the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
One cannabinoid is THC, which gives a person who smokes or eats parts of the cannabis plant a feeling of euphoria (makes the user feel good or happy).
Another cannabinoid is CBD, which gives the user a relaxing feeling, and another is CBG which gives the user red or droopy eyes.
The name hashish comes from an Arabic word meaning dry weed.
The two main drugs made from the cannabis plant are marijuana and hashish.
Hashish has much more of the chemical THC (which makes users feel good or happy) than marijuana.
Hashish is an illegal drug in the United States, UK and many other countries.
Some people think it should be legal, some think it should be legal only for medical reasons, and some think it should not be legal at all.
Production and use
To make hashish, workers rub cannabis blossoms with their hands to get the resin to stick to their hands, and then the resin is collected.
Another way to make hashish is to sift the ground-up, dried leaves through a screen and press the powder resin to make a "brick".
A more modern method of producing hashish is through alcohol extraction.
In this method cannabis plants are ground up and covered in isopropyl alcohol or butane and left to sit.
The mixture is then dried until the alcohol is gone, leaving the active terpenoid and terpene compounds which can be used immediately or cooked into bricks.
When a person wants to use hashish, they usually smoke it by putting a small piece of hashish in a joint with tobacco or marijuana.
Then the person lights the paper roll with a flame and inhales the smoke that comes out, exhaling 1-3 seconds after holding in the smoke.
Another way that people use hashish is by putting a small piece of hashish in a pipe or bong (water pipe) then putting it on fire, and breathing the smoke.
Some people also eat hashish, usually by mixing it into food or baked goods.
Cannabis and sometimes hashish is legal for strict medicinal use such as cancer patients, terminally ill, epileptics and insomniacs.
In Canberra however, cannabis is now legal for adults 18+ since 2019.
Before this, it was only decriminalised in Canberra.
In the US, there are state and federal laws that do not agree if cannabis is legal or not.
Some states such as Colorado and California are completely legal for use of cannabis in all forms including flower, hashish, edibles, tinctures, hash oil and even flavoured or alcoholic drinks for adults 21 or over excluding some laws for the quantity you can possess, distribution and where you can smoke in these states.
In other states, cannabis in all forms excluding perhaps Cannabis Ruderalis (hemp) is only legal for medicinal use but much less strict than Australia for example.
In some other states cannabis is classed as a Schedule 1 drug meaning severe and unreasonable punishments for possession, use and distribution.
Hashish is not legal in the Netherlands, but there are no criminal laws against having a small amount of cannabis (marijuana or hashish).
This is because the Netherlands decided that having cannabis should not be a crime.
Some other countries are starting to "decriminalize" and even completely legalise cannabis as (make using it or having it no longer be a crime).
Effects of hash and weed cause the following effects depending on how much is consumed.
Although Sativa strains will normally cause a higher ratio of trippy and heart raising effects than Indica and Indica strains normally will have a higher ratio of sedating and narcotic effects than a Sativa strain, both cause relatively the same effects, just a higher  ratio of "trip" effects from sativas than indicas and higher ratio of sedation and mood relief from indicas than sativas.
Hurting the lungs and throat
Smoking any drugs/plants such as marijuana, hashish, or tobacco is bad for the lungs.
Smoke hurts the lungs and the throat because the smoke has tar in it and when any form of plant matter is combusted, some of the plant is processed into carcinogenic smoke which have cancer causing potential for the physical respiratory system excluding the heart, including lungs throat and mouth.
There are much less carcinogens in cannabis/hash smoke than tobacco as cannabis contains no carcinogens itself until burnt.
A person who only eats hashish will not hurt their lungs or throat.
A relatively newer process of inhalation which is much safer than smoking is vaporizing the hashish.
This method is based on increasing the temperature of the hashish to 170-200 degrees Celsius which is about the temperature THC vaporizes but is far below the point when "carbons" begin being burned.
The end result is the THC compound being breathed in combined with air rather than the THC compound being breathed in with smoke.
Repetitive lifestyle
Excluding smoking risks, smoking hashish and weed all the time can potentially help someone to be caught up in a repetitive loop of habits in life, some which may be unhealthy.
Quitting, doing more productive things or tripping on a serotonin psychedelic can help reset these habits but that is another topic all together.
Cardiovascular risk
It is unknown whether hash or cannabis can be dangerous for people with a severely damaged or weak heart but the increase of heart rate and lower blood pressure caused by being stoned can certainly cause potential short term problems especially if the person has a panic attack for whatever reason (thinking they're having a heart attack, wanting the effects to disappear or paranoid thoughts about specific things).
This coupled with the already elevated heart rate seems like it can certainly cause problems for people with "bad" hearts, but it's still not proven as there's still been (of January 2020) absolutely no certain recorded deaths caused by only cannabis.
There has been a couple reports of cardiac arrest, but most or all of these reports contain at least one other potential factor.
Potential overdosing
In general, THC smoked or orally consumed, upwards of 3 grams seems to be relatively safe even though 3 grams of pure THC is around 100 moderately strong edibles.
However, smoking cannabis seems to be physically impossible to lethally overdose for someone relatively healthy.
