the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Sahrhage, D.: Antarctic Krill Fisheries: Potential Resources and Ecological Concerns.
In Caddy, J. F. (ed.):
Marine Invertebrate Fisheries; their assessment and management; pp.
13 – 33.
Wiley, 1989.
Ikeda, T. (1984) The influence of feeding on the metabolic activity of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba Dana).
Polar Biology 3(1)
Clarke, A. (1983) Towards an energy budget for krill: The physiology and biochemistry of Euphausia superba Dana.
Polar Biology 2(2)
Euphausia superba from MarineBio.
"Virtual microscope"  of Antarctic krill for an interactive tour of their morphology and behavior, along with other peer-reviewed information.
"Krill fights for survival as sea ice melts" from the NASA's "Earth Observatory".
"Antarctic Wildlife at Risk From Overfishing, Experts Say", from National Geographic News, August 5 2003.
Diary  of the RRS James Clark Ross, giving a popular introduction to the Antarctic krill.
"Less krill for predators in the Southern Ocean"  from the British Antarctic Survey.
See also "Climate row touches blue whales", from the BBC, July 19 2001.
A time to krill
Krill Count Project
WIKIversity Lecture "Biology of Antarctica"
The cubic metre (symbol m³) is the SI unit of volume.
It is a cube with a length, height, and width of one metre, with 1,000 litres of space.
In the many places it is spelled "cubic meter".
Other names are stère and kilolitre or kiloliter.
1,000 litres
Approximately 35.3 cubic feet
Approximately 1.31 cubic yards
Approximately 6.29 oil barrels
A cubic metre of pure water at the temperature of maximum density (3.98 °C) and standard atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa) has a mass of 1000 kg, or one tonne.
At 0 °C, the freezing point of water, it is slightly less, 999.972 kg.
It is sometimes abbreviated , , , , , when superscript characters or markup are not available/accessible (i.e. in some typewritten documents and postings in Usenet newsgroups).
Multiples and submultiples
Cubic decametre
the volume of a cube of side length one decametre (10 m)
equal to a megalitre
1 dam3 = 1,000 m3 = 1 ML
Cubic hectometre
the volume of a cube of side length one hectometre (100 m)
equal to a gigalitre
1 hm3 = 1,000,000 m3 = 1 GL
Cubic kilometre
the volume of a cube of side length one kilometre (1,000 m)
equal to a teralitre
1 km3 = 1,000,000,000 m3 = 1 TL
Submultiples
Cubic decimetre
the volume of a cube of side length one decimetre (0.1 m)
equal to a litre
1 dm3 = 0.001 m3 = 1 L
the volume of a cube of side length one centimetre (0.01 m)
equal to a millilitre
1 cm3 = 0.000001 m3 = 10-6 m3 = 1 mL
Cubic millimetre
the volume of a cube of side length one millimetre (0.001 m)
equal to a microlitre
1 mm3 = 0.000000001 m3 = 10-9 m3 = 1 µL
It serves both developed and developing countries and acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals.
FAO is also a source of knowledge and information, and helps developing countries and countries in transition modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and food security for all.
FAO offices
Regional offices
Regional Office for Africa in Accra, Ghana
Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean  in Santiago, Chile
Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific  in Bangkok, Thailand
Regional Office for the Near East in Cairo, Egypt
Regional Office for Europe at FAO headquarters, Rome, Italy
Subregional offices
Subregional Office for Southern and East Africa  in Harare, Zimbabwe
Subregional Office for the Pacific Islands  in Apia, Samoa
Subregional Office for Central and Eastern Europe in Budapest, Hungary
Subregional Office for the Caribbean  in Bridgetown, Barbados
Subregional Office For North Africa in Tunis, Tunisia
Liaison offices
Liaison Office with the United Nations in Geneva
Liaison Office for North America in Washington D.C.
Liaison Office with the United Nations in New York
Liaison Office with Japan in Yokohama
Liaison Office with the European Union and Belgium in Brussels
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Fact sheets / features / press releases
FAO Statistics Division
FAOSTAT website
TeleFood
World Food Day
Avian Flu
A colorimeter is a device used for measuring colours, or colorimetry.
It measures the absorbance of different wavelengths of light in a solution.
It can be used to measure the concentration of a known solute.
Different chemical substances absorb different wavelengths of light.
When the concentration of the solute is higher, it absorbs more light in a specific wavelength.
This is known as the Beer-Lambert law.
Different parts
a light source, which is usually an ordinary filament lamp
an aperture, which can be adjusted
a set of filters in different colors
a detector that measures the light which has passed through the solution
Different filters are used to select the wavelength of light which the solution absorbs the most.
This makes the colorimeter more accurate.
Solutions are usually placed in glass or plastic cuvettes.
The usual wavelengths used are between 400 and 700 nanometers.
If it is necessary to use ultraviolet light (below 400 nanometers) then the lamp and filters must be changed.
The output of the colorimeter may be shown in graphs or tables, by an analogue or digital meter.
The data may be printed on paper, or stored in a computer.
The output may be shown as transmittance (a linear scale from 0-100%) or as absorbance (a logarithmic scale from zero to infinity).
The useful range of the absorbance scale is from 0-2 but it is desirable to keep within the range 0-1 because, above 1, the results become unreliable due to scattering of light.
