the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The point of Aristotle's syllogism was to show that this kind of reasoning had a machine-like form:
If all swans are white, and this is a swan, then it must be white.
The most widely accepted way to find reliable knowledge is the scientific method.
Yet one thing all philosophers of science agree is that scientific knowledge is just the best we can do at any one time.
All scientific knowledge is provisional, not a claim of absolute truth.
Religion and knowledge
Knowledge in religion is different in that it depends on faith, belief and the authority of religious leaders, not on evidence of a scientific or legal kind.
There are differing views on whether religious statements should be regarded as knowledge.
In the Garden of Eden knowledge is the factor that made humans greedy and treacherous.
But in the Book of Proverbs it states: 'to be wise you must first obey the LORD' (9:10).
In Islam, knowledge has great significance. "
The All-Knowing" (al-ʿAlīm) is one of the Names of God, reflecting distinct properties of God in Islam.
The Qur'an asserts that knowledge comes from God  and various hadith encourage getting knowledge.
Muhammad is reported to have said "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "Verily the men of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets".
Islamic scholars, theologians and jurists are often given the title alim, meaning 'knowledgeable'.
Kauai (Kaua'i in Hawaiian) is the second oldest (after Ni'ihau) and fourth largest of the main Hawaiian Islands, in the United States.
Known also as the "Garden Isle", Kaua'i lies 73 miles (117 kilometers) across the Kauai Channel, northwest of Honolulu on Oahu.
It is of volcanic origin.
The highest point on the island is Kawaikini.
It is located  above sea level.
The wettest spot on Earth, with average rainfall of  a year, is just east of Mount Waialeale.
The high yearly rainfall has eroded deep valleys and canyons in the central mountain.
The waterfalls that have been created by erosion in canyons are now popular tourist spots.
The city of Lihue, on the island's southeast side, is the seat of Kauai County.
It has a population of around 6,500, and is the main city on the island.
Waimea, which is located on the island's southwest side and the first capital of Kauai, was the first place visited by Englishexplorer Captain James Cook in 1778.
It was also the first capital of Kauai.
The city is at the head of one of the most beautiful canyons in the world, Waimea Canyon, whose gorge is 900 meters (3,000 feet) deep.
The island of Kauai was featured in Disney's 2002 animated feature film Lilo & Stitch.
Lihue Airport is the only commercial airport on the island.
There are two other general aviation airports on the island: Port Allen Airport, and Princeville Airport.
Kahoolawe is the smallest of the eight main volcanic islands of Hawaii.
It is west of Maui and south of Lanai.
It is roughly 11 miles long by  across ().
The highest point, Lua Makika, is  above sea level.
The island is dry because its low elevation does not cause much rain (orographic precipitation) to fall from the northeastern trade winds.
Kahoolawe was used as a gunfire and bombing target by the United States military during World War II.
It was a defense training area by the United States Navy from around 1941 until May 1994.
Popular opinion in the state against this practice brought the end to this use.
Navy has since been trying to cleanup unexploded ordnance (bombs and explosive shells) from the island.
Ordnance is still buried or lying on the ground.
Other items have washed down gullies and still other unexploded ordnance is underwater offshore.
In 1981, the entire island was included on the National Register of Historic Places.
The island is planned to be given back to the Hawaiian people.
In 1993, the U.S. Congress passed a law that "recognized the cultural importance of the island, required the Navy to return the island to the State, and directed the Navy to do an unexploded ordnance (UXO) cleanup and environmental restoration"  .
The turnover officially occurred on November 11, 2003, but the cleanup has not yet been completed.
The U.S. Navy was given $400 million and 10 years to complete the large cleanup task, but this work has gone much slower than planned.
In 1993, the Hawaii State Legislature established the Kahoolawe Island Reserve.
It is made up of the whole island and waters out to  from shore.
By State Law, Kahoolawe and its waters can only be used for Native Hawaiian cultural, spiritual, and subsistence purposes; fishing; environmental restoration; historic preservation; and education.
Commercial uses are not allowed.
The Legislature also created the Kahoolawe Island Reserve Commission (KIRC) to manage the Reserve while it is held in trust for a "future Native Hawaiian Sovereignty entity"  .
After the cleanup is finished, the restoration of Kahoolawe will need ways to control erosion, restore the plant life, recharge the water table, and slowly replace alien plants with native ones.
Plans will include methods for damming gullies and reducing rainwater runoff.
Non-natives will temporarily stabilize some areas before the permanent planting of native plants.
http://www.state.hi.us/kirc/main/home.htm
Volcanoes of Hawaii
Killing a living thing is when someone or something ends that life and makes the living thing die.
It means causing a death.
When a human being kills another human being, it is called murder or homicide, such as manslaughter.
When a soldier kills another in war, it is called "combat".
