the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
All three were sentenced to death and were executed.
The Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal
In 1946, the Chinese government created the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal.
This court tried General Matsui's lieutenant, Tani Hisao, for his part in the Nanjing Massacre.
It found him guilty and sentenced him to death.
The Nanjing Massacre is still very controversial in Japan.
Only a small number of Japanese writers say the Massacre never happened at all.
Most of the argument over the massacre has to do with how many Chinese people died.
Some scholars say that many fewer Chinese people died than most historians say.
For example, Japanese writer Tanaka Masaaki says that only a few hundred civilians died in Nanjing.
There is a lot of proof that the Nanjing Massacre happened the way most historians and survivors say it did.
This proof includes:
The memories of people who survived the massacre
The diaries and confessions of Japanese soldiers who took part in the massacre
Letters, diaries, and memories from people, like doctors and missionaries, who stayed to try to help
Photographs  and movies
For example, American missionary John Magee stayed in Nanjing so he could record what was happening on film and with photographs
Mass graves of people who were all killed in the same way
During the massacre
Memorials: The Nanjing Massacre Museum
1930s in Asia
20th century crimes
Human rights abuses in Asia
Neoliberalism is a term for different social and economic ideas.
Originally the term was used by a group of liberals who helped shape social market economy in the mid 20th century.
Classic liberalism characterized by free market trade, deregulation of financial markets, mercantilism and the shift away from state welfare provision.
Characteristics of Neoliberalism
Contemporary use
Examples of neoliberal regimes of Government
Chile under Augusto Pinochet
Great Britain under Margaret Thatcher
New Zealand under David Lange
The United States of America under Ronald Reagan attempted to establish this but never did.
Australia under Bob Hawke and Paul Keating
Brazil under Jair Bolsonaro
cs:Liberalismus#Neoliberalismus
In economics, a cartel is a group of formerly independent companies who overtly agree to work together.
The objectives of cartels are to increase their profits or to stabilize market sales.
They do this by fixing the price of goods, by limiting market supply or by other means.
Monopolies are not cartels, because in a monopoly there is only one independent company.
Cartels are bad for the economy in general and for their customers who are overcharged.
Cartels usually occur in oligopolies, where there are a small number of players that control the majority of supply in a market.
Besides the sellers' cartel just described, buyers may also form cartels to suppress the price of a purchased input.
Another type of cartel is the bidding ring.
In bid rigging potential suppliers form an agreement as to which of them will win a supply contract at a price above the competitive price and, if one of them wins, then agree to a rule for sharing the extra profits among themselves.
Bid rigging is most common among construction firms trying to get a government building project.
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776
A survey was done of hundreds of published economic studies and legal decisions of antitrust authorities.
It found that the median price increase achieved by cartels in the last 200 years is 25%.
Private international cartels (those with participants from two or more nations) had an average price increase of 28%.
Domestic cartels averaged 18%.
Less than 10% of all cartels in the sample failed to raise market prices.
In general, cartel agreements are difficult to negotiate because potential members typically have different ideal collusive prices.
Once formed, cartels tend to be economically unstable, primarily because there is a profit incentive for members to cheat by selling at below the agreed price or selling more than the production quotas set by the cartel (see also game theory).
Cheating on prices is difficult for cartel members to observe, so more successful cartels often agree to fix their market quotas, share verifiable information about those shares, and agree in advance on some mechanism to punish members that exceed their quotas.
This has caused many cartels that attempt to set product prices to be unsuccessful in the long term.
Empirical studies of 20th century cartels have determined that the mean duration of discovered cartels is from 5 to 8 years.
However, once a cartel is broken, the incentives to form the cartel return and the cartel may be re-formed.
Publicly-known cartels that do not follow this cycle include the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
Price fixing is often practiced internationally.
When the agreement to control price is sanctioned by a multilateral treaty or protected by national sovereignty, no antitrust actions may be initiated.
Examples of such price fixing include oil whose price is partly controlled by the supply by OPEC countries.
Also international airline tickets have prices fixed by agreement with the IATA, a practice for which there is a specific exception in antitrust law.
International price fixing by private entities can be prosecuted under the antitrust laws of more than 100 countries.
