the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The Pittsburgh Penguins finished the 2008-2009 season in 2nd place in the Atlantic Division behind the New Jersey Devils with 99 points (( 45 wins, 28 loses, and 9 overtime loses)).
Pittsbugh went into the NHL Playoffs with the forth seed.
Playing rival Philadelphia Flyers in the first round, the Pens went up on the Flyers two games to none winning in OT in game 2.
The Flyers won game 3 in Philadelphia, but lost game 4 at home to send it back to Pittsburgh where the Flyers shut the Pens out 3-0 in game 5, but in game 6 the Pens rolled over the Flyers to win game 6 to advance to the 2nd round of the NHL Playoffs facing the Washington Capitals.
Losing the first two games in Washington  by a goal a piece in each game Pittsburgh had to change up there game to get back into the series.
Behind 2-0 going into game three in Pittsburgh Mellon Arena would see another OT Thriller win by the Pens.
To keep the series alive Pittsburgh won games 4 and 5 but losing in game 6 in OT to force a game 7 back in Washington.
Pittsburgh came out strong to win the game to advance to the Eastern Conference Finals against the Carolina Hurricanes.
With Players Stepping up in the series Pittsburgh sweeps the Cains in 4 straight games to send them back into the Stanley Cup Finals for the second time in a row.
With the Detroit Red Wings winning the Western Conference Final series against the Blackhawks there would be another face off in Detroit with the same two teams.
Last season Detroit won the first 3 games and losing games 4 and 5 (game 5 in triple over time) but to win the Stanley Cup in game 6 at Pittsburgh.
Pittsburgh already knowing how it feels to lose in the Stanley Cup Finals, Pittsburgh knew what could happen.
With a repeat of Detroit, the Red Wings won the first 2-game, making it look like it the Penguins would lose again.
Pittsburgh came back to tie up the series 2-2.
Pittsburgh lost 5-0 to make the series 3-2, giving Detroit a chance to win it in Pittsburgh for the second time.
Pittsburgh scoring the first two goals, which were by Jordan Staal and Tyler Kennedy.
With 11:59 left, Chris Draper of Detroit scored on a rebound to put the game at 2-1.
With 1:43, Detroit player   Dan Cleary had a huge break away but was stopped by goaltender Marc-André Fleury.
Also, with 13 seconds left in regulation, Detroit crashed the net to attempt to send it into OT but Fleury and Rob Scuderi making big stops in front of the net to force a game 7 in Detroit.
With no Scoring in the first period someone had to score soon.
Scoring the Penguins only two goals, Max Talbot scored early in the second and also in the middle of the 2nd period.
With Detroit getting shut out, the Red Wings made the game interesting with 6:07 left in the 2009 NHL season John Ericson scored to make the game 2-1.
Pulling Osgood giving Detroit the extra skater, Detroit had a chance to put the puck in the back of the net with just seconds left, but Fleury with an amazing "Martin Brodeur roll" like save the Pittsburgh Penguins would become the 2009 Stanley Cup Champions.
Jaromír Jágr was also a big star on the Penguins.
He won the Art Ross Trophy five times, in 1995, 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2001; and the Hart Trophy in 1999.
Tom Barasso, Paul Coffey, Ron Francis, and Kevin Stevens have also been strong players over the years.
The Penguins almost moved to Portland, Oregon in the late 1990s, but Lemieux (along with some investors) bought the team.
Lemieux then came back to play in late 2000 (he had retired in 1997), and continued until 2006.
The Conn Smythe Trophy is a trophy in the National Hockey League awarded to the most valuable player in the playoffs each year.
It was first awarded in 1965.
Montreal Canadiens and Colorado Avalanche goaltender Patrick Roy has won it three times, more than any other player.
Normally the trophy goes to a player of the Stanley Cup champion.
Sometimes it goes to someone on the losing team.
Trophy winners on losing teams are marked with as asterisk (*) in the list below.
The team began in 1967.
They were named at least in part for a former minor league hockey team called the Los Angeles Monarchs.
They made the finals in 1993, and lost to the Montreal Canadiens.
They won their first Stanley Cup in team history on June 11, 2012, defeating the New Jersey Devils 4 games to 2.
The team won their second Stanley Cup on June 13, 2014 after they defeated the New York Rangers in double overtime of Game 5.
The Kings have been known for their high scoring teams.
Marcel Dionne won the Art Ross Trophy as NHL scoring champion in 1980, and Wayne Gretzky won it on the Kings in 1990, 1991, and 1994.
Gretzky also won the Hart Trophy as the NHL's most valuable player on the Kings in 1989.
Charlie Simmer tied for the most goals (now the Richard Trophy) in 1980.
Luc Robitaille, one of the ten highest goal scorers in NHL history, spent most of his years on the Kings.
Ice hockey teams in the United States
The St. Louis Blues are an ice hockey team in the National Hockey League (NHL).
They have won the Stanley Cup championship once in 2019, though they made the finals in each of their first three seasons.
The Blues won the President's Trophy as top team in the regular season in the year 2000.
The name Blues is a pun (play on words) between the colour blue and Blues music; thus a blue note is the team's logo.
There is a song entitled St. Louis Blues.
First years
In their first years, they had a good team because of experienced players such as goaltender Glenn Hall.
In 1968 Glenn Hall won the Conn Smythe Trophy as most valuable player in the playoffs.
But the team did not win in 1968.
They had some trouble in the 1970s.
In 1980-81 Mike Liut was named best goalie in the NHL.
