the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
In 1649, Oliver Cromwell went to Ireland and put down their rebellion.
Cromwell was remembered in Ireland as a brutal invader, particularly because of the large numbers of people killed at the Siege of Drogheda.
Some fighting continued in Ireland until 1653.
The next nine years
The wars left England, Scotland and Ireland all as part of the Commonwealth of England, one of the few countries in Europe without a monarch.
After the wars ended, Cromwell disbanded the Rump Parliament and took over the country.
He chose to be "Lord Protector" rather than King, because he did not think the country needed another king.
His government was called "the Protectorate" or "the Commonwealth".
The period from 1649 to 1660 is also called the English Interregnum (meaning gap between kings).
Oliver Cromwell ruled the country until he died in 1658.
Cromwell's son, Richard, took over as Lord Protector.
However, the Army did not think he was a good ruler.
After seven months, the Army removed Richard, and in May 1659 it re-installed the Rump Parliament.
However, the Army did not get on with the Rump Parliament either and disbanded them a second time.
There were fears that England would not have a proper government.
George Monck, a key leader in the Army, arranged for a new Parliament to be elected.
On 8 May 1660, the new Parliament decided to restore the monarchy with Charles II as the king.
He returned to England later that month.
This event is known as the English Restoration.
Scotland and Ireland went back to being separate countries and the pre-war churches returned.
Long term
Although the monarchy returned, the Civil War had long-lasting effects.
The war made it clear that an English monarch could not rule without the support of Parliament.
The law was not changed to limit the monarch's power (this was done after the 1688 Glorious Revolution).
But historians consider the Civil War to be stage on England and Scotland's long journeys from rule by one king to becoming a democracy.
In Ireland, the defeat of the rebellion strengthened the power of the Protestants.
This was one of the reasons why Ireland would be ruled by Protestants from the late 17th century until the 20th century, even though most Irish people were Catholic.
The English Civil War was fought with "pike and shot" tactics.
These were used in most wars from the late 15th century to the late 17th century.
Armies were divided into three main groups:
Musketeers: They fired a type of gun called a musket.
Muskets were not as powerful or easy to use as modern guns.
Pikemen: They carried a very long spear, called a pike.
Their main job was to stop the enemy's cavalry.
Cavalry: They were horse riders who would charge at the enemy's musketeers.
A very skilled cavalry could charge at the enemy's pikemen.
At first, the Royalists had a better cavalry.
Their riders were faster and more skilled.
Prince Rupert had fought in the Eighty Years War in The Netherlands and used the lessons learned there to improve his cavalry.
However, sometimes the Royalist cavalry failed to work as a team.
At the Battle of Edgehill, many of them decided to chase fleeing soldiers or steal from the Parliamentarian baggage wagons.
The Royalists might have won this battle if their cavalry had stayed together.
Cromwell's "Ironside" cavalry were slower, but worked better as a team.
They helped the Parliamentarians win some key battles.
The Parliamentarians sometimes had a problem that pikemen would run away when cavalry charged at them.
Cromwell and Fairfax trained them to stay in place.
English Civil War -Citizendium
Civil wars involving Europe
1640s in Europe
1650s in Europe
Urdu, also known as Lashkari or the Lashkari language (لشکری ‍زبان)  is the national language of Pakistan and a recognized regional language in India.
It is an Indo-Aryan language, meaning it descends from Proto-Indo-Aryan, a language spoken northeast of the Caspian Sea in the third millennia BCE.
It is spoken as a lingua franca by the majority of people in Pakistan.
And it is also spoken in some parts of India like the states of Delhi, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
With exceptions of numerous vocabulary words, phrases or tone of speaking, some words are similar to spoken Hindi.
When written, it is written completely different from Hindi.
That is why speakers of Hindi and Urdu can have a conversation with one another, but they cannot read or write with Urdu or Hindi letters to one another.
What is today most commonly known as "Urdu" is believed to have been born in the 11th century AD in Lahore and its surroundings when the Ghaznavid Empire entered the subcontinent and ruled over Punjab, the land of five rivers.
Punjab was also known as "Hind" or the land east of the Indus.
The Ghaznavids, although racially Turkic, spoke Persian as their main language.
When conquering Punjab or Hind with Lahore as its capital, they came into contact with the local population who spoke an Indo-Aryan language which began to adopt Persian words into their language.
This local language was also the ancestor of modern standard Punjabi.
The contacts between Persian and the native language of Punjab began to form a new language and that became known as 'Lashkari Zaban' or language of the battalions.
This new language also known as Hindavi became the common language of the locals and the ruling Ghaznavids in the region.
By the twelfth century AD, the Ghaznavids pushed further east into the subcontinent and brought this language to Delhi where it became influenced by the local language, Khariboli.
From Delhi it spread across much of the northern subcontinent and became the common language of communication.
It continued to be influenced by Khariboli and spread to cities like Lucknow and Hyderabad Daccan.
It was also given new names and titles through the centuries.
Native poets in these cities and most of the region contributed to its development and added many Persian and Chagatai words to it.
They also indirectly added Arabic words which Persian already contained.
It continued to evolve during the Delhi Sultanate under the influence of Khariboli.
The Mughal Empire was another Muslim Empire of Turkic origin and spoke Chagatai natively and Persian as their other language, although they were not ethnically Persian or racially Iranic.