International Cartel History Site
The Food and Global Agricultural Cartels of the 1990s
Price-Fixing Overcharges
John M. Connor, Global Price Fixing: 2nd edition: Studies in Industrial Organization No.
Heidelberg: Springer (2007).
Stocking, George W. and Myron W. Watkins.
Cartels in Action.
New York: Twentieth Century Fund (1946).
Levenstein, Margaret C. and Valerie Y. Suslow.
What Determines Cartel Success?
Journal of Economic Literature 64 (March 2006): 43-95.
In economics, an oligopoly is a market form in which the market or industry is controlled by a small number of sellers.
Usually, the market has high barriers to entry, which prevents new firms from entering the market or even be able to have a significant market share.
As there are only a few sellers in the market, each seller would take note of the actions made by one another, and thinks about how the other sellers will respond when making decisions  As such, there is a possibility in which an oligopoly can come together to make a common decision that allows them to have less competition and charge higher prices for consumers.
In many countries, some country-held companies were privatized.
Very often, this privatization lead to oligopolies.
In many countries, there are only a handful of companies providing networks for mobile phones.
They control the prices for accessing the network.
That is why using a mobile phone is often much more expensive than using a land line one.
Trains run by private sectors are much costlier than those run by a government.
As a government gives rights to private sectors to get a hold of some other sectors, they take advantage of it.
Microeconomics by Elmer G. Wiens: Online Interactive Models of Oligopoly, Differentiated Oligopoly, and Monopolistic Competition
Vives, X. (1999).
Oligopoly pricing, MIT Press, Cambridge MA. (
A comprehensive work on oligopoly theory)
Most market forms given below talk about a homogeneous product.
This simply means that they all make the same .
They simply want to get the cheapest one, since all kinds of sugars (or soaps) look the same anyway.
Perfect competition: there are many numbers of buyers as well as many numbers of sellers, all the producers sell the homogeneous product and price remains unchanged
Monopolistic competition, also called competitive market: there are a large number of  independent firms.
Each firm has  a very small proportion of the market share.
Oligopoly: A market is dominated by a small number of firms which own more than 40% of the market share.
Oligopsony: A  market dominated by many sellers and a few buyers.
Monopoly: There is only one seller and many number of buyers.
Natural monopoly: A monopoly in which economies of scale cause efficiency to increase continuously with the size of the firm.
Monopsony: There is only one buyer in the  market.
Microeconomics  by Elmer G. Wiens: Online Interactive Models of Oligopoly, Differentiated Oligopoly, and Monopolistic Competition
In economics, perfect competition is a type of market form in which there are many companies that sell the same product or service and no one has enough market power to be able to set prices on the product or service without losing business.
As the conditions for perfect competition are strict, there are only a few markets that are considered to be perfectly competitive and this market form only exists to compare with the other market forms.
Generally, a perfectly competitive market exists when every firm in the market are price takers and no one is able to charge a different price without losing business.
Specific characteristics of perfect competition includes:
Large number of buyers and sellers: There are many buyers who are willing to buy the product at a certain price and there are many sellers who are willing to sell the product at a certain price.
No barriers to entry and exit: There are no barriers to entry and exit for firms and firms are able to enter or leave the market without any issues.
Perfect information: All buyers are assumed to know the price of the product set by all sellers and sellers are assumed to know the production methods of their competitors.
These characteristics are largely impossible to achieve in reality and there are not many markets that are perfectly competitive.
For example, it is unlikely that there are absolutely no barriers to entry and exit as there are always costs involved in setting up a new firm.
Also, information is always imperfect and it is not possible for buyers to know exactly the price set by all sellers, and sellers are not willing to share their production methods with their competitors.
However, the study of perfect competition is important as it is used to compare with the other market forms.
In the short run, a perfectly competitive firm is not productively efficient as the output will not be at where the marginal cost equals to the average cost (MC = AC).
However, a perfectly competitive firm will be allocatively efficient as the firm will be producing at the profit-maximising output where MC = MR, which is coincidentally the allocatively efficient point.
In the long run, a perfectly competitive firm will be both allocatively and productively efficient.
A model can be used to show the perfectly competitive firm's price and output level for a given product.
In the diagram shown, the cost curves of a perfectly competitive market is shown in its long run equilibrium.