A Transmittance-Absorbance conversion table may be seen here.
Valletta is the capital city of Malta.
It was founded by Jean Parisot de la Valette, the Grandmaster of the Order of Saint John on March 28, 1566.
The city's population is 6,315 (in 2005) and it is currently decreasing as people move to the UK, Italy, or the newer areas of Malta.
Cities in Malta
The Basketball Bundesliga (BBL) is the highest level of basketball competition in Germany.
The BBL determines the national champion.
Champions since 1939
2008: Alba Berlin
2007: Brose Baskets Bamberg
2006: RheinEnergie Cologne
2005: GHP Bamberg
2004: OPEL Skyliners Frankfurt am Main
2003: Alba Berlin
2002: Alba Berlin
2001: Alba Berlin
2000: Alba Berlin
1999: Alba Berlin
1998: Alba Berlin
1997: Alba Berlin
1996: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen
1995: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen
1994: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen
1993: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen
1992: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen
1991: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen
1990: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen
1989: BG Steiner Bayreuth
1988: BSC Saturn Köln
1987: BSC Saturn Köln
1986: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen
1985: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen
1984: ASC Göttingen
1983: ASC Göttingen
1982: BSC Saturn Köln
1981: BSC Saturn Köln
1980: SSC Göttingen
1979: TuS 04 Leverkusen
1978: MTV 1846 Gießen
1977: USC Heidelberg
1976: TuS 04 Leverkusen
1975: MTV 1846 Gießen
1974: SSV Hagen
1973: USC Heidelberg
1972: TuS 04 Leverkusen
1971: TuS 04 Leverkusen
1970: TuS 04 Leverkusen
1969: VfL Osnabrück
1968: MTV 1846 Gießen
1967: MTV 1846 Gießen
1966: USC Heidelberg
1965: MTV 1846 Gießen
1964: Alemannia Aachen
1963: Alemannia Aachen
1962: USC Heidelberg
1961: USC Heidelberg
1960: USC Heidelberg
1959: USC Heidelberg
1958: USC Heidelberg
1957: USC Heidelberg
1956: ATV Düsseldorf
1955: FC Bayern München
1954: FC Bayern München
1953: Turnerbund Heidelberg
1952: Turnerbund Heidelberg
1951: Turnerbund Heidelberg
1950: BC Stuttgart-Degerloch
1949: MTSV Schwabing
1948: Turnerbund Heidelberg
1947: MTSV Schwabing
1939: LSV Spandau
Sport in Germany
At the 2000 census, there were 397 people, 136 households, and 102 families living in the village.
The population density was 365.0/km² (947.6/mi²).
There were 149 houses at an average density of 137.0/km² (355.7/mi²).
The racial mix of the village was 85.14% white, 0.50% African American, 0.50% Native American, 11.59% from other races, and 2.27% from two or more races.
Hispanic or Latino of any race were 21.41% of the population.
There were 136 households out of which 43.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.6% were [married couples living together, 13.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.3% were non-families.
22.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.
The average household size was 2.92 and the average family size was 3.44.
In the village the population was spread out with 34.0% under the age of 18, 11.8% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 20.2% from 45 to 64, and 5.8% who were 65 years of age or older.
The median age was 28 years.
For every 100 females there were 98.5 males.
This is also the case for females over 18.
The median income for a household in the village was $24,706, and the median income for a family was $28,000.
Males had a median income of $20,417 versus $18,750 for females.
The per citizen income for the village was $9,460.
About 19.8% of families and 19.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.2% of those under age 18 and 28.6% of those age 65 or over.
Andorra la Vella is the capital city of the principality of Andorra and is one of the seven parishes of Andorra.
It is in the southwestern part of the country.
The Andorra la Vella parish is in the southwestern part of the country at the confluence of two mountain streams, the Valira del Nord (Northern Valira) and the Valira de l'Orient (Eastern Valira), which join to form the Gran Valira that flows through the capital city.
The highest mountain in the parish is Pic d'Os () with an elevation of  above sea level; it is on the border with the Sant Julià de Lòria parish and Spain.
The parish had a population, in 2015,  of 22,886 inhabitants, for a population density of  persons/km².
Andorra la Vella is the country's commercial centre.
The city is also the centre for many banks and businesses.
The state is not a member of the European Union, but has a customs arrangement with the EU, and uses the euro.
Parishes of Andorra
Woodland is a low-density forest with plenty of sunlight and limited shade.
It forms an open habitat.
Woodlands have an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses.
Woodlands grade into shrubland in drier conditions or in early stages of plant succession.
Higher densities and areas of trees, with largely closed canopy, and nearly continuous shade and are often called forests.
Woodland in British forestry means any smaller area covered in trees, however dense.
Forest in the British Isles means extensive wooded areas, regardless of density.
Royal forests may not be wooded at all.
The term ancient woodland is used in British conservation to mean any wooded land that has existed for a very long time (equivalent to the American term old growth forest).
Conservationist work hard to preserve woodlands.
The woodlands in Northwest Indiana have been preserved as part of the Indiana Dunes.
The Woodland Trust
Other meanings are at Limburg
Limburg is the southernmost province of the Netherlands.
Its capital is Maastricht.
About 1,116,000 people are living in Limburg (2021).