The 1980s were a good decade for the Blues.
Mike Liut, Bernie Federko, Doug Gilmour, and Joe Mullen were all important players for the team in the 1980s.
The 1990s also were a good decade.
Brett Hull led the NHL in goals in 1990, 1991, and 1992, with the help of centre Adam Oates.
Hull is the son of Chicago Blackhawks star Bobby Hull.
Brett Hull won the Hart Trophy as most valuable player in 1991.
Curtis Joseph was a strong goaltender in the 1990s.
Al MacInnis (1999) and Chris Pronger (2000) each won the Norris Trophy for best defence; Pronger also won the Hart Trophy in the year 2000.
Doug Weight, Pavol Demitra, and Keith Tkachuk were also strong players in the early 21st century.
On  June 12, 2019, the Blues won their first after defeating the Boston Bruins in game seven of the 2019 Stanley Cup Finals.
1960s establishments in Missouri
A ratio between two or more quantities is a way of measuring their sizes compared to each other.
A ratio can be indicated using colon (":") as a separator (as in 1:4:9), or it can be simply expressed as a fraction (as in ).
For example, if a school has 20 teachers and 500 pupils, then the ratio of teachers to students is written as 20:500 (and pronounced as "20 to 500").
As another example, if a cake mix asks for 100 grams of flour, 300 grams of butter and 25 grams of sugar, then the ratio of flour to butter to sugar is written as 100:300:25 (and pronounced as "100 to 300 to 25").
The first term of a ratio is called antecedent, and the second term is called consequent.
This type of ratio has no units.
If different quantities are compared, this special type of ratio is called a rate and it has units.
Ratios can be simplified.
In the school example, there were 20 teachers to 500 pupils.
If we divided the children up into equally sized classes, then each of the 20 teachers' classes would have 25 pupils.
That means that for each teacher there are 25 pupils, or alternatively, the teacher-to-pupil ratio is 1:25.
Another way to work this out is to divide both sides of the ratio 20:500 by 20.
Note that 20:500 is the same as 1:25.
Just like there are different ways of writing a fraction (for example ), there are different ways of writing one ratio.
Fraction (mathematics), a quotient of numbers, e.g. "¾"; or, more generally, an element of a quotient field
Fraction (chemistry), a quantity of a substance collected by the separation process known as fractionation
Fraction (religion), the ceremonial act of breaking the bread during Christian Communion
Fraction (politics), a parliamentary party
Fraction (comic), a short-lived comic about the theft of a powersuit
A proportionality relationship happens when two quantities or numbers x and y are related multiplicatively by a fixed number.
This can occur when either their ratio x/y is a fixed number (direct proportionality), or their product xy is a fixed number (inverse proportionality).
If x is directly proportional to y, then we write .
The fixed number of a proportionality relationship is called the constant of proportionality.
Mitochondria  (sing.
mitochondrion) are organelles, or parts of a eukaryote cell.
They are in the cytoplasm, not the nucleus.
They make most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that cells use as a source of energy.
Their main job is to convert energy.
They oxidise glucose to provide energy for the cell.
The process makes ATP, and is called cellular respiration.
This means mitochondria are known as "the powerhouse of the cell".
A mitochondrion contains two membranes.
These are made of phospholipid double layers and proteins.
The two membranes have different properties.
Because of this double-membraned organization, there are five distinct compartments within the mitochondrion.
the outer mitochondrial membrane,
the intermembrane space (the space between the outer and inner membranes),
the inner mitochondrial membrane,
the cristae space (formed by infoldings of the inner membrane), and
the matrix (space within the inner membrane).
Mitochondria are small, spherical or cylindrical organelles.
Generally a mitochondrion is 2.8 microns long and about 0.5 microns wide.
it is about 150 times smaller than the nucleus.
There are about 100-150 mitochondria in each cell.
The mitochondria's main role in the cell is to take glucose and use the energy they stored in its chemical bonds to make ATP in a process called cellular respiration.
There are 3 main steps to this process: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle, and ATP Synthesis.
This ATP is released from the mitochondrion, and broken down by the other organelles of the cell to power their own functions.
Most of a cell's DNA is in the cell nucleus, but the mitochondrion has its own independent genome.
Also, its DNA shows substantial similarity to bacterial genomes.
The shorthand for mitochondrial DNA is either mDNA or mtDNA.
Both have been used by researchers.
Mitochondria divide by binary fission similar to bacterial cell division.
In single-celled eukaryotes, division of mitochondria is linked to cell division.
This division must be controlled so that each daughter cell receives at least one mitochondrion.
In other eukaryotes (in humans for example), mitochondria may replicate their DNA and divide in response to the energy needs of the cell, rather than in phase with the cell cycle.
An individual's mitochondrial genes are not inherited by the same mechanism as nuclear genes.
The mitochondria, and therefore the mitochondrial DNA, usually comes from the egg only.
The sperm's mitochondria enter the egg, but are marked for later destruction.
The egg cell contains relatively few mitochondria, but it is these mitochondria that survive and divide to populate the cells of the adult organism.
Mitochondria are, therefore, in most cases inherited down the female line, known as maternal inheritance.
This mode is true for all animals, and most other organisms.
However, mitochondria is inherited paternally in some conifers, though not in pines or yews.
A single mitochondrion can contain 2–10 copies of its DNA.
For this reason, mitochondrial DNA is thought to reproduce by binary fission, so producing exact copies.
However, there is some evidence that animal mitochondria can undergo recombination.
