the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
This caused her to become known as a protector of embalmers' tents and of the canopic jar for the intestine (Qebehsenuf).
The intestine's canopic jar was the one associated with poisons.
Because she was a protector of canopic jars, Serket was associated with Aset (Isis), and Nebet Het (Nephthys) and Neith.
Later, Serket began to be known as Isis.
Serket came to be known as a part of Isis, instead of a separate goddess.
Tempera (sometimes known as egg tempera) is a type of artist's paint.
It was the main medium used for panel painting and illuminated manuscripts in the Byzantine world and the Middle Ages in Europe, until it was replaced by oil painting as the most popular medium for large paintings.
It is still used for Orthodox icons.
Some modern painters use tempera.
In modern times, some manufacturers call ordinary poster paint by the name of "tempera".
Poster paint is not really tempera.
It is a different type of paint called gouache.
Painting with tempera
Egg yolk (the yellow part of the egg) dries and sticks very firmly.
It is used to mix and set the paints in a tempera painting.
The colours are ground up into dry powders that must be mixed by the artist.
In earlier times, some of the paints were very poisonous and the artist had to be careful not to breathe in the powdered paint.
The paints are generally mixed with equal parts of egg yolk and water.
If there is too much egg, the paint is gooey.
If there is too much water, it is runny.
Neither of these things are good.
Some artists like to mix some of the egg white as well, for a different effect.
Sometimes some oil is added.
In ancient times other things were added which might include honey, milk and plant gums.
The painting must be done over a "ground" that has already been prepared.
The "ground" is smooth flat paint on a strong board that does not bend.
The paint must be put on in thin layers with tiny brush strokes that dry very quickly.
Because the paint is transparent the artists use a special technique.
They often paint the shadows on the figure before they paint the skin colour and colour of the clothing over the top.
When the painting is finished, it is not very brightly coloured, until it has been varnished.
This makes the colours bright and shiny.
The good thing about tempera painting is that the colours do not change over the years, whereas oil paintings change, get darker and go more yellow.
Tempera paintings can last well for at least two thousand years.
Because tempera paintings take a long time to do, many of them are small.
Sometimes artists painted large altarpieces in tempera.
One of the biggest tempera paintings is Duccio's picture of the Madonna and Child in the Uffizi Gallery.
It is about 15 feet high.
Another very famous large tempera painting is Botticelli's Birth of Venus which is also in the Uffizi. (
see picture above)
Some of the oldest paintings in tempera are funeral portraits of dead people done is Egypt during the time of Ancient Rome.
Tempera continued to be used for Christian religious paintings.
It was the medium for Greek icons and was used in Italy and many other countries until oil painting came into use, in about 1500.
Most of the famous Italian Renaissance painters used tempera.
This includes Duccio, Giotto, Fra Angelico, Botticelli and Michelangelo.
In Northern Europe they used oil paint.
This started to become popular in Italy in the 1570s.
Leonardo painted the Mona Lisa in oil paint.
Nowadays, although oil paint and vinyl paint are much more common, some artists paint in tempera.
One of the most famous tempera painters of the 20th century is Andrew Wyeth.
Gallery of small tempera paintings
Decision making is the mental process that leads to the selection of an action among several alternatives.
Every decision making process produces a final choice.
The output can be an action or an opinion.
There is a growing awareness that people often make good decisions rapidly without knowing how they do it.
This runs against the older rational decision-making ideas.
Emotional and Decision Making Lab, Carnegie Mellon, EDM Lab
The de Borda Institute - Emerson, P J.  Beyond the Tyranny of the Majority, a comparison of the more common voting procedures used in both decision making and elections.
Decision Analysis in Health Care  - An online course from George Mason University providing free lectures and tools for decision making in health care.
DecideBetter! -
An online resource to help make better decisions in your everyday lives.
Trichotillomania (TTM) (often called "trich") is an impulse control disorder.
It causes a person to habitually pull out their hair.
People with trichotillomania may pull hair from anywhere on the body.
Sometimes people with trich end up having large areas on the body without hair.
Trichotillomania is listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).
The DSM is written by the American Psychiatric Association.
It lists every condition which is officially called a mental illness.
The DSM puts trich in the "impulse control disorder" category.
However, there are questions about what category trich should be in.
At different times, it may seem to be a habit, an addiction, a tic disorder, or an obsessive-compulsive disorder.
See Horror
Reign of Terror, a period of extreme violence, 1793 - 1794, during the French Revolution
The last weeks of the Reign of Terror are sometimes referred to as the "Red Terror" or "Great Terror"; see below for other uses of those terms.
