the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
It was made out of bus parts put on to lorry chassis and train wheels.
Earlier units proved to be unreliable, but later units were of a better design.
The British Rail Class 156 "Super-Sprinter"  diesel multiple units were built from 1987 to 1989 to replace elderly First Generation "Heritage" DMUs (like the Class 127 units) and locomotive-hauled passenger trains.
As funding increased before privatisation the successful British Rail Class 158 Express Sprinter was made.
It is a type of diesel multiple unit (DMU) train.
They were built for British Rail between 1989 and 1992 by BREL at their Derby Works.
The Clapham Junction railway crash
On 12 December 1988, three commuter trains crashed, just south-west of Clapham junction station, in London.
35 people died and more than 100 were injured.
British Rail's 30-year-old vintage Mark 1 carriages were found out to be dangerous and the broken signalling equipment was fixed and improved.
Privatisation
The Scottish Assembly Government have re-opened the lines between Hamilton and Larkhall, Alloa and Stirling and is working on a link from Airdrie to Bathgate.
The biggest line-reopening project is the former Waverley railway Edinburgh to Borders line.
The Welsh Assembly Government has re-opened the Vale of Glamorgan Line between Barry Bock and Bridgend in 2005.
The Ebbw Valley Line reopened between Ebbw Vale and Cardiff in the year 2008.
It will later go on to services to Newport in Gwent in 2011.
The Barry–Bridgend route was closed after the Beeching report of March 1963.
The line's passenger service was officially shut down in June 1964, but freight continued until the late 1990s.
The split up for privatisation
Regional Railways was one of the three passenger sectors of British Rail.
It was created in the year 1982.
It finished operation in 1996, two years after privatisation.
In the privatisation of British Rail, InterCity trains were divided up into several franchises.
The Caledonian Sleeper are transferred to ScotRail, now First ScotRail.
Since privatisation, the number of companies has changed a number of times as rules have changed and the areas covered altered.
The companies that took over passenger rail services include:
Six sub-brands also occurred in the early 2000s:
*Wales and Borders, now part of Arriva Trains Wales.
*Wessex Trains, now part of First Great Western.
** Silverlink Metro, now London Overground.
** Silverlink County, now part of London Midland.
*** West Anglia, now part of National Express East Anglia.
*** Great Northern Electrics,  now part of National Express East Anglia.
The British Rail "double arrow" logo was said to show  direction of travel on a double track railway on a railway map and was nicknamed "the arrow of indecision".
It is now employed as a general symbol on street signs in Great Britain, but not in Northern Ireland, denoting railway stations, and as part of the Association of Train Operating Companies (A.T.O.C.)'s joint-managed National Rail brand, still being printed on railway tickets.
Sometimes strikes happened among British Rail staff, over staff pay, safety, working hours and alike.
There were several strikes in the late 1970s, but decreased after privatisation.
There were also several other strikes in the late 1970s.
Other firms like the UK's coal mines also struck at this time.
1997 disestablishments in Europe
Cobra is a  name of a snake and a girl cobra is called 'cobra Kai.'
In English it is the common name for various venomous snakes.
Most of those species are in the family Elapidae, and most of them can spread their neck ribs to form a flattened, widened hood.
The name "cobra" is short for cobra de capelo or cobra-de-capelo, which is Portuguese for "snake with hood", or "hood-snake".
Cobras usually live in tropical and desert regions of Asia and Africa.
When feeling threatened, cobras can tilt back and flatten their heads into their warning posture.
The rest of the time their heads are symmetrical and they look much like any other snakes.
The genus Naja, the typical or "true" cobras (they raise the front part of the body and flatten their neck in a warning signal when alarmed).
They are a group of elapids found in Africa and Asia.
They include over 270 species, including Naja nivea, the Cape cobra, a medium-sized, highly venomous cobra which lives in biomes across southern Africa; Cleopatra's "asp" (the Egyptian cobra, Naja haje); and the Asiatic spectacled cobra Naja naja; and the monocled cobra, Naja kaouthia.
Spitting cobras, a subset of Naja species which squirt venom from their fangs in self-defence.
The Cape cobra (Naja nivea) is a cobra inhabiting the regions of South Africa.
It averages 4 feet (120 cm) long but may grow to be 6 feet (180 cm) long.
The color varies from location to location, and those from the Kalahari are normally yellow with brown speck uniformly all over the body.
The Kalahari Desert is a large arid to semi-arid sandy area in southern Kgalagadi Africa extending 900,000 km² (362,500 sq.
mi.),
covering much of Botswana and parts of Namibia and South Africa.
It has huge tracts of excellent grazing after good rains.
The Kalahari Desert is the southern part of Africa, and the geography is a portion of desert and a plateau.
The Kalahari supports some animals and plants because most of it is not a true desert.
There are small amounts of rainfall and the summer temperature is very high.
The driest areas usually receive  of rain per year, and the wettest just a little over .
The surrounding Kalahari Basin covers over 2.5 million km² extending farther into Botswana, Namibia and South Africa, and encroaching into parts of Angola, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
The only permanent river, the Okavango, flows into a delta in the northwest, forming marshes that are rich in wildlife.