For a perfectly competitive firm, the marginal cost of producing an extra unit of output is shown using the MC curve (in blue) whereas the average total cost of producing an extra unit of output is shown using the ATC curve (in red).
As stated above, a perfectly competitive market has a large number of buyers and sellers and the demand does not change with output.
Hence, the demand curve, the average revenue and marginal revenue curves are horizontal (in green).
The point in which the demand curve intersects the vertical axis is the price of the product sold by the firm.
As firms are assumed to be profit-maximising, the firm will thus produce at the output level where the marginal cost equals to the marginal revenue (MC = MR).
Hence, the firm will be producing an output of Q in the diagram.
As the average total cost curve also meets at this point, the firm is thus earning normal profits in the long run.
A market where there's perfect competition is difficult to find in the real world, mainly because of the restrictions.
The model totally neglects dynamic effects in a market
In reality, there are many barriers to enter a market.
These barriers may be that some companies have technolgies that are more advanced.
There is perfect information.
There's no pioneering advantage, there's also no reason for innovation
There's no transaction cost.
Because of the large number of market players, a bigger company has no benefits over a smaller one.
In the real world, buyers do not want products that are all the same.
They want small differences, so that choosing one product over another actually has some sense.
Monopolistic competition is a market form.
Like with Perfect competition, there are many buyers and sellers.
But the market is not perfect.
This is because the products are not homogeneous, or because the buyers have explicit or implicit preferences.
This market form is quite common.
As an example, take a bakery.
There are many bakeries in the town, but one of those bakeries can demand a slightly higher price for bread, because it is the only one in a certain part of the town.
Monopolistically competitive firms are able to gain a greater degree of market share and as a result, increase prices.
If a particular bakery is known for selling the best pies and pasties in town, they can increase their prices for pies and pasties as they know consumers will pay slightly more for a superior product.
This is known as establishing a brand name and brand loyalty.
Supply and demand is a model of microeconomics.
It describes how a price is formed in a market economy.
There are two determining factors on such a market, the number of things made available, called supply, and the number of things consumers want, called demand.
Supply and demand shows how producers and consumers interact with each other.
This relationship will fix the price for a certain type of good.
In perfect competition, the quantity demanded (demand) and the quantity supplied will be equal.
This happens at the equilibrium market price.
If the demand increases, and the supply remains the same, there will be a shortage, and the price will increase.
If the demand decreases, and the supply remains the same, there will be a surplus, and the price will go down.
If the supply increases, and the demand remains the same, there will be a surplus, and the price will go down.
If the supply decreases, and the demand remains the same, there will be a shortage, and the price will increase.
When there is more supply, this will cause prices to fall because people will not want to pay more for items that can be found easily.
When there is more demand, prices will go up because many people want to buy the same item but there is not enough supply for it.
When demands for new goods and services go up, new markets come into being.
The greater the demand, the faster this happens.
This greater number of providers makes the supply go up, which forces the price down toward the cost of production and distribution.
One of the first to see this was Adam Smith.
In his book The Wealth of Nations (1776), he says that the demand was dependent on the price of a good.
He did not see the inverse, that the demand also influences the price.
David Ricardo published the book Principles of Political Economy and Taxation in 1817, where he explained market equilibrium as it is explained above.
Others who are known for this model are Alfred Marshall and Léon Walras.
Goods and markets where the rules are different
A Giffen good is one where people consume more, if the price for a better good rises.
There are certain goods which people buy to display their wealth or spending power.
These goods are called luxury goods, and the effect is known as conspicuous consumption.
In economics, the goods are known as Veblen goods.
It is possible to classify consumers by the amount of money they have available; there are also certain kinds of goods where the demand for a certain good by people of a higher income level is inversely related to the demand for the good by individuals of a lower income level.
This is known as the snob effect.
The rules above are only valid for a perfect competition market: In such a market, there are many buyers and sellers, and no single buyer or seller can directly influence the price.
If either the buyers or the sellers can influence this price, the market will react differently.
Sometimes there is only one supplier (a monopoly).
When this happens, the supplier chooses the price and the demand only determines how much is bought.
The supplier will probably raise the price very high as long as people are still willing to buy at that price.