When the state kills a convict sentenced to capital punishment, it is called execution.
When someone kills a  powerful person it is called assassination.
When a person who wants to die kills himself it is suicide, or euthanasia if killed by another.
When people kill other people to eat them, it is called cannibalism.
The kilometre is a common unit used for longer distances on Earth.
The international unit for measuring distances is the metre and a kilometre is 1000 metres.
It is used in some countries for measuring road and sea distances.
In the UK and the USA, the mile is used more than kilometres for road distances and the nautical mile for sea distances.
It is often used to measure the speed of cars, planes and boats by saying how many kilometres it can travel in an hour.
This is shown as km/h.
It is also spelled kilometer.
This spelling is used in American English.
One kilometre is 0.6214 miles (3280.84 feet).
This means that one mile is 1.6093 kilometres.
Yard (unit of length)
Language is the normal way humans communicate.
Only humans use language, though other animals communicate through other means.
The study of language is called linguistics.
Human language has syntax, a set of rules for connecting words together to make statements and questions.
Language can also be changed, by adding new words, for example, to describe new things.
Other animals may inherit a set of calls which have pre-set functions.
Language may be done by speech or by writing or by moving the hands to make signs.
It follows that language is not just any way of communicating.
Even some human communication is not language: see non-verbal communication.
Humans also use language for thinking.
When people use the word language, they can also mean:
the language of a community or country
the ability of speech
formal language in mathematics, logic and computing
sign language for deaf people (people who cannot hear)
a type of school subject
Universals of language
A language has rules which are shared by a community.
All human languages are based on sound and hearing, or in the case of sign language, vision.
All the basic sound units, or phonemes, have this in common: they can be spoken by the human voice, and heard by the human ear.
The sounds come out in a sequence, not all at once.
This is mimicked in writing, where the marks are put on the paper or screen in the same sequence.
The stream of sounds have little gaps between them, and come in bigger packages.
We call the bigger packets sentences or questions or replies or comments.
In most languages, English being one, the syntax or order of the words can change the meaning: "the cat sat on the man" is different from "the man sat on the cat".
Words (which may be made up of more than one phoneme) divide up into two classes: content and non-content.
Content words have meaning: nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.. Non-content words are there to make the language work: and, not, in, out, what, etc.
Grammar consists of studying how words fit together to mean something.
All languages have:
sentences with two types of expression: nouns and verbs: Jill is here.
adjectives to modify nouns: good food.
ways of linking: sink or swim.
dummy elements: Jill likes to swim, so do I.
devices to order or ask questions: Get up!
Most of the languages have a written form.
Before the invention of audio recording, the writing system was the only way to keep track of spoken information.
All languages constantly evolve.
New words appear, new forms of saying things, new accents.
The capacity to learn and use language is inherited.
Normally, all humans are born with this capability.
Which language is learned by a child depends on which language is spoken by the child's community.
The capacity is inherited, but the particular language is learned.
Children have a special period, from about 18 months to about four years, which is critical for learning the language.
If this is seriously disrupted, then their language skills will be damaged.
Older people learn differently, so they seldom learn a second language as well as they learn their native language.
Types of language
Mathematics and computer science use created languages called formal languages (like computer programming languages), but these may or may not be 'true' languages.
Mathematics itself is seen as a language by many.
Some people consider musical notation to be a way of writing the musical language.
Chinese is the language with the most native speakers in the world, but Chinese is not really a language.
It is a close family of dialects, some of which are as different as Romance languages are from one another.
Greek is one of the world's oldest surviving languages.
In its modern form, Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union.
About 13.5 million people speak the Greek language.
English is often called "the international language", or lingua franca.
It is the main second language of the world and the international language of science, travel, technology, business, diplomacy, and entertainment.
French had a similar status until the 20th century, and other languages had it at other times.
English as a first language: 380 million.p108
English as an official second language: up to 300 million.
English taught as a second language, but with no official status: anyone's guess, up to 1000 million/1 billion.
Chinese (Mandarin): 390 million native speakers.p96
Hoffish(Swedish Dialect): 176 (smallest spoken language)
Some languages are made up so that a lot of people around the world can learn them, without the new languages being tied to any specific country or place.
These are called constructed languages also known as Oral Sects.
One of the most popular of these languages is Esperanto, which is sometimes called "La Internacia Lingvo," or "The International Language."
Another of these languages is called Volapük, which was popular about a hundred years ago but is much less popular now.
It has mostly been replaced by languages like Esperanto, Interlingua, and Ido.
Dialects are basically other versions of a language.
For example, Hoffish is a dialect of Swedish.
Some languages are only spoken by closed ethnic groups such as the Romani language, which is a Indo-Aryan language spoken by only gypsies.