Red Terror, a campaign of repression and violence by Bolsheviks in Soviet Russia 1918 - 1922
White Terror, acts of violence by reactionary groups as part of a counter-revolution
The White Terror (France), two similar movements against the French Revolution 1794 - 1795
Great Terror, another name for the Great Purge, campaigns of repression and persecution in the Soviet Union during the late 1930s
The Terror (1963 movie), a 1963 horror movie directed by Roger Corman
The Terror (novel), a 2007 novel by Dan Simmons
Terror (band), an American hardcore punk band from California
"Terror", a song by My Ruin from their 1999 album Speak and Destroy
In comics
Terror (New England Comics), a supervillain from The Tick comic books, cartoon, and live-action TV series
Terror Inc., a 1992 Marvel Comics series
Terror (Marvel Comics), the fictional Marvel Comics character of the 1940s
Green terror, a tropical freshwater fish
Night terror, a sleep disorder
HMS Terror (disambiguation), nine ships of the Royal Navy
USS Terror (disambiguation), three ships of the United States Navy
Mount Terror (disambiguation), two mountains
Terrorist (disambiguation)
The Reign of Terror or simply The Terror was a period of about 11 months during the French Revolution, led by Maximilien de Robespierre.
During this time, French people who did not support the revolution were executed at the guillotine.
The Reign of Terror was announced on 5 September, 1793.
A Revolutionary Tribunal decided who would be killed.
This happened more and more often in June and July of 1794, a period called la Grande Terreur (The Great Terror).
On 17 July 1794, sixteen nuns attracted much attention by singing a religious song as they were being executed for treason.
The Terror ended ten days later, when several important leaders of the Reign of Terror were executed, including Saint-Just and Robespierre.
The Terror took the lives of between 18,500 to 40,000 people.
Robespierre died due to the Thermidorian Reaction against the Jacobins, by being executed with the guillotine.
This was a revolt against the revolution otherwise called a counter-revolution.
Robespierre was one of the last to be guillotined, after the 21 followers.
The Terror from In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)
1794 in France
Political faction, a group of people connected by a shared belief or opinion within a larger group
Faction (literature), a type of historical novel rooted in fact
Faction (Planescape), political factions in the game, Planescape
Guild Wars: Factions, a computer game developed by ArenaNet.
FACTION 28, a music channel on SIRIUS Satellite Radio
Faction (musical project), a British/Israeli electronic music project
The Faction, a Punk rock band
The individuals within a faction are united in a common goal for the organization they are a part of.
They stick together to achieve this goal and improve their position within the organization.
A political faction could be described as a “party within a party”.
But political factions are not limited to political parties; they can form within any group that has some sort of political aim or purpose.
Examples of modern political factions
Within the Democratic Party
Democratic Leadership Council
Within the Republican Party
Christian Right (made up of Christian Voice, Moral Majority, Christian Coalition, and Focus on the Family.
The Christian Right claims to champion Biblical values)
In the history of the Republic of China from 1911 until 1949, factionalisation within the Chinese Nationalist Kuomintang was a large problem for the central government, especially for Chiang Kai-Shek.
Warlord factions which had been persuaded to ally with Chiang during the (1926–1927) had to be constantly pacified, as well as regional military governors who ruled regions that were not directly administered by Chiang's central government.
Often historians conclude that this lack of unity contributed to the defeat of the Nationalists in holding mainland China during the Chinese Civil War.
Etymology on line
fa:جناح سیاسی
The French Constitution of 1791 was the second written Constitution of France.
The new French Government started using it after the French Revolution.
It had the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen for its introduction.
This Constitution said that France was going to have a constitutional monarchy.
The biggest disagreement was over how much power the King of France should have in such a system.
After very long negotiations, the first Constitution was brought in September of 1791.
It created a constitutional monarchy.
But the king ran away anyways, because he was scared of the Jacobins, who didn't like kings.
The idea of Separation of powers was the basis for the Constitution: The National Convention was the legislative body, the King and the Ministers made up the executive branch, and the judicial branch was independent from the other two.
However, the French Revolution still continued after this document was signed.
The constitution tried to create a liberal bourgeois constitutional monarchy, but this did not work out.
On 10 August 1792 the monarchy of France ended.
The Constitution of 1791
1790s in France
Executive (government), a branch of government or local authority
Executive order, an edict issued by a member of the executive branch of a government
Executive system (or executive functions),  the brain processes involved in high-order cognition
Executive car, a size of car
Architecture of Windows NT#Executive, an internal part of modern Microsoft Windows
Manager, also known as a corporate executive; a manager in a corporation
Chief executive officer (CEO) or chief executive is the highest-ranking corporate officer
Executive format, a special paper size in the United States and Canada
The Executive, a fictional belt-less raincoat in the American sitcom Seinfeld
Executive (Lebanese magazine), a Lebanese newsmagazine
Studio executive, an employee of a movie studio
The Knights of the Round Table were characters in the legends about King Arthur.
They were the best knights in King Arthur's kingdom, and lived in King Arthur's castle, Camelot.
They were called the Knights of the Round Table because of a special table that was in Camelot, that was round instead of rectangular.
This meant that everyone who sat around it was seen as trustworthy and equal.
Code of chivalry
In order to become a Knight of the Round Table, a knight had to prove he was chivalrous (polite) enough.
In the legend, the knights swore a Code of Chivalry, which is much like an oath is today.