If recombination does not occur, the whole mitochondrial DNA sequence represents a single haploid genome, which makes it useful for studying the evolutionary history of populations.
Population genetic studies
The near-absence of recombination in mitochondrial DNA makes it useful for population genetics and evolutionary biology.
If all the mitochondrial DNA is inherited as a single haploid unit, the relationships between mitochondrial DNA from different individuals can be seen as a gene tree.
Patterns in these gene trees can be used to infer the evolutionary history of populations.
The classic example of this is where the molecular clock can be used to give a date for the so-called mitochondrial Eve.
This is often interpreted as strong support for the spread of modern humans out of Africa.
Another human example is the sequencing of mitochondrial DNA from Neanderthal bones.
The relatively large evolutionary distance between the mitochondrial DNA sequences of Neanderthals and living humans is evidence for a general lack of interbreeding between Neanderthals and anatomically-modern humans.
However, mitochondrial DNA only reflects the history of females in a population.
It may not represent the history of the population as a whole.
To some extent, paternal genetic sequences from the Y-chromosome can be used.
In a broader sense, only studies that also include nuclear DNA can provide a comprehensive evolutionary history of a population.
Menominee is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan.
Around 13000 people live in Menominee.
It is part of the twin-city area with Marinette, Wisconsin.
It is on the north bank of the Menominee River where the river empties into Lake Michigan.
Marinette, Wisconsin is on the south bank of the river.
The Mortar is bowl-shaped, and used to hold the substance to be ground.
Mortars have smooth, rounded bottoms and wide mouths.
The Pestle is a stick used for pounding and grinding.
Mortars and pestles are sometimes used in pharmacies to crush various ingredients to make drugs.
They can also be used in cooking to grind herbs.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle
Mortar (weapon), an artillery weapon which fires explosives
Mortar (masonry), a material used to fill the gaps between blocks and bind them together
Mortar and pestle, a pair of tools used to crush or grind
July 10 – The most severe of several early fires of London burns most of the city to the ground
Battle of Navas de Tolosa
Children's crusade
Crusaders push the Muslims out of northern Spain
In Japan, Kamo no Chōmei writes the Hōjōki, one of the great works of classical Japanese prose
March 22 – Emperor Go-Horikawa of Japan (died 1234)
May 6– Constantia of Austria, Margravine of Meissen (died 1243)
Yolande of Jerusalem (died 1228)
Malatesta da Verucchio, Italian condottiero, founder of the Malatesta family (died 1312)
Zita, patron saint of maids and domestic servants (died 1272)
March 26 – King Sancho I of Portugal (born 1154)
April 12 – Vsevolod the Big Nest, Grand Prince of Vladimir (born 1154)
October 9 – Philip I of Namur, Marquis of Namur (born 1175)
November 4 – Felix of Valois, French saint (born 1127)
December 12 – Geoffrey, Archbishop of York (born 1152)
Dirk van Are, bishop and lord of Utrecht
William de Brus, 3rd Lord of Annandale,
Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale, 5th Lord of Annandale
Margaret of Huntingdon, eldest daughter of David of Scotland, 8th Earl of Huntingdon by his wife (born 1180)
Maria of Montferrat, Queen of Jerusalem (born 1192)
Peter de Preaux, Norman knight in the service of the Angevin kings of England
Robert of Auxerre, French chronicler (born 1156)
Honen Shonin, founder of Jodo Shu, a branch of Pure Land Buddhism (born 1133)
Robert of Shrewsbury, Bishop of Bangor
The Third Crusade ends in disaster.
Richard I of England and Saladin negotiate visiting rights for pilgrims to come to the Holy City of Jerusalem.
Richard I of England taken hostage by Leopold V of Austria.
Minamoto no Yoritomo granted title of shogun, thereby officially establishing the first shogunate in the history of Japan.
Enrico Dandolo becomes Doge of Venice.
Marco Polo Bridge, or Lugouqiao, completed in Beijing.
September 17 — Minamoto no Sanetomo, Japanese shogun (d. 1219)
Giorgi IV Lasha, King of Georgia (d. 1223)
Stefan Radoslav, King of Serbia (d. 1234)
April 26 — Emperor Go-Shirakawa of Japan (b. 1127)
April 28 — Conrad of Montferrat, King of Jerusalem (b. mid-1140s)
May 5 — Duke Ottokar IV of Styria (b. 1163)
August 25 — Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1142)
Kilij Arslan II, Sultan of Rüm
Germany — Henry VI Holy Roman Emperor (1191–1197) and King of Germany (1190–1197)
Pope — Celestine III (pope 1191–1198)
China — Emperor Guangzong of Song, 12th emperor of Song China (宋光宗) (reigned 1189–1194)
Hiram Emerson McCallum (August 14, 1899 – January 13, 1989) was a mayor of Toronto, Ontario, Canada, from 1948-1951.
Mayors of Toronto
Walter Leland Cronkite, Jr. (November 4, 1916 - July 17, 2009) was an American news reporter.
He was the anchor of CBS News from 1962 to 1981.
Important events he reported included when President John F. Kennedy was assassinated.
He reported the Apollo 11 moon landing.
He also reported on the Watergate scandal, which led to President Richard Nixon resigning from his position.
He was often called "the most trusted man in America."
People across the country tuned in nightly to hear his coverage of the Vietnam War as it progressed.
Cronkite was born on November 4, 1916 in St. Joseph, Missouri.
In 1935 he left school to work for the Houston Post.
He later worked for several midwestern radio stations.