Ancient dry riverbeds—called omuramba—traverse the Central Northern reaches of the Kalahari and provide standing pools of water during the rainy season.
Previously havens for wild animals from elephant to giraffe, and for predators such as lion and cheetah, the riverbeds are now mostly grazing spots, though leopard or cheetah can still be found.
Game reserves
The Kalahari has a number of game reserves—the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR, the world's second largest protected area), Khutse Game Reserve and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park.
Animals that live in the region include brown hyenas, lions, meerkats, giraffe, warthogs, jackals and several species of antelope (including the eland, gemsbok, springbok, hartebeest, steenbok, kudu, and duiker), and many species of bird and reptiles.
Vegetation in the Kalahari consists mainly of grasses and acacias but there are over 400 identified plant species present (including the wild watermelon or Tsamma melon).
Bushmen
The Bushmen of the Kalahari were hunter/gatherers.
They hunted for meat and gathered the food of the desert to eat.
They did not keep animals.
They moved from place to place to find food and water.
They owned very few things because they had to carry everything themselves.
Very few people still live this way anywhere in the world.
Settlements within the Kalahari
Tshane
Tshabong
Orapa
Rietfontein
Noenieput
Severn
Silverstein is a Canadian post-hardcore band formed in Ontario, Canada, in 2000.
Their name come from a children-book writer, Shel Silverstein.
First three years
After the several changes in the band's line up, Billy Hamilton joined the band.
He found out about they needed a bass player while online.
In the autumn of 2002, the band signed to their record label - Victory Records.
They left Victory Records in 2010 and joined Hopeless Records.
In January 2003, their first (debut) album was released.
The title was When Broken Is Easily Fixed.
In 2005, Silverstein performed on the "Never Sleep Again" tour along with fellow emo band Hawthorne Heights.
The next year, 2006, they toured on the "Vans Warped" tour.
This is an event in the United States taking place in the summertime.
The second album, Discovering the Waterfront contains the singles Discovering the Waterfront and Smile in Your Sleep.
Summertime last year, 2007, Silverstein released their third album, Arrivals and Departures.
It includes the new single Still Dreaming.
On MySpace, a social networking site, they posted a new song called Broken Stars.
Singer Shane Told has been trained by a vocal coach named Melissa Cross.
In Spring 2011, Silverstein released their fifth album, Rescue.
Discovering the Waterfront is the second full-length album by the band Silverstein.
The album has three singles; "Smile In Your Sleep", "Discovering The Waterfront", and "My Heroine".
All of the singles had music videos.
Shane Told – lead vocals, rhythm and other guitars, keyboards
Neil Boshart – lead guitar
Josh Bradford – rhythm guitar
Billy Hamilton – bass, backing vocals
Paul Koehler – drums, percussion
Pakistan State Oil (PSO) is the oil market leader in Pakistan.
The well established infrastructure, built at par with international standards, representing 82% of country’s storage, provides PSO an edge over its competitors.
Mahmud I (; August 2, 1696 – December 13, 1754) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1730 to 1754.
He was the son of Mustafa II (1695–1703).
His mother Emetullah Sultan, (born as Evemia) was of Greek ethnic descent.
Mahmud I was the older brother of Osman III (1754–57).
1696 births
Mahmud II (Ottoman Turkish: محمود ثاني Mahmud-ı sānī) (July 20, 1785 – July 1, 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
He ruled from 1808 until his death.
Mahmud was the son of Sultan Abdül Hamid I. His time as sultan is notable mostly for the major legal and military changes he caused.
Mahmud II was born in Istanbul.
He was 23 years old wheb he came to the throne.
He was a calligraphy artist, composer and poet.
He wrote poems under the pseudonym "Adli".
He was a brave, strong will, patient and prudent temperament.
He replaced the old military organization maintained by the governors of irregular auxiliaries (sekban - I Cedid).
When the soldiers shortly after arose, he defeated them with this.
The 1808 revolting insurgents killed Alemdar Mustafa Pasha.
In 1812 the peace treaty was signed in Bucharest with the Russians.
In 1813, with the help of Muhammed Ali Pasha, he defeated the Wahhabis, who desecrated the holy places and shrines in Mecca and Medina.
In 1821 the Greek War of Independence broke out and  thousands were killed.
In the “Auspicious Incident” the corps of Janissaries was abolished and replaced by a conscription army.
In 1827 the war with Russia began again.
In 1829 the peace treaty was concluded in Edirne.
In the years 1831 and 1839, riots broke out in Egypt.
Mahmud II (Kabızlık; died 1131) proclaimed himself the Seljuk sultan of Baghdad in 1118 after the death of Mehmed I (probably Mahmud's father).
Mahmud fought against the Seljuk Sultan of Khorasan, Ahmed Sanjar, whom Mehmed I had revolted against in 1105.
Mahmud was succeeded by Dawud.
1100s births
Mahmud of Ghazni (, ; (2 November 971 – 30 April 1030) was the ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire from 997 until his death.
He turned the former provincial city of Ghazni into the rich capital of an extensive empire which included modern-day Afghanistan, most of Iran, and parts of north-west India including modern-day Pakistan.