This meant that they promised to uphold the rules given to them once they became a Knight of the Round Table.
Sir Thomas Malory wrote a book based on the legend of King Arthur.
It was called Le Morte d'Arthur.
In it, he wrote his version of the Code of Chivalry:
To never do outrage nor murder (not to assault or murder anybody)
Always to flee treason (do not commit treason, a crime against your country or king)
To by no means be cruel but to give mercy unto him who asks for mercy (Do not be mean.
Grant mercy to those who ask, even in combat.)
To always do ladies, gentlewomen and widows succor ('succor' is an old word for help; this means that the knight must promise to help women if they need it.)
To never force ladies, gentlewomen or widows (never 'harm' women.)
Not to take up battles in wrongful quarrels for love or worldly goods (do not ever join in fights over anything less than God or country)
To fear God and maintain His Church
List of the Knights of the Round Table
In different stories, there are different numbers of knights, ranging from 12 to more than 150.
The Winchester Round Table shows 25 Knights.
The most commonly mentioned in literature include:
References in other works
In the 2014 movie, Kingsman: The Secret Service, each of the Kingsman agents is named after one of the knights of the Round Table.
Gary "Eggsy" Unwin, the main character, has the code name 'Galahad'.
This is also the code name of Harry Hart, Eggsy's mentor.
Roxy Morton, the only female Kingsman, has the codename 'Lancelot'. '
Arthur' is the codename for the leader of Kingsman, while 'Merlin' is the codename for their trainer and tech coordinator.
One of the fictional Fate media franchise's most well known characters, "Saber" aka Artoria Pendragon, is a female character based on King Arthur.
In the mobile game Fate/Grand Order, she alongside various other Knights of the Round Table (Lancelot, Gawain, Bedivere, Tristan), as well as Mordred, can be summoned as usable characters.
Additionally, in Fate/Grand Order, Sir Galahad is the Heroic Spirit that was summoned into the body of another character in the game, Mash Kyrielight, and therefore is the one to bestow her his powers.
Timeless Myths page for Knights of the Round Table
The executive is the branch of government that is responsible for the day-to-day management of the state. (
Executive is short for executive branch or executive power.)
Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, the executive is not supposed to make laws (role of the legislature), nor to interpret them (role of the judiciary).
The executive is supposed to put the laws into action.
The executive is led by the head of Government.
The Head of Government is assisted by a number of ministers, who usually have responsibilities for particular areas (e.g. health, education, foreign affairs), and by many government employees or civil servants.
In a presidential system, this person (the President) may also be the head of State, but in a parliamentary system, he or she is usually the leader of the largest party in the legislature and is most commonly termed the Prime Minister (Taoiseach in the Republic of Ireland, (Federal) Chancellor in Germany and Austria).
In France, executive power is shared between the President and the Prime Minister and this system has been reproduced in a number of former French colonies.
Switzerland and Bosnia and Herzegovina have similar systems.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a group of scientists chosen by governments and other large groups from around the world who study the way that humans are making the Earth heat up unnaturally.
The group was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), two organizations of the United Nations.
A lot of IPCC work is publishing reports about the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),  an international agreement that human inventions and chemistry may make the Earth too hot to live on.
The UNFCCC was the beginning of the Kyoto Protocol.
Members of the IPCC read, write, and calculate as much as they can.
Only member states of the WMO and UNEP may be members of IPCC.
IPCC Reports
The first IPCC report was published in 1990.
More was added to that report in 1992.
The second report was published in 1995, the third was published in 2001, and a fourth in 2007.
Each report is in three books called Working Groups 1, 2 and 3.
Most times "the IPCC report" means the Working Group I report, which is about basic climate change.
IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007
The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) was completed in early 2007.
Like earlier IPCC reports, it contains four reports, three of them from its working groups.
The Working Group 1 report was published on February 2 2007 and revised on February 2007.
There was also a February 2 2007 press release.
The full Working Group 1 report was published in March.
The main report says:
Warming of the climate system is unequivocal.
Most of the increase in globally averaged temperatures since the middle of the 20th century is very likely to be caused by humans using gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and CFCs.
Warming and sea level rise will continue for centuries, even if greenhouse gas was not used any more, the amount of warming and sea level rise depends on how much fossil fuel is burnt for the next 100 years (pages 14 and 18).
The chance that global warming and rising sea levels is natural is less than 5%.
World temperatures could rise by between 1.1 and 6.4 °C (2.0 and 11.5 °F) during the 21st century (table 3) and:
Sea levels may rise by 18 to 59 cm (7.08 to 23.22 in) [table 3].
Both past and future carbon dioxide production will continue to make global warming and sea level rise for more than a thousand years.
Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere have increased a lot because of human activities since 1750
The Summary for Policymakers for the Working Group 3 report  was published on May 4, 2007.