English as a foreign language
Language education
Language families and languages
Speech therapy
Language (general) -Citizendium
Leisure (or free time) is when a person can choose what to do.
During a person's leisure time, they do not have an obligation to be at school or work at a job.
During leisure time, people can do fun activities, family activities, or other non-work activities, such as hobbies.
Playing sports such as football or hockey
Playing games such as chess or cards
Exercising such as running or lifting weights
Watching television and movies
Listening to music
Hobbies such as playing piano or guitar, knitting, or sewing
A vacation or holiday is the setting aside of time specifically for leisure.
During their vacation, some people travel to a different region or country, and stay at a hotel so that they can do things they could not do near home.
Other people prefer to spend their vacation time at home in their own community.
In rich industrialized countries such as the US and Canada, as well as in most European countries, workers are allowed to stay home on the weekend (usually Saturday and Sunday), and use it as leisure time.
People in poorer developing countries usually have less leisure time, as they have to work longer hours and more days per year.
Live can be a verb.
It rhymes with "give". "
To live" means "to be alive" (and not dead).
If you live, then you have life.
"I live in London".
"I live in a house".
"A person can always live in fear".
Live can be an adjective.
It rhymes with "five".
In television, a "live" program is one where what is happening can be seen at the same time as it is happening.
Sports program are usually "live".
In music, If a CD is a "live recording" it means a recording which was made at a concert with an audience present.
If it is not a live recording it may be a recording made in a studio.
"Live" can also mean "full of energy" or simply "happening now".
Something that is being talked about in the newspapers at the moment can be a "live issue".
VOA Special English words
Life is a concept in biology.
It is about the characteristics, state, or mode that separates a living thing from dead matter.
The word itself may refer to a living being or to the processes of which living things are a part.
It may refer to the period when a living thing is functional (as between birth and death).
The study of life is called biology: people who study life are called biologists.
A lifespan is the average length of life in a species.
Most life on Earth is powered by solar energy: the only known exceptions are the chemosynthetic bacteria living around the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor.
All life on Earth is based on the chemistry of carbon compounds, specifically involving long-chain molecules such as proteins and nucleic acid.
With water, which all life needs, the long molecules are wrapped inside membranes as cells.
This may or may not be true of all possible forms of life in the Universe: it is true of all life on Earth today.
Living things, or organisms, can be explained as open systems.
They are always changing, because they exchange materials and information with their environment.
They undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, possess a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli and reproduce.
Through natural selection, they adapt to their environment in successive generations.
More complex living organisms can communicate through various means.
Many life forms can be found on Earth.
The properties common to these organisms—plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria—are a carbon and water-based cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information.
The systems that make up life have many levels of organization.
From smallest to biggest, they are: molecule, cell, tissue (group of cells with a common purpose), organ (part of the body with a purpose), organ system (group of organs that work together), organism, population (group of organisms of the same species), community (all of the organisms that interact in an area), ecosystem (all of the organisms in an area and the non-living surroundings), and biosphere (all parts of the Earth that have life).
At present, the Earth is the only planet humans have detailed information about.
The question of whether life exists elsewhere in the Universe is open.
There have been a number of claims of life elsewhere in the Universe.
None of these have been confirmed so far.
The best evidence of life outside of Earth is are nucleic acids that have been found in certain types of meteorites.
One explanation of life is called the cell theory.
The cell theory has three basic points: all living things are made up of cells.
The cell is the smallest living thing that can do all the things needed for life.
All cells must come from pre-existing cells.
grows,
takes in food, uses the food for energy, and passes waste products (see metabolism),
moves: it must either move itself, or have movement inside itself,
reproduces, either sexually (with another living thing) or asexually, by creating copies of itself,
reacts to its surroundings,
Mules cannot reproduce, and neither can worker ants.
Viruses and spores are not actively alive (metabolising) until the conditions are right.
A modern approach
A modern definition was given by Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela in 1980, to which they gave the name autopoiesis:
The production of their own components
The correct assembly of these components
Continuous repair and maintenance of their own existence.
Roth commented that "In short, organisms are self-reproducing and self-maintaining, or 'autopoietic', systems".
This approach makes use of molecular biology ideas and systems science ideas.
What life needs
Life on Earth is made from organic compounds — molecules that contain carbon.
Four types of long-chain molecules (macromolecules) are important: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Simple carbohydrates (sugars) are used for energy, or as a building block.
Complex carbohydrates, like starch and cellulose, can keep energy for a long time.
They are also used to make a strong structure, like a plant stem.
Lipids can be insulation to keep a living thing warm, such as fat on a penguin, or to stop water from passing in or out, such as waterproof feathers.
Two layers of phospholid (a kind of lipid) make up all cell membranes.
Some kinds of lipids are hormones, which send messages from one cell to another.