During this time the language commonly became known as the Zaban-i-Ordu or language of the Royal Camp.
By the very late eighteenth century AD, the poet Ghulam Mashafi is believed to have given it the name "Urdu" which was shortened from "Zaban-i-Urdu."
The word is from Chagatai, the native language of the Mughals and belonged to the Eastern Turkic subfamily of languages.
Chagatai was closely related to today's Uzbek and Uyghur and distantly related to today's Turkish because all of them belonged to the same Turkic family of languages.
In its own indigenous translation it was Lashkari Zaban and Lashkari for short.
Also during the Mughal Empire, what commonly became known as Urdu was a court language in a number of major South Asian cities, including Delhi, Amristsar, Lucknow and Lahore.
By the time of the British Empire, it also became known as "Hindustani" or the language of Hindustan, the land of the Indus.
It continued to serve as a court language in the same cities.
It was adopted as a first language by many people in North India.
By the end of British rule and the independence of Pakistan, it was selected as the national language for the people of the country because they spoke different languages and dialects.
In India it became the national language but went by the name Hindi and was written in the Devanagari script.
It also used a lesser amount of Arabic, Persian and Chagatai words and instead Sanskrit words were adopted in their place.
Today it is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan in terms of total speakers and a registered language in 22 Indian states.
Relations to Persian
The letters in Urdu are derived from the Persian/Farsi alphabet, which is derived from the Arabic alphabet.
The additional letters that are found in Urdu include ٹ ,ڈ ,ڑ (ṫ, ḋ, ṙ).
To make the alphabet more enriched two letters were created for sounds ه (h) and ی (y).
By adding these letters to the existing Persian letters the Urdu alphabet became more suitable for the people of Pakistan and for some people of North India who primarily use nastaliq script.
Both are also Indo-Iranic languages descending from Proto-Indo-Iranic, but deriving from separate subbranches, Iranic and Indo-Aryan respectively.
Urdu is written right to left like Farsi (Persian) script.
Urdu is also written in the Nasta’ liq style of Persian Calligraphy.
Nastaliq style is a cursive script invented by Mīr ʿAlī of Tabrīz, a very famous calligrapher during the Timurid period (1402–1502).
Both belong to the Indo-Iranic language subfamily.
Levels of formality
Urdu in its less formalized register has been called a rekhta (ریختہ, ), meaning "rough mixture".
The more formal register of Urdu is sometimes called zabān-e-Urdu-e-mo'alla (زبان اردو معلہ ), the "Language of Camp."
In local translation, it is called Lashkari Zabān ( []) meaning "language of battalions" or "battalion language."
This can be shortened to Lashkari.
The etymology of the word used in the Urdu language for the most part decides how nice or well done your speech is.
For example, Urdu speakers would distinguish between پانی pānī and آب āb, both meaning "water" for example, or between آدمی  ādmi and مرد mard, meaning "man."
The first word is ad derivative from Adam (آدم) Arabic mean from Adam and it can be used for both man and woman in place of human being.
Second word مرد mard  refers to a gender or can be used for manly hood as well.
If a word is of Persian or Arabic origin, the level of speech is thought to be more formal.
If Persian or Arabic grammar constructs, such as the izafat, are used in Urdu, the level of speech is also thought more formal and correct.
If a word is inherited from Chagatai, the level of speech is thought more colloquial and personal.
Urdu is supposed to be a well formed language; many of words are used in it to show respect and politeness.
This emphasis on politeness, which comes from the vocabulary, is known as Aadab ( Courteous ) and to sometimes as takalluf (Formal) in Urdu.
These words are mostly used when addressing elders, or people with whom one is not met yet.
Just like French Vous and Tu.
Upon studying French and other forms of Language similar formal language construct are present.
The whole grammatical layout appears to be almost identical to French language structure.
The rules to form sentences and structuring them are identical
Umer bhar hum yun hee ghalati kartey rahen Ghalib
Dhool ch-herey pei thee aur hum aaina saaf karte rahe
O Ghalib (himself) all my life I kept making the same mistakes over and over,
I was busy cleaning the mirror while the dirt was on my face.
Sir Dr Muhammed Iqbal
Iqbal (1877-1938) was a poet, and an active politician.
He focused his poetry on bringing out the plight of the suffering Muslim community of British India.
In his poetry he very boldly highlighted the missing virtues and values in the morally corrupt Indian society.
Despite much opposition in the beginning, he ended up leaving a huge impact.
He is also called the “Poet of the East” and the “Poet of Islam”.
His work is displayed in the following verse;
Aapne bhe khafa mujh sei beganey bhe na khush
Mein zeher -e-halahal ku kabhi keh na saka qand
I could not keep happy either my loved ones nor the strangers,
as I could never call a piece of poison a piece of candy.
Iqbal is considered by many an inspirational poet.
He played a large role in the Pakistan Movement, with many claiming that he was the one to imagine and initiate it.
Common Words/Phrases in Urdu
Aap kaisay hein?
Urdu vs Hindi--What's the difference?
Urdu is a language spoken primarily in Pakistan.
Its terminology borrows from Chagatai, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic.
Hindi is a language spoken primarily in India which replaced Farsi, Chagatai and Arabic terminology with Sanskrit.
