works at the Nuclear Plant.
Kumiko, married wife of Comic Book Guy.
Chase/Pyro, Luann's boyfriend.
Lugash, gym teacher.
Corporal Punishment, character in The Krusty The Clown show.
H e never speaks.
Crazy Cat Lady, old lady who owns a lot of cats.
Crusher and Lowblow, Burn's goons.
Dave Shutton, reporter.
Declan Desmond, documentary maker.
Doctor Colossus, blue, evil, crazy guy.
Fallout boy, Radioactive man's sidekick.
Francesca Terwilliger, Sideshow Bob's wife.
Frankie The Squealer, target of the mafia.
Gino, Sideshow Bob's son.
Gloria, Snake's girlfriend.
God, the all mighty.
Grady and Julio, two gay men.
Greta, Wolfcastle's daughter.
Gunter and Ernst, two tiger tamers.
Anastasia, tiger pet of Gunter and Ernst.
Happy Little Elves, one of Lisa's favorite cartoons.
Jack Marley, former Nuclear Plant worker.
Jay Sherman, film critic.
Jebediah Springfield, founder of Springfield.
Johnny Tightlips, mafia member.
Joey, another mafia member who temporarily joined the Callibricis goons then appears in the mafia again.
Jub - Jub, Selma's pet.
Constance Harm, strict judge.
Just Stamp the Ticket man, angry and sarcastic man.
J. Loren Pryor, psychologist.
Kearney Zzyzwicz Jr., Kearney's son.
Leopold, Chalmer's assistant.
Lois Pennycandy, Krusty's attractive assistant.
Lucius Sweet, Tatum's boxing manager.
Lurleen Lumpkin, country singer.
Martha Prince, Mayor's wife.
Mary Bailey, governor.
Mary Spuckler, Bart's ex.
Mayor Quimby's Body Guards, Body Guards.
Ms. Albright, Sunday school teacher.
Miss Springfield, Mayor's girlfriend.
Mr. Costington, owner of Costington's.
Mr. Teeny, Krusty's monkey.
Mrs. Muntz, Nelson's mom.
Octuplets, Apu and Manjula's babies.
Jake, barber.
Opal, TV star of the Opal Show.
Patches and Poor Violet, orphans.
Plopper, Homer's pet pig.
Poochie, former dog character in the Itchy and Scratchy Show.
Princess Kashmir, belly dancer.
Principal Dondelinger, Homer and Marge's former principal.
Rachel Jordan, Christian singer.
Roger Meyers Jr., boss of the Itchy and Scratchy crew.
Ruth Powers, Marge's criminal and drunken friend.
Sarah Wiggum, Wiggum's wife.
Scott Christian, former news reporter.
Shauna, Jimbo's ex.
Stampy, Bart's former elephant pet.
State Comptroller Atkins, State Comptroller.
Tina Ballerina, character in the Krusty The Clown show.
The Warden, warden of Juvie.
Vanderbilts, rich couple.
Weasels, Nelson two twin cronies.
Mr. Winfield, former neighbor of The Simpsons.
Sylvia Winfield, former neighbor of The Simpsons.
Hank Scorpio, evil guy who befriends Homer.
Frank Grimes, former employee of the Nuclear Plant
Frank Grimes Jr., Frank Grime's son.
Shary Bobbins, Magic babysitter.
Trent Steel, Business man that inspires Homer to change his name to "Max Power"
Characters index on the WikiSimpsons fan site
The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as on large stones and cave walls, made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty during his reign from 272 to 231 BCE.
The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism.
According to the edicts, the extent of Buddhist proselytism during this period reached as far as the Mediterranean, and many Buddhist monuments were created.
Edicts are royal orders or proclamations.
These edicts were set up in different part of Ashoka's empire and spread the message of Ashoka's Dhamma.
There are about 14 rock edicts and 7 pillar edicts currently found.
Edicts were written in local language.
Most of the Ashoka's edicts are written in Brahmi Script and were discovered by James Prinsep, a British official in 1837.
After this major breakthrough, historians and scholars were able to obtain information about Ashoka and his reign.
"The Edicts of King Asoka: An English Rendering" by Ven.
S. Dhammika (The Wheel Publication No.
386/387)
“Zen living” by Robert Linssen
The Edicts of King Ashoka (full text, electronic edition offered for free distribution)
The Edicts of King Ashoka  in Access to Insight
Edicts in original Gandhari
King Asoka and Buddhism.
Historical and Literary studies
Inscriptions of India -- Complete listing of historical inscriptions from Indian temples and monuments
Religion in India
The word proselytism comes from the Greek language prefix 'pros' (towards) and the verb 'erchomai' (I come).
Historically in the New Testament, the word proselyte meant a person who had converted to the Jewish religion.
Though the word proselytism was originally used in Christianity, it is also used to refer to other religions' attempts to convert people to their beliefs or even any attempt to convert people to another point of view, religious or not.
Today, the connotations of the word proselytism are often negative.
Everybody Proselytizes!
by Jorge Luis Gonzalo, 2008
International Religious Liberty Association: "Proselytism, Change of Religion, and International Human Rights" by Natan Lerner.
Pope Benedict XVI asks always for guarantees that Christian faith can be "proposed" and that it can be "freely chosen": When Civilizations Meet: How Joseph Ratzinger Sees Islam
For a discussion of some of the legal aspects of defining illicit proselytism, see the article Proselytism, Change of Religion, and International Human Rights, by Natan Lerner, PhD
Proselytism and Crypto-Christians in Cyprus
Ken Hitchcock (born December 17, 1951 in Edmonton, Alberta) is a Canadian NHL ice hockey coach.
He coaches the Columbus Blue Jackets.
He has also coached the Dallas Stars and the Philadelphia Flyers in the past.
Ken has won one Stanley Cup with the Dallas Stars in the 1998-99 NHL season.
Ice hockey people from Alberta
Jack Adams Award winners
Sportspeople from Edmonton
An armistice is the effective end of a war, when the parties agree to stop fighting.
The word comes from the Latin arma, meaning weapons and statium, meaning a stopping.
A truce or ceasefire usually refers to a temporary stop of hostilities for an agreed limited time or within a limited area.
An armistice is not the same as a peace treaty, which may take months or even years to agree on.
The 1953 Korean War armistice   is a major example of an armistice which has not yet been followed by a peace treaty.
The United Nations Security Council often demands cease-fire of parties in modern conflicts.
Armistices are always negotiated between the parties themselves and are thus generally seen as more binding than UN cease-fire resolutions in modern international law.
The armistice treaty between the Allies, who fought Germany during World War I, and Germany was signed in a railway carriage in Compiègne Forest on 11 November 1918, and marked the end of the First World War on the Western Front.
Marshal Ferdinand Foch, the Allied Commander-in-chief, and Matthias Erzberger, Germany's representative were the most important persons who signed it.
Acting German commander Paul von Hindenburg had requested arrangements for a meeting from Ferdinand Foch via telegram on 7 November.
He was under pressure of imminent revolution in Berlin, Munich and elsewhere across Germany.