It is the only province in the Netherlands which has hills.
It is a very old province; the capital city, Maastricht, is over 2000 years old.
The Limburgish people do speak Dutch, but they also speak their own dialects called Limburgish.
These dialects - especially the ones in the South of Limburg, the normal Dutch people find difficult to understand.
These dialects have many influences from German and French.
The Limburgish are renowned for their famous vlaai.
Mount Cayley is an eroded stratovolcano.
It is 11 km southeast of Callaghan Lake and 24 west of Whistler, British Columbia, Canada.
It is part of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt which is a segment of the Cascade Volcanic Arc.
A scenario of an eruption of Mount Cayley shows how western Canada is vulnerable to an eruption.
The scenario is based on past activity in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt and involves both effusive and explosive eruptions.
The scenario impact is largely a result of the concentration of vulnerable infrastructure in valleys.
In 2003, Catherine Hickson, a scientist with the Geological Survey of Canada, was one of the three scientists to report on the hypothetical eruption at Mount Cayley.
The first signs of activity at the volcano would probably be enlarged seismic activity in and close to the mountain.
Flooding would turn out to be a huge issue for the community of Squamish and could eventually overrun parts of Highway 99.
Duchies, and former countries
the Duchy of Limburg (which was later split into the provinces below)
Limburg (Netherlands), a province of the Netherlands
Limburg (Belgium), a province of Belgium
The city of Limbourg in Belgium (also known as Limburg an der Weser)
The city of Limburg an der Lahn in Germany
the Limbourg brothers, famous Renaissance painters
Limburger cheese is made in both Dutch Limburg and Belgian Limburg
Limburg is the easternmost of the five provinces of modern Flanders, which is one of the three main political and cultural sub-divisions of modern Belgium.
Its capital is Hasselt.
Limburg is located west of the Meuse (Dutch Maas) river, upon which it borders the similarly named province Limburg of the Netherlands.
It also borders on the Walloon province of Liège to the south, with which it also has historical ties.
To the north and west are the old territories of the Duchy of Brabant, the Flemish provinces of Flemish Brabant and Antwerp to the west, and the Dutch province of North Brabant to the north.
The province of Limburg has an area of  with a population of  and a density of  inhabitants per km².
The province is divided into three arrondissements (arrondissementen in Dutch) with 44 municipalities.
Among these municipalities are the current capital Hasselt, the early medieval capital Borgloon, Genk, Diepenbeek (home to Hasselt University), and Tongeren, the only Roman city in the province and regarded as the oldest city of Belgium.
The municipality of Voeren is geographically detached  (an exclave) from Limburg and the rest of Flanders, with the Netherlands to the north and the Walloon province of Liège to the south.
This municipality was established by the municipal reform of 1977.
The centre of Belgian Limburg is crossed east to west by the Demer river and the Albert Canal, which run similar paths.
The Demer river's drainage basin covers most of the central and southern part of the province, except for the southeastern corner, where the Jeker (in French: (le) Geer) runs past Tongeren and into the Maas river (in French: (la) Meuse) at Maastricht.
The eastern border of the province corresponds to the western side of the Maas, which originates in France.
It's drainage basin includes not only the Jeker but most of the northern part of Belgian Limburg.
The province of Limber is divided into 3 arrondissements (Hasselt, Maaseik and Tongeren) and a total of 44 municipalities.
Population by arrondissement
Limburg (Netherlands), a province in southeastern Netherlands.
Toerisme Limburg
Limbourg or Limburg is a medieval city in the Belgian province of Liège.
It was founded in the 11th century.
Municipalities of Liège
Limburg an der Lahn (Limburg on the Lahn river) is a German town and the capital of the Kreis Limburg-Weilburg in the west of Hesse.
Stinky, a character on the American animated television show Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends
"Stinky Britches", a fictional song by Alanis Morissette on the South Park episode "Chef Aid"
Stinky Pete, a fictional seal from the television series Sealab 2021
Stinky Pete the Prospector, a character from the film Toy Story 2
Stinky Peterson, the name of characters on the television shows Hey Arnold!,
The Red Green Show, and Recess
Stinky Toe / House Broken, an episode of The Angry Beavers
The Stinkypuffs, an early 90's rock band
A Little Tiny Smelly Bit of...the Stinky Puffs, an album by The Stinkypuffs
Stinky Fingers, a 1995 EP by Turbonegro and Flying Crap
Stinky Toys, a Parisian punk band in the '70s
Mr. Stinky, a nickname of Raymond Edmunds, a convicted rapist and murderer
The Stinky Cheese Man and Other Fairly Stupid Tales, a children's book by Jon Scieszka
Stinky tofu, a type of tofu with a strong odor
An illusion is a distortion  of perception.
The brain arranges, sorts, and organises data from the senses.
Normally the system works well.
Sometimes it does not, and we see illusions.
In general, they are shared by most people in the same situation.
Illusions can happen with all five senses (taste, touch, sight, smell, and hearing), and some involve the way information from two senses is put together.
Some illusions happen because of disorders, but generally, all normal people can sense the same illusion.
An illusion is different from a hallucination; a halucination is sensing something which is not real, but an illusion is interpreting what we sense wrongly.
Optical illusions
Optical illusions are the best known and understood.
Because they are illusions common to most people, it follows that they are a product of the visual system.