Grammatically they are the same, which is why Hindi and Urdu speakers are able to have a somewhat easy conversation with each other.
Urdu has a majority of its vocabulary words and phrases borrowed from Persian, Chagatai and Arabic, languages spoken in Turkey, Iran, Saudi Arabia, many countries of the Middle East and in Afghanistan etc.
Urdu's written script is also in the exact alphabets and scripts of Persian-Arabic and Chagatai.
That is why, they are able to read and write easily in Arabic and Persian.
Name of colors, objects, feelings, animals and more are all different in Urdu and Hindi.
ترتیب وڈیزائننگ ایم پی خاؿ اردولشکری زبان (sample texts)
Languages of Jammu and Kashmir
Zakat () is one of the five most important aspects of Islam.
Zakat means giving charity to the poor.
Generally, a Muslim is expected to give zakat as long as they are able.
Through Zakat wealth reaches to the poor class of the society.
It is considered to be a personal responsibility for Muslims to help those in need and eliminate inequality.
It is often 2.5% of what the Muslim has.
Ṣalāt (, ) is the practice of prayer in Islam.
It is one of the five most important duties for Muslims.
To perform Salat, a person's mind must be in a state of ritual purity, which comes from ritual ablution, wuḍūʾ.
For Sunni Muslims, salat must be performed at five periods each day.
These periods are measured according to the movement of the Sun.
The call to prayer is essential before every obligatory prayers.
Muhammad said: "The one who responds to Azan out of faith and seeking Allah's pleasure will be admitted to paradise."
In the ritual prayers each individual Muslim is in direct contact with Allah.
There is no need of a priest as an intermediary. (
While there is a prayer leader in the mosque - the imam - they are not a priest, simply a person who knows a great deal about Islam.)
Muslims can pray anywhere, but it is especially good to pray with others in a mosque.
Praying together in a congregation helps Muslims to realise that all humanity is one, and all are equal in the sight of Allah.
The prayer ritual, which is over 1400 years old, is repeated five times a day by hundreds of millions of people all round the world.
Quranist
Quranist prayer is set three times a day.
This is similar to the combined prayer into 3 by Shias.
In Islamic countries, the public call to prayer from the mosques sets the rhythm of the day for the entire population, including non-Muslims.
Carrying it out is not only highly spiritual, but connects each Muslim to all others around the world, and to all those who have uttered the same words and made the same movements at different times in Islamic history.
Prayer for a Quranists involves uniting mind, soul, and body in worship; so a Muslim carrying out these prayers will perform a whole series of set movements that go with the words of the prayer.
Quranists make sure that they are in the right frame of mind before they pray; they put aside all everyday cares and thoughts so that they can concentrate exclusively on God.
If a Quranist prays without the right attitude of mind, it as if they had not bothered to pray at all.
There are different subsets of Shia Islam.
Some of them pray 3 times combined, others 5 times.
Allah does not need human prayers because he has no needs at all.
Muslims pray because God has told them that they are to do this, and because they believe that they obtain great benefit in doing so.
Ritual washing
Muslims must be clean before they pray.
They make sure of this by performing ritual washing, called wudhu.
Mosques have washing facilities.
Fasting in Islam or Sawm () is the practice of abstaining, usually from food, drink, smoking, and sexual activity.
Fourth of the Five Pillars of Islam, Sawm is observed between dawn and nightfall during the holy month of Ramadan.
Some exceptions or accommodations for Sawm are made in the case of pregnancy, illness, travel, and for young children.
Franz Peter Schubert (31 January 1797, Vienna  19 November 1828, Vienna) was an Austrian composer.
Although he died at the age of 31, he composed over one thousand pieces of music.
There were other great composers who lived and worked in Vienna: Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, but Schubert is the only one who was born in Vienna.
He was the last great composer of the Classical music period, and one of the first of the Romantic period.
Schubert’s father was a schoolteacher.
Twelve children were born into the family, but only four of them lived to become adults.
Schubert's father tried to persuade his sons to help at the school when they grew up.
As a boy, the young Franz learned the violin, piano, organ, singing and harmony.
He soon became very good at them all.
His teachers were all amazed at how quickly he learned.
He was also very good at other subjects in school.
In the holidays he played string quartets with his two brothers and his father.
He wrote his first string quartets for them to play.
By the age of 16 he had composed a lot of music, including his first symphony.
His mother died.
His father soon remarried.
His stepmother was very kind to him and often lent him money.
He had one strange thumb on his right hand.
Rising fame
At the age of 17, Schubert was teaching at his father’s school.
He had been rejected by the army because he was too short (shorter than five feet) and his sight was very poor.
He still took composition lessons from Antonio Salieri.
He often went to the opera where he heard some of the finest music of the time.
He liked reading.
One of his favourite books was Goethe’s Faust.
He wrote a song called "Gretchen am Spinnrade" which is about the young girl in the book sitting at a spinning wheel dreaming of her lover.
The piano has a gentle accompaniment which sounds like the throbbing of the spinning wheel.
The music stops for a moment when the girl imagines her lover is kissing her, then the piano gradually starts again.
It is a very famous song.
Another song which soon made him famous in all Europe was "Erlkönig".
When it was first published another composer whose name was also Franz Schubert, thought that somebody had published a song in his name because the music publishers sent it to him for a correction.