Proteins, long chains of amino acids, have many purposes.
They fold into complex shapes because their amino acids interact.
Proteins are involved in many chemical reactions, to make them go faster.
Nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, are long chains of nucleotides.
There are only four kinds of nucleotides in each chain, but they are the instructions for life, like a language.
Each three nucleotides tell the cell to make one amino acid.
One part of a nucleic acid is the code for one protein molecule.
Almost all living things need the chemical elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, to build these macromolecules.
Living things also need small amounts of other elements, called trace elements.
Water is a very important part of all living things.
For example, humans are about two-thirds water.
Water is a solvent that lets molecules mix and react with other molecules.
Some can get energy from the environment without help from other living things: these are called producers, or autotrophs.
Plants, algae, and some bacteria, a group of producers called photoautotrophs, use the sun's light for energy.
When producers use light to make and store organic compounds, this is called photosynthesis.
Some other producers, called chemoautotrophs, get energy from chemicals that come out of the ocean floor in hydrothermal vents.
Other living things get their energy from organic compounds: these are called consumers, or heterotrophs.
Animals, fungi, most bacteria, and most protists are consumers.
Consumers can eat other living things or dead material.
Both producers and consumers need to break down organic compounds to free energy.
The best way to do this is aerobic respiration, which frees the most energy, but living things can only do aerobic respiration if they have oxygen (O2).
They can also break down these compounds without oxygen, using anaerobic respiration or fermentation.
All living things have cells.
Every cell has a cell membrane on the outside, and a jelly-like material that fills the inside, called cytoplasm.
The membrane is important because it separates the chemicals inside and outside.
Some molecules can pass through the membrane, but others cannot.
Living cells have genes, made of DNA.
Genes say to the cell what to do, like a language.
One DNA molecule, with many genes, is called a chromosome.
Cells can copy themselves to make two new cells.
There are two main kinds of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
Prokaryotic cells have only a few parts.
Their DNA is the shape of a circle, inside the cytoplasm, and they have no membranes inside the cell.
Eukaryotic cells are more complex, and they have a cell nucleus.
The DNA is inside the nucleus, and a membrane is around the nucleus.
Eukaryotic cells also have other parts, called organelles.
Some of these other organelles also have membranes.
Types of life
Taxonomy is how lifeforms are put into groups.
The smaller groups are more closely related, but the larger classes are more distantly related.
The levels, or ranks, of taxonomy are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
There are many ideas for the meaning of species.
One idea, called the biological species concept, is as follows.
A species is a group of living things that can mate with each other, and whose children can make their own children.
Taxonomy aims to group together living things with a common ancestor.
This can now be done by comparing their DNA.
Originally, it was done by comparing their anatomy.
The three domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
Bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic and have only one cell.
Bacteria range in size from 0.15 cubic micrometres (Mycoplasma) to 200,000,000 cubic micrometres (Thiomargarita namibiensis).
Bacteria have shapes which are useful in classification, such as round, long and thin, and spiral.
Some bacteria cause diseases.
Bacteria in our intestines are part of our gut flora.
They break down some of our food.
Both bacteria and archaea may live where larger forms of life cannot.
Bacteria have a molecule called peptidoglycan in their cell wall, but archaea do not.
Archaea have a molecule called isoprene in their cell membrane, but bacteria do not.
Eukarya are living things with eukaryotic cells, and they can have one cell or many cells.
Most eukaryotes use sexual reproduction to make new copies of themselves.
In sexual reproduction, two sex cells, one from each parent, join together to make a new living thing.
Plants are eukaryotes that use the Sun's light for energy.
They include algae, which live in water, and land plants.
All land plants have two forms during their life cycle, called alternation of generations.
One form is diploid, where the cells have two copies of their chromosomes, and the other form is haploid, where the cells have one copy of their chromosomes.
In land plants, both diploid and haploid forms have many cells.
Two kinds of land plants are vascular plants and bryophytes.
Vascular plants have long tissues that stretch from end to end of the plant.
These tissues carry water and food.
Most plants have roots and leaves.
Animals are eukaryotes with many cells, which have no rigid cell walls.
All animals are consumers: they survive by eating other organic material.
Almost all animals have neurons, a signalling system.
They usually have muscles, which make the body move.
Many animals have a head and legs.
Most animals are either male or female.
They need a mate of the opposite sex to make offspring.
Sex cells from the male and female can meet inside or outside the body.
Fungi are eukaryotes which may have one cell, like yeasts, or many cells, like mushrooms.
They are saprophytes.
Fungi break down living or dead material, so they are decomposers.
Only fungi, and a few bacteria, can break down lignin and cellulose, two parts of wood.
Some fungi are mycorrhiza.
They live under ground and give nutrients to plants, like nitrogen and phosphorus.
Eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi are called protists.
Most protists live in water.
Over thousands or millions of years, living things can change, through the process of evolution.
One kind of evolution is when a species changes over time, such as giraffes growing longer necks.
Most of the time, the species because better suited to its environment, a process called adaptation.
Evolution can also cause one group of living things to split into two groups.
This is called speciation if it makes a new species.
An example is mockingbirds on the Galapagos Islands — one species of mockingbird lives on each island, but all the species split from a shared ancestor species.
Groups that are bigger than species can also split from a shared ancestor — for example, reptiles and mammals.
A group of living things and their shared ancestor is called a clade.
Living things can evolve to be quite different from their ancestors.
As a result, parts of the body can also change.
The same bone structure became the hands of humans, the hooves of horses, and the wings of birds.
Different body parts that evolved from the same thing are called homologous.
Extinction is when all members of a species die.
About 99.9% of all species that have ever lived are extinct.
Extinction can happen at any time, but it is more common in certain time periods called extinction events.
The most recent was 65 million years ago, when the dinosaurs went extinct.
By comparing fossils and DNA, we know that all life on Earth today had a shared ancestor, called the last universal common ancestor (LUCA).
Other living things may have been alive at the same time as the LUCA, but they died out.
A study from 2018 suggests that the LUCA is about 4.5 billion (4,500,000,000) years old, nearly as old as the Earth.
The oldest fossil evidence of life is about 3.5 billion years old.
How did non-living material become alive?
The first step must have been the creation of organic compounds.
In 1953, the Miller–Urey experiment made inorganic compounds into organic compounds, such as amino acids, using heat and energy.
Life needs a source of energy for chemical reactions.
On the early Earth, the atmosphere did not have oxygen.
Oxidation using the Krebs cycle, which is common today, was not possible.
The Krebs cycle may have acted backwards, doing reduction instead of oxidation, and the cycle may have made larger molecules.
To make life, molecules needed to make copies of themselves.
DNA and RNA make copies of themselves, but only if there is a catalyst — a compound which speeds up the chemical reaction.
One guess is that RNA itself served as a catalyst.
At some time, the molecules were surrounded by membranes, which made cells.
Gallery of images of life
Courts or police may enforce this system of rules and punish people who break the laws, such as by paying a fine, or other penalty including jail.
In ancient societies, laws were written by leaders, to set out rules on how people can live, work and do business with each other.
But many times in history when laws have been on a false basis to benefit few at the expense of society, they have resulted in conflict.
To prevent this, in most countries today, laws are written and voted on by groups of politicians in a legislature, such as a parliament or congress, elected (chosen) by the governed peoples.
Countries today have a constitution for the overall framework of society and make further laws as needed for matters of detail.
Members of society generally have enough freedom within all the legal things they can choose to do.
An activity is illegal if it breaks a law or does not follow the laws.
A legal code is a written code of laws that are enforced.
This may deal with things like police, courts, or punishments.
A lawyer, jurist or attorney is a professional who studies and argues the rules of law.
In the United States, there are two kinds of attorneys - "transactional" attorneys who write contracts and "litigators" who go to court.
In the United Kingdom, these professionals are called solicitors and barristers respectively.
The Rule of Law is the law which says that government can only legally use its power in a way the government and the people agree on.
It limits the powers a government has, as agreed in a country's constitution.
The Rule of Law prevents dictatorship and protects the rights of the people.
When leaders enforce the legal code honestly, even on themselves and their friends, this is an example of the rule of law being followed. "
The rule of law", wrote the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in 350 BC, "is better than the rule of any individual."
Culture is usually a major source of the principles behind many laws, and people also tend to trust the ideas based on family and social habits.
In many countries throughout history, religion and religious books like the Vedas, Bible or the Koran have been a major source of law.
Types of law
Medical law is the body of laws concerning the rights and responsibilities of medical professionals and their patients.
The main areas of focus for medical law include confidentiality, negligence and other torts related to medical treatment (especially medical malpractice), and criminal law and ethics.
Physician-Patient Privilege protects the patient's private conversations with a medical physician (doctor), this also extends to their personal information (like their contact details) shared with medical personnel.
Property law states the rights and obligations that a person has when they buy, sell, or rent homes and land (called real property or realty), and objects (called personal property).
Intellectual property (IP) law involves the rights people have over things they create, such as art, music, and literature.
This is called copyright.
It also protects inventions that people make, by a kind of law called patent.
It also covers the rights people have to the names of a company or a distinctive mark or logo.
This is called trademark.
Trust law (business Law) sets out the rules for money that is put into an investment, such as pension funds that people save up for their retirement.
It involves many different types of law, including administrative and property law.
Tort law helps people to make claims for compensation (repayment) when someone hurts them or hurts their property.