The visual system, from the retina to the visual cortex, is what is common to most humans.
Auditory illusions
These are illusions which are heard.
The person listening hears sounds that aren’t really there, or sounds that can’t really happen.
A Shepard tone is an auditory illusion.
Touch illusion
They are when a person feels something that is not there, or something that should not be there but feels like it is.
This happens sometimes when a person loses their arm.
The person still feels like the arm is there.
They might want to scratch the arm, or the arm might hurt them.
This can happen with any limb of the body, and it is called the phantom limb.
Charcoal is a carbon-containing substance made from wood, naturally black and powdery.
Charcoal is made from wood by heating it in an "airless" (minimal oxygen) space at a high temperature.
The wood will not burn, but instead turn into charcoal.
The by-product of making charcoal is tar and turpentine.
Brose Baskets Bamberg (also Brose Baskets) is a basketball club in Bamberg, Germany.
In 2005 (as GHP Bamberg), 2007, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 it won the BBL.
In 1992, 2010, 2011, and 2012 it won the German Cup.
Basketball teams
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF or ՀՅԴ) (Armenian:  – Hay Heghapokhakan Dashnaktsutiun, Dashnaktsutiun,  – Dashnak or Tashnag) is an Armenian political party founded in Tiflis (Tbilisi in modern-day Georgia) in 1890 by Christapor Mikaelian, Stepan Zorian, and Simon Zavarian.
The party works in Armenia and in countries where the Armenian diaspora is active, notably in Lebanon and the ethnically Armenian-dominated de facto Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh.
Opened in 1946, the ARF History Museum was in Paris and during the years has collected more than 3,000 artifacts describing the party's history.
After the ARF's return to Armenia, the museum and the ARF archives have been sent to Armenia.
Official web site - Armenian Revolutionary Federation
Armenian Revolutionary Federation Shant Student Association
History of the Armenian Socialist Party
Politics of Armenia
Political parties in Europe
Christapor Mikaelian (Armenian: ) also known by his noms de guerre Hellen (), Topal (), and Edward (), (1859-1905) was one of the three founders of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation along Stepan Zorian and Simon Zavarian, also part of Armenian national liberation movement.
Rosdom was born in the village of Agulis in Goghtn, now part of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic.
He graduated from the Professorial academy of Tiflis and also attended the University of Moscow, where he met Simon Vratsian, another co-founder of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation.
Translated from the Armenian: Mihran Kurdoghlian, Badmoutioun Hayots, C. hador [Armenian History, volume III], Athens, Greece, 1996, pg.
Following the murder of King Papes, Valens sent Varazdat, a nephew of Pap, a young man highly reputed for his mental and physical gifts, to hold the Armenian throne.
Shapur II, having failed on the battlefield, now proposed to Valens in 375 that Armenia be divided between the two powers.
The Emperor rejected the proposal, but sent Victor Magistrianus to the Persian King to discuss the question.
This emissary was cozened into exceeding the bounds of his authority and agreeing to the Persian proposal.
In the meantime, the internal condition of Armenia was imperiled through friction between King Varazdat and the nakharars, culminating in the assassination of Musel Mamikonian, the leader of the latters' party.
Manuel, the son of Musel, took up arms against the King and compelled him to flee from Armenia in 378, after four years of reign.
Varazdat's life was saved, but the country was thrown into confusion.
The Persians took advantage of the turmoil and invaded Armenia; but their occupation was a short-lived one.
Shapur II died in 379, and the Persians evacuated in haste.
Manuel, the dynamic Mamikonian, had rallied a formidable national force for action.
List of Armenian Kings
The Adana massacre happened in Adana Province, in the Ottoman Empire, in April 1909.
A religious-ethnic clash in the city of Adana amidst governmental upheaval resulted in a series of anti-Armenian pogroms throughout the district.
Reports estimated that the massacres in Adana Province resulted in 20,000 to 30,000 deaths.
The Red Rugs Of Tarsus - A Woman’s Record of the Armenian Massacre of 1909
Adana Massacre
20th century in Turkey
Adana (Greek Άδανα) (the ancient Antioch in Cilicia or Antioch on the Sarus) is the capital of Adana Province in Turkey.
According to the 2000 census, with 1,130,710 inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous city of Turkey (after İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir and Bursa).
The 2006 estimate of Adana's population is 1,271,894.
Adana is also named among the 25 European Regions of the Future for 2006/2007 by Foreign Direct Investment Magazine.
Chosen alongside Kocaeli for Turkey, Adana scored the most points for cost effectiveness against Kocaeli's points for infrastructure development, while Adana and Kocaeli tied on points for the categories of human resources and quality of life.
Adana has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa in the Koeppen climate classification).
Governorship of Adana
Municipality of Adana
In October 1937, Dominican dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina ordered the execution of the Haitian population living within the borderlands with Haiti.
The violence resulted in the killing of 17,000 to 35,000 Haitian civilians over a span of approximately five days.
This would later become known as the Parsley Massacre.
20th century in the Dominican Republic
20th centuy in Haiti
1937 in North America
Refrigerator.
It moves heat from the inside to the outside.
This keeps the food inside cold, so it will not spoil.
Air conditioner.
It moves heat from the inside of a building to the outside.
Peltier device.