He sent a very angry letter back saying he had not composed that rubbish.
It was difficult to find enough time to compose because he was a teacher.
A man called Schober persuaded Schubert to give up teaching so that he could spend all his time composing.
Soon he had become well known in all the drawing-rooms in Vienna where he met famous people, many of them musicians.
These meetings were called “Schubertiads” because they played and sang his music.
He wrote so many wonderful pieces that it seems strange that the music publishers did not want to publish them.
They were only interested in publishing works written by performers, but were not very interested in people like Schubert who just composed.
For a time he became music teacher for the two princesses of Count Johann Esterházy, but then he returned to Vienna to live with the Schober family.
During the last few years of his life Schubert was ill.
He had to leave the Schober’s house and find his own rooms.
He was often desperately poor and composed in bed to keep warm.
Although Beethoven and Schubert lived in the same town they only met once, although they knew one another’s music.
Schubert visited Beethoven on 19 March 1827.
Beethoven was dying.
Schubert was one of the torch-bearers at his funeral.
A year and a half later Schubert, too, had died.
He asked to be buried near Beethoven.
Their graves were just three places apart.
Schubert’s pieces are among the greatest ever written.
They are all settings of German poems.
German art songs are called Lieder (pronounced “leader”), and Schubert made his Lieder very special by making the piano accompaniments describe the action of the songs in many different ways.
If you try to sing them in a translation it is difficult to make it sound good.
It is best to hear them in German and to have a translation so that you understand what is being sung.
Some of the last songs he wrote make up a cycle called “Die Winterreise” (“The Winter Journey”).
The poems are about a man who is unhappy because his lover does not want him.
He goes out into the cold winter woods and all nature seems to reflect the way he feels inside.
The songs are usually sung by a male singer (tenor, baritone or bass).
Schubert wrote a great deal of chamber music.
Among his most famous pieces are several string quartets, a string quintet (for 2 violins, viola and 2 cellos) and the “Trout” quintet (for piano, violin, viola, cello and double bass).
There are sonatas and sonatinas for violin and piano, and a sonata for an instrument called the “arpeggione” which was used for about ten years after it was invented and then it was forgotten.
The sonata is normally played on a cello or a viola nowadays.
There is lots of piano music including sonatas, impromptus and also piano duet music.
Schubert wrote eight famous impromptus.
Schubert wrote nine symphonies.
The last one is known as the “Great” symphony in C major.
The eighth is called the “Unfinished”.
There are only two movements instead of the usual four.
A lot of people still argue about why he left it unfinished.
Some people even think that he completed it and that the last two movements are either lost, or are now known as movements from a piano duet.
We shall probably never know for certain.
Most of his life he was supported by his friends who gave him manuscript paper when he could not afford it.
Many of his greatest works only became widely known in the 1860s, long after his death.
The house in Vienna where Schubert was born is now a museum which people can visit.
There visitors can also see the Benignus Seidner piano that Schubert was using for composing.
Other instruments that composer was playing on were a piano by Anton Walter & Sohn (now in the Kunsthistorisches museum in Vienna) and a piano from Viennese piano builder Conrad Graf.
Cowpox is a disease.
This disease affects the skin.
It is caused by a virus (Cowpox virus) that is related to the Vaccinia virus.
People (or animals) who have the disease have red blisters.
The disease can be spread by touch from cows to humans.
The virus that causes cowpox was used to perform the first successful vaccination against another disease.
The disease vaccinated against was the deadly smallpox.
Smallpox is caused by the related variola virus.
Therefore, the word "vaccination" has the Latin root vaca meaning cow.
In 1798, the English physician Edward Jenner made a curious observation.
Jenner lived in the countryside, not in the city.
Some of his patients had gotten cowpox, and recovered from it.
He observed that those patients did not get the disease again, they seemed to be immune against it.
What was more, they also seemed to be immune against smallpox.
Smallpox was a deadly disease then, that killed most of the people it infected.
So he used the fluid he got from cowpox lesions, and scratched it into healthy people.
That way, he could make those people immune against smallpox.
The Cowpox (Catpox) virus is found in Europe and mainly in the UK.
Human cases are very rare and most often contracted from domestic cats.
The virus is not commonly found in cows; the reservoir hosts for the virus are woodland rodents particularly voles.
It is from these rodents that domestic cats get the virus.
Symptoms in cats include lesions on the face, neck, forelimbs, and paws, and less commonly upper respiratory tract infection.
Symptoms of infection with cowpox virus in humans are localized, pustular lesions generally found on the hands and limited to the site of introduction.
The incubation period (the time between an infection and the first signs of the disease) is 9–10 days.
The virus can be found mostly in late summer and autumn.
Historical use
Cowpox was the original vaccine of sorts for smallpox.
After infection with the disease, the body (usually) gains the ability recognise the similar smallpox virus from its antigens and so is able to fight the smallpox disease much more efficiently.
Later, and still today, another vaccine was used: vaccinia.
Vaccinia is similar to cowpox, but not the same.
Animal diseases
January 18 – Lima, Peru founded by Francisco Pizarro
April – Jacques Cartier discovers the Iroquois city of Stadacona, Canada (now Quebec) and in May, the even greater Huron city of Hochelaga
June 24 – The Anabaptist state of Münster (see Münster Rebellion) is conquered and disbanded.