Criminal law is used by the government to prevent people from breaking laws, and punish people who do break them.
Constitutional law deals with the important rights of the government, and its relationship with the people.
It mainly involves the interpretation of a constitution, including things like the Separation of powers of the different branches of government.
A court order is an official proclamation by a judge that defines and authorizes the carrying out of certain steps for one or more parties to a case.
Administrative law is used by ordinary citizens who want to challenge decisions made by governments.
It also involves things like regulations, and the operation of the administrative agencies.
International law is used to set out rules on how countries can act in areas such as trade, the environment, or military action.
The Geneva Conventions on the conduct of war and the Roerich Pact are examples of international law.
Custom and tradition are practices that are widely adopted and agreed upon in a society, thought often not in a written form.
Custom and tradition can be enforced in courts and are sometimes considered as part of the legal reasoning in matters decided in courts.
In some societies and cultures all law is or was custom and tradition, though this is increasingly rare although there are some parts of the world where custom tradition are still binding or even the predominant form of law, for example tribal lands or failed states.
Civil law and common law
Civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today.
Civil law is based on legislation that is found in constitutions or statutes passed by government.
The secondary part of civil law is the legal approaches that are part of custom.
In civil law governments, judges do not generally have much power, and most of the laws and legal precedent are created by Members of Parliament.
Common law is based on the decisions made by judges in past court cases.
It comes from England and it became part of almost every country that once belonged to the British Empire, except Malta, Scotland, the U.S. state of Louisiana, and the Canadian province of Quebec.
It is also the predominant form of law in the United States, where many laws called statutes are written by Congress, but many more legal rules exist from the decisions of the courts.
Common law had its beginnings in the Middle Ages, when King John was forced by his barons to sign a document called the Magna Carta.
Religious law is law based on religious beliefs or books.
Examples include the Jewish Halakha, Islamic Sharia, and Christian Canon law.
Until the 1700s, Sharia law was the main legal system throughout the Muslim world.
In some Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia and Iran, the whole legal systems still base their law on Sharia law.
Islamic law is often criticised because it often has harsh penalties for crimes.
A serious criticism is the judgement of the European Court that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy".
The Turkish Refah Party's sharia-based "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion" was ruled to contravene the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.
The Court decided Refah's plan would "do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms" and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy".
History of law
The history of law is closely connected to the development of human civilizations.
Ancient Egyptian law developed in 3000 BC.
In 1760 BC King Hammurabi, took ancient Babylonian law and organized it, and had it chiseled in stone for the public to see in the marketplace.
These laws became known as the Code of Hammurabi.
The Torah from the Old Testament is an old body of law.
It was written around 1280 BC.
It has moral rules such as the Ten Commandments, which tell people what things are not permitted.
Sometimes people try to change the law.
For example, if prostitution is illegal, they try to make it legal.
In democracies, the people in a country usually choose people called politicians to represent them in a legislature.
Examples of legislatures include the Houses of Parliament in London, the Congress in Washington, D.C., the Bundestag in Berlin, the Duma in Moscow and the Assemblée nationale in Paris.
Most legislatures have two chambers or houses, a 'lower house' and an 'upper house'.
To pass legislation, a majority of Members of Parliament must vote for a bill in each house.
The legislature is the branch of government that writes laws, and votes on whether they will be approved.
The judiciary is a group of judges who resolve people's disputes and determine whether people who are charged with crimes are guilty.
In some jurisdictions the judge does not find guilt or innocence but instead directs a jury, how to interpret facts from a legal perspective, but the jury determines the facts based on evidence presented to them and finds the guilt or innocences of the charged person.
Most countries of common law and civil law systems have a system of appeals courts, up to a supreme authority such as the Supreme Court or the High Court.
The highest courts usually have the power to remove laws that are unconstitutional (which go against the constitution).
Executive (government) and Head of State
The executive is the governing center of political authority.
In most democratic countries, the executive is elected from people who are in the legislature.
This group of elected people is called the cabinet.
In France, the US and Russia, the executive branch has a President which exists separately from the legislature.
The executive suggests new laws and deals with other countries.
As well, the executive usually controls the military, the police, and the bureaucracy.
The executive selects ministers, or secretaries of state to control departments such as the health department or the department of justice.
In many jurisdictions the Head of State does not take part in the day-to-day governance of the jurisdiction and takes a largely ceremonial role.
This is the case in many Commonwealth nations where the Head of State, usually a Governor almost exclusively acts "on the advice" of the head of the Executive (e.g. the Prime Minister, First Minister or Premier).
The primary legal role of the Head of State in these jurisdictions is to act as a check or balance against the Executive, as the Head of State has the rarely exercised power to dissolve the legislature, call elections and dismiss ministers.