IPCC Third Assessment Report: Climate Change 2001
Working Group 1: The Scientific Basis
Working Group 2: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
Working Group 3: Mitigation
Synthesis Report
The "headlines" from the Summary for Policymakers in The Scientific Basis were:
More scientists are believing in a warming world and other changes in climate (The average global temperature has increased during the 20th century by about 0.6 °C; Temperatures have risen during the past four decades in the lowest 8 kilometers of the atmosphere; Snow and ice have decreased)
Emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols due to human activities continue to change the atmosphere in ways that are expected to affect the climate
More scientists believe future climate change can be predicted.
Climate prediction has improved but not enough
There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming over the past 50 years was caused by humans
Humans will continue to change atmosphere in the 21st century
Global average temperature and sea level are projected to rise by the IPCC SRES scenarios
The estimate for the climate sensitivity was 1.5 to 4.5 °C; and the average temperature was predicted to increase by 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees between 1990 and 2100, and the sea level was predicted to rise between 0.1 and 0.9 meters.
The range of predictions is based on different levels of human carbon dioxide production.
Each perdiction has different possible outcomes.
Changing scientists reports
MIT professor Richard Lindzen, who works for the IPCC Working Group 1, claims some of the IPCC reports are wrong.
He told the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation that he was unhappy about the Executive Summary based on his work in May 2001.
He said that he told the IPCC they were making mistakes and the Working Group 1 report said that meant they were "making improvements".
The summary does not reflect the full document... For example, I worked on Chapter 7, Physical Processes.
This chapter dealt with the nature of the basic processes which determine the response of climate, and found numerous problems with model treatments – including those of clouds and water vapor.
The chapter was summarized with the following sentence: 'Understanding of climate processes and their incorporation in climate models have improved, including water vapor, sea-ice dynamics, and ocean heat transport.'
Coupled models can provide credible simulations of both the present annual mean climate and the climatological seasonal cycle over broad continental scales for most variables of interest for climate change.
Clouds and humidity remain sources of significant uncertainty but there have been incremental improvements in simulations of these quantities.
Confidence in the ability of models to project future climates is increased by the ability of several models to reproduce the warming trend in 20th century surface air temperature when driven by radiative forcing due to increasing greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols.
However, only idealised scenarios of only sulphate aerosols have been used.
IPCC Second Assessment Report: Climate Change 1995
Climate Change 1995, the IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR), was finished in 1996.
It was made in four parts:
A synthesis to help interpret UNFCCC article 2.
The Science of Climate Change (Working Group 1)
Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change (Working Group 2)
Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change (Working Group 3)
Each of the working groups was made by its own working group, and each has a Summary for Policymakers (SPM) that is a list of agreements by governments.
The Summary for Policy Makers of the Working Group 1 report says:
Greenhouse gas has continued to increase
CFC aerosols make radiation in the atmposphere
Climate has changed over the past century (air temperature has increased by between 0.3 and 0.6 °C since the late 19th century; this is almost the same as the 1990 report).
The evidence is that humans are changing the Earths climate (a lot of extra work was done since the 1990 report to see the difference between natural climate change and human changes, for example: the effects of aerosol gases)
Climate is will continue to change in the future
We cannot be sure of how much human effects will happen in future
Changing what the scientists say
On December 20, 1995, Reuters news agency claimed a British scientist Keith Shine, one of IPCC's most important authors, talking about the Policymakers' Summary, said: "We produce a draft, and then the policymakers go through it line by line and change the way it is presented.... It's peculiar that they have the final say in what goes into a scientists' report".
Keith Shine did not say what differences the changes make.
Frederick Seitz, a physicist of Rockefeller University, said the IPCC report was not good, writing "I have never witnessed a more disturbing corruption of the peer-review process than the events that led to this IPCC report".
He opposed it in the Leipzig Declaration of S. Fred Singer's Science and Environmental Policy Project.
Professor Seitzs comments were opposed by the presidents of the American Meteorological Society and University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, who wrote about an effort by some people make it seem that humans had not changed the climate.
Special insert .
Chapter 8 was changed;
Three important parts — the views of the authors, contributors, and reviewers —  should have been put in the Summary but they were deleted;
The purpose was to produce the best possible and most clear report of the science, and was under his full control.
None of the changes were politically motivated.
Economic report
The Second Assessment Report was the only one with a chapter on the economic effect of climate change.
This part of the report was thought to be unfair because the value of life in poorer countries was less.
IPCC Supplementary Report: 1992
It did not make any important changes to the 1990 report.
It claimed the prediction methods in the First Assessment Report, were now improved, but did not include aerosol or ozone changes.
IPCC First Assessment Report: 1990
We are certain there is a natural greenhouse effect...; humans are making the greenhouse effect stronger by releasing these gases: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, CFC gases and nitrous oxide gas.
These gases trap heat on the Earth.
We calculate that: ...CO2 has been responsible for over half the stronger greenhouse effect; gases that stay in the air for a long time need to be used 60% less to stop making the greenhouse effect even stronger
We predict: global temperature during the [21st] century will rise by 0.3 oC per decade (but possibly between 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade); this is more warming than the past 10,000 years; Some other sudies predict that temperature will rise between 0.2 oC and 0.1 oC per decade.