He was also the first ruler to carry the title Sultan, signifying his break from the power of the Islamic Caliph.
Mahmud of Ghazni was known as Yāmīn al-Dawlah Maḥmūd (in full: Yāmīn al-Dawlah Abd al-Qāṣim Maḥmūd Ibn Sebük Tegīn).
He was the eldest son of Emir Subuktigin.
When he was young, Mahmud helped his father gain land through military campaigns against Turk nobles.
In 997, he overthrew his younger brother, Ismail, who had been nominated for the throne after his father’s death.
As soon as he had the throne, he went out to conquer territory.
Between 1000 and 1026, he invaded India at least 17 times.
He was the first major Muslim army to invade India.
His raid of Punjab was the last invasion where he increased his territory in India.
From then on, most of Mahmud’s raids were to gain wealth.
Mahmud's last and most famous raid was on Somnath.
This is a temple city on the Gujarati coast that was also a pilgrimage site.
The temple had many riches: heavy golden chains and thousands of jewels.
The battle was violent, and more than 50,000 people died.
Mahmud's army won.
With all his riches, Mahmud founded a university, a library, and a museum, a grand mosque and richened his capital.
When Mahmud was about to die, he ordered all of his riches to be placed before him.
Mahmud died on 30 April 1030.
"Mahmud of Ghazni."
Detroit: Gale, 1998.Biography in Context.
971 births
1030 deaths
The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Turkic Sunni Muslim state, which existed from 975 to 1187.
It was centered in Ghazni, a city in present Afghanistan, and ruled much of Persia, Transoxania, and the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.
963 establishments
12th-century disestablishments in Asia
1186 disestablishments
Sultan Mahmud Shah (died 1528) ruled Malacca from 1488 to 1528.
He was the son of Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah.
Mahmud Shah Durrani (1769 - 1829) was the ruler of the Durrani Empire between 1801 and 1803, again between 1809 and 1818.
He was the son of Timur Shah Durrani and half-brother of his predecessor, Zaman Shah.
On July 25, 1801, Zaman Shah was deposed, and Mahmud Shah ascended to rulership.
He then had a chequered career; he was deposed in 1803, restored in 1809, and finally deposed again in 1818.
He died in 1829.
Between his two stints, the country was ruled by Shoja Shah, another of his half-brothers.
Afghan leaders
The Durrani Empire (actually Afghan Empire) was established in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani at Kandahar, Afghanistan.
It included the land that is now called Afghanistan, Pakistan, eastern Iran and western India.
The Durrani Empire is considered the foundation of the modern state of Afghanistan, with Ahmad Shah Durrani (Ahmad Shah Baba) being the "Father of the nation".
The Durrani dynasty diminished in the early 19th century when Afghanistan was fighting defensive wars with Persia on one side and British India on the other side.
The Barakzai dynasty took over control of the kingdom but lost many of Afghanistan's territories by the end of the 19th century.
It became to what is now Afghanistan after the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 when the state became officially recognized by all the major countries in the world.
1919 disestablishments
Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at basic actions of the mind.
These are aspects of the higher brain, such as thought, feeling, problem solving, memory, and language.
Cognitive psychologists often look at mental changes that happen after a stimulus (things that can be felt by the five senses) and before a behavioral response (what a person does after sensing something).
Carpenter, William Benjamin 1874.
Principles of mental physiology.
London: Henry S. King.
Reprinted:
James, William 1890.
Principles of psychology.
2 vols, Harvard University Press.
Reprinted by Dover Publications in 1950, vol 1: , vol 2: .
Major research areas
Psycholinguistics (the psychology of language)
Grammar and linguistics
Phonetics, phonology, and acoustics
Mahmut Celâl Bayar (16 May 1883 – 22 August 1986) was a Turkish politician, statesman and the third President of Turkey.
At the time of his death, he was the longest lived former head of state, living over 103 years (he was surpassed in 2008 by Chau Sen Cocsal Chhum).
Perceptual psychology is a subfield of cognitive psychology that is concerned specifically with the pre-conscious innate aspects of the human cognitive system or  perception.
A pioneer of this field was J. J. Gibson.
Mahmoud Abbas () (born 15 November 1935), also known by the Kunya Abu Mazen (), was elected President of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) on 9 January 2005.
He took office on 15 January 2005.
Abbas is a leading politician in Fatah.
He served as the first Prime Minister of the Palestinian Authority from March to October 2003.
He resigned because of a lack of support from Israel and the United States as well as "internal incitement" against his government.
Before becoming Prime Minister, Abbas led the Negotiations Affairs Department of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
He has served as Chairman of the PLO Executive Committee since 11 November 2004, after Yasser Arafat's death.
Abbas is said to the an example of moderation in Palestine by Israel and the west.
Early years and education
Abbas was born in Safed.
As a child, he and his family fled to Syria during the capture of the city by Jewish forces in May 1948.
He graduated from the Faculty of Law of the University of Damascus and postgraduate studies at the University of Friendship of Peoples.
Patrice Lumumba.
In 1982 he defended his dissertation at the Moscow branch of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the USSR Academy of Sciences on "The Secret Relationship between Nazism and Zionism", the main ideas of which some sources interpreted as Holocaust denial.