Other parts of the legal system
The police enforce the criminal laws by arresting people suspected of breaking the law.
Bureaucrats are the government workers and government organizations that do work for the government.
Bureaucrats work within a system of rules, and they make their decisions in writing.
Lawyers are people who have learned about laws.
Lawyers give people advice about their legal rights and duties and represent people in court.
To become a lawyer, a person has to complete a two- or three-year university program at a law school and pass an entrance examination.
Lawyers work in law firms, for the government, for companies, or by themselves.
Civil society is the people and groups that are not part of government that try to protect people against human rights abuses and try to protect freedom of speech and other individual rights.
Organizations that are part of civil society include political parties, debating clubs, trade unions, human rights organizations, newspapers and charities.
"Corporations are among the organizations that use the legal system to further their goals.
Like the others, they use means such as campaign donations and advertising to persuade people that they are right.
Corporations also engage in commerce and make new things such as automobiles, vaporisers/e-cigarettes, and Unmanned aerial vehicles (i.e. "drones") that the old laws are not well equipped to deal with.
Corporations also makes use of a set of rules and regulations to ensure their employees remain loyal to them (usually presented in a legal contract), and that any disobedience towards these rules are considered uncivilized and therefore given grounds for immediate dismissal.
H.L.A. Hart, The Concept of Law, (Penelope A. Bullock & Joseph Raz eds.
1994) (1961).
Principles and Practice for Legal Language.
Benjamins 1994.
A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy.
edited by Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit. .
Johnson, Alan (1995).
The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology.
Blackwells publishers. .
Handbook of Political Institutions.
edited by R. A. W. Rhodes, Sarah A. Binder and Bert A. Rockman.
An Introduction to IP Law.
edited by John Watts.
Available at Patent Professionals LLC
Law -Citizendium
Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof (; , ;  – ), credited as L. L. Zamenhof and sometimes as the pseudonymous Dr. Esperanto, was an eye doctor, linguist (who creates a language), and scholar who created the international language Esperanto.
Zamenhof was born in 1859 in the town of Białystok, Poland.
At the time, Poland was a part of the Russian Empire.
Bialystok contained three major groups: Poles, Belorussians, and Yiddish-speaking Jews.
Zamenhof thought that one common language would join these groups and stop fights between them.
His first language was said to be Polish.
His parents spoke Russian and Yiddish at home.
His father was a German teacher, so Zamenhof learned that language from an early age and spoke the language fluently.
Later he learned French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew and English.
He also had an interest in Italian, Spanish and Lithuanian.
Zamenhof decided that the international language must have a simple grammar and be easier to learn than Volapük, an earlier international language.
He attempted to create the international language with a grammar that was rich, and complex.
The basics of Esperanto were published in 1887.
He translated the Hebrew Bible into Esperanto.
1859 births
1917 deaths
Bible translators
Esperantists
Jewish scientists
Polish scientists
Canada, a country and sovereign state in the northern part of North America, is made up of thirteen administrative divisions: ten provinces and three territories.
The different levels of government in Canada are based on the principles of a federation: those of each of the provinces and territories share power with the federal government.
The territories' governments have a more limited set of powers versus the federal government than that of the provinces'.
The provinces are in the south of Canada, near the border with the United States.
They go from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west.
The territories are to the north, where fewer people live, close to the Arctic Circle and Arctic Ocean.
Here is a list of the provinces and territories, and their standard abbreviations, with their capitals (the cities where their governments are based) and largest cities.
Canada's national capital, where the federal government meets, is Ottawa.
Canada-related lists
Las Vegas is a city in the American state of Nevada.
There were 640,932 people living in the city in 2015, and more than 2,000,000 people living in the metropolitan area.
It is the largest city in Nevada.
Las Vegas is also the county seat of Clark County.
Carolyn Goodman became the mayor in 2011.
Las Vegas leans to the left.
Three of the four congressional districts in Nevada include parts of Las Vegas, and all three congresspeople representing those districts are Democrats from Las Vegas.
Native Americans were the first to reside in the area, specifically the Paiute tribe.
It was first called Las Vegas (which means The Meadows in the Spanish language) by the Spanish.
The city is known for its dry weather, as is the rest of southern Nevada.
It is surrounded by desert.
The US Army built Fort Baker there in 1864.
Las Vegas has natural springs, where people used to stop for water when they were going to Los Angeles or other places in California.
In 1905, 110 acres owned by William A. Clark, on which he built a railroad to Southern California were auctioned and Las Vegas was founded as a railroad town.
Las Vegas officially became a city in 1911.
County seats in Nevada
1905 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Nevada
Lanai (or Lānaʻi) is sixth largest of the Hawaiian Islands, in the United States.
It is also known as the "Pineapple Island".