The predictions are not exact because we do not yet understand the effects of clouds, ice sheets, oceans and other important parts.
We believe that world temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years...; This warming does not appear to be caused by humans but it is possible that humans have caused this warming.
We will not be sure how much of the warming has been caused by humans for a decade or more.
IPCC structure
The Chairperson of the IPCC is Rajendra K. Pachauri, elected in May 2002; before that Robert Watson headed the IPCC.
The chairperson is helped by an elected Bureau including vice-chairpersons, Working Group co-chairpersons and a Secretariat (see below).
The IPCC Panel is made of people from governments and other groups.
Scientific experts are preferred.
Meetings of the IPCC and IPCC Working Groups are held by members of governments.
Non-Governmental and Intergovernmenta Organizations may be allowed to attend as observers.
Meetings of the IPCC Bureau, workshops, experts and lead authors are by invitation only.
350 government officials and climate change experts visited the 2003 meeting.
The meeting report  says there were 322 persons in attendance at meetings with about seven-eighths of visitors being from governments.
Major groups
IPCC Panel: Meets about once a year and controls the organization.
The Panel is the IPCC corporate entity.
Chairperson: Elected by the Panel.
Secretariat: Controls all activities.
Supported by UNEP and WMO.
Bureau: Elected by the Panel.
Chaired by the Chair.
30 members include IPCC Vice-Chairpersons, Co-Chairpersons and Vice-Chairpersons of Working Groups and Task Force.
Working Groups: Each has two Co-Chairpersons, one from a richer country and one from a poorer country, and a technical support unit.
Working Group 1: Studies the science of the climate system and climate change.
Working Group 2: Studies the effects and dangers of human activity in relation to climate change and gives ideas for how to change human activity.
Working Group 3: Studies options for limiting greenhouse gas and other ways to reduce climate change.
Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
People from over 130 countries contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report over 6 years.
These people included more than 2500 scientific expert reviewers, more than 800 contributing authors, and more than 450 lead authors.
In April 2006, the IPCC released the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report or AR4.
Reports of the workshops held so far are available at the IPCC website.
Working Group 1  :
Report was finished during February of 2007  .
By May 2005, there had been 3 AR4 meetings, the only public information was the meeting locations, an author list, one invitation, one agenda, and one list of presentation titles.
By December 2006, governments were reviewing the Summary for Policy Makers.
Working Group 2  :
Report was finished in mid-2007.
In May 2005, there had been 2 AR4 meetings, with no public information released.
One meeting with Working Group 3 workers had taken place, with a published report.
Working Group 3  :
Report was to be finished in mid-2007.
In May 2005, there had been 1 AR4 meeting, with no public information released.
The AR4 Synthesis Report (SYR) was finalized in November 2007.
Documentation on the meetings for the AR4 are available  , the outlines for the Working Group 1 report  and a provisional author list .
The IPCC also supports other activities, such as the Data Distribution Centre Welcome to the IPCC Data Distribution Centre and the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme IPCC - Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.
This involves estimating greenhouse gas based on the levels of fuel used, industrial production and so on.
Preparation of the reports
The IPCC reports are a collection of peer reviewed and published science.
Each IPCC report explains improvements to the previous report and also explains where more research is needed.
Expert review (6–8 weeks)
Government/expert review
Government review of: Summaries for Policymakers, Overview Chapters, and Synthesis Report
approval: Line by line agreement.
Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are approved by their Working Groups.
Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers is approved by Panel.
adoption: Section by section (and not line by line) agreement.
Panel adopts Overview Chapters of Methodology Reports.
Panel adopts IPCC Synthesis Report.
acceptance: No line by line discussion.
Working Groups accept their reports.
Task Force Reports are accepted by the Panel.
Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are accepted by the Panel after group approval.
The Panel controls what the IPCC agrees on to meet standards.
The Panel's approval process has been criticized for changing what the experts put in the Reports.
Each chapter has a lot of authors who are responsible for writing and editing the material.
A chapter usually has two "Coordinating" Lead Authors who control what words go in their chapter, ten to fifteen Lead Authors, and a larger number of Contributing Authors.
The Lead Authors put together the work of the other authors and report to the Working Group chairs.
Lead Authors write sections of chapters.
Contributing Authors prepare text, graphs and data.
Authors are chosen from a list of researchers prepared by governments, other important groups, the Working Group/Task Force Bureaux, and other experts (, 4.2.1,2).
The group of Coordinating Lead Authors and Lead Authors for a section or chapter of a Report is expected to have many different views and to have people from different parts of the world.
Nobel Peace Prize 2007
In December 2007, the IPCC was awarded The Nobel Peace Prize 2007 "for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change."
The award is shared with Former U.S. Vice-President Al Gore for his work on climate change and the documentary An Inconvenient Truth.