May 19 – French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail for his second voyage to North America with 3 ships, 110 men, and Chief Donnacona's 2 sons  (who Cartier kidnapped during his first voyage).
October 2 – Jacques Cartier discovers Montreal, Quebec.
October 4 – The first complete English-language Bible is printed, with translations by William Tyndale and Miles Coverdale.
Combined Swedish and Danish fleets defeat the Hanseatic navy.
Manco II appointed puppet Inca Emperor by Spanish Conquistadors
Second unsuccessful attempt by Spanish forces to conquer Yucatán
Carlos Quinto conquers Tunis
Anabaptist rebellion in some cities in the Netherlands, including a famous incident of seven men and five woman walking nude in the streets of Amsterdam.
The Charterhouse London is closed, as part of Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries.
Louis XIV of France passed the "Code Noir," allowing the full use of slaves in the French colonies.
January 11 – The Parliament of England declares King James II of England deposed.
February 13 – William III and Mary II are proclaimed co-rulers of England, Scotland and Ireland.
Scotland and Ireland do not yet recognize them.
April 11 – The Estates of Scotland declare King James VII of Scotland deposed.
April 11  – Crowning of co-rulers King William III and Mary II as King and Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland.
Ireland does not recognize them yet.
May 12 – King William's War: William III of England joins the League of Augsburg starting the war.
May 24 – The Act of Toleration passes the English Parliament protecting Protestants (Roman Catholics are intentionally excluded).
May 25 – Last collection of the Hearth Tax n England and Wales.
It was abolished by William III of England
May 31 – Leisler's Rebellion – Calvinist Jacob Leisler deposes lieutenant governor Francis Nicholson and assumes control of New York colony
July 27 – Glorious Revolution: Battle of Killiecrankie ends
August 5 – 1,500 Iroquois attack village of Lachine, in New France.
August 27 – China and Russia signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk.
December 16 – The official declaration of the English Bill of Rights
January 11 – Nika riots in Constantinople; the cathedral is destroyed.
They are put down a week later by Belisarius and Mundus; up to 30,000 people are killed in the Hippodrome.
Justinian I orders the building of a new cathedral – beginning of the construction of the Hagia Sophia.
Justinian  signs a peace treaty with the Sassanian shah Chosroes I.
Áedán mac Gabráin, king of Dál Riata
October 17 – Pope Boniface II
January 13 – Edward Sexby, who had plotted against Oliver Cromwell, dies in Tower of London
February 6 – Swedish troops of Charles X Gustav of Sweden cross The Great Belt (Storebælt) in Denmark over frozen sea
May 1 – Publication of Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial and The Garden of Cyrus by Thomas Browne
September 3 -Oliver Cromwell dies.
His son Richard assumes his father's former position as Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland.
The peace between Sweden and Denmark was concluded in Roskilde with Treaty of Roskilde.
France joins England in the war against Spain, which began in 1654.
The Spanish were defeated at the Battle of the Dunes in June.
England was then given Dunkirk for their assistance in the win.
Portuguese traders are expelled from Ceylon by Dutch invaders.
After his father Shah Jahan completes the Taj Mahal, his son Aurangzeb deposes him as ruler of the Mughal Empire.
In the summer of this  year, the usurper Constantine III captures Spain, destroying the loyalist forces defending it.
September – Alaric, king of the Visigoths, lays siege to Rome.
April – Fire destroys the Gra Bet (or Left Quarter) of Gondar, the capital of Ethiopia.
August 22 – Forces of Venice and Turkish troops clash near Molino
October 29 – Fuller Baptist Church founded in Kettering, England.
December 24 – Inquisition burns number of Marrano Jews in Evora, Portugal
Peter the Great becomes sole tsar of Russia.
Polish replaces Ruthenian as an official language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
A famine wipes out almost a third of the population of Finland.
Abington, Pennsylvania, is settled.
William Penn offers an elaborate plan for intercolonial cooperation largely in trade, defense, and criminal matters.
The Second Pueblo Revolt took place
Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville captured and destroyed St. John's, Newfoundland.
March 14 – Thirty Years' War: Bavaria, Cologne, France and Sweden sign the Truce of Ulm.
April 3 – In England, letter from the Agitators of the New Model Army, protesting delay of pay, is read in the House of Commons
May 29 – The Rhode Island General Assembly drafts a constitution that separates church and state, and permits public  referenda and initiatives on legislation.
August 8 – The battle of Dungans Hill, Irish forces are defeated by British Parliamentary forces.
August – Peter Stuyvesant appointed Director of New Amsterdam by the Dutch West India Company.
Johann von Werth tried to take his troops over the Austrian border, but they refused
January 4 – Palace of Whitehall in London is destroyed by fire.
June 19 – Volcano of Carguarazon erupts in the Andes and causes a rain of fish
August 25 – Peter the Great arrives back to Moscow – general Patrick Gordon has already crushed the streltsy rebellion – 341 rebels sentenced to be decapitated.