The director of the institute, EM Primakov, appointed Abbas VI Kiselyov, a specialist in the history of Palestine, as the scientific supervisor.
Based on his dissertation, Abbas wrote a monograph, The Other Side: The Secret Relations between the Nazis and the Zionist Leadership.
In the "Relevance of the Topic" section of the dissertation, Abbas notes: "As the overall decline of capitalism deepens, the decline of Zionist ideology becomes more and more apparent Expansionist and racist forms… Exposing reactionary ideology… is considered an urgent matter for the entire anti-imperialist camp… The immediate goal of all modern anti-imperialist forces is to defend the world, denouement, democracy and social progress.
Abbas sees his task in this scholarly work in "finding the connection between Zionism and Nazism of the Third Reich" because "Zionism flirted with Nazi Germany, so Zionist officials first established contacts with a regime that defined anti-Semitism as its own official state policy."
And then "Zionist favorites та made secret deals with the Nazi government to organize the resettlement of deliberately selected Jewish parties in Palestine… Mossad emissaries were given the right to visit concentration camps by the Nazis со to sort prisoners.
In his dissertation, Abbas exposes other Zionist conspiracies with the Nazis: in order to populate Palestine with Jews, under the so-called Haavar agreement for 1,000 pounds, the Nazis released any Jew who wanted to leave Germany. "
And in this the Zionists met with a favorable attitude of the authorities, which sought to cleanse Germany of Jews."
Abbas notes "the closeness of the ideological concepts of Zionism and Nazism in terms of national chauvinism and racism."
According to Abbas, this "mutually beneficial joint work" lasted for 6 years — from 1933 to 1939.
Two years later, at the Ibn Rashid publishing house in Amman, Jordan, Abbas published his own book in Arabic, The Hidden Relationships of Zionism and Nazism during World War II, an extended version of his dissertation, in which he rejected Zionist fabrications and the mythical heresy of the deaths of 6 million Jews — some of those who died suffered from a joint (Nazi-Zionist) conspiracy.
He said: "The exact number of Jews killed in the war was significantly less than 6 million, even less than a million.
The task of the Zionists was to increase the number of victims among the Jewish people in order to arouse the sympathy of the international community."
In fact, according to him, "only 890 thousand Jews died, and crematorium furnaces were used only for the cremation of the bodies of the inhabitants of our planet who died of disease — to prevent the spread of infection."
Abu Mazen said that saving the Jews for humanitarian purposes was not of interest to the Zionists, and therefore "they did not make the slightest effort to persuade the West to accept Jewish refugees who had fled Nazi hell."
He claims that the Zionists thwarted various intentions to support and promote salvation and hid information about the terrible participation of Euro-Jews "so that they would not need to take the necessary, predictable measures."
He writes that "the Zionist movement was deliberately provoked against the Jews who lived on Nazi land in order to provoke dislike of the authorities and their group elimination".
Holocaust deniers
Abid Al-Hamid Mahmud al-Tikriti ( 21 September 1957 - June 7, 2012) was an Iraqi lieutenant general under Saddam Hussein's deposed regime, and he was Saddam's bodyguard.
He was executed on June 7, 2012.
Social psychology is the study in psychology of how people and groups interact.
Researchers in this field are often either psychologists or sociologists.
All social psychologists use both the individual and the group as their unit of analysis.
Despite their similarity, psychological and sociological researchers tend to differ in their goals, approaches, methods, and terminology.
They also favor separate academic journals and professional groups.
The greatest period of collaboration between sociologists and psychologists was during the years immediately following World War II.
Although there has been increasing isolation and specialization in recent years, some degree of overlap and influence remains between the two disciplines.
Mahmoud Fahmi an-Nukrashi Pasha (1888 - 1948) (Arabic: محمود فهمي النقراشي باشا) was an Egyptian political figure.
He was the Prime Minister of Egypt from 1945 to 1946 and again from 1946 to 1948.
He was assassinated by the Muslim Brotherhood while he was Prime Minister.
Neuropsychology is the scientific study that studies the function and structure of the brain related to more common psychological processes and overt behaviors.
The term has been applied to lesion studies in humans and animals.
It has also been applied to efforts to record electrical activity from individual cells (or groups of cells) in higher primates (including some studies of human patients).
Abnormal psychology is a part of psychology.
People who study abnormal psychology are psychologists.
They are scientists that investigate the mind using the scientific method.
Different cultures tend to have different ideas of how strange (abnormal) any behaviour is considered.
This tends to change over time within cultures, so people that live in a country at one time in history might consider abnormal what people who live in the same country consider normal years before or years later.
Abnormal psychology is often used to understand or to treat people with mental disorders to make life better for them.
This is because abnormal behaviour is often defined as when someone is not able to change how they behave to fit different settings.
This is often also used to define some mental disorders.
When someone cannot change their behaviour to fit the people and situations around them when they need to, it can cause suffering, and the person may be uncomfortable when around people.
Their behaviour can be unreasonable and hard to understand.
Their behaviour can even be dangerous.
Not everyone with a mental disorder is unable to adjust to their surroundings.
People who can change to fit their the environment around them more easily than most people can also have behaviour that is considered abnormal and might also have an easier life with the help of a psychologist.