In World War II he was a war correspondent for United Press International.
After the war he was chief correspondent at the Nuremberg trials.
He went to work for CBS News in 1950.
In 1962 he helped start the CBS Evening News.
He served as the news anchor until he retired in 1981.
After retiring, in 1981 he was a co-producer of a PBS program, Why in the World.
In 1982 he hosted CBS's Universe.
He was the host of A&E's Dinosaur.
He did Cronkite Remembers for CBS and the Discovery Channel.
He also wrote several books.
He won several awards during his career.
In 1981 he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
He won two Peabody Awards and several Emmy Awards.
Key stories
Cronkite was known for his coverage of the U.S. space program, from Project Mercury to the Moon landings to the Space Shuttle.
He was the only non-NASA recipient of a Moon-rock award.
Cronkite was well known for his departing catchphrase "And that's the way it is," followed by the date on which the appearance aired.
Cronkite made history when he became the first television reporter to announce the assassination of John F. Kennedy.
In the newsroom at CBS, the cameras were not ready when the news came in over the wire service.
Cronkite's voice was broadcast over a blank CBS placard on the screen: "Bulletin . . .
In Dallas, Texas, three shots were fired at President Kennedy's motorcade.
The first reports say the President was seriously wounded, that he slumped over in Mrs. Kennedy's lap, she cried out, 'Oh, no!'
and the motorcade went on . . .
The wounds perhaps could be fatal . . ."
For three and a half days there was no entertainment, no commercials, just the news.
Cronkite's reporting of Vietnam was controversial.
He reported the events on the evening news.
But at the Tet Offensive he traveled there to see the results.
What he saw upset him.
On February 27, 1968, Cronkite reported the war in Vietnam could not be won.
This was a major change from his usual objective reporting.
He was voicing his own opinion on national television.
It was the view of David Halberstam and others that Cronkite's broadcast turned many Americans against the war.
Also that it played a part in Lyndon B. Johnson's decision not to run for another term as President.
The other viewpoint is that Americans had already turned against the war before Cronkite's broadcast.
After watching Cronkite's broadcast, Lyndon Johnson said to his press secretary, George Christian, "If I have lost Walter Cronkite, I’ve lost Middle America."
Whatever effect Cronkite's broadcast had, by 1967 Johnson's approval rating on the war was down to 32%.
Cronkite was married to Mary Elizabeth "Betsy" Maxwell from 1940 until her death in 2005.
Cronkite died on the morning of July 17, 2009 in New York City, New York from cerebrovascular disease, aged 92.
Walter Cronkite Honored by NASA with a Moon Rock as an Ambassador of Exploration
Walter Cronkite Narration  for Chatham Radio WCC documentary by Mooncusser Films
Walter Cronkite: A Living Legend Still Loving Animals
Biography on InterfaithAlliance
Spacefacts biography of Walter Cronkite
Amateur Radio Today (video)
Walter Cronkite School of Journalism at Arizona State University
University of Texas TV ads
Cronkite's personal blog
Cronkite's filmography on IMDB
Web ZIne from the Walter Cronkite School of Journalism at Arizona State University
Signature of Walter Cronkite
YouTube clip of Cronkite's famous Tet Offensive commentary on February 27, 1968 edition of CBS Evening News
American television news anchors
Dog Day Afternoon is a 1975 American crime drama movie directed by Sidney Lumet, written by Frank Pierson and based on an article from Life magazine.
The movie stars Al Pacino, John Cazale, Chris Sarandon and Charles Durning.
The story is about bank robbery in New York City.
The Life article described Wojtowicz as "a dark, thin fellow with the broken-faced good looks of an Al Pacino or Dustin Hoffman".
Hoffman was offered the role when Pacino briefly quit.
An 18-year-old actor was originally to be cast in the role of Sal to match the age of the actual Salvatore.
The table below shows the main cast of Dog Day Afternoon.
The movie was based on the story of John Wojtowicz.
It keeps the basic facts of what happened, according to the Life article "The Boys in the Bank".
According to the article, Wojtowicz, along with Sal Naturile, held up a Chase Manhattan Bank branch in Brooklyn, New York on August 22, 1972.
After being arrested, Wojtowicz was convicted in court and sentenced to twenty years in prison.
He served six years.
Wojtowicz wrote a letter to The New York Times in 1975.
He said the movie was not completely true.
He said the way his ex-wife was shown was not accurate.
He also said there was not a talk with his mother.
He did say Al Pacino and Chris Sarandon's portrayals of him and his boyfriend Ernest Aron were good.
Also, Sal was 18 years old, but is played by a 39-year-old.
Dog Day Afternoon won the Academy Award for Writing – Original Screenplay (Frank Pierson) and was nominated for other Oscars:
Best Picture (Martin Bregman and Martin Elfand)
Best Director (Sidney Lumet)
Best Actor in a Leading Role (Al Pacino)
Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Chris Sarandon)
Best Film Editing (Dede Allen)
Best Motion Picture – Drama
Best Director – Motion Picture (Sidney Lumet)
Best Motion Picture Actor – Drama (Al Pacino)
Best Screenplay – Motion Picture (Frank Pierson)
Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture (Charles Durning)
Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture (John Cazale)
Best Acting Debut in a Motion Picture – Male (Chris Sarandon)
The movie won other awards, including an NBR Award for Best Supporting Actor (Charles Durning) and a Writers Guild Award for Best Drama Written Directly for the Screen (Frank Pierson) as well as the British Academy Award for Best Actor (Al Pacino).