It moves heat from one side to the other by means of an electric current.
Some buildings are heated with heat pumps, also.
In the winter, the heat pump moves heat from the outside to the inside.
Sometimes this works better than heating with a radiator.
Usually, heat flows from a hot place to a cold place, according to the second law of thermodynamics.
Heat will not move from a cold place to a warmer place by itself.
Because of this, a heat pump must use extra energy to move the heat.
This is sort of like pumping water uphill.
Most heat pumps use electric motors to provide energy.
Some heat pumps use heat energy, supplied by a flame or an electric heater.
Most heat pumps have a refrigeration cycle using a compressor.
A refrigeration cycle uses a fluid which moves through tubes and carries the heat.
The fluid is called a refrigerant.
During the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant changes from a liquid to a gas and back to a liquid.
When the refrigerant changes from a (compressed) liquid to a gas, it absorbs heat energy from the environment.
When the refrigerant changes from a gas back to a liquid, it loses heat energy.
It uses a compressor to do this.
Often, an electric motor drives the compressor.
The compressor compresses the refrigerant, and this makes it change from a gas to a liquid.
Compressing will heat up the liquid extensively.
At the other end of the cycle, the refrigerant boils again, absorbing heat from its surroundings, it cools them down.
So where the refrigerant is changing from a liquid to a gas, it feels cooler.
On the cooling side, heat is taken up to boil the refrigerant from a liquid to a gas.
Then the fluid moves to the heating side.
There, the compressor forces the refrigerant back to a liquid again.
This makes it give up its heat.
So heat has moved from the cooling side to the heating side.
Then, the cycle repeats.
If the cooling side is the inside of a building, and the warming side is the outside of the building, the inside of the building gets cold.
This is how an air conditioner works.
Heating and Cooling with a Heat pump (PDF)
Heat pumps Long Awaited Way out of the Global Warming (PDF) - Information from Heat Pump & Thermal Storage Technology Center of Japan
Differences in temperature, pressure, and density tend to even out horizontally after a while.
Due to the force of gravity, density and pressure do not even out vertically.
Density and pressure on the bottom will be more than at the top.
The most common wording for the second law of thermodynamics is essentially due to Rudolf Clausius:
There are many statements of the second law which use different terms, but all mean the same thing.
Another statement by Clausius is:
The second law only applies to large systems.
The second law is about the likely behavior of a system where no energy or matter gets in or out.
The bigger the system is, the more likely the second law will be true.
In a general sense, the second law says that temperature differences between systems in contact with each other tend to even out and that work can be obtained from these non-equilibrium differences, but that loss of thermal energy occurs, when work is done and entropy increases.
Pressure, density and temperature differences in an isolated system, all tend to equalize if given the opportunity; density and pressure, but not temperature, are affected by gravity.
A heat engine is a mechanical device that provides useful work from the difference in temperature of two bodies.
--Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World (1927)
--Greg Hill and Kerry Thornley, Principia Discordia (1965)
--Philosopher / Physicist P.W. Bridgman, (1941)
Flanders and Swann produced a setting of a statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics to music, called "First and Second Law.
The economist Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen showed the significance of the Entropy Law in the field of economics (see his work The Entropy Law and the Economic Process (1971), Harvard University Press).
Goldstein, Martin, and Inge F., 1993.
The Refrigerator and the Universe.
A gentle introduction, a bit less technical than this entry.
Maxwell's demon 2 : entropy, classical and quantum information, computing.
Edited by Harvey S. Leff and Andrew F. Rex.
Bristol; Philadelphia : Institute of Physics, 2003
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Philosophy of Statistical Mechanics."
by Lawrence Sklar.
The evolution of Carnot's principle, by E.T. Jaynes, in G. J. Erickson and C. R. Smith (eds.)
Maximum-Entropy and Bayesian Methods in Science and Engineering'' vol.
1, p. 267 (1988).
The Second Law of Thermodynamics.
Note:the term "air conditioning" refers to any form of "Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning".
This article deals specifically with units used as part of a cooling system.
In construction, a complete system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as HVAC.
Whether in homes, offices or vehicles, its purpose is to provide comfort by altering the properties of the air, usually by cooling the air inside.
The main function of air conditioner is to change adverse temperature.
In 1842, American physician Dr. John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for his patients.
He hoped eventually to use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings and even considered cooling entire cities with a system of centralized air conditioning units.
Air conditioning applications
Air conditioning engineers broadly divide air conditioning applications into comfort and process.
Process applications aim to provide a suitable environment for an industrial or a commercial process, regardless of internal heat loads and external weather conditions.
Although often in the same comfort range, it is the requirements of  the process that determines conditions, not human preference.
Process applications include:
Hospital operating rooms in which air is filtered to high levels to reduce the risk of infection  and the humidity is controlled to limit patient dehydration.
Although temperatures are often in the comfort range, some specialist procedures such as open heart surgery require low temperatures (about 18 °C, 64 °F), and others such as neonatal relatively high temperatures (about 28 °C, 82 °F).
Cleanrooms for the production of integrated circuits and pharmaceuticals  etc.
in which extremely high levels of air cleanliness and control of temperature and humidity are required for the success of the process.
Facilities for breeding laboratory animals.