Many people smoke grams of hash oil at a time, wanting to achieve a state that "no man's gone before", with the absolutely worst thing happening is a pale face, vomiting, and inability to move as much as usual.
The "overdose" can cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, hallucinations (unique compared to any other class of hallucinogens), disorientation, strong sedation, pale skin, sleeping (up to 12 hours), and in rare cases short comas (up to 2 days).
The person experiencing the "overdose" generally ends up fine.
In bad cases, they may end up in a hospital from thinking they're in danger, or for someone else mistaking their symptoms as dangerous.
Most other illegal drugs, such as heroin, crack, and cocaine, are very addictive.
This means that someone with an addictive personality ,or someone that has no worries or knowledge of side effects of the addictive drug they're about to do, starts regularly taking an addictive drug (heroin, meth, or cocaine), the person will want to keep taking more of the drug, even if it is making them sick with or without it.
Legal drugs such as tobacco, caffeine and alcohol are also found to be addictive, tobacco the most.
Tobacco can be just as bad, if not, worse of an addiction than methamphetamine.
The tobacco user will typically go buy some more cigarettes or pick up used butts to smoke if they run out.
If the meth user runs out, they have no easy legal source to get it, and if they have no money they can't just pick up a dirty second hand "meth butt" (no such thing) off anywhere on the ground.
The addiction is as strong as tobacco, that they "need" it, so many of them end up breaking into people's houses and cars to steal money and possessions to trade for more, which tobacco users do not tend to do.
Tobacco users do tend to smoke much more often, however.
Long-term side effects
Reduced anadamide levels in the endocannabinoid system within the brain and body (temporary if cannabis use stops)
Lung damage/throat damage (temporary or permanent)
Weakened or strengthened immune system (usually temporary when cannabis use stops)
More content with life, which may cause less motivation for things that are good for you that requires effort (usually temporary if cannabis use is seized, if experienced)
Thick, shorter shooting male ejaculation (temporary until use stops)
Drier vagina (usually when stoned)
Sleep pattern issues (you may need to try to fix them or you may need help fixing your sleep cycle.)
Less predictable menstrual cycle (temporary until use stops)
Slang terms
Hashish is often just called "hash".
There are other variations of hashish such as temple balls, dry sift, kief, pressed hash, and bubble hash.
If you hear any of these terms, the person is talking about a specific type of hash.
Slang terms vary from country to country.
There are many slang terms for hashish smoking, such as "getting faded", "getting stoned as f**k", "blown away", "baking up", "getting baked", "blazing" etc, all of them same terms are used interchangeably with smoking weed as they both get you to a very similar state of mind.
Although most hash smokers if they have hash will more likely say something simple rather than slang like "let's smoke some hash" unless they're talking about how high they want to get.
William Pitt the Younger (28 May 1759 — 23 January 1806) was a British politician of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
He was Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1782—1783, 1783—1801 and 1804—1806.
He was prime minister of the United Kingdom from 1783 to 1801, and again from 1804 until his death.
He is known as "William Pitt the Younger" to distinguish him from his father, William Pitt the Elder, who also served as prime minster.
He became the youngest prime minister in 1783 at the age of 24.
During his time as prime minister, the kingdom of Ireland joined with Great Britain and both kingdoms became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801.
Pitt continued to be prime minister in the new Parliament of the United Kingdom.
Known as "William Pitt Jr.", unlike his father and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, William Pitt Sr.
The period of William Pitt Jr.'s presidency was during the reign of King George III and was accompanied by significant events in Europe, such as the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.
Pitt is often considered a Conservative party, but he considered himself non-partisan and generally opposed a strict party political system.
William Pitt was the youngest Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and died at the age of 46, leaving no children or wife.
He was an influential and talented politician of the country, enjoyed the support of voters and especially the support of the monarch.
In the then political system of Great Britain, the king still played a significant role in the political life of the country, and the king's commitment to Pitt allowed him to remain at the head of government for a long time.
Pitt's main credit is his financial reforms, reduction of government debt after the war with the United States, and changes in the tax system.
Despite some setbacks, especially with regard to parliamentary reform, William Pitt is considered one of the country's great prime ministers, primarily for his political acumen and ability to pursue his own policies despite opposition protests.
1791 Caricature of William Pitt by James Gillray
Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a French existentialist philosopher, novelist, playwright, screenwriter,  and critic.
He won the Nobel Prize in Literature for 1964, but refused it, saying "a writer should not allow himself to be turned into an institution".
He was a Marxist and an atheist.
Sartre's life
Sartre was born in Paris, France.
He studied philosophy at the École Normale Supérieure, an élite (high quality) education establishment.
In 1929, Sartre graduated with a doctorate in philosophy.
Sartre served in the French Army from 1929 to 1931.
In 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who studied at the Sorbonne.
She went on to become a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist.
The two became inseparable and lifelong companions.
In 1938, Sartre wrote the novel called La Nausée (Nausea).
This story explains the way of thinking of existentialism.
Existentialism is a way of thinking about human freedom.
Draft to the army
In 1939 Sartre was drafted into the French army.
France was at war with Germany, because Germany had invaded France (World War II) Sartre was captured by German troops in 1940, and Sartre spent nine months as a prisoner of war in a camp.