1970s LGBT movies
American heist movies
LGBT comedy-drama movies
LGBT crime movies
Movies directed by Sidney Lumet
Movies set in Brooklyn
The Mouse cursor:  The pointer on the screen which the person using the computer can move using the computer mouse.
This cursor allows the person to select or "click" items with the mouse.
On most computers mouse cursors are the shape of an arrow.
The Text Cursor:  Usually seen as a vertical line or rectangle that flashes on and off.
The Cursor tells the person using the computer where they are typing things on the screen.
They can type letters, numbers and symbols where the cursor is.
The computer automatically moves the cursor one space to the right when a letter, number or symbol is typed.
The cursor can be moved to the start of the next line by pressing the Enter Key.
Some people believe Gödel was one of the most significant logicians of all time.
Gödel's work has had a big impact on scientific and philosophical thinking in the 20th century.
Many people, such as Bertrand Russell, A. N. Whitehead, and David Hilbert, tried to use logic and set theory at that time.
They wanted to understand the foundations of mathematics.
Gödel is best known for his two incompleteness theorems.
The theorems were published in 1931.
He was 25 years of age, and had just finished his doctorate at the University of Vienna one year earlier.
He also showed that the continuum hypothesis cannot be disproved from the accepted axioms of set theory, if those axioms are consistent.
He made important contributions to proof theory.
He did this by  clarifying the connections between classical logic, intuitionistic logic, and modal logic.
Later in his life, Gödel probably suffered from paranoia.
He thought that some people would come and poison his food.
So when his wife Adele was no longer able to prepare his food, he stopped eating.
He died of starvation.
His theory in simple words
If the sentence were false, the statement would be true, which it cannot be (because we thought it was false)
If the sentence were true, then the statement would be false.
But we said it was true.
Therefore, we found a contradiction.
This sentence is false is a proposition that is called undecidable.
We cannot say if it is true or false.
Kurt Gödel: My philosophical viewpoint, c. 1960, unpublished.
Kurt Gödel: The modern development of the foundations of mathematics in the light of philosophy , 1961, unpublished.
20th-century American philosophers
American mathematicians
Austrian mathematicians
People from Brno
Set theorists
Tyrannosaurus (from Greek: τύραννος tyrannos, meaning "tyrant" and σαῦρος sauros, meaning "lizard").
was a large predatory dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous, 68 to 66 million years ago.
Tyrannosaurus was a bipedal carnivore with a massive skull balanced by a long, heavy tail.
Compared to the large and powerful hind limbs, its forelimbs were small, but powerful for their size.
They had two clawed digits.
There is discussion as to whether it was a hunter or a scavenger.
Like most dominant meat-eaters of today, such as lions and hyenas, Tyrannosaurus might have been both.
It had a very strong jaw, and its bite power could snap the bones of other dinosaurs.
The most famous species of tyrannosaurus is Tyrannosaurus rex.
More than 30 specimens have been found.
Some of them are nearly complete skeletons, and soft tissue and proteins have been reported in at least one of these specimens.
Research is done on its biology, life history and biomechanics.
The feeding habits, physiology and potential speed of Tyrannosaurus rex are some topics.
Some scientists think  Tarbosaurus bataar from Asia is a second species of Tyrannosaurus, but others think Tarbosaurus is a separate genus.
Tyrannosaurus became extinct in the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, which wiped out half of all species on Earth.
The estimated size of this dinosaur has changed many times.
Packard and colleagues tested dinosaur mass calculations on elephants.
They decided that dinosaur estimations are flawed and produce results which were too high.
Thus, the weight of Tyrannosaurus could be much less than usually estimated.
Although other theropods rivalled or exceeded Tyrannosaurus rex in size, it was the largest known tyrannosaurid and one of the largest known land predators.
It was up to  in length, up to  tall at the head  and up to  in weight.
By far the largest carnivore in its environment, Tyrannosaurus rex probably preyed on hadrosaurs and ceratopsians, or may have been a scavenger.
The debate over Tyrannosaurus as apex predator or scavenger or both is among the longest running in paleontology.
For a long time, Tyrannosaurus was the largest known carnivorous dinosaur.
Recently, skeletons of other, slightly larger, carnivores have been found, such as Giganotosaurus, Spinosaurus, and Carcharodontosaurus.
Skeletons of Tyrannosaurus were found on the North American continent, but relatives, such as Tarbosaurus, have been found in Asia.
The largest known Tyrannosaurus rex skulls measure up to  in length.
Large openings ('fenestrae') in the skull reduced weight and gave places for muscle attachment, as in all carnivorous theropods.
But in other respects Tyrannosaurus's skull was significantly different from those of large non-tyrannosaurid theropods.
It was extremely wide at the rear but had a narrow snout.
This permitted good binocular vision.
The skull bones were massive.
Some bones were fused, preventing movement between them; but many were pneumatized, with a "honeycomb" of tiny air spaces.
This may have made the bones more flexible as well as lighter.
These features are part of the tyrannosaurid trend towards an increasingly powerful bite.
Its bite easily surpassed that of all non-tyrannosaurids.
The earliest Tyrannosaurus skeletons were found in 1902 by Barnum Brown.
Henry Fairfield Osborn, president of the American Museum of Natural History, named the species Tyrannosaurus rex (meaning "tyrant lizard king") in 1905.
The most complete skeleton was found in 1990 in South Dakota and named "Sue" after its finder, Susan Hendrickson.