Since many animals normally only reproduce in spring, holding them in rooms which  mirror spring-like conditions can cause them to reproduce all year round.
Aircraft air conditioning.
Although nominally aimed at providing comfort for passengers and the cooling of equipment, aircraft air conditioning presents a special process due to the low air pressure outside the aircraft.
Data Processing Centers
Textile Factories
Physical Testing Facilities
Plants and Farm Growing Areas
Industrial Environments
Food Cooking and Processing Areas
Air conditioning system basics and theories
Refrigeration cycle
In the refrigeration cycle, a pump transfers heat from a lower temperature source into a higher temperature heat sink.
Heat will naturally flow in the opposite direction.
This is the most common type of air conditioning.
This cycle takes advantage of the universal gas law PV = nRT, where P is pressure, V is volume, R is the universal gas constant, T is temperature, and n is the number of molecules of gas (1 mole = 6.022×1023 molecules).
The most common refrigeration cycle uses an electric motor to drive a compressor.
In an automobile the compressor is driven by a pulley on the engine's crankshaft, with both using electric motors for air circulation.
Since evaporation occurs when heat is absorbed, and condensation occurs when heat is released, air conditioners are designed to use a compressor to cause pressure changes between two compartments, and actively pump a coolant around an enclosed system.
The cooling liquid, or refrigerant is pumped into the cooled compartment (the evaporator coil).
Low pressure then causes the refrigerant to evaporate taking the heat with it.
In the other compartment (the condenser), the refrigerant vapour is compressed and forced through another heat exchange coil, condensed into a liquid which then rejects the heat previously absorbed from the cooled space.
Health implications
Air conditioning has as much influence on human health as any generic heating system.
Poorly maintained air-conditioning systems (especially large, centralized systems) can occasionally promote the growth and spread of microorganisms such as Legionella pneumophila,'' the infectious agent responsible for Legionnaire's disease.
Air conditioning can have a positive effect on sufferers of allergies and asthma.
In serious heat waves, air conditioning can save the lives of the elderly.
Some local authorities have even set up public cooling centers for the benefit of those without air conditioning at home.
Installation of the conditioner
One of the main conditions for the high-quality installation of HVAC equipment is the correct choice of the fixing location of the indoor and outdoor units.
Each of the listed modules is distinguished by certain design characteristics, rules for future installation.
To install an air conditioner, you need to take into account all the requirements thanks to which the equipment can be further operated in different modes.
A heavy outdoor unit is not fixed to walls made of aerated concrete;
Fasteners on the ventilated part of the facade are using a damping seal.
The choice of this particular material is due to the fact that it reduces noise vibration during operation of the external unit;
Fixing the support brackets is carried out directly to the wall, and not to the decorative lining or insulation.
The installation of an air conditioner depends on certain criteria, it starts with finding the ideal site for mounting the outdoor unit.
To do this, there are several recommendations:
The external unit is necessarily in the area of free circulation of air flows.
It is important to organize free access for further maintenance and repair of the unit.
During operation, exhausted streams of hot air come from the equipment, therefore it must be positioned so that the fumes do not enter the windows of the lower floors.
How Air Conditioners Work .
History of Automotive Air Conditioning  on NYC.net
Top 10 ac in india june 2020
Consumer Guide to Home Energy Savings - Central Air Conditioners  from the American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy (ACEEE)
Energy Efficiency Program Database  from the ACEEE
Space heating and cooling from the U.S. Department of Energy's Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
UK Enhanced Capital Allowance Scheme (ECA), a UK Government scheme to provide tax rebates for companies who use products which are ECA approved.
International Energy Agency - Energy Conservation In Buildings And Community Systems
AHAM website on Room-air Conditioners
Top-Rated Energy-Efficient Central Air Conditioners
Energy Star Central Air Conditioners
How to lower the energy usage of central air conditioning
Air Conditioning Installation
How to install a Window Air Conditioner
Branch (computer science), a point in a computer program where program-flow may change depending on a condition.
Branch predictor, the part of a processor that determines whether a conditional branch in the instruction flow of a program is likely to be taken or not.
Branch table, a term used to describe an efficient method of transferring program control (branching) to another part of a program using a table of branch instructions.
Indirect branch, a type of program control instruction.
Branching (software), a way of duplicating an object under revision control.
Branch, Arkansas, United States
Branch, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
Branch (graph theory), a concept in mathematical logic
Branch point, a point at which a multiple-valued function changes values
Principal branch, a function which selects one branch of a multi-valued function
Branch (Christ), the Branch Davidian new name of Christ
Branch (Latter Day Saints), the Latter Day Saint equivalent of a congregation
Arthur Branch, a fictional character on the TV crime drama Law & Order
Branch (academia), an academic sub-discipline
Branch (banking), a retail location
Branch (bridle), a crooked piece of iron in a bit shank
Branch line, a relatively minor railway line
Branching (chemistry), a concept in polymer chemistry
Branching (linguistics), the general tendency towards a given order of words within sentences and smaller grammatical units within sentences
Cadet branch, a family line of nobility not descending from the first born son
Earthly Branches, one Chinese system for reckoning time
Executive branch, the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the state
Olive branch, a gesture of peace
Post office branch, a type of postal facility that is not a main post office
People named Branch
Branch, Christopher (circa 1600-1682), early American colonist
Branch, Cliff (1948–2019), retired American football player
Branch, David (born 1948), Commissioner of the Ontario Hockey League
Branch, Emmett Forrest (1874-1932), governor of the U.S. state of Indiana
Branch, Frank (born 1944), Canadian politician
Branch, John, Jr. (1782–1863), U.S. Senator, Secretary of the Navy, governor of North Carolina, and  territorial governor of Florida
Branch, Lawrence O'Bryan (1820-1862), Confederate General and Representative from North Carolina
Branch, Michael (born 1978), English professional footballer
Branch, Michelle (born 1983), American singer, songwriter and guitarist
Branch, Vanessa (born 1973), British actress and model
McCracken, Branch (1908–1970), college men's basketball coach
Branch Township
East Branch
Fort Branch
USS Branch
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can change only from one form to another.