Sartre was released from the prison camp (jail) in 1941.
He then began working as a teacher again.
He made friends with other writers and thinkers such as Merleau-Ponty, Jean-Toussaint and Dominique Desanti, and Jean Kanapa.
In 1943, Sartre wrote a book about philosophy (ways of thinking) called L'Être et le Néant, which means Being and Nothingness.
In this book, Sartre said that when people tried too hard to conform to the rules of society (or of their country), then people did not really make their own decisions.
And he concluded that life is useless disaster.
In 1945, Sartre started a newspaper called Les Temps Modernes (Modern Times), which had articles about politics, art and literature.
He also began writing a group of novels (stories) called Les Chemins de la Liberté (The Roads to Freedom).
In 1946 Sartre wrote a book about philosophy (ways of thinking) called Existentialism is a Humanism, which explains existentialism.
After 1950s
In the 1950s and 1960s, Sartre became involved in politics.
Sartre said that France should leave Algeria, a country where France had many soldiers.
In the 1960s, Sartre said that the Vietnam War was bad.
In 1960, he wrote the Critique de la raison dialectique (Critique of Dialectical Reason).
In the 1960s, Sartre had many arguments with Louis Althusser, a man who also believed in communism.
Sartre died of oedema of the lung in 1980 in Paris.
His body is buried in Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris.
His funeral was attended by 50,000 people.
20th-century French philosophers
French atheists
John Ernst Steinbeck Jr. (; February 27, 1902 – December 20, 1968) was an American writer.
Steinbeck won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1962.
Some of his most famous works are Of Mice and Men (1937) and The Grapes of Wrath (1940), which won a Pulitzer Prize.
In these two books, Steinbeck writes about migrant workers during the Great Depression.
Steinbeck used naturalism in his books.
His characters and stories came from real events from the early 20th century.
His work shows his wide range of interests, such as politics, history, philosophy and mythology.
Seventeen of his works were made into Hollywood movies.
Steinbeck also tried screen writing, which is writing for movies.
He received an Academy Award nomination for Best Writing in Alfred Hitchcock's 1945 movie, Lifeboat.
Steinbeck was born to John Ernst Steinbeck Sr.,
a first-generation German American.
He attended Stanford University until 1925 when he left the university in order to become a writer.
His first work, Cup of Gold, came out four years later, but was not successful.
He married Carol Henning the following year.
Steinbeck first gained success with the novel Tortilla Flat in 1935.
The story was about two men living in Monterey, California during the Great Depression.
The book won the California Commonwealth Club's Gold Medal.
It was made into a movie seven years later, starring Spencer Tracy, Hedy Lamarr, and John Garfield.
Critical success
Steinbeck continued to write on the subject of the Great Depression.
Two years later, Steinbeck wrote Of Mice and Men, considered as one of the best works of American literature in the twentieth century.
His story dealt with the lives of two migrant laborers with big dreams in California.
It was turned into a Hollywood movie in 1939, starring Lon Chaney Jr. as "Lennie" and Burgess Meredith as "George".
That year, Steinbeck followed up with another book, The Grapes of Wrath.
The book is about the Joad family and their travels from Oklahoma to California during the Dust Bowl in search of work.
The novel won the Pulitzer Prize and movie adaptation won two Academy Awards, and is ranked #7 on the American Film Institute's list, 100 Years...100 Cheers: America's Most Inspiring Movies.
There was controversy with the book, though.
Many people felt that Steinbeck's liberal opinions misrepresented the truth of Dust Bowl migrations.
He had this student that his name was Oscar Perez and they would both do the job together.
Steinbeck continued to write from 1940s to 1960s.
He wrote such works as The Moon is Down, The Pearl, Cannery Row, East of Eden and The Winter of Our Discontent.
In 1962, Steinbeck won the Nobel Prize in Literature for "his realistic and imaginative writing, combining as it does sympathetic humor and keen social perception."
Two years later, he was awarded the United States Medal of Freedom by President Lyndon B. Johnson.
Steinbeck died on December 20, 1968 in New York at the age of 66, of a heart disease.
National Steinbeck Center in Salinas, CA
John Steinbeck Collection - Ball State University Archives and Special Collections Research Center
Nobel Laureate page
1989 Audio Interview with Robert Demott talking to Don Swaim about John Steinbeck, RealAudio
1989 Audio Interview with Elaine Steinbeck talking to Don Swaim about John Steinbeck, RealAudio
FBI file at The Smoking Gun
A Tour of John Steinbeck's "Valley of the World"
Biography of John Steinbeck
People from Monterey County, California
Akira Kurosawa (March 23, 1910 – September 6, 1998) was a Japanese movie director.
Kurosawa's movies are liked in Japan.
Kurosawa's movies are also liked by people in other countries.
He made 30 movies in 50 years.
He is thought to be one of the most important movie directors.
In many of his famous movies, including Rashomon and The Seven Samurai, he worked with the actor Toshiro Mifune.
Kurosawa started in the Japanese movie industry in 1936.
Before he worked a little bit as a painter.
After years of working on many movies as an assistant director and scriptwriter, he became a director in 1943.
This was during World War II with the popular action movie Sanshiro Sugata (a.k.a.
Judo Saga).