Several tyrannosaurids found later are also known by individual names.
Tyrannosaurus has become well known.
Many movies and television shows have featured it, such as Jurassic Park.
Its skeletons are popular exhibits in many museums.
Jane is a fossil specimen of a small tyrannosaurid.
It is either Nanotyrannus or a juvenile Tyrannosaurus.
The skeleton was found in the Hell Creek Formation in southern Montana in 2001.
It took experts four years to make the partial sleleton ready for a museum.
Jane went on display at Rockford, Illinois in the Burpee Museum of Natural History.
Some paleontologists think Jane was a young tyrannosaurid, about 11 years old when she died.
Jane is measured 6.5 metres (21.5 ft) long, about half as long as the largest known complete T. rex specimen, which is 13 m (42.6 ft) long.
Experts think Jane weighed about 680 kg (1,500 lbs) when she was alive.
Her large feet and long legs show she could perhaps run as fast as 20–30 miles per hour.
Her lower jaw has 17 teeth.
Her teeth are curved and serrated.
The scientists named her 'Jane' even though they do not know whether she was female.
She was named after Jane Solem, a person who helped the Burpee Museum.
The Jane specimen has become part of an argument that scientists have.
The scientists disagree whether Nanotyrannus is really a separate genus of tyrannosaurids.
Jane's skull is almost exactly the same as the skull of the original Nanotyrannus specimen, which means they are the same species.
The Burpee Museum held a conference in 2005.
Paleontologists came to the conference and talked about whether these "pygmy tyrants" were adults from a small tyrannosaurid species or young Tyrannosaurus rexes.
A few scientists thought they were adult small tyrannosaurids, but most of them decided they were probably young T. rexes.
In August 1991, Robert Gebhardt was a high school principal.
He joined Royal Saskatchewan Museum palaeontologists on a prospecting expedition.
They went to the exposed bedrock along the Frenchman River Valley in southwest Saskatchewan, Canada.
Gebhardt discovered the base of a  worn tooth, and a vertebra from the tail.
Both looked like they belonged to a T. rex.
In June 1994, RSM palaeontologists began excavating the T. rex.
The 66-million-year-old skeleton was the first T. rex skeleton found in Saskatchewan and one of only 12 known in the world at the time.
Scotty is one of the largest and most complete skeletons with almost 70% of the skeleton found.
A complete articulated cast of the skeleton was finally completed in 2012 and is now on display at its permanent home at the T.rex Discovery Centre in Eastend, Saskatchewan, Canada.
Scotty's skull has a scar from the eye socket to the nostril.
That was probably caused by another T. rex or large carnivore that gripped Scotty's skull in its jaws.
The museum staff think this is the biggest T. rex specimen found.
It weighed about .
Scotty was perhaps in its early thirties at the time of  death, and was  long, including tail.
Tyrannosaurus rex appears in many works of fiction and literature.
A T. rex is important in A Sound of Thunder by Ray Bradbury.
A T. rex is a big part of the novel Jurassic Park by Michael Crichton, and Steven Spielberg's crew built a life-sized robot T. rex and a CGI T. rex for the movie version of Jurassic Park.
Many other T. rexes have appeared in books, movies and animated works.
Theropods
Tyrannosaurids
Brno  (-Czech, German: Brünn) is the second largest city in the Czech Republic.
About 400,000 people live there.
It is in the center of the historical region Moravia.
Brno is the capital of the South Moravian Region.
Masaryk University, the second largest university in the Czech Republic, is there.
Among other universities in the city are Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts or Brno University of Technology.
David Hilbert (Königsberg, Prussia, 23 January 1862 –Göttingen, Germany, 14 February 1943) was a German mathematician, logician, and philosopher of mathematics.
He is widely considered to be one of the most influential and greatest mathematicians of the 19th and 20th centuries.
Hilbert discovered and developed a range of fundamental ideas in many areas.
He worked on invariant theory, the axiomization of geometry, and the notion of Hilbert space.
This is one of the foundations of functional analysis.
Hilbert and his students supplied much of the mathematics needed for quantum mechanics and general relativity.
He was one of the founders of proof theory and mathematical logic.
He was also one of the first people to make the distinction between mathematics and metamathematics, and warmly defended Georg Cantor's set theory and transfinite numbers.
The Göttingen school
In 1895 Hilbert became Chairman of Mathematics at the University of Göttingen, at that time the best research center for mathematics in the world.
He remained for the rest of his life.
Among his students were: Hermann Weyl, the champion of chess Emanuel Lasker, Ernst Zermelo, and Carl Gustav Hempel.
John von Neumann was his assistant.
At the University of Göttingen, Hilbert was surrounded by a social circle of some of the most important mathematicians of the 20th century, such as Emmy Noether and Alonzo Church.
Axioms and problems
Hilbert's axioms
The text Grundlagen der Geometrie (Foundations of Geometry) was published by Hilbert in 1899.
It proposed a formal set, Hilbert's axioms, instead of the traditional axioms of Euclid.
They avoid weaknesses in those of Euclid, whose works at the time were still used textbmathematics is his 1900 presentation of a set of problems that set the course for much of the mathematical research of the 20th century.
He put forward a number of unsolved problems at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris in 1900.
This is reckoned the most successful and deeply considered compilation of open problems ever to be produced by an individual mathematician.
Later he expanded his list to 23 problems.
Hilbert's program
In 1920 he proposed explicitly a research project in metamathematics, which became known as Hilbert's program.