The island is almost a circle in shape and is 18 miles wide in the longest direction.
The land area is 140 sq.
miles (367 km2).
It is separated from the island of Moloka'i by the Kalohi Channel to the north.
Lana'i was first seen by Europeans on 25 February 1779 by Captain Clerke, with HMS Resolution on the James Cook Pacific Ocean trip.
Clerke took command of the ship after Capt.
Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay on February 14, and was leaving the islands for the North Pacific.
In 1922, Jim Dole, the president of Dole Pineapple Company, bought the island of Lana'i.
He made a large part of it into the world's largest pineapple plantation.
Tourism on Lana'i started not long ago.
That was when the growing of pineapple was slowly coming to an end in the Islands.
On Lana'i, you can be with nature and feel the mood of the Hawaiian countryside.
Not like nearby O'ahu, the only town (Lana'i City) is small.
It has no traffic or shopping centers.
Tourists come mainly to relax.
A leap year is a year in which an extra day is added to the Gregorian calendar, which is used by most of the world.
A common year has 365 days, but a leap year has 366 days.
The extra day, February 29, is added to the month of February.
In a common year, February has 28 days, but in a leap year it has 29 days.
The extra day, called a leap day, occurs on the same day of the week as the first day of the month, February 1.
Leap years are evenly divisible by 4.
The most recent leap year was 2020 and the next leap year will be 2024.
However, any year that is evenly divided by 100 would not be a leap year unless it is evenly divided by 400.
This is why 1600, 2000, and 2400 are leap years, while 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300 are common years, even though they are all divisible by 4.
We have leap years because instead of 365 days, the Earth really takes a few minutes less than 365-1/4 days (365.24219) to go completely around the Sun.
Without leap years, the seasons would start one day earlier on the calendar every four years.
After 360 years, spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere would begin on December 21 (which is when winter in the Northern Hemisphere and summer in the Southern Hemisphere presently begins).
A number of countries use a lunar calendar (based on the Moon, instead of the Sun, like our solar calendar is).
They have leap years when they add an extra lunar month.
Different calendars add the extra month in different ways.
So a year which has 366 days instead of 365 days where the month of February has 29 days is called a leap year.
In a leap year, the corresponding months are January, April, and July, February and August, March and November, and September and December.
No month corresponds to May, June, or October.
In the Gregorian calendar, 97 out of every 400 years are leap years.
In the outdated Julian calendar, 100 years out of every 400 are leap years.
All other years are common years.
Leather is the skin of an animal made into a durable material by tanning.
The skins of cows, pigs, and goats are often used to make leather.
Skins of snakes, alligators or crocodiles, and ostriches are sometimes used to make fancier leather.
Shoes, bags, clothes, and balls are often made of leather.
Sometimes people make leather out of whales, ducks, giraffes, and African elephants, but all of these ways of making leather are very simple but can also be very hard and rare sometimes.
How leather is made
The way leather is made is divided into three processes.
They are preparing the leather, tanning it, and crusting.
In preparing the leather, many things are done to make it ready for tanning.
They include soaking it, removing the hair, liming, deliming, bating, bleaching, and pickling.
Tanning is a process that makes the proteins, especially collagen, in the raw hide stable.
It increases the thermal and chemical stability of the animal skins.
The difference between fresh and tanned animal skin is that fresh animal skin dries to make it hard and stiff.
When water is added to it, it becomes bad.
But, animal skin that is tanned dries to make it flexible.
It does not become bad when water is added to it.
Crusting is a process that makes the leather thin and lubricates it.
Chemicals added when crusting must be set in place.
Crusting ends with drying and making the leather soft.
It may include splitting, shaving, dyeing, whitening or other methods.
From other animals
Today, most leather is made from the skin of cattle, which makes up about 65% of all the leather made.
Other animals that are used include sheep (about 13%), goats (about 11%), and pigs (about 10%).
Horse skin is used to make strong leather.
Lamb and deerskin are used for soft leather.
It is used in work gloves and indoor shoes.
Kangaroo leather is used to make things that must be strong and flexible.
It is used in bullwhips.
Stingray leather is tough and durable.
Natural materials
A (license for American English) or (licence for British English) allows someone to do something that they otherwise are not allowed to do.
A person usually has to pay some money, and maybe pass a test to get a license.
A license is usually written but it does not have to be.
Most kinds of licenses can only be used by the person they were given to.
Licenses may be temporary or permanent.
Some licenses can not be taken away once they are given.
A person with a license is called a licensee.
Examples of licenses
The laws of most countries say that people are only allowed to drive cars if they have a driver's license.
If a person does not have a license, they may have to pay a fine if they are caught by the police.
In many countries, a person must take a test and pay money to get a license.
The test would check that they know the road rules, and have the skill to drive a car.
Hunting license