Rashomon, was first shown in Tokyo in August 1950.
On September 10, 1951 it was the surprise winner of the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival.
It then was shown in Europe and North America.
Because the movie was so well liked, it made people in the western world want to see more Japanese movies.
This helped make other Japanese movie makers become successful.
In the 1950s and early 1960s, Kurosawa directed about one movie each year.
In 1990, he accepted the Academy Award for Lifetime Achievement.
After he died, he was named "Asian of the Century" in the "Arts, Literature, and Culture" category by AsianWeek magazine and CNN.
Mikio Naruse
Akira Kurosawa's grave
Movie editors
Japanese movie producers
Science fiction films are movies which tell stories about the future, outer space, robots, or aliens.
Science fiction movies often use special effects to show images of alien worlds or other planets far away.
Science fiction movies are related to science fiction books.
Some science fiction movies tell stories about strange or different ways of thinking or ways of living.
Other science fiction movies tell stories about politics.
Important science fiction films
A Trip to the Moon (French: Le Voyage dans la lune) was made by Georges Méliès in 1902.
It was one of the first SF films.
Metropolis is a silent film about a society in the future.
That society has two groups: rich thinkers and poor workers.
Fritz Lang made the film in 1927.
2001: A Space Odyssey is a film by Stanley Kubrick.
The film shows ideas about human evolution and artificial intelligence.
It was released in 1968.
Star Wars movies are amongst the highest grossing science fiction movies of all time.
Science fiction movies and other genres
Alien is also a horror movie.
The Road Warrior is both a science fiction movie and an action movie.
Men in Black is comedy and science fiction.
nl:Sciencefiction#Film en televisie
Reading is a city in the American state of Pennsylvania.
It is the fifth largest city in Pennsylvania with 80,506 at the July 2008 mark.
It is located in Berks County.
There were more jobs when it was more populated.
Yuengling is available as well.
Swanage is a seaside town on the east-south coast of England.
The town, in Dorset, has a population of around 10,001 people.
The town has a wide range of tourist attractions: A steam Railway, Durlston Country Park (Nature reserve), Victorian Pier, two public swimming pools, tennis courts, Indoor & Outdoor bowling greens,and Corfe Castle.
There is a nudist  beach close to Swanage Bay
The Old English language, often called Anglo-Saxon, was spoken in Anglo-Saxon England from 450 AD to 1100 AD.
It was spoken by the Anglo-Saxons, who came to Great Britain from what is now Germany and Denmark.
Different Anglo-Saxon kingdoms spoke different dialects, but a western dialect became the main literary version.
Both modern languages of England and Scotland (English and Scots) came from the language of the Anglo-Saxons.
Old English is very different from Modern English and has many more Germanic words.
In early centuries, it was rarely written down and even then was in runes.
After the 9th century, the Latin alphabet was used more often.
Old English grammar is difficult, with complex inflections, and close to Old German.
Latin was used by churchmen like the venerable Bede.
Old English gradually turned into Middle English after the Norman Conquest of 1066.
Beowulf is written in Old English in an alphabetic script.
Old English -Citizendium
11th-century disestablishments
450s establishments
Scottish people or Scots are people native to Scotland or who are descended from a native of Scotland.
They almost all speak Scottish English, but some of those living in the Highlands and the islands may speak the Scottish Gaelic (a Gaelic language) as well.
Hungen is a town in the district of Gießen, in the state of Hesse, Germany.
It is  southeast of Gießen.
It is  northeast of Friedberg.
Other towns near Hungen are Laubach Nidda, Wölfersheim and Münzenberg.
The first documented mention of Hungen is in the year 782.
In 1806 it became part of the Grand Duchy of Hessen.
Interesting buildings in Hungen are the Hungen Castle, the Evangelical Church, and the Hauptbahnhof, (the main railroad station).
Also in Hungen can be seen parts of the town's medieval boundary wall.
Hungen in the media
My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner: The railroad station of Hungen can be seen in this 2007 Canadian documentary.
Robert Scott Kellner came to Hungen in 1960 to search for his grandfather, Friedrich Kellner.
Friedrich Kellner was the chief justice inspector of Laubach.
He wrote the Friedrich Kellner Diary.
Robert Scott Kellner is the English translator of the diary.
Towns in Hesse
The station lies on the line from Bremen to Cuxhaven.
The line from Bremen was built in 1862, and a station for that was built in Geestemünde.
At the time, Geestemünde did not belong to Bremerhaven, but was a separate town.
The line from Geestemünde to Cuxhaven was then built in 1896.
Because there were too many trains in the old station and it is connected only with single-track, it was decided to knock down the old station.
The new station, which is now Bremerhaven Central railway station, was opened in 1914.
Because it still was in Geestemünde, but not as far away as the old station, it was called Geestemünde-Bremerhaven.
In 1924, some other towns joined Bremerhaven, and the city got a new name, Wesermünde.
The station got a new name, Wesermünde-Bremerhaven, because of that.
In 1944, in the middle of World War II, the hall over the railway tracks was destroyed by a bomb that was thrown from an American plane.
The hall was not built again after the war.
Wesermünde received another name and was called Bremerhaven from 1947, and the station received the new name too and was now called Bremerhaven Hauptbahnhof.