If there is only one buyer, the market is called monopsony, and that buyer is able to fix the price.
Marshallian cross diagrams and their uses before Alfred Marshall: the origins of supply and demand geometry  by Thomas Humphrey (via the Richmond Fed)
Supply and demand  by Hubert D. Henderson at Project Gutenberg.
Price theory and applications by Steven E. Landsburg
An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, Adam Smith, 1776
By what is the price of a commodity determined?,
a brief statement of Karl Marx's rival account
Supply and demand -Citizendium
In economics, people talk about elasticity of an economic variable, usually supply or demand, in relation to another economic variable such as income or price.
The elasticity of a variable is a measure of how much the variable changes in response to a change in a second variable.
If the price for a good with a price-elastic demand goes up, the demand for it will go down.
For example, people will buy fewer DVDs if DVDs get more expensive − DVDs have a price-elastic demand.
If a good has a completely price-inelastic demand, the demand for it will not be affected by the price of it.
For example, if the price of salt increases, people will not buy less of it.
They need their daily salt intake.
The demand of salt is therefore price-inelastic.
Elasticity is often measured in percents.
If a 2% increase in price causes people to buy 1% fewer of a product, it has a price elasticity of demand of -0.5.
Worcestershire (ˈwʊs.təˌʃə; abbreviated Worcs) is a county in the West Midlands region of central England.
From 1974 to 1998 it was part of Hereford and Worcester.
Worcestershire is a fairly rural county.
The Malvern Hills, which run from the south of the county into Herefordshire, are made up mainly of volcanic rock, some of which date from before 1200 million years ago.
For more on the geology of the Malvern Hills, see the other websites section below.
Avoncroft Museum of Historic Buildings
Walton Hill and the Clent Hills
Malvern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural beauty
Great Malvern Priory
Leigh Court Tithe Barn
Claines Church
River Teme and valley
Tenbury Wells with its unique Pump Rooms.
River Severn at Worcester, River Avon at Pershore or Evesham
Witley Court at Great Witley.
A burnt out shell of a large English stately home, famous for its gigantic fountain, now restored to working order.
Currently owned by English Heritage.
West Midlands Safari Park
Forge Mill Needle Museum at Redditch, the only remaining working needle mill in the world.
Local groups
Worcestershire Conservative Future
Herefordshire and Worcestershire Earth Heritage Trust
Worcestershire County Council main site
Official Worcestershire County Council eHub
Zlín (from 1949 to 1990 Gottwaldov) is a town in the Czech Republic.
It is on the Dřevnice River.
The Bata Shoes company has developed this city.
It is now famous for urbanism.
Towns in the Czech Republic
Metamorphosis in biology means the process of transformation from an immature form to an adult form in two or more distinct stages.
Good examples are insects and amphibians.
Life for most insects begins as a larva or nymph then progresses to the pupa stage and ends as an adult.
simple metamorphosis or hemimetabolism, and complete metamorphosis or holometabolism.
Simple metamorphosis or hemimetabolism
Insects who go through simple (or incomplete) metamorphosis have three life stages.
These insects start as eggs, which are usually very small.
When the egg hatches, a larva or nymph comes out.
Nymphs are just baby insects.
Most of the time, the nymph looks similar to the adult, but it is smaller, may have different colouration, and does not have wings.
The nymph grows through stages called instars, shedding its 'skin' (epicuticle) at each stage (ecdysis).
Finally, it changes into a mature adult with wings.
Some insect nymphs are aquatic, which means they live in water.
These nymphs usually have gills and look very different from the adults they will turn into.
Nymphs that live in water are called naiads.
dragonflies
grasshoppers
true bugs
Complete metamorphosis or holometabolism
Insects that have complete metamorphosis have four life stages.
These insects start as eggs, which are very small.
The egg hatches and a larva comes out.
The larva looks like a worm and eats and eats so that it can grow much bigger.
When the larva has grown it changes into a pupa.
The pupa usually can not move or eat.
The pupa is a special time when the insect is changing into an adult that will look very different from the larva or the pupa.
Moth pupae (plural of pupa) are inside cocoons.
When the pupa opens, the adult insect comes out.
Many insects have a life cycle of egg-larva-pupa-adult.