Criticism of IPCC
Christopher Landsea resignation
In January 2005 Christopher Landsea resigned from work on the IPCC AR4, saying that it was "both being motivated by pre-conceived agendas and being scientifically unsound" because of Kevin Trenberth of the National Center for Atmospheric Research's idea that global warming was contributing to recent hurricane activity.
Roger A. Pielke who published Landsea's letter writes: "How anyone can deny that political factors were everpresent in the negotiations isn't paying attention", but says that "Despite the pressures, on tropical cyclones they figured out a way to maintain consistency with the actual balance of opinion(s) in the community of relevant experts."
He continues "So there might be a human contribution (and presumably this is just to the observed upwards trends observed in some basins, and not to downward trends observed in others, but this is unclear) but the human contribution itself has not been quantitatively assessed, yet the experts, using their judgment, expect it to be there.
In plain English this is what is called a 'hypothesis' and not a 'conclusion.'
And it is a fair representation of the issue."
"Hockey stick" graph
The IPCC Third Assessment Report showed a graph labeled "Millennial Northern Hemisphere temperature reconstruction" from a paper by Mann, Bradley and Hughes (MBH98) often called the "Hockey Stick Graph".
This graph was different to the IPCC First assessment report which showed global temperature for the past 1000 years, and higher temperatures during the Medieval Warm Period.
The graph was thought to show that temperatures between 1000 and 1900 were very different.
This was criticized in an article by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick.
In a 2006 letter to Nature, Bradley, Hughes and Mann claimed the original article had said that they could not be exact.
On February 1, 2007, the night before publication of IPCCs report on climate, a study was published saying that temperatures and sea levels have been rising at or above the speed the IPCC reported in 2001.
The study compared IPCC 2001 predictions of temperature and sea level change with what actually happened.
Over the six years, the actual temperature rise was near the top end of the range given by IPCC's 2001 prediction and the actual rise was more than the top of the range the IPCC predicted.
Political influence on the IPCC has been shown by the release of a memo by ExxonMobil to the Bush administration, and its effects on the IPCCs leadership.
The Bush administration, at the request of ExxonMobil, wanted rid of Robert Watson, a climate scientist and IPCC chairperson, and to have him replaced by Pachauri, who was seen at the time as more friendly to industry.
IPCC process
In 2005, the UK House of Lords Select Committee on Economic Affairs produced a report on the economics of climate change.
It commented on the IPCC process:
"We have some concerns about the objectivity of the IPCC process, with some of its emissions scenarios and summary documentation apparently influenced by political considerations.
There are significant doubts about some aspects of the IPCCs emissions scenario exercise, in particular, the high emissions scenarios.
The Government should press the IPCC to change their approach.
There are some positive aspects to global warming and these appear to have been played down in the IPCC reports; the Government should press the IPCC to reflect in a more balanced way the costs and benefits of climate change.
The Government should press the IPCC for better estimates of the monetary costs of global warming damage and for explicit monetary comparisons between the costs of measures to control warming and their benefits.
Since warming will continue, regardless of action now, due to the lengthy time lags.
The IPCC website
IPCC Organisation
IPCC publications
IPCC AR4 WG1 Report Available for Purchase
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The Zimmermann Telegram (also called the Zimmermann Note) was a telegram sent to Mexico from Germany on January 16, 1917.
It was what made America enter World War I.  It is named for the German man who sent it, Arthur Zimmermann.
Zimmermann was the German Foreign Secretary (took care of things with other countries).
Zimmermann sent it to the German ambassador in the United States, Johann von Bernstorff.
Bernstorff then sent it to the German ambassador in Mexico, Heinrich von Eckardt.
FROM 2nd from London # 5747.
"We intend to begin on the first of February unrestricted submarine warfare.
We shall endeavor in spite of this to keep the United States of America neutral.
In the event of this not succeeding, we make Mexico a proposal of alliance on the following basis: make war together, make peace together, generous financial support and an understanding on our part that Mexico is to reconquer the lost territory in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.
The settlement in detail is left to you.
You will inform the President of the above most secretly as soon as the outbreak of war with the United States of America is certain and add the suggestion that he should, on his own initiative, invite Japan to immediate adherence and at the same time mediate between Japan and ourselves.
Please call the President's attention to the fact that the ruthless employment of our submarines now offers the prospect of compelling England in a few months to make peace."
Signed, ZIMMERMANN
The telegram told the ambassador to ask the Mexicans to join the war on the German side by attacking America.
Germany promised to help Mexico take back land the United States had taken from Mexico in the Mexican–American War.
These places were Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.
Germany wanted Mexico to enter the war so America would be too busy to help the enemies of Germany.
Mexico was already busy with the Mexican Revolution and did not like the idea.
The British secretly got the telegram.
They were able to decode the telegram.
They held on to the telegram until February 24, 1917.
They gave it to President Woodrow Wilson of the United States of America.
President Wilson published the telegram so the people would know about it.
The telegram made the American people angry.
Wilson asked  the United States Congress for a Declaration of war against Germany.