That means "Bremerhaven Central railway station", and it was called that way because it was now in the middle of the new, large city.
Electric cables were put in the station in 1966, so that electric trains could run.
Trains that were carrying soldiers of the US Army often ran to Bremerhaven in the 1970s, because the US Army had large barracks in the city.
1914 establishments in Europe
A duchy is a territory or domain ruled by a duke or duchess.
Historically, some duchies in Continental Europe were sovereign, while others (especially in France and Britain) were subordinate districts of a kingdom.
Traditionally, a grand duchy, such as Luxembourg, was generally independent and sovereign.
Sovereign duchies were common in the Holy Roman Empire and German-speaking areas.
In France, a number of duchies existed in the medieval period.
Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom still holds the medieval French title of Duke of Normandy; the only lands still attached to the Duchy of Normandy are the Channel Islands.
The Duchy of Cornwall - On the Prince of Wales' official web-site
Tyr Gwyr Gweryn The Duchy charters, Cornish foreshore case and much more in full
Scott Charles Bigelow (September 1, 1961 - January 19, 2007) was an American professional wrestler.
He was more commonly known as Bam Bam Bigelow.
He was famous for his time in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) (now World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) ) and World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
On the morning of January 19, 2007, Bigelow was found dead in his home at about 10:00 A.M. in Hudson, Florida.
He was 45 years old.
At the time of his death, Bigelow had been suffering from an infection and diabetes.
The autopsy results showed that Bigelow's death was due to multiple drugs found in his system including toxic levels of cocaine and an anti-anxiety drug.
Bigelow was also suffering from a heart problem.
Sportspeople from New Jersey
The Anglo-Norman language is the name given to the special sort of the Norman language spoken by the Anglo-Normans, the descendants of the Normans who ruled the Kingdom of England following the conquest by William of Normandy in 1066.
This langue d'oïl became the official language of England and later developed into the unique insular dialect now known as the Anglo-Norman language.
It was much like Old French.
The Anglo-Norman hub - a project to produce an Anglo-Norman dictionary.
Contains articles and corpus texts.
Langue d'oïl or Oïl languages
Langue d'oc or Occitan language
Meanings and disambiguation
Langue d'oïl (in the singular), Oïl dialects and Oïl languages (in the plural) refer to all the ancient northern Gallo-Romance languages as well as their modern-day descendants.
The most widely spoken modern Oïl language is French, and others include Norman, Walloon, Picard, Gallo, Poitevin-Saintongeais, Champenois.
They share many common linguistic features.
One of these is that Oïl (pronounced [wil], or [wi] as in modern French oui), was the ancestor of the word for yes used in all the Oïl languages (oc was and still is the word used in territories to the south, and that is why the Occitan language is also called langue d'oc (literal English translation: "language of yes")).
For the article about a mathematical concept, see Ring (mathematics)
It is usually made of metal such as gold, silver, platinum, but can be made of other things, for example, bone or glass.
Many rings have gemstones on them, for beauty and decoration on your finger.
It is a fashion accessory and sometimes a sign of importance (status).
The Lord Chancellors of England were given a ring when taking office, and returned it when leaving the position.
The ring identified them as the second most important person in the kingdom.
In most religions, senior clergy have rings of their office.
It is standard practice for members of a church to kneel and kiss the ring as a sign of faith and obedience.
Rings have been used for engagements and weddings since prehistoric times.
The engagement ring is meant to be a sign of luck and happiness.
Both men and women used to wear an engagement ring to show that they were going to be married, but more recently only women have worn them.
A diamond ring is seen as being especially lucky, as the sparkle of the diamond is said to come from the fires of love.
A pearl in a ring is unlucky, as the pearl is a sign of tears.
Because the ring is round and does not have an end, it is seen as a symbol of love which never ends.
These are, of course, superstitions.
However, a wedding ring is a public symbol of a legal relationship, and in many societies rings have that kind of function.
The progeny of a previous generation; the product of reproduction.
Descendants are offspring.
A later evolutionary type in the same line.
A type of object that developed from another object existing before it.
descendant (astrology), the point directly opposite from the ascendant, or Rising Sign
wikt:descendant
The Gallo-Romance are a branch of Romance languages.
It includes French and several other languages spoken in modern France and northern Italy and Spain.
According to certain linguists, it also includes Occitan and Catalan; others group these two together as a separate Occitano-Romance branch, or place Catalan within the Ibero-Romance group.
The Gallo-Romance languages, along with the Ibero-Romance and Rhaeto-Romance groups, form Western Romance.
Examples of Gallo-Romance languages
Emilian-Romagnol
Franco-Provençal
Capital accumulation means the gathering of objects of value; the increase in wealth; or the creation of wealth.
In this context capital can be understood as assets used for profit.
real investment in tangible means of production.
financial investment in paper assets.
investment in non-productive physical assets such as residential real estate that appreciate in value.
"human capital accumulation," i.e., new education and training increasing the skills of the (potential) labour force.
Growth, Accumulation, Crisis: With New Macroeconomic Data for Sweden 1800-2000 by Rodney Edvinsson
The Crises caused by Capital Accumulation  - Oxford University publication
The Accumulation of Capital
Investment or investing means that an asset is bought, or that money is put into a bank to get a future interest from it.