The law forms the basis of the principle of conservation of energy.
This means that anything that uses energy is changing the energy from one kind of energy to another.
For example, exercising changes energy from food into kinetic (motion) energy.
Another example:  In the Sun (or any star), nuclear fusion changes mass into heat and light (electromagnetic radiation), which travels to Earth and is used by plants to create food (chemical energy) via photosynthesis, which can be eaten by animals allowing them to move (kinetic energy).
Energy only ever changes its form; it is neither created nor destroyed.
This is why perpetual motion machines do not exist and could never exist; it would break a fundamental law of physics.
People can use the changes to do work that is useful.
Examples of forms of energy in classical mechanics include heat, light, kinetic (movement) or potential energy.
However, in modern physics it is considered that there are only two types of energy - mass and kinetic energy, although this may not be helpful to those not familiar with more complex physics.
The law means that the total energy of the universe (or any Closed system) is a constant.
However, energy can be transferred from one part of the universe to another.
The first explicit statement of the first law of thermodynamics was given by Rudolf Clausius in 1850: "There is a state function E, called 'energy', whose differential equals the work exchanged with the surroundings during an adiabatic process."
Thermodynamics and Engineering
In thermodynamics and engineering, it is natural to think of the system as a heat engine which does work on the surroundings, and to state that the total energy added by heating is equal to the sum of the increase in internal energy plus the work done by the system.
Hence  is the amount of energy lost by the system due to work done by the system on its surroundings.
During the portion of the thermodynamic cycle where the engine is doing work,  is positive, but there will always be a portion of the cycle where  is negative, e.g., when the working gas is being compressed.
When  represents the work done by the system, the first law is written:
People disagree whether energy is a positive or a negative number.
So that  is the flow of heat out of the system, and  is the work into the system:
A gentle introduction.
This article refers to the law of conservation of energy in physics.
For energy resources sustainably, see: Energy conservation.
In physics, the conservation of energy is that energy can not be created or destroyed, it can only be changed from one form to another, such as when electrical energy is changed into heat energy.
Formally, it says that the total amount of energy in an isolated system remains constant, although it may change forms, e.g. friction turns kinetic energy into thermal energy.
In thermodynamics, the first law of thermodynamics is a statement of the conservation of energy for thermodynamic systems.
From a mathematical point of view, the energy conservation law is a consequence of the shift symmetry of time; energy conservation is a result of the empirical fact that the laws of physics do not change with time itself.
Philosophically, this can be stated as "nothing depends on time per se (time itself)".
Ancient philosophers as far back as Thales of Miletus had the idea that there is some underlying substance of which everything is made.
But that is not the same as our concept of "mass-energy" today (for example, Thales thought the underlying substance was water).
In 1638, Galileo published his analysis of several situations.
This included the famous "interrupted pendulum".
This can be described (in modernized language) as conservatively converting potential energy to kinetic energy and back again.
However, Galileo did not explain the process in modern terms and had not understood the modern concept either.
The German Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz during 1676-1689 attempted a mathematical formulation of the kind of energy which is connected with motion (kinetic energy).
Leibniz noticed that in many mechanical systems (of several masses, mi  each with velocity vi ),
was conserved so long as the masses did not interact.
He called this quantity the vis viva or living force of the system.
The principle represents an accurate statement of the approximate conservation of kinetic energy in situations where there is no friction.
Meanwhile, in 1843 James Prescott Joule independently discovered the mechanical equivalent in a series of experiments.
In the most famous, now called the "Joule apparatus", a descending weight attached to a string caused a paddle immersed in water to rotate.
He showed that the gravitational potential energy lost by the weight in descending was approximately equal to the thermal energy (heat) gained by the water by friction with the paddle.
Assuming that  and that , then
(Since )
Modern accounts
Stenger, Victor J. (2000).
Timeless Reality.
Prometheus Books.
Especially chpt.
Nontechnical.
ISBN  0-534-40842-7
Classic accounts
,  Chapter 8, "Energy and Thermo-dynamics"
MISN-0-158 The First Law of Thermodynamics  (PDF file) by Jerzy Borysowicz for Project PHYSNET.
The Lepidoptera are the butterflies and moths.
However, though the butterflies are a natural monophyletic group, moths are not.
Butterflies are often put in the suborder  Rhopalocera, which includes Papilionoidea (true butterflies), the Hesperiidae (skippers), and the Hedylidae (butterfly moths).
In Linnaean taxonomy, moths are usually put in the suborder Heterocera.