Some of these insects are:
Coleoptera: beetles
Hymenoptera: bees, wasps, ants, sawflies
Lepidoptera: butterflies, moths
Diptera: the flies
The monarch butterfly
The monarch butterfly goes through four stages of development.
Life for a monarch butterfly begins as an egg hatched from an adult.
This egg then develops into a worm-like larva caterpillar.
In the pupa or chrysalis stage, the caterpillar spins a silk pad on a twig or leaves and hangs from this pad by its last pair of prolegs.
It hangs upside down in the shape of a "J" and then molts leaving it encased in a green exoskeleton.
The mature butterfly emerges after about two weeks and feeds on a variety of flowers including milkweed flowers, red clover and goldenrod.
Amphibian metamorphosis
In typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle.
Frogs, toads, and newts all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills.
Afterwards, newt larvae start a predatory lifestyle, while tadpoles mostly scrape food off surfaces with their horny tooth ridges.
Marine organisms
Many marine species have evolved a system where they release their eggs and sperm into the water at the same time, and fertilisation takes place in the sea over one or two days.
This increases their chance of reproductive success.
Then, larvae join the other plankton, eating and growing before metamorphosing into adults.
Most marine invertebrates and many fish have a life cycle with pelagic larvae or even pelagic eggs.
These have the capacity to be transported long distances, and so spread the species around to other places.
Need for metamorphosis
The need for metamorphosis is clear when the relative size of eggs and adults is understood.
A mature Atlantic cod can reach two metres long, and weigh over 200 pounds (96 kg).
The female will produce over 100,000 eggs in a single spawning, and the resulting larvae are quite tiny.
There is no way they could live like the adults, which are more or less top predators.
The larvae cannot even swim against the current.
Therefore, they must live a different kind of life before they can live as the adults do.
Their development is packaged into stages, and each stage has adaptations to life at its stage.
The sharp distinction between stages (best seen in insects) is presumably because a longer transition would leave the juvenile less fit, either at its younger or older ways of life.
Davies, R.G. Outlines of Entomology.
Chapman and Hall: chapter 3
Description of metamorphosis and its different forms
Info on butterflies and butterfly metamorphosis
Info on insect hormones
resilience in psychology: the mental ability to recover quickly from depression, illness or misfortune
resilience of a material: the physical property of material that can resume its shape after being stretched or deformed (elasticity)
resilience of a system: the ability of a system to recover from difficulties;toughness
Resilience is a term used in psychology to describe the capacity of people to cope with stress and catastrophe.
It is also used to indicate a characteristic of resistance to future negative events.
This psychological meaning of resilience is often contrasted with "risk factors".
In physics and engineering, resilience is defined as the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading to have this energy recovered.
In other words, it is the maximum energy per volume that can be elastically stored.
It is represented by the area under the curve in the elastic region in the Stress-Strain diagram.
Modulus of Resilience, , can be calculated using the following formula: , where  is yield stress, E is Young's modulus, and  is strain.
One definition is the rate at which a system returns to a single steady or cyclic state following a perturbation.
This definition of resilience assumes that behavior of a system remains within the stable domain that contains this steady state.
When a system can reorganize, that is shift from one stability domain to another, a more relevant measure of ecosystem dynamics is ecological resilience.
It is a measure of the amount of change or disruption that is required to transform a system from being maintained by one set of mutually reinforcing processes and structures to a different set of processes and structures.
The second definition emphasizes conditions far from any steady-states, where instabilities can flip a system into another regime of behavior - i.e. to another stability domain.
In this case resilience is measured by the magnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed before the system changes its structure by changing the variables and processes that control behavior.
This type of resilience has been defined as ecological resilience.
Economic and business
Industrial and organisational safety
Within the broad domain of industrial safety, the term resilience has come into use to emphasise that safety must be proactive as well as reactive.
Whereas conventional risk management approaches emphasise calculation of failure probabilities, resilience engineering looks for ways to strengthen the ability of organisations to create processes that are robust yet flexible.
ability for users and applications to access information when needed, e.g.:
distributed database access
All this is Not True
situational awareness
maintenance of end-to-end communication association, e.g.:
computer-supported cooperative work
teleconference (including VoIP calls)
operation of distributed processing and networked storage, e.g.:
ability for distributed processes to communicate with one another
ability for processes to read and write networked storage
Robert B. Cairns and Beverley D. Cairns.