Investment is total amount of money spent by a shareholder in buying shares of a company.
In economic management sciences, investments means longer-term savings.
It is a term used in business management, finance and economics, related to saving or deferring consumption.
Literally, the word means the "action of putting something in to somewhere else" (perhaps originally related to a person's garment or 'vestment').
Types of investment
There are two major uses of the term investment between the economics field and the finance field.
Economists refer to a real investment (such as a machine or a house), while financial economists refer to a financial asset, such as money that is put into a bank or the market which may then be used to buy a real asset.
Advisors, who tell people how to manage their investments, might say that even when an investment is losing money because of bad times, not to give up and withdraw it.
Instead, wait for the situation to improve.
This is a risk for each person to decide.
The investment decision (also known as capital budgeting) is one of the fundamental decisions of business management.
Good books on investing and value investing
The Battle of Bannockburn, fought on 23 and 24 June 1314, was an important Scottish victory in the Wars of Scottish Independence.
A smaller Scottish army defeated a much larger and better armed English army.
When King Alexander III of Scotland died in 1286, his heir was his granddaughter Margaret, Maid of Norway.
King Edward I of England arranged to have his son, Edward II of England, become her husband and share the crown of Scotland in 1289.
But Margaret died on her way from Norway to Scotland in 1290.
This began a period in Scotland called the First Interregnum (1290–1292).
Scotland was without a monarch.
Edward I was invited to choose who would be king from among the candidates who had any claim to be king.
He chose John of Scotland.
But Edward now claimed power over the Scottish king.
Balliol could do nothing without Edward's approval.
In July 1295 the Scottish Parliament met and took most of the power away from John Balliol and gave it to a group of men they elected called the "Council of Twelve."
This group made an agreement with King Philip IV of France called the Auld Alliance.
King Edward gathered his army at Newcastle and prepared to invade Scotland.
He brought his army to Berwick and captured the town and castle.
John Balliol sent King Edward letters refusing to recognize Edward's right to rule Scotland.
After Edward had captured all the castles in Scotland, John Balliol surrendered to him.
John Balliol was sent to prison in London, then later Edward allowed him to live in France.
In 1296 Edward made every man in Scotland who owned land promise to be loyal to him.
Scotland remained without a king of their own until 1306 when Robert the Bruce declared himself king of Scotland defying Edward I. Just before doing this Robert the Bruce had been involved in a dispute with John Comyn.
The two met before the altar in Greyfriars Church in Dumfries in 1306 and in a fight John Comyn was killed.
Robert the Bruce was crowned king three weeks later at Scone.
Accused of murdering Comyn, Bruce was excommunicated by the Pope.
Edward sent his men after Bruce but was unable to capture Him.
A series of border skirmishes and wars went on.
In 1310 Edward again invaded Scotland but with little effect.
Between 1310 and 1314 a large number of castles were captured from the occupying English soldiers by Bruce and his followers.
Siege of Stirling Castle
In the Spring of 1313 Edward Bruce, brother of the Scottish King began a siege of Stirling Castle, which was held by Sir Philip Mowbray for the English king.
By the middle of summer the Scots were still not able to defeat the castle.
Edward Bruce made an agreement with the castle commander, Mowbray.
It said that if the castle was not relieved by the English by 24 June the following year it would be surrendered to Bruce.
Edward Bruce went to his brother to tell him the good news.
But the Robert Bruce saw this as a mistake.
It gave King Edward II of England a year to get ready an army to march into Scotland.
Up to this point the king of Scotland had avoided pitched battles with the English army.
All King Robert could do is prepare for what was sure to come.
In October 1313 King Robert made everyone in Scotland take an oath of loyalty to him or lose their lands.
The English king was now in danger of losing everything in Scotland.
On 28 November 1313 Edward II announced he would assemble an army to be in Scotland before 24 June 1314.
Edward II comes to Scotland
Edward's first aim was to bring needed food, weapons, and fresh soldiers to Sterling Castle before they had to surrender.
He began gathering the largest army a king of England had ever led.
He had 2,500 heavy cavalry each followed by one or more mounted squires.
Edward brought 3,000 of his best Welsh longbowmen.
Finally he had 15,000 foot soldiers each with a sword, shield and spear.
His army numbered over 20,000 and began marching from Berwick on 17 June 1314 and formed ten divisions.
He had reached Edinburgh on 21 June where the army was re-supplied by Edward's ships.
By 22 June the army made an exhausting march to Falkirk, only 10 miles from Sterling Castle.
Edward's army moved on the old Roman road, which ran through an ancient forest known as the Tor Wood, over the Bannock burn and into the New Park, a hunting preserve enclosed at the time of Alexander III.
Scottish preparations
Bruce's army, like William Wallace's before him, was chiefly composed of infantry armed with 18-foot long pikes.
It was divided into three main (infantry) battalions, and a fourth larger battalion commanded by the king himself serving as the reserve unit.
The second battalion was commanded by Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray.
The third was led by Edward Bruce, the king's brother.
The fourth division was commanded by Sir James Douglas and his cousin Walter the Steward.