Supernatural traditions
A supernatural belief is a belief in a force that is beyond scientific understanding.
There are a lot of cultures that believe in supernatural events.
These cultures include religious cultures, as well as the Ancient Chinese, Ancient Egyptians, Hebrews, and Ancient Greeks.
These cultures have writings that say abnormal behaviour in the form of supernatural events created demons or Gods that would take over a person and act through those people.
This was called possession.
In the Roman Catholic Church, exorcisms were done to make these demons leave the body of the individuals they possessed.
Exorcism involved prayer, noises and potions.p.
11 People who had abnormal behaviour were often told they were possessed.
In some cultures, trepanation was often used.
This was when a hole was made in someone's head to release the "bad spirit".
Asylums
"Lunatic asylums" were buildings that kept patients that had abnormal behaviour.
They became popular in Europe with the Madhouse Act of 1774, although they did exist before the Act.
Asylums were meant to look after people who could not take care of themselves.
But they were known for being cruel and abusive to their patients.
The buildings were often dirty and not looked after very well.
During the late 1700s, William Tuke made a religious retreat for patients.
This was a turn away from the horrors of mental asylums.p.
14 Also, in the late 1700s, Philippe Pinel started to encourage better treatment of the mentally insane.
Today the 18th-century lunatic asylum does not exist.
Most of the asylums were closed in the late 1900s because of the invention of antipsychotic medicines.
Today, there are psychiatric hospitals for people with mental illness.
This includes Broadmoor Hospital, which houses some of Britain's the most dangerous criminals with mental illnesses.
Asylums in America
In the 1800s, Dorothea Dix fought against the bad treatment of patients in mental asylums.
She started a "mental hygiene" group to encourage politicians to change the treatment of mental patients in the United States.
When people became aware of the wrongdoing in mental asylums, money was raised to improve the treatment of patients and the asylums.
Dix is thought to have helped to create 32 mental hospitals.
By 1940 there were more than 400,000 patients living in mental asylums.
Most treatments were still cruel to patients and were not effective.
The asylums were quickly becoming overcrowded.
Mary Jane Ward wrote a book in 1946 called "The Snake Pit" that raised awareness of the inhumane treatment of mental patients.
The National Institute of Mental Health was created the same year.
The organisation provided training and support for mental patients and workers that cared for them.
The Hill-Burton Act was passed to give money to the mental health hospitals.
Later, the Community Health Services Act of 1963 was passed.
This law which created outpatient buildings for patients to live at home rather than in hospitals.
Rehabilitation and community care centers were also built under this act.p.
Deinstitutionalisation
During the late 1900s, mental asylums were less accepted.
The cruel treatment of patients and the overcrowding and ways of living were seen as not needed.
Less money was being given to asylums.
So many closed all around the world.
The closing down of mental hospitals became known as deinstitutionalization.
The movement from asylum to community was meant to help patients' development and recovery.
The lack of good support programs meant that patients felt abandoned and found it hard to fit into normal life.
This led to many becoming homeless.p.
Explaining abnormal behaviour
In the past there were three ways to explain abnormal behaviour.
These were supernatural, biological, and psychological explanations.
Western medicine no longer uses supernatural explanations.
Instead we use biological and psychological explanations.
Biological explanations use genetics and neuroscience to explain abnormal behaviours.
The biological explanation is based on how the brain works and how genes change the way it works.
Psychological explanations use how the mind works to explain abnormal behaviours.
Supernatural explanations
Early cultures believed that abnormal behaviour was from demons, spirits and astrology.
Trepanation was when a hole was drilled in a person's head.
This was done to let the spirits or demons out of the person's head.
Exorcism was practiced mainly by the Catholic Church.
Exorcism was believed to ward the spirits out of the person that they possessed.
These practices were normal during the Middle Ages.
This was when abnormal behaviour was thought to be a religious issue rather than a psychological one.
Some abnormal behaviour was thought to be witchcraft.
People accused of witchcraft were almost always punished for the acts.
In many cases, the punishment was to be murdered.
Biological explanations
The Biological approach to explaining abnormal behaviour assumes that the behaviour can be explained by physical factors.
Hippocrates was a man who lived during the 5th century and is thought by many to be the father of modern medicine.
He did not accept that evil spirits or astronomy were the causes of psychological disorders.
Hippocrates believed that there were natural causes for the disorders and appropriate treatments could be found.
He focused on the "four humors" of the brain.
He believed that the four humours must be balanced for healthy mental states and when one humour was stronger, various disorders would appear.
To balance the humors, Hippocrates would tell patients to change their lifestyles.p.
11 There are now new ideas when talking about the biological explanations of psychological disorders.
But, Hippocrates' focus on mental processes and clinical practice was a revolutionary concept.
Another Greek physician called Galen also took a scientific approach to the causes of psychological disorders.
He divided them into physical and mental categories.
Among Galen's causes were head injuries, alcohol abuse, and life experiences.
During the 18th century, Galen's concepts influenced the medical industry.
Galen's focus was on the biological causes for mental disorders.p.
Psychological explanations
Psychological explanations for abnormal behavior sometimes take a behavioral approach in which the positive behaviors are reinforced and negative ones are not.