Lifelines and Risks: Pathways of Youth in Our Time.
Ray Hilborn and Carl J. Walters.
Quantitative Fisheries Stock Assessment: Choice, Dynamics and Uncertainty .
London: Chapman and Hall. .
Gunderson, L. & CS Holling, editors.
Island Press, Washington, DC.
Hollnagel, E., Woods, D. D. & Leveson, N. G. 2006.
Resilience engineering: Concepts and precepts.
Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
A simulation to teach about cumulative risk and resilience in adolescent development
The Resiliency Center A website that focuses on real-life situations of resiliency and how resiliency can affect individual development
Homepage of the New Zealand Resilience Trust  - an NGO in New Zealand dedicated to promoting healthy communities
The Resilience Alliance is a research network that focuses on social-ecological resilience
"Resilience," a short (encyclopedic) article coauthored by Holling in pdf format or html conversion format.
The Resilience Engineering Network  is an open organisation of people and places that focus on safety in complex systems.
St Andrews is a town, that has its name from Saint Andrew the Apostle and is a former royal burgh on the east coast of Fife, Scotland, and an important home of golf.
It has a population of about 18 000, and stands on the North Sea coast between Edinburgh and Dundee.
It is home to Scotland's oldest university, the University of St Andrews.
The town is called "home of golf" for two reasons.
First, the Royal and Ancient Golf Club, founded in 1754,has authority over the game worldwide except in the USA and Mexico.
Second, the beautiful links (acquired by the town in 1894) is the most frequent venue for The Open Championship, the oldest of the Men's major golf championships.
The Cathedral of St Andrew was at one time Scotland's largest building.
It was founded by Bishop Robert (1122 - 1159).
It was not completed and consecrated until 1318 in the reign of Robert the Bruce (1306-29).
St Rule's Tower
St Rule's tower stands in the Cathedral grounds but is older than the cathedral.
Probably it was part of the Cathedral up to the early 12th century.
The ruins of St Andrews Castle stand on a rock at the sea.
It is said that Bishop Roger erected the first stone castle on the site about the beginning of the 13th century as an episcopal residence.
The University of St Andrews
The modern buildings, in the Jacobean style, were erected between 1827 and 1847.
University College, Dundee, became in 1890 affiliated to the University of St Andrews.
Royal Burgh of St Andrews Community Council
The Official Tourist Portal for St Andrews
St Andrews Links
Towns in Fife
The element St Andrew, St. Andrews or St. Andrew's is found in the names of many places and institutions.
All of them are named after Saint Andrew, a Christian saint and one of the New Testament Apostles.
Saint Andrew Corsini (San Andrea Corsini)
Saint Andrew of Crete
Saint Andrew Fool of Christ, who lived in Byzantium in the 10th century and is venerated by the Eastern Orthodox Church.
Saint Andrew the Scot
Andrew of Lampsacus
Andrew Avellino
The Saint Andrew's Cross (or saltire) is the national Flag of Scotland or the current Russian naval ensign.
The Royal Burgh of St Andrews is a coastal town in Fife, Scotland.
The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews, a world-famous golf club based in the above town.
The University of St Andrews is a university in Fife, Scotland.
Saint Andrew's High School, is a Catholic high school outside Glasgow, Scotland
St Andrews is a suburb of Bristol, England.
St Andrews is a parish in Guernsey in the Channel Islands.
St Andrews is the home stadium of Birmingham City football club.
St. Andrew's College (Dublin) is a private international secondary school in Dublin, Ireland
St. Andrews Major - a village parish in the Vale of Glamorgan, south Wales
St. Andrews, South Carolina is a city in South Carolina, United States
St. Andrews-by-the-Sea is a town in New Brunswick, Canada.
St Andrews is a town in Manitoba, Canada.
St. Andrew's Society of Charleston, South Carolina is the first known immigrant Scottish society.
St. Andrew is an electoral district in Ontario, Canada.
St. Andrew's School is a boarding school in Middletown, Delaware.
St. Andrew's College is an all-boys independent boarding school in Aurora, Ontario, Canada.