The light cavalry of 500 strong was commanded by Robert Keith, Marischal of Scotland.
Each infantry division formed into a Schiltron formation.
Each man carried the pike upright and the outside ranks would lower theirs to form a lethal wall of sharp metal points.
The schiltron could withstand an attack by knights on horses.
But Bruce also trained them to attack.
Bruce's army had been gathering in the Tor Wood, an area that gave good natural cover.
Bruce then moved his army just to the north to the New Park.
This was more heavily wooded area where his movements could be concealed.
It could also provide cover for a retreat if needed.
The Scottish king chose his ground very carefully.
The Bannock burn (or stream), which the English army had to cross on the way to Stirling was a natural obstacle.
Parts of it were too deep for infantry or cavalry to cross.
The area was also covered with marshy boggy ground difficult to ride over.
Sir Thomas Gray called it "an evil, deep, wet marsh".
On the east side was a sharp drop of 50 feet or more.
The trees of the New Park were on the west side.
Also, pits were dug as traps to break a cavalry charge.
No matter which way the English cavalry tried to go they would be tangled up and be easy targets for the Scottish infantry.
The only approach was over the old road from Falkirk to Sterling.
This route was the only solid ground on which heavy cavalry could be moved.
Bruce's three main divisions numbered about 1,000 strong each.
His own reserve division was at double strength or about 2,000 strong.
The Marischal's light cavalry was about 500 horse and there was a small group of archers.
Together the Scottish army numbered between 5,000 and 6,000 men.
This was about one-fourth the size of Edward's force.
First day of battle
The English army reached Tor Wood on June 23rd and stopped.
They were met by Sir Philip Mowbray, the English commander of Stirling Castle.
He told the king there was no need for battle.
Edward had fulfilled his obligation to relieve the castle by coming within three leagues.
Also he had seen Bruce's preparations and warned of trying to attack the Scots with heavy cavalry.
Like Edward II and his commanders, Mowbray thought the Scots would retreat when they saw the size of Edward's great army.
The vanguard of Edward's forces under Gloucester had already crossed the ford over the Bannockburn towards the Scottish lines.
An English knight Henry de Bohun was riding ahead of his companions when he caught sight of
the Scottish king inspecting some of his lines.
De Bohun lowered his lance and charged.
Robert the Bruce was mounted on a small palfrey and armed  with a battle-axe He could have simply moved behind his men and let them repel the charging warhorse and rider.
Instead he turned his horse and rode towards de Bohun.
At the last moment Bruce swerved his horse to one side, missing de Bohun's lance.
He then rose in his stirrups and brought down his axe with such force he cut through de Bohun's helmet killing him instantly.
There was a stunned silence by both armies then a great cheer rose among the Scottish soldiers.
Then the highlanders of Bruce's own division charged the English cavalry who were still lining up.
The horses of the Earl of Gloucester and several others stumbled as they fell into the hidden pits.
The earl was rescued but the English cavalry fled from the charging Scots.
King Robert stopped their charge and they returned to their lines.
This showed how well-disciplined the Scottish soldiers had become.
When King Robert returned his brother and his commanders criticized the king (as much as they dared) for risking his life that way.
Robert the Bruce did not answer them.
He only stared at his now broken battle-axe.
Looking around the king saw English cavalry moving around their left.
He pointed out the cavalry and said to Thomas Randolph "a rose has fallen from your chaplet".
Immediately Randolph rode to his men and moved the schildton onto the open ground in the path of the English knights.
When their leader Sir Henry Beaumont saw the Scots approaching he said "let us wait a little; let them come on; give them room."
Sir Thomas Gray replied "I doubt that whatever you give them now, they will have all too soon."
Sir Henry said to Thomas Gray, "if you are afraid then be off!"
Sir Thomas replied "it is not from fear that I shall fly this day" and along with several other knights charged the Scottish schiltron.
Many were killed, being impaled on the spears.
Sir Thomas himself was captured.
The remainder of the English knights surrounded the schiltron and attacked the Scots from every angle.
But the schiltron held and the English in frustration began throwing their weapons at the Scots.
When Sir James Douglas, commanding the left schiltron saw his friend in trouble and begged Bruce to go to his rescue.
But by the time he returned to his man Randolph was winning the day.
Moving forward Randolph's schiltron split the English cavalry in two.
Half of the remaining English fled back to the English lines while half fled to Sterling Castle.
After losing just one Yeoman, the Scots took off their helmets to rest from the heat of the day.
Sir Alexander de Seton had secretly left the King of England's Army and came to Robert the Bruce that night.
He wished to no longer serve the king of England and offered to join the Bruce.
He pledged on his life that the English were discouraged and if Bruce attacked them tomorrow, he would win the battle.
The English moved from the bogs south and east of the burn to harder ground.
They had to water all the warhorses, draft horses and oxen.
By the time the move was finished it was nearly dawn.
But the tidal rivers around them had risen and they could not cross them as they did earlier.
The English were now cramped into a small space where they could not move freely.
Second day of battle
Robert the Bruce saw where the English spent the night.
Their narrow front gave the Scottish army an advantage if the English did not move before morning.
Morning found the English had not moved.
Not long after daybreak on 24 June, three Scots divisions came out of the woods and began moving towards the English.