Tradition holds that tsar Peter decapitated some of them himself
September 5 – In an effort to move his people away from Asiatic customs, Tsar Peter I of Russia imposes a tax on beards; All men except priests and peasants, are required to pay a tax of one hundred rubles a year and the commoners had to pay one kopek each
Whigs sponsor Captain Kidd of New York as a privateer against French shipping
Darien Scheme – First Scottish settlers leave for an ill-fated colony in Panama
Isaac Newton calculates the speed of sound
Tani Jinzan, astronomer and calendar scholar, observes a fire destroy Tosa (now Kochi) in Japan at the same time as a Leonid Meteor storm, taking it as evidence to reinforce belief in the "Theory of Areas".
Thomas Savery patents an early steam engine.
A congress begins in Sremski Karlovci to discuss a treaty between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League.
Humphrey Hody is appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford.
Bucharest becomes capital of Wallachia (now part of Romania).
Mombasa and Zanzibar are captured by Oman.
George Louis (who would in 1714 become King George I of Great Britain) becomes Elector of Hanover.
Margaret Eleanor Atwood  (born November 18, 1939) is a Canadian writer.
She is best known for writing novels.
She has also published 15 books of poetry.
The Edible Woman was her first novel, published in 1969.
Her novel The Handmaid's Tale was the first winner of the Arthur C. Clarke Award, in 1987.
The sequel, The Testaments, was released on September 10, 2019.
Her book The Blind Assassin won the 2000 Booker Prize.
Canadian novelists
Award winning writers
Canadian poets
Children's writers
Canadian science fiction writers
Rainbow Brite was a 1980s animated television show in the United States based on a series of Hallmark cards.
It involves a girl called "Rainbow Brite" and the "Color Kids" who are in charge of bringing color to the world.
It was produced by DiC Entertainment, Cookie Jar Entertainment, Optix Digital Pictures, Super Sonics Productions, The Canadian Film or Production Tax Credit, Shaw Rocket Fund, Canadian Television Fund, and Nick Jr. Productions in its Kideo TV package.
A tie-in movie, Rainbow Brite and the Star Stealer, came out in 1985.
Chickenpox, also known as chicken pox, is a disease.
Usually, it is children who get the disease, but adults can also get it.
People who have it get blisters or spots, mostly on the body and in the face.
Those blisters are filled with a liquid.
At some point, the blisters will drain, and the person will want to scratch them.
Burst blisters usually become healthy without leaving scars, unless they become infected.
The symptoms come in two or three waves, and they usually include fever.
If there are no complications, the disease will last between three and five days in children.
Chickenpox is very common and by the age 14, more than 90% of children will have had the disease.
Chickenpox is caused by a virus of the herpes family.
People who had chickenpox in the past can also get a related disease called shingles later.
Shingles are caused by the same virus but usually is only one part of the body.
There is a vaccine against chickenpox.
Usually, the vaccine is given to children if they did not have the disease before the start of puberty, that is aged 9–13 years old.
Sometimes to help your child not to scratch when they have chicken pox, you can get a special cream for it such as e45.
January 24 – Charles VII Albert becomes Holy Roman Emperor.
February 16 – Spencer Compton, Earl of Wilmington, becomes Prime Minister of Great Britain.
February 18 – British attack La Guayra.
April 13 – The first performance of George Frideric Handel's oratorio Messiah, in Dublin.
May 17 – Frederick the Great's army defeats Austrians in Chotusitz; later Austria cedes Silesia to Prussia
May 25 – A battle is fought at Sahay.
December 2 – The Pennsylvania Journal first appears in print.
Daniel le Pelley succeeds Nicolas le Pelley as Seigneur of Sark.
Kingdom of Prussia captures Jihlava.
Christian Goldbach formulates Goldbach's conjecture.
Colin Maclaurin publishes his Treatise on Fluxions.
Anders Celsius proposes the Celsius temperature scale.
James Bradley succeeds Edmond Halley as Astronomer Royal.
Henry Fielding publishes Joseph Andrews.
John Carteret, 2nd Lord Carteret becomes Secretary of State for the Northern Department.
Rigging of Chippenham by-election causes a political scandal.
William Pulteney created as 1st Earl of Bath.
Robert Walpole was elevated to the peerage and thus moved from the House of Commons to the House of Lords, (see February 16, above).
University of Erlangen is founded.
Lopukhina Conspiracy at the Russian court.
Molde in Norway becomes a city.
Construction starts on the Foundling Hospital in London.
Eisenach builds its Stadtschloss (city castle).
In Peru, Juan Santon takes the name Atahualpa II and begins an ill-fated rebellion against the Spanish rule
Afghan tribes unite as a monarchy.
January 24 – Alfonso Mendez, appointed by Pope Gregory XV as Prelate of Ethiopia, arrives at Massawa from Goa.
The Netherlands establish a trading colony at Kaohsiung on Taiwan.
Thirty Walloon families settle in the New Netherland colony.
Oslo is destroyed by fire.
When rebuilt by Christian IV, it would be renamed Christiania.
Claudio Monteverdi publishes Tancredi e Clorinda.
Jean Louis Guez de Balzac publishes his Lettres.
Bernardo de Balbuena publishes El Bernardo.
Santa Rosalia makes a miraculous appearance during a plague in Palermo.
Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel) first recorded in America.
Jakob Bartsch records the constellation Camelopardalis.
Dr Challoner's Grammar School is founded.
The Palace of Versailles is first built, as a hunting lodge.