This approach is more focused on changing the actual behavior of a person than the true cause of it.
Sigmund Freud was one of the most popular psychological theorists of the 20th century.
The method he used to study and treat patients was known as psychoanalysis.
Methods of hypnosis by were used by Freud, but also by Franz Mesmer and physicians in the Nancy School.
However, Freud attempted to have his patients confess their deepest, truest emotions, which was referred to as a catharsis.
He would have his patients speak freely about themselves, in free association.
Also he would conduct dream analysis where patients would record and discuss their dreams.
Freud's work led to other great psychoanalytic theorists such as Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Harry Stack Sullivan.
Wilhelm Wundt and William James were credited for opening up the first experimental psychology laboratories.
This led to many studies and psychological methods, such as classical conditioning led by Ivan Pavlov and John B. Skinner, while Edward Thorndike and B. F. Skinner were the leaders of the study of operant conditioning.p.
The North American reference book used by psychiatrists and psychologists to diagnose and treat psychological disorders is known as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).
It is produced by the American Psychiatric Association (APA).
The most recent version was released in May of 2013 and is known as the DSM-5.
The DSM is relied upon by clinicians, health insurance companies, medicine companies, and the legal system as a reference for understanding and identifying mental disorders.
The DSM divides mental disorders into groups and provides descriptive signs and symptoms that define each disorder.
In addition, it lists statistics for each disorder ranging from its frequency in the general population to the most effective form of treatment.
Before diagnosing an individual with a specific mental disorder, a professional must first determine whether that individual does in fact suffer from a mental disorder.
The DSM defines a mental disorder as a condition that:
Is primarily psychological and alters behavior, personality, or motivation,
When in its full-blown state, causes stress, impairment in social functioning, or behavior that one would like to stop voluntarily because it poses a threat to physical health, and
Is distinct from other conditions, and is considered treatable.
Axis I contains all categories of mental disorder except mental retardation and personality disorders.
A disorder within this axis is similar to an illness or disease in general medicine, and includes depression, anxiety disorder, autism spectrum disorder, bipolar disorder, and anorexia.
Axis II contains mental retardation and personality disorders such as paranoid personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.
This axis contains a large number of disorders, all of which relate to how a person thinks and acts with the world.
Axis III contains general medical conditions, minor medical conditions and any physical disorders of the individual.
When the first three axes are used, relationships can be seen and it becomes easier for professionals to find the cause for mental disorder and treat a person effectively.
Axis IV contains any environmental or social factors that could play a role in diagnosing an individual.
Poor social relationships, the death of a loved one, or being fired from work are all stressful factors that may aid in the development of mental disorder.
Axis V is used by professionals for individuals under the age of 18.
Children are graded on how well they currently handling their situation.
The Global Assessment of Functioning used a scale of 0-100, but has been replaced in the DSM-5 by a survey and check box that is less subjective.
The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) was created by the World Health Organization (WHO) and is the universal diagnostic system for mental disorders.
The ICD is approved by health officials from 193 WHO member countries, and is available for free on the internet.
Its purpose is to help countries reduce the problems associated with mental disorders.
The coding system used in the DSM is designed to be compatible with the system used in the ICD; however, some codes may not match because the two publications get revised at different times.
The ICD-10 was made public in 1994; its most recent update occurred in 2010.
Chapter 5 of the ICD-10 covers over 300 mental and behavioral disorders which are divided into the following categories:
F00-F09 Organic mental disorders
F10-F19 Mental and behavioral disorders caused by drug use
F20-F29 Schizophrenia and delusional disorders
F30-39 Mood disorders
F40-49 Neurotic, stress-related disorders
F50-59 Behavioral disorders linked with bodily disturbances and physical factors
F60-F69 Disorders of adult personality and behavior
F70-F79 Mental retardation
F80-F89 Disorders of psychological development
F90-F98 Behavioral and emotional disorders that develop during childhood
F99 Unspecified mental disorders
The Online ICD-10 can be found in its entirety here
Psychoanalysis is a form of therapy based on psychoanalytic theory.
This theory states that human behavior is controlled by unconscious forces such as instinct and that there is no such thing as free will.
Many ideas found in the Psychoanalytic theory can be traced back to the famous psychologist Sigmund Freud.
Freud believed mental disorders are a result of repressed memories and emotions from childhood; psychoanalysis is designed to search for these hidden memories and emotions and bring them to the patient's attention.
Techniques such as hypnosis are used to tap into the unconscious mind with the hopes that the source of the disturbance is found.
Freud also believed dreams had hidden meanings, and often asked patients to record their dreams for analysis.
Because of the lack of scientific evidence supporting most Freudian ideas, psychoanalysis is rarely used by clinical psychologists and has been replaced by more effective forms of therapy.
Behavioral therapy
Behavior therapy is based on the theory of behaviorism, which states that all human behavior is a result of a stimulus and reinforcement.
Famous behaviorists include James Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Joseph Wolpe.
The goal of this therapy is to increase one's positive or socially reinforcing behavior.
Behavior therapy can be broken down into three areas:
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) uses a form of operant conditioning where positive reinforcement is used to modify behavior.