This tends to cover up the fact that they are not a true natural monophyletic group.
However, moths do look and behave rather different from butterflies, which explains why people came to call them by a different name.
Other taxonomic schemes have been proposed, but none of them is perfect.
Both taxonomists and amateurs make use of the obvious differences between butterflies and moths.
Morphological differences
Shape and structure of antennae
The most obvious difference is in the feelers, or antennae.
Most butterflies have thin slender filamentous antennae which are club shaped at the end.
Moths, on the other hand, often have comb-like or feathery antennae, or filamentous and unclubbed.
This distinction is the basis for the earliest taxonomic divisions in the Lepidoptera  the Rhopalocera ("clubbed horn", the butterflies) and the Heterocera ("varied horn", the moths).
There are, however, exceptions to this rule and a few moths (the family Castniidae) have clubbed antennae.
Some butterflies, like Pseudopontia paradoxa from the forests of central Africa, lack the clubbed ends.
The Hesperiids often have an angle to the tip of the antenna.
Wing coupling mechanisms
Many moths have a frenulum or wing coupling physically attaching upper and lower parts of their wings together.
The frenulum can be seen only when a specimen is in hand.
It may be a filament from the hindwing coupling with barbs on the forewing.
Butterflies usually lack these structures.
Their wing coupling is usually done by simple overlap of wing edges.
Pupae
Most moth caterpillars spin a cocoon made of silk when they go into the pupal stage.
Most butterflies on the other hand form an exposed pupa called a chrysalis.
There are many exceptions to this rule.
Hawk moths form an exposed chrysalis which is underground.
Gypsy moths sometimes form butterfly-style pupae, hanging on twigs or tree bark, although usually they create flimsy cocoons out of silk strands and a few leaves, partially exposing the chrysalis.
A few Skipper butterfly larvae also make crude cocoons in which they pupate, exposing the pupa a bit.
The Parnassius butterfly larvae make a flimsy cocoon for pupation and they pupate near the ground surface between debris.
Colour of the wings
Most butterflies have bright colours on their wings.
Nocturnal moths on the other hand are usually plain brown, grey, white or black and often with obscuring patterns of zigzags or swirls which help camouflage them as they rest during the day.
However many day-flying moths are brightly coloured, particularly if they are toxic.
A few butterflies are quite plain, like the cabbage white butterfly.
Structure of the body
Moths tend to have stout and hairy or furry-looking bodies.
Butterflies on the other hand have slender and smoother abdomens.
Moths have larger scales on their wings.
These make them look more dense and fluffy.
Butterflies on the other hand have fine scales.
This difference is possibly due to the need for moths to conserve heat during the cooler nights whereas butterflies are able to absorb sunlight.
Behavioural differences
Time of activity
Most moths are nocturnal or crepuscular (active at night) while most butterflies are diurnal (active at daytime).
There are however exceptions, including the diurnal gypsy moth and the spectacular "Uraniidae" or Sunset moths.
Resting posture
Moths usually rest with their wings spread out to their sides.
Butterflies frequently fold their wings above their backs when they are perched although they will occasionally "bask" with their wings spread for short periods.
However some butterflies, like the skippers, may hold their wings either flat or folded or even in-between (the so-called "jet plane" position) when perched.
Most moths also occasionally fold their wings above their backs when they are in a certain spot (like when there is no room to fully spread their wings).
A sometimes confusing family can be the "Geometridae" (such as the winter moth) because the adults often rest with their wings folded vertically.
These moths have thin bodies and large wings like many butterflies but may be distinguished easily by structural differences in their antennae (e.g. bipectinate).
Biologists have introduced  a kind of taxonomy called cladistics.
The aim of this is to make biological classification fit what we know about the way organisms evolved.
If there is a group made of a common ancestor, and all its descendants, that group is monophyletic.
(Greek: "of one race").
A group which contains organisms, without their common ancestor, is called polyphyletic.
Convergent evolution is a usual cause of such groups.
If a group contains the common ancestor, but leaves out some of its descendants, it is called paraphyletic.
All living things on this planet are thought, on the basis of DNA analysis, to be monophyletic, that is, to have one origin, not many.
Example: all species in the genus Homo have come from the same ancestral form in the family Hominidae, and no other descendants are known.
Thus the genus Homo is monophyletic.
If, on the other hand, it were discovered that Homo habilis had developed from a different ancestor from Homo sapiens, and this ancestor were not included in the genus, then the genus would be polyphyletic.
Since biologists by and large tend to prefer monophyletic groups, in this case, they would likely either split the genus or broaden it to include the additional forms.
Polyploidy
Sometimes taxonomists are frustrated fitting plant species into a monophyletic group because of polyploidy.
There is clear evidence that some polyploid plant species are of multiple origins (the species has arisen more than once).
For example, Salsify, the hybrid goat's-beard, (Tragopogon miscellus) has formed as many as 20 times in eastern Washington.
Also, it can happen that hybrids between two close plant species undergo polyploidy, and the polyploids continue as a new and distinct species.
Situations like this are outside the normal rules of descent, and are dealt with by special decisions, guided by the International Commission of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).
The order Lepidoptera is the second biggest order of  insects.
It includes the moths and butterflies including the  skippers.
There is no common word for the group: ordinary people talk of "butterflies and moths".