Chateau Cheverny begins construction.
Pembroke College, Oxford founded.
The Japanese Shogun expels Spanish from the land and severs trade with the Philippines
Mail service begins in Denmark
University founded in Bolivia
War between England and Spain
Cornelius Drebbel discover gases
Cardinal Richelieu appointed by Louis XIII to be his advisor
Henry Briggs publishes Arithmetica Logarithmica
March 5 – Lithuanian forces led by Traidenis defeat the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Aizkraukle.
The first of the Statutes of Mortmain are passed under king Edward I of England, which prevents land from passing into possession of the church.
The second of two main surveys of the Hundred Rolls, an English census seen as a follow up to the Domesday Book completed in 1086, is begun; it lasts until 1280.
Al-Razi's important medical writings are translated into Latin by Faraj ben Salim some 350 years after Al-Razi's death.
The Royal Mint of England moves into the Tower of London.
Haapsalu town (Estonia) is founded.
First contact between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuks.
Vatha Pagan Revolt in Hungary – Gerard Sagredo martyred in Budapest.
Pope Gregory VI accused of simony at Council of Sutri – abdicates
Henry III crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement II.
March 5, Naser Khosrow begins the seven-year Middle Eastern journey which he would later describe in his book Safarnameh.
Music has tonality if it uses the notes of a major or minor scale.
Such music is tonal.
It is in a particular "key".
Nearly all Western music is tonal.
All tonal music is based on a major or minor scale.
If the tune “Twinkle, twinkle little star” is played starting on the note C, the notes of a C major scale will be used.
The note C will sound like the home note (the “tonic”) and, indeed, the tune finishes on a C. The tune could have started on any other note (C sharp, D, E flat, E etc.)
but a knowledge of scales would be needed as some sharps or flats (black notes) will be required.
When singing the tune there is no need to think about the sharps and flats: the singer does them quite naturally.
A piece of tonal music will usually modulate after a while.
This means that it changes key.
But the music will not sound finished until it goes back to the original key.
If one sings The Star-Spangled Banner and stops after the words “our flag was still there” the song sounds as if it has stopped in mid-air.
It will not sound finished until it goes back to the first key in the last two lines.
Most Western music from about 1600 onwards is based in a major or minor key.
This system of tonality was used by all the great composers up to the 20th century and in popular music and most folk music.
Listening to a symphony by Beethoven is like going on a journey through various key areas, always returning to the original tonic at the end.
In some cases, such as Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, it may start in the minor and finish in the major.
This is because minor keys can sound disturbed, full of tension, but major keys sound happier and more relaxed.
The opposite of “tonality” is atonality.
An atonal piece is one where there is no feeling of a home key.
Playing lots of random notes will sound atonal.
Schoenberg was one of the most famous composers of atonal music.
Of course, his music is not just random notes (although it may sound like it to the listener at first), so he had to find another way of giving his music shape.
That is why he invented the twelve-tone system.
The toucan is a South American bird in the family Ramphastidae.
This social bird lives in small flocks in lowland rainforests in countries such as Costa Rica.
It flies short distances between trees.
Toucans rest in holes in trees.
They mostly eat fruit, but sometimes they also eat insects and small lizards.
They are brightly marked and have large, often-colorful bills.
The family includes five genera and over forty different species.
Toucans are resident breeders and do not migrate.
Toucans are usually found in pairs or small flocks.
They sometimes fence with their bills and wrestle, which scientists think is to find out who is the top bird amongst them.
Toucans are known for their huge beaks, which can grow larger than their bodies.
They use their beaks for reaching over and plucking fruit from branches of trees.
The bright colors (usually orange) on the beak may help the toucans to recognize each other, and to scare off other birds.
The elbow is a hinge-joint between the bones of the upper and lower arm.
It joins the humerus of the upper arm and the radius and ulna of the forearm together.
Everyone has 2 elbows.
It allows the lower arm to be extended or retracted (moved in).
The elbow also allows the arm to turn.
It moves by using three ligaments: the anterior, posterior, ulnar collateral and radial collateral ligaments.
The ligaments in the wrist
The knee is the joint that links 4 of the upper and lower bones of the leg, which are called the femur, tibia, fibula and the patella.
The knee joint is the largest joint in the body and is an extensive network of ligaments and muscles.
Basically, it is a hinge which allows movement of the lower leg in only one direction.
The lower leg (tibia+fibula+foot) can swing back from the knee, and that is all.
The knee is held together by ligaments which connect the bones and produces fluid which lubricates the movement at the joint.
The meniscus is a cartilage
that lies on the inner and outer edges of the upper surface of the tibia.
These are the shock
In chemistry and physics, the atomic theory explains how our understanding of the atom has changed over time.
Atoms were once thought to be the smallest pieces of matter.
However, it is now known that atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
These subatomic particles are made up of quarks.
The first idea of the atom came from the Greek philosopher Democritus.
A lot of the ideas in the modern theory came from John Dalton, a British chemist and physicist.
Democritus' atomic theory
Democritus thought that if you cut something in half again and again, you would at last have to stop.
He said that this last piece of matter could not be cut any smaller.
Democritus called these small pieces of matter atoms, which means "indivisible".
He thought that atoms would last forever, never change and could not be destroyed.