St. Andrew's Episcopal School is an Episcopal school in Jackson, Mississippi.
St. Andrew's Episcopal School is an Episcopal school in Potomac, Maryland.
Saint Andrew Parish is the name of several parishes of the Caribbean.
St. A's, short for St. Andrew's, is the name of a fraternity at Columbia and Yale Universities in the U.S.
St Andrews is a suburb of Sydney, Australia.
St Andrews is a suburb of Melbourne, Australia.
St Andrews is a town in South Canterbury, New Zealand.
St. Andrew's University is a university in Izumi, Japan.
St. Andrew's United Church in Cairo is a church serving mainly Western and African people in Egypt.
St Andrew's Church, Jerusalem
St. Andrew's is an informal district in St. Julian's, Malta.
Church of Saint Andrew, Tangier
A Saint Andrew's cross is also a kind of bondage furniture.
Disambiguation page: San Andreas
The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) is one of the most famous editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica.
Some of its articles were written by the best-known scholars of the time.
The articles are still of value and interest to modern scholars as examples for the knowledge of the 19th and early 20th centuries.
They contain, however, a number of problematic areas for the modern scholar using them as a source.
The eleventh edition is no longer restricted by copyright and is available online, both in its original text and in part in other online encyclopaedias and works.
The 1911 eleventh edition was assembled under the leadership of American publisher Horace Everett Hooper, and edited by Hugh Chisholm.
American marketing methods assisted sales.
Some 11% of the contributors were American, and a New York office was established to run that side of the enterprise.
The eleventh edition introduced a number of changes to the format of the Britannica.
It was the first to be published complete, instead of the previous method of volumes being released as they were ready.
The content of the encyclopaedia was made up as follows:
The eleventh edition has become a commonly quoted source because of the reputation of the Britannica at that time and because it is now in the public domain and has been made available on the Internet.
The Encyclopædia Britannica of 1911 has been used as a source for many modern projects, such as Wikipedia and the Gutenberg Encyclopedia.
Gutenberg Encyclopedia
The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia is actually the eleventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, renamed to address Britannica's trademark concerns.
Free, public-domain resources
Full-page scans in tiff format, at Tim Starling's Wikisource page.
Probably requires the AlternaTiff plugin.
In particular, see:
In Volume 1, the "Prefatory Note" and "Editorial Introduction," which discuss the history and objectives of the edition. (
These, and the different Prefatory Note from the Handy Volume edition of 1915, are also included in the Wikisource 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica.)
The article on Encyclopaedia
Project Gutenberg Volume I
The Project Gutenberg Volume II
Articles about the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition
'Information ... Slightly Coloured by Prejudice', by Lawrence Biemiller, The Chronicle of Higher Education, Notes From Academe, Volume 52, Issue 47, Page A40. (
No longer available on-line).
"Music and art in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica" by Charles T. Downey (Ionarts, 25 August 2006)
Free encyclopedias
Pontiac was an automobile manufacturer, owned by General Motors.
Pontiac was known for making affordable performance cars.
It was established in 1926.
In 2009 General Motors announced that it would shut down Pontiac.
Final Models
Pontiac G3
G8 (coming in 2008)
Pontiac Torrent
Vibe a rebadged version of Toyota Voltz.
Pontiac G2/Matiz
Grand Am
Pontiac Le Mans
Pontiac Firefly
Pontiac Sunbird
Pontiac Sunburst
Pontiac Sunrunner
Pontiac web site
Canadian Pontiac web site
Forever Pontiac web site
Buick is an automobile maker, owned by General Motors.
It is known for making near-luxury cars with excellent performance and value.
After the discontinuation of the Saturn brand GM announced Buick's styling would be based off the German Opel's.