The English mounted their horses in great confusion.
When the Scots schiltrons began attacking the English lines the knights and soldiers could not maneuver.
They were so crowded men were being pushed into the Bannock burn behind them.
Overnight the Earl of Gloucester and Edward II had been in an argument.
Gloucester thought the English soldiers should rest another day before doing battle.
The king accused him of being disloyal.
Gloucester was still angry when the trumpets sounded the signal to assemble.
So without putting on his surcoat he mounted his horse and charged into the schiltron commanded by Edward Bruce.
The Scots did not recognize him without his surcoat and so did not spare him.
The Earl and several of those with him were killed trying to break through the wall of spears.
The other two Scottish divisions moved up to join Edward Bruce.
Randolph moved up on Bruce's left side.
James Douglas came up next to Randolph.
Together all three schiltrons filled the narrow battlefield.
They pushed forward into the confused English.
Wounded horses without their knights were running back into the English lines.
Edward's army was now so crowded they could hardly move.
The Scots were pushing into them from the front.
The back ranks were being pushed into the water and marshes.
Up to this point in the battle the English and Welsh longbowmen (archers) had not been used to their full advantage.
They were moved to the right side of the English lines.
From here they could fire arrows into the Scottish army with great effect.
But Robert the Bruce had provided for this event.
His 500 light horsemen led by Keith, the Marischal, quickly scattered the English and Welsh archers.
many of the English and Welsh archers ran back to the English lines.
This caused more confusion and the infantry also begin to run away.
The Scottish king now sent in his reserve division behind Douglas.
When the English saw another large force of Scots joining the battle they began falling back.
Everywhere King Edward looked his forces were losing the battle.
Edward II's escape
The Earl of Pembroke and sir Giles d'Argentan were guarding the English King.
As the battle was now lost they needed to get the king to safety.
They led him off the battlefield and towards Sterling Castle.
At the same time several Scots recognized the king and tried to capture him.
The king fought them off with his mace.
He broke free and rode to Sterling Castle a short distance away.
At the castle Sir Philip Mowbray did not allow King Edward to enter.
He told the king he now had to surrender the castle and the king would be taken prisoner.
But Mowbray gave Edward II a knight to guide the king and his party to safety.
Edward, with 500 of his cavalry turned towards Linlithgow.
Sir James Douglas got permission from Robert the Bruce to pursue the English king.
With a group of Keith's horsemen Douglas kept close behind Edward as he fled south.
As he pursued the English king, Douglas and his men encountered Sir Lawrence de Abernethy who with 80 men was on his way to join Edward at Bannockburn.
On finding out the king had lost the battle he and his men joined Douglas in trying to capture Edward.
The English tried to bait them into a fight at Winchburg but Douglas stayed on their flank (side).Even with Abernethy's men the Scots were not strong enough to take on Edward's knights.
The chase continued all the way to Dunbar Castle.
Loyalties on the border were very uncertain at this time.
The local earl had sided with Edward.
So the king was allowed to escape in a boat back to England with only a few of his closest followers.
The rest of his 500 horsemen were left to find their way back to England as best they could.
Another large group of Edward's knights escaped to Bothwell Castle.
There they were welcomed by the castle commander, Walter Gilbertson.
But Gilbertson soon changed sides and took all the English prisoners.
The remainder of Edward's large army scattered in every direction.
In trying to escape the Scottish schildrons, many were drowned in the Bannockburn and the River Forth.
A large number were taken prisoner and later ransomed.
The English baggage train was left behind.
It's silver, gold, and luxuries the noblemen brought with them was worth a fortune alone.
Along with the ransoms paid for their prisoners this brought sudden wealth to Scotland.
Historical significance
The wars with England were still not over.
It would be another 14 years until Scotland was free of English rule.
But to the Scots the Battle of Bannockburn was a major victory.
Before the battle Robert the Bruce was considered by many a usurper (pretender).
He only had limited support in Scotland.
After Bannockburn Robert the Bruce became a national hero.
He had the support of most of Scotland.
However his political rivals in Scotland suffered.
Perhaps no one more than the Comyn family and supporters.
Both John Comyn of Badenoch and Edward Comyn of Kilbride were killed at Bannockburn.
With them died any hope of an English victory returning this family to power.
The English dead at Bannockburn were buried with honors according to their rank.
There were over 500 returned to England in exchange for ransom.
And Scottish prisoners in England were returned in exchange.
Robert the Bruce's wife, daughter and sister were returned.
The border wars continued but from 1314 to 1328 the focus shifted to the north of England.
The purpose of all the raids was to get Edward II to recognize Robert the Bruce as king of Scotland.
Also for England to give up their claims to Scotland and recognize their independence.
The English learned their lesson from Bannockburn.
The Scots apparently didn't.
In the later Battle of Dupplin Moor and Halidon Hill the same tactics that brought victory at Bannockburn brought them defeat.
William Mackenzie wrote: "Never did the arms of England suffer so complete a disaster; never did the arms of Scotland repeat so remarkable a performance."
Battle of Bannockburn animated battle map  by Jonathan Webb
The National Trust for Scotland Battle of Bannockburn
A new start for Bannockburn Heritage Center