He wanted mathematics to be formulated on a solid and complete logical foundation.
He believed that in principle this could be done, by showing that:
All of mathematics follows from a correctly chosen finite system of axioms; and
That some such axiom system is provably consistent.
After 1912, Hilbert turned his focus to physics.
At that time, he worked in general relativity and mathematical physics.
His work in these fields is also important.
Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel, a meditation on strange properties of the infinite, is often used in popular accounts of infinite cardinal numbers.
Ewald, William B. (ed) 1996.
From Kant to Hilbert: a source book in the Foundations of Mathematics.
2 vols, Oxford.
Jean van Heijenoort, 1967.
From Frege to Godel: a source book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931.
David Hilbert; Cohn-Vossen S. 1999.
Geometry and Imagination.
American Mathematical Society. .
An accessible set of lectures originally for the citizens of Göttingen.
[David Hilbert] Michael Hallett and Ulrich Majer.
David Hilbert's Lectures on the foundations of Mathematics and Physics, 1891–1933.
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. .
Rowe, David; Gray, Jeremy J 2000.
The Hilbert challenge.
Oxford University Press. .
Hilbert's 23 Problems Address
Hilberts radio speech recorded in Königsberg 1930 (in German), with English translation
1862 births
German geometers
Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell  (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British philosopher, logician, and mathematician.
He was born in Wales, but spent most of his life in England.
He worked mostly in the 20th century.
He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1950.
Bertrand Russell wrote many books and articles.
He also tried to make philosophy popular.
He gave his opinion on many topics.
He wrote the essay, "On Denoting", which has been described as one of the most influential essays in philosophy in the 20th Century.
He wrote on very serious issues as well as everyday things.
He was a well known liberal as well as a socialist and anti-war activist for most of his long life.
Millions looked up to Russell as a prophet of the creative and rational life.
At the same time, his stances on many topics were extremely controversial.
From 1931 until his death, he was a member of the House of Lords.
Born at the height of Britain's economic and political ascendancy, he died of influenza nearly a century later when the British Empire had all but vanished, its power dissipated in two victorious, but debilitating world wars.
Russell's voice carried enormous moral authority, even into his early 90s.
Russell supported nuclear disarmament a lot, but did not support the American war in Vietnam even when it was popular.
In 1950, Russell was made a Nobel Laureate in Literature "in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought".
He died of influenza.
In his 1949 speech, "Am I an Atheist or an Agnostic?",
Russell expressed his difficulty over whether to call himself an atheist or an agnostic:
In Russel's book The Impact of Science on Society he wrote:
What people said about Russell
As a man
"Bertrand Russell would not have wished to be called a saint of any description; but he was a great and good man."
— A.J. Ayer, Bertrand Russell, NY: Viking Press, 1972.
As a philosopher
"It is difficult to overstate the extent to which Russell's thought dominated twentieth century analytic philosophy: virtually every strand in its development either originated with him or was transformed by being transmitted through him.
Analytic philosophy itself owes its existence more to Russell than to any other philosopher."
— Nicholas Griffin, The Cambridge Companion to Bertrand Russell, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
As a writer and his place in history
"Russell's prose has been compared by T.S. Eliot to that of David Hume's.
I would rank it higher, for it had more color, juice, and humor.
But to be lucid, exciting and profound in the main body of one's work is a combination of virtues given to few philosophers.
Bertrand Russell has achieved immortality by his philosophical writings."
— Sidney Hook, Out of Step, An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century, NY: Carol & Graff, 1988.
"Russell's books should be bound in two colours, those dealing with mathematical logic in red — and all students of philosophy should read them; those dealing with ethics and politics in blue — and no one should be allowed to read them."
— Ludwig Wittgenstein quoted in Rush Rhees, Recollections of Wittgenstein, Oxford Paperbacks, 1984.
As a mathematician and logician
Of the Principia: "...its enduring value was simply a deeper understanding of the central concepts of mathematics and their basic laws and interrelationships.
Their total translatability into just elementary logic and a simple familiar two-place predicate, membership, is of itself a philosophical sensation."
— W.V. Quine, From Stimulus to Science, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995.
"Oh, Bertrand Russell!
Oh, Hewlett Johnson!
Where, oh where, was your flaming conscience at that time?"
— Alexandr I. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, Harper & Row, 1974.
As a recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature
In other words, it was specifically not for his incontestably great contributions to philosophy — The Principles of Mathematics, 'On Denoting' and Principia Mathematica — that he was being honoured, but for the later work that his fellow philosophers were unanimous in regarding as inferior.
— Ray Monk, Bertrand Russell, The Ghost of Madness, p. 332.
From a daughter
"He was the most fascinating man I have ever known, the only man I ever loved, the greatest man I shall ever meet, the wittiest, the gayest, the most charming.
It was a privilege to know him, and I thank God he was my father."
— Katharine Tait, My Father Bertrand Russell, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975, p. 202.
"War does not determine who is right.
Only who is left." (
Often attributed to Russell, but no sources exist.)
"The secret of happiness is to face the fact that the world is horrible, horrible, horrible." (
Source: Alan Wood, Bertrand Russell, the Passionate Sceptic, 1957)
"The whole problem with the world is that fools and fanatics are always so certain of themselves, but wiser people so full of doubts." (
Source?)
"You could tell by his [Aldous Huxley] conversation which volume of the Encyclopaedia Britannica he'd been reading.