Production models
Enclave (2020–present)
Encore (2013–present)
Encore GX (2020–present)
Envision (2015–present)
Excelle (2003–present)
Excelle GT (2010–present)
Excelle GX (2018–present)
GL6 (2018–present)
GL8 (2000–present)
LaCrosse (2006–present)
Regal (1999–present)
Velite 6 (2019–present)
Verano (2012–present)
Enclave (2008–present)
Envision (2016–present)
Regal (1973–2004, 2011–present)
Model B (1904)
Model C (1905)
Model F & G (1906–1910)
Model 10 (1908–1910)
Model 14 & 14B (1910–1911)
Model 28, 29, 34, 36 & 43 (1912)
Model 24, 25, 30, 31 & 40 (1913)
Series B (1914)
Series C (1915)
Series D (1916–1917)
Series E (1918)
Series H (1919)
Series K (1920)
Series 21 (1921)
Series 22 (1922)
Series 23 (1923)
Series 24 (1924)
Master Series (1925–1928)
Standard Series (1925–1928)
Series 116, 121 & 129 (1929)
Series 40 (1930–1935)
Series 50 (1930–1935)
Series 60 (1930–1935)
Special (1936–1958, 1961–1969)
Roadmaster (1936–1958, 1991–1996)
Century (1936–1942, 1954–1958, 1973–2005)
Super (1939–1958)
Skylark (1953–1954, 1961–1972, 1975–1998)
Invicta (1959–1963)
Electra (1959–1990)
LeSabre (1959–2005)
Wildcat (1963–1970)
Riviera (1963–1993, 1995–1999)
Estate (1970–1979, 1990)
Centurion (1971–1973)
Apollo (1973–1975)
Skyhawk (1975–1980, 1982–1989)
Opel (1976–1979)
Somerset (1985–1987)
Reatta (1988–1991)
Park Avenue (1991–2005, 2007–2012)
Sail (2001–2004)
Rendezvous (2001–2007)
Rainier (2004–2007)
Royaum (2005–2006)
Terraza (2005–2007)
Lucerne (2006–2011)
Excelle XT (2010–2015)
Cascada (2016–2019)
Velite 5 (2017–2019)
Buick Homepage
Buick in Canada
Buick in China (English and Chinese)
Buick in Israel  (Hebrew)
Buick in Taiwan (Chinese)
History and Picture Buick in Russian
Cadillac, officially the Cadillac Division of the General Motors Company, is a luxury car maker, owned by General Motors.
During the 20th century, Cadillacs were so highly thought of that the phrase "the Cadillac of x" was coined, meaning that something of excellent quality and better than everything else in its category.
The company is one of the oldest car companies and was founded in 1902.
By the 1950s and 1960s, it had become famous for making high-quality and luxurious cars, often setting the standard for automotive styling.
Cadillac had largely declined by the 1980s and lost much of its market to other companies.
Since the early 2000s, Cadillac has regained some of its lost reputation.
However, it is not the same company it once was.
Cadillac is based in Detroit, Michigan.
Many of its cars are available as a V-model, which is a sports package.
CT4
CT5
CT6
XT4
XT5
XT6
Brougham
Catera
XTS
Cadillac.com – Official site
Cadillac.GM.ca  – Official site of Cadillac in Canada
CadillacEurope.com – Official site of Cadillac in Europe
CadillacOwners.com – Community of Cadillac owners and enthusiasts with pictures, classifieds, auctions, discussions, tech tips and more.
History and Picture Cadillac in Russian
Chevrolet, also known as Chevy, and formally the Chevrolet Division of the General Motors Company, is a car company owned by General Motors.
Chevrolet is known for producing popular, affordable cars.
Chevrolet produces the Corvette, one of the most famous sports cars in the world.
Chevrolet was created in 1911 by Louis Chevrolet.
Louis was a racing car driver.
Chevrolet started using its "bow-tie" logo in 1913.
It could have come from a wallpaper Chevrolet saw in a hotel.
It could also be a version of the cross on the Swiss flag, due to Chevrolet having been born in Switzerland.
In 1917, Chevrolet combined with General Motors.
In 2002, GM acquired the recently bankrupt Daewoo Motors company of South Korea, and in 2011, the brand was folded into Chevrolet making the marque global except for Australasia.
Aveo/Sonic
Caprice PPV
Chevrolet City Express (a rebadged Nissan transit van)
Cruze
Express Commercial Van
Malibu and Malibu Hybrid
TrailBlazer (not sold in North America)
Trax/Tracker
Volt, a plug-in hybrid
Bolt EV, a battery-electric vehicle
Uplander
Chevrolet Optra
Chevrolet S10 