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) focuses on conditioning the negative thoughts and feelings behind patients' behavior in order to alter that behavior.
Social learning theory is used in the treatment and understanding of anxiety disorders.
It goes beyond the traditional classical conditioning assumption that fear and anxiety must be learned directly; social learning theory suggests that a child could acquire a fear of snakes, for example, by observing a family member show fear in response to snakes.
Humanistic therapy
Humanistic therapy is a method taken from Carl Rogers, which aims to focus on a client as a human rather than the problem that they have.
A therapist can adjust the environment and mood of a session in a way that mimics normal conversation.
This often helps the patient realize the issues they have, and share them with the therapist more successfully than in a traditional counseling session.
Humanistic therapy creates an effective means of getting to the source of a problem and treating it properly.
John Broadus Watson (January 9, 1878–September 25, 1958) was an American psychologist.
He established the psychological school of behaviorism, after doing research on animal behavior.
This school was extremely influential in the middle of the 20th century, when B.F. Skinner developed it further.
Watson was forced to resign his chair at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, because his affair with a graduate student became a public scandal.
After this, Watson worked for many years for J. Walter Thompson, a leading American advertising agency.
He is credited with popularizing the "coffee break" during an ad campaign for Maxwell House coffee.
Watson founded behaviorism in the spring of 1913 with his paper Psychology as the behaviorist views it.
In this article, Watson outlined the major features of his new philosophy of psychology, called "behaviorism".
The first paragraph of the article concisely described his position:
Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science.
Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior.
Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness.
The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute.
The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation.
In 1913, Watson viewed Ivan Pavlov's conditioned reflex as primarily a physiological mechanism controlling glandular secretions.
He had already rejected Edward Thorndike's "Law of Effect" (a precursor to B.F. Skinner's principle of reinforcement) because of what Watson believed were 'unnecessary subjective elements'.
The article is also notable for its strong defense of the objective scientific status of applied psychology, which at the time was considered to be much inferior to the established experimental psychology.
With his behaviorism, Watson put the emphasis on external behavior of people and their reactions on given situations, rather than the internal, mental state of those people.
In his opinion, the analysis of behaviors and reactions was the only objective method to get insight in the human actions.
This outlook was thought to be extreme or radical behaviorism.
Views on child-rearing
Watson wrote the book Psychological care of infant and child in 1928, with help from his mistress, turned wife, Rosalie Rayner.
Rosalie later entitled a self-penned article I am a mother of behaviorist sons.
In the book, Watson explained that behaviorists were starting to believe psychological care and analysis was required for infants and children.
His slogan was not more babies but better brought up babies.
Watson argued for the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate, claiming that the world would benefit from extinguishing pregnancies for twenty years while enough data was gathered to ensure an efficient child-rearing process.
Watsons’ description of a happy child was rather detached.
It included ideas such as that the child can occupy himself through his problem-solving abilities, should only cry when in physical pain, and that the child stray from asking questions.
Behavior analysis of child development as a field may have begun with the writings of Watson.
Biographies of Watson and analysis of his work
Buckley, Kerry W. 1989.
Mechanical Man: John Broadus Watson and the beginnings of behaviorism.
Guilford Press.
Buckley, Kerry W. 1994.
Misbehaviorism: The case of John B. Watson's dismissal from Johns Hopkins University.
In J.T. Todd & E.K. Morris (eds)  Modern perspectives on John B. Watson and classical behaviorism.
Burnham, John C.  1994.
John B. Watson: interviewee, professional figure, symbol.
Coon, Deborah J. 1994 'Not a creature of reason': the alleged impact of Watsonian behaviorism on advertising in the 1920s.
In J.T. Todd & E.K. Morris (eds) Modern perspectives on John B. Watson and classical behaviorism.
Harris, Ben.
Whatever happened to little Albert?
American Psychologist, 34, #2, pp.
151–160. (
on-line )
Hartley, Mariette & Commire, Anne.
Breaking the silence.
New York : Putnam's. (
Mariette Hartley is John B. Watson's granddaughter.
Hartley claims in her autobiography that Watson's theories on childrearing blighted her childhood.)
Mills, John A. 1998.
Control: a history of behavioral psychology.
Samelson, F. 1981.
Struggle for scientific authority: the reception of Watson's behaviorism, 1913-1920.
Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 17, 399-425.
Todd, James T. 1994.
What psychology has to say about John B. Watson: classical behaviorism in psychology textbooks, 1920-1989.
In J.T. Todd & E.K. Morris, Modern perspectives on John B. Watson and classical behaviorism.
Todd, James T. & Morris, Edward K. 1986.
The early research of John B. Watson: before the behavioral revolution.
The Behavior Analyst 9, 71-88.
Todd, James T., & Morris, Edward K.  Modern perspectives on John B. Watson and Classical Behaviorism.
Greenwood Press, 1994.
Watson, John B. "John Broadus Watson [Autobiography]."
In C. Murchison (ed) A history of psychology in autobiography (Vol.
271–81).
Clark University Press, 1936.
Books by Watson
Watson, John B. Behavior: an introduction to comparative psychology.
Henry Holt, New York.
Watson, John B. Psychology from the standpoint of a behaviorist.