One day it would be Alps, Andes and Apennines, and the next it would be the Himalayas and the Hippocratic Oath." (
Source: Parris, M., Scorn: With Added Vitriol, London: Penguin, 1996, quoting Russell's 1963 letter to Ronald W. Clark)
"A Tale of Two Moralities" "I dislike Nietzsche," Russell wrote, "because he likes the contemplation of pain, because he erects conceit into a duty, because the men whom he most admires are conquerors, whose glory is cleverness in causing men to die." (
Source: History of Western Philosophy, chap.
on Nietzsche, last par.)
Selected bibliography of Russell's books
1896, German Social Democracy, London: Longmans, Green.
1897, An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry, Cambridge: At the University Press.
1900, A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz, Cambridge: At the University Press.
1903, The Principles of Mathematics, Cambridge: At the University Press.
1910, Philosophical Essays, London: Longmans, Green.
1910 – 1913, Principia Mathematica (with Alfred North Whitehead), 3 vols.,
Cambridge: At the University Press.
1912, The Problems of Philosophy, London: Williams and Norgate.
1914, Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy, Chicago and London: Open Court Publishing.
1916, Principles of Social Reconstruction, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1916, Justice in War-time, Chicago: Open Court.
1917, Political Ideals, New York: The Century Co.
1918, Mysticism and Logic and Other Essays, London: Longmans, Green.
1918, Roads to Freedom: Socialism, Anarchism, and Syndicalism, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1919, Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1920, The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism, London: George Allen & Unwin
1921, The Analysis of Mind, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1922, The Problem of China, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1923, The Prospects of Industrial Civilization (in collaboration with Dora Russell), London: George Allen & Unwin.
1923, The ABC of Atoms, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
1924, Icarus, or the Future of Science, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
1925, The ABC of Relativity, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
1925, What I Believe, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
1926, On Education, Especially in Early Childhood, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1927, The Analysis of Matter, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
1927, An Outline of Philosophy, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1927, Why I Am Not a Christian, London: Watts.
1927, Selected Papers of Bertrand Russell, New York: Modern Library.
1928, Sceptical Essays, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1929, Marriage and Morals, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1930, The Conquest of Happiness, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1931, The Scientific Outlook, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1932, Education and the Social Order, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1934, Freedom and Organization, 1814 – 1914, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1935, In Praise of Idleness, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1935, Religion and Science, London: Thornton Butterworth.
1936, Which Way to Peace?,
London: Jonathan Cape.
1937, The Amberley Papers: The Letters and Diaries of Lord and Lady Amberley (with Patricia Russell), 2 vols.,
London: Leonard & Virginia Woolf at the Hogarth Press.
1938, Power: A New Social Analysis, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1940, An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth, New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
1945, A History of Western Philosophy, New York: Simon and Schuster.
1948, Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1949, Authority and the Individual, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1950, Unpopular Essays, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1951, New Hopes for a Changing World, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1952, The Impact of Science on Society, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1953, Satan in the Suburbs and Other Stories, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1954, Human Society in Ethics and Politics, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1954, Nightmares of Eminent Persons and Other Stories, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1956, Portraits from Memory and Other Essays, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1956, Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901 – 1950 (edited by Robert C. Marsh), London: George Allen & Unwin.
1957, Why I Am Not A Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects (edited by Paul Edwards), London: George Allen & Unwin.
1958, Understanding History and Other Essays, New York: Philosophical Library.
1959, Common Sense and Nuclear Warfare, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1959, My Philosophical Development, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1959, Wisdom of the West ("editor", Paul Foulkes), London: Macdonald.
1960, Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind, Cleveland and New York: World Publishing Company.
1961, The Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell (edited by R.E. Egner and L.E. Denonn), London: George Allen & Unwin.
1961, Fact and Fiction, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1961, Has Man a Future?,
London: George Allen & Unwin.
1963, Essays in Skepticism, New York: Philosophical Library.
1963, Unarmed Victory, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1965, On the Philosophy of Science (edited by Charles A. Fritz, Jr.), Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company.
1967, Russell's Peace Appeals (edited by Tsutomu Makino and Kazuteru Hitaka), Japan: Eichosha's New Current Books.
1967, War Crimes in Vietnam, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1967 – 1969, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, 3 vols.,
1969, Dear Bertrand Russell... A Selection of his Correspondence with the General Public 1950 – 1968 (edited by Barry Feinberg and Ronald Kasrils), London: George Allen and Unwin.
Note: This is a mere sampling, for Russell also authored many pamphlets, introductions, articles and letters to the editor.
His works also can be found in any number of anthologies and collections, perhaps most notably, The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell, which McMaster University began publishing in 1983.
This collection of his shorter and previously unpublished works is now up to 16 volumes, and many more are forthcoming.
An additional 3 volumes catalogue just his bibliography.
The Russell Archives at McMaster also have more than 30,000 letters that he wrote.
1900, Sur la logique des relations avec des applications à la théorie des séries, Rivista di matematica 7: 115-148.
1901, On the Notion of Order, Mind (n.s.)
10: 35-51.
1902, (with Alfred North Whitehead), On Cardinal Numbers, American Journal of Mathematics 23: 367-384.
John Newsome Crossley.
A Note on Cantor's Theorem and Russell's Paradox, Australian Journal of Philosophy 51: 70-71.
Ivor Grattan-Guinness, 2000.
The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940.
Books about Russell's philosophy
Bertrand Russell: Critical Assessments, edited by A. D. Irvine, 4 volumes, London: Routledge, 1999.
Consists of essays on Russell's work by many distinguished philosophers.