Congress accepted the request on April 2, 1917.
The United States of America announced war on Germany on April 6, 1917.
Americans were already angry over German submarines sinking ships, but this telegram is what made America come into the war.
Failed Diplomacy: the Zimmermann Telegram
The life and death of Charles Jastrow Mendelsohn and the breaking of the code.
The Battle of Stalingrad was fought during the Second World War between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union.
They were fighting for control of the city of Stalingrad.
The battle was fought between 23 August 1942 and 2 February 1943.
It was one of the most important battles of the war because it marked the end of Germany's advances.
Hitler even blamed his defeat partly on Stalingrad.
The Battle of Stalingrad has often been recorded as an example of how brutal a war can be.
It is reported that, due to limited supplies, soldiers and civilians had to resort to eating rats, mice, and even cannibalism.
Stalingrad, now Volgograd, was a city on the Volga River.
It was an important industrial city, and the Volga was an important transport route.
Hitler also wanted to capture Stalingrad because it was named after Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, thus it would embarrass him.
In June 1942, Adolf Hitler launched an attack in southern Russia.
By the end of July the German army had reached Stalingrad.
With bombs and fire the German Luftwaffe turned the city into ruins.
However, the rubble made hiding places from which Russian snipers could attack the Germans.
Hitler and Stalin sent in large numbers of soldiers.
They both ordered that anyone who retreated would be shot on the spot for treason.
On 19 November 1942, the Red Army launched an attack which surrounded the Stalingrad area.
Hitler ordered the army to stay there.
The German air force tried to supply them by air.
By February 1943, the German forces in Stalingrad had no ammunition and food.
Rather than freeze, they surrendered, knowing the Soviets were usually cruel to their prisoners.
1.6 million people dead or wounded in battle were reported.
There were more Russian deaths than German, but it was a victory for the Russians.
They had killed so many Germans that Hitler's overall plan to conquer the Soviet Union, started with Operation Barbarossa, was seriously weakened.
Also, the Germans failed to get control of Russian oil fields.
About one quarter of the German Sixth Army's soldiers were Russian volunteers called HIWIs.
The Battle of Stalingrad was the largest and deadliest battle in the history of warfare.
By the spring of 1942, the German Operation Barbarossa did not defeat the Soviet Union.
The war was still going well for the Germans: the U-boat offensive in the Atlantic had been very successful and Rommel had just captured Tobruk.
In the east, they had captured land including Leningrad in the north and  Rostov-on-Don in the south.
There were a number of places where Soviet attacks had pushed the Germans back (to the northwest of Moscow and south of Kharkov) but this did not threaten the Germans.
Hitler was confident that he could beat the Red Army after the winter of 1941.
Even though Army Group Centre had heavy losses near Moscow the previous winter, 65% of its infantry had not fought and had been rested and given new equipment.
Army Groups North and South had also not had a hard time over the winter.
Stalin was expecting German summer attacks to again be directed against Moscow.
The Germans decided that their summer campaign in 1942 would be directed at the southern parts of the Soviet Union.
The Germans wanted to destroy Stalingrad's industries.
The Germans also wanted to block the Volga River.
The river was a route between the Caspian Sea and northern Russia.
Capturing the river would make it hard for the Soviets to use the river to transport goods.
The German operations were initially very successful.
On July 23, 1942, Hitler changed the goals for the 1942 attack.
He made occupying Stalingrad one of the goals.
The city was important, because it was named after Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union.
The Germans thought that if they captured Stalingrad, it would help the northern and western parts of the German armies to attack Baku.
The Germans wanted to capture Baku because it had a lot of oil.
The Soviets were aware of the German plan to attack.
The Soviets ordered that anyone strong enough to hold a rifle be sent to fight.
Attack on Stalingrad
On the 23 of August the 6th Army reached the edge of Stalingrad.
They were following the 62nd and 64th Armies, which had gone back into the city.
Kleist later said after the war:
The capture of Stalingrad was [a place] where we could block an attack...by Russian forces coming from the east.
The Soviets had enough warning of the German attack to move all the city's grain, cattle, and railway cars across the Volga.
But most civilian residents stayed in the city.
The city lacked food even before the German attack.
The Luftwaffe air attacks made the Soviets unable to use the River Volga to bring supplies into the city.
Between 25 and 31 July, 32 Soviet ships were sunk in the River Volga.
The battle began with the heavy bombing of the city by Luftflotte 4.
A 1,000 tons of bombs were dropped.
Much of the city turned to rubble.
Some factories continued to produce goods.
Stalin moved troops to the east bank of the Volga.
All the regular ferries were destroyed by the Luftwaffe.
The Luftwaffe also attacked troop barges.
Many civilians were moved out of the city across the Volga.
Stalin prevented most civilians from leaving the city because he thought that this would make the Soviet armies fight harder.
Civilians, including women and children, were told to dig trenches.
Massive German bombing on 23 August caused a firestorm.
It killed thousands and turned Stalingrad into rubble and ruins.