Lippincott, Philadelphia.
2nd ed 1924.
Watson, John B. Psychological care of infant and child.
Norton, New York.
Watson, John B. Behaviorism (revised edition).
Scientists from South Carolina
Indian English or South Asian English is several dialects or varieties of English.
It is spoken mainly in India, and by first-generation members of the Indian diaspora.
The dialect evolved during and after the British colonial rule of India.
English is the co-official language of India, with about 90 million speakers, but with fewer than quarter of a million calling it a first language.
There were a number of schools which taught and used English in India.
They were mostly run by missionaries.
Many taught European and Eurasian children and orphans.
The products of these schools provided the first generation of teachers.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov  (14 September 1849 – 27 February 1936) was a Russian physiologist, psychologist, and physician.
He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for research about the digestive system.
Pavlov is widely known for first describing classical conditioning.
The son of a priest, and a theology student, Pavlov turned to science after being influenced by progressive ideas.
He took natural sciences at the University of St Petersburg, and got a doctorate in 1878.
In the 1890s, Pavlov was investigating the gastric function of dogs by externalizing a salivary gland so he could collect, measure, and analyze the saliva and what response it had to food under different conditions.
He noticed that the dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered to their mouths, and set out to investigate this "psychic secretion", as he called it.
Pavlov performed and directed experiments on digestion, eventually publishing The work of the digestive glands in 1897, after 12 years of research.
His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.
Pavlov's research on conditional reflexes greatly influenced not only science, but also popular culture.
The phrase "Pavlov's dog" is often used to describe someone who merely reacts to a situation rather than using critical thinking.
Pavlovian conditioning was a major theme in Aldous Huxley's dystopian novel, Brave New World, and also to a large degree in Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow.
It is popularly believed that Pavlov always signalled the food by ringing a bell.
However, his writings also record the use of many stimuli, including electric shocks, whistles, metronomes, tuning forks, and a range of visual stimuli.
Catania did not believe Pavlov ever actually used a bell in his famous experiments.
Littman tentatively attributed the popular imagery to Pavlov’s contemporaries Vladimir Bekhterev and John B. Watson, until Thomas found several references that clearly said Pavlov did, indeed, use a bell.
Physiologists
Russian psychologists
Russian physicians
Hamilton College is a private, independent, liberal arts college in Clinton, New York.
In 2007, U.S. News & World Report ranked Hamilton the 17th best liberal arts college in the United States.
The college is known for its emphasis on writing and speaking.
The school was founded in 1793, chartered as Hamilton College in 1812, and has been coeducational since 1978, when it merged with Kirkland College.
The Sacerdote Great Names Series at Hamilton
Starting in 1996 the Sacerdote Great Names Series has brought some of the most sought after speakers to campus for presentations.
While most of these have been in the form of speeches, they have also included concerts by B. B. King and Aretha Franklin.
Jon Stewart, November 14, 2008 (announced)
Aretha Franklin, April 5, 2008
Al Gore, April 26, 2007
Tom Brokaw, April 27, 2006
Bill Clinton, November 9, 2004
Bill Cosby, October 15, 2003
Rudolph Giuliani, September 24, 2002
Madeleine Albright, March 6, 2002
Jimmy Carter, April 30, 2001
Desmond Tutu, April 11, 2000
Lady Margaret Thatcher, December 9, 1999
B.B. King, October 20, 1998
F.W. de Klerk, April 8, 1998
Elie Wiesel, April 3, 1997
James Carville, and Mary Matalin October 15, 1996
Colin Powell, April 1, 1996
Facts and Figures about the College Community
Hamilton College Wiki
America's Best Colleges 2008, Hamilton College At A Glance
Graduates for a Greener Hamilton
Hamilton College Alumni for Governance Reform
1793 establishments in the United States
18th-century establishments in New York (state)
Jon Stewart (born Jonathan Stuart Leibowitz; November 28, 1962), is an American comedian, actor, writer, and producer.
He is best known as the host of Comedy Central's The Daily Show and for his political satire.
Stewart started as a stand-up comedian, but later branched out to television, hosting Short Attention Span Theater for Comedy Central.
He went on to host his own show on MTV, called The Jon Stewart Show and then hosted another show on MTV called You Wrote It, You Watch It.”
Stewart is Jewish.
The Quagga (Equus quagga quagga), also Cape Quagga,  is a recently extinct zebra.
It was one of the six subspecies of plains zebra.
It was a yellowish-brown zebra with stripes only on its head, neck and forebody, and looks similar to an Okapi.
The Quagga was native to dry grassy plains in the south of the African continent.
It was found as far north as the Orange River.
It is believed to have separated from other plains zebras between 120,000 and 290,000 years ago.
The name Quagga comes from the noise that they made. (
kwa-ka-ka) (qua-ga-ga).
The Quagga was hunted for food, for their skin and also because farmers did not want it to eat the grass they needed for their sheep and goats.
The last wild Quaggas died during a drought in 1878.
The last captive Quagga died in the Amsterdam Zoo on 12 August 1883.
Her body is now in a museum.
There are 23 Quagga specimens in museums, seven skeletons, and some skulls and other bones.