Democritus thought that there was nothing between the atoms and that everything around us could be explained if we could understand how atoms worked.
Some other philosophers agreed, and others disagreed.
They had no way to experiment to show whether his theory was true or not.
Boscovich's atomic theory
Dalton's atomic theory
All matter is formed of atoms.
That atoms are indivisible and invisible particles.
That atoms of the same element are of the same type and mass.
The atoms that make chemical compounds are present in set proportions.
Chemical changes correspond to a reorganisation of the atoms taking part in the chemical reaction.
Dalton defined the atom as the basic unit of an element that can take part in a chemical combination.
Thomson's atomic model
In 1850, Sir William Crookes constructed a 'discharge tube', that is a glass tube with the air removed and metallic electrodes at its ends, connected to a high voltage source.
When creating a vacuum in the tube, a light discharge can be seen that goes from the cathode (negatively-charged electrode) to the anode (positively-charged electrode).
Crookes named the emission 'cathode rays'.
After the cathode ray experiments, Sir Joseph John Thomson established that the emitted ray was formed by negative charges, because they were attracted by the positive pole.
Thomson knew that the atoms were electrically neutral, but he established that, for this to occur, an atom should have the same quantity of negative and positive charges.
The negative charges were named electrons (e-).
According to the assumptions established about the atoms neutral charge, Thomson proposed the first atomic model, that was described as a positively-charged sphere in which the electrons were inlaid (with negative charges).
It is known as the plum pudding model.
In 1906, Robert Millikan determined that the electrons had a Coulomb (C) charge of -1.6 * 10−19, something that allowed calculation of its mass as tiny, equal to 9.109 * 10−31 kg.
In the same time, experiments by Eugene Goldstein in 1886 with cathode discharge tubes allowed him to establish that the positive charges had a mass of 1.6726 * 10−27 kg and an electrical charge of +1,6 * 10 −19 C. Lord Ernest Rutherford later named these positively charged particles protons
Rutherford's atomic model
In 1910, the New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford put forward the idea that the positive charges of the atom were found mostly in its center, in the nucleus, and the electrons (e-) around it.
Rutherford showed this when he used an alpha radiation source (from helium) to hit the very thin gold sheets, surrounded by a Zinc sulphide lampshade that produced visible light when hit by alpha emissions.
This experiment was called the Geiger–Marsden experiment or the Gold Foil Experiment
By this stage the main elements of the atom were clear, plus the discovery that atoms of an element may occur in isotopes.
Isotopes vary in the number of neutrons present in the nucleus.
Although this model was well understood, modern physics has developed further, and present-day ideas cannot be made easy to understand.
Some idea of present-day atomic physics can be found in the links in the table below.
Atoms are <u/l>not</u/l> elementary particles, because they are made of subatomic particles like protons and neutrons.
Protons and neutrons are also not elementary particles because they are made up of even smaller particles called quarks joined together by other particles called gluons (because they "glue" the quarks together in the atom).
Quarks are elementary because quarks cannot be broken down any further.
Particle physics is a type of physics that studies really tiny pieces of things, known as particles.
These particles are the really small pieces that build up the world around us.
They are best described in the language of math: calculus, the imaginary number, and group theory (which describes symmetry).
Particles can carry fundamental forces.
For example, the electromagnetic force is carried by photons.
The four fundamental forces are responsible for almost everything in all of physics.
These fundamental forces are gravity, electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and the strong interaction.
One of the important concepts of particle physics is called the Standard Model.
The Standard Model is a theory which tries to explain the fundamental forces.
The Standard Model combined with general relativity is currently the most accepted explanation of how the universe works.
The Standard Model is known to have problems.
For example, it explains three of the four forces very well, but it cannot explain gravity.
This is why general relativity, a different theory that explains where gravity comes from, needs to be included in order for physicists to explain the universe.
There is a lot of work to improve the theory and/or find a better theory that is being done.
This work is often called theoretical particle physics because it is about building better theories of particles.
Theoretical particle physicists make theories to try to improve the Standard Model.
One example of this is how there are many theories that predict undiscovered particles.
Physicists find out about particles by studying collisions between different particles.
A good analogy of how physicists study particles through colliding is the car crash example.
Imagine a person wanted to look inside cars.
By crashing two cars together at very high speeds, we can break the cars apart and see inside.
In the same way, physicists crash two particles together in order to break them and study the inside.
If particles are moving at very high speeds, some of them will break apart when they collide.
When they break, they create new smaller particles.
These particles are very hard to find and detect because they decay (change into lighter particles) very quickly.
Modern particle physics involves colliding particles together very energetically to create new particles inside a particle accelerator.
This is called high-energy physics, due to the large amount of energy needed.
However, many particles do not simply break apart, such as electrons.
Because it does not break apart, the electron is called a fundamental particle.
If you were to smash two super-fast electrons against each other, they would not break, but instead they might create more particles around them without breaking (this is another form of decay, known as a hadron jet).
The Standard Model says that there are 17 types of fundamental particles, but there are actually twice as many because they can all be created out of antimatter.
Particle physics can help us learn about the early universe, because conditions that are similar to the early universe (which was a much more energetic place than it is now) can be made in a small volume of space using the collisions of these particles.
The biggest particle accelerator in the world is the Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Europe.