Between 23 and 26 August, 955 people were killed and another 1,181 wounded from the bombing.
The Soviet Air Force, the Voenno-Vozdushnye Sily (VVS), was destroyed by the Luftwaffe.
The Soviets lost 201 aircraft between 23 and 31 August.
They brought in another 100 aircraft in August.
The Soviets continued to bring new planes into Stalingrad in late September, but they were destroyed by the Germans.
The city was briefly defended by the 1077th Anti-Aircraft Regiment, an all-women's regiment that was actually able to halt an entire German division due to their massive firepower.
The Germans eventually swarmed and killed them, but were shocked to discover that this whole time they were being held back by young women that seemed fresh out of high school.
In the battle, the NKVD organized  "Workers' militias" who were often sent into battle without rifles.
By the end of August, Army Group South (B) had reached the Volga.
By 1 September, the Soviets could only supply their forces in Stalingrad by crossing the Volga under constant bombing by artillery and aircraft.
On 5 September, the Soviet 24th and 66th Armies organized an attack against XIV Panzer Corps.
The Luftwaffe helped stop the attack by attacking Soviet artillery and soldiers.
The Soviets had to pull back.
Of the 120 tanks the Soviets had sent into battle, 30 were lost to air attack.
The Soviets were always being attacked by the Luftwaffe.
On 18 September, the Soviet 1st Guards and 24th Army attacked VIII Army Corps .
Fliegerkorps sent Stuka dive-bombers to prevent the Soviets from advancing.
The Soviet attack was stopped.
The Stukas destroyed 41 of the 106 Soviet tanks that were destroyed that morning.
German  Bf 109s destroyed 77 Soviet aircraft.
Fighting in city was very violent.
Stalin's Order No.
227 of 27 July 1942 decreed that all commanders who retreated without being told to do so would have to go to a military tribunal.84-5 "Not a step back!"
was the slogan.
The Germans attacking Stalingrad had many dead and wounded.
Germany reaches the Volga
After three months of slow advance, the Wermacht finally reached the river banks.
The Germans captured 90% of the ruined city and split the Soviet forces into two parts.
Ice on the Volga river made it impossible for the Soviets to bring in supplies by boat.
Soviet counter-offensives
German troops were not ready for fighting during the winter of 1942.
The  Stavka did a number of attacks between November 19, 1942 and February 2, 1943.
These operations started the Winter Campaign of 1942-1943 (19 November 1942 – 3 March 1943), which involved 15 armies.
Operation Uranus: the Soviet offensive
In autumn, the Soviet generals Georgy Zhukov and Aleksandr Vasilevsky gathered their soldiers in the north and south of the city.
The northern side was defended by Hungarian, and Romanian troops.
The Don river had never been defended well by the German side.
The Soviet plan was to attack and surround the German forces in the Stalingrad region.
The operation was code-named "Uran".
It started with Operation Mars, aimed at Army Group Center.
On 19 November 1942, the Red Army launched Operation Uranus.
The attacking Soviet units under the command of Gen. Nikolay Vatutin consisted of three armies.
This included a total of 18 infantry divisions, eight tank brigades, two motorized brigades, six cavalry divisions and one anti-tank brigade.
The Soviets pushed past the Romanian Third Army.
The response by the Wehrmacht was disorganized.
Bad weather prevented air attacks against the Soviets.
On 20 November, a second Soviet offensive (two armies) was launched to the south of Stalingrad against the Romanian 4th Army Corps.
The Romanians were overrun by large numbers of tanks.
The Soviet forces moved west and made a ring around Stalingrad.
Sixth Army surrounded
About 265,000 German, Romanian, Italian soldiers, the 369th (Croatian) Reinforced Infantry Regiment, and other troops including 40,000 Soviet volunteers fighting for the Germans.
were surrounded.
There were 210,000 Germans on 19 November 1942.
There were also around 10,000 Soviet civilians and several thousand Soviet soldiers the Germans had taken captive during the battle.
Not all of the 6th Army was trapped; 50,000 were not surrounded.
Of the 210,000 Germans surrounded, 10,000 remained to fight, 105,000 surrendered, 35,000 left by air and the remaining 60,000 died.
The Red Army formed two defensive groups.
Field Marshal Erich von Manstein told Hitler not to order the 6th Army to break out.
Manstein thought that he could break through the Soviet troops and free the 6th Army.p451 After 1945, Manstein says he told Hitler that the 6th Army must break out.
The American historian Gerhard Weinberg said that Manstein lied.p1045
Manstein was told to attack Stalingrad in Operation Winter Storm (Unternehmen Wintergewitter).
He thought that this attack could work if the 6th Army was supplied through the air.
Adolf Hitler had said on 30 September 1942 that the German army would never leave the city.
At a meeting shortly after the Soviets formed a ring around the Germans, the German army chiefs wanted to try to escape to the west of the Don.
Hitler thought that the Luftwaffe could supply the 6th Army with an "air bridge".
This would allow the Germans in the city to fight while a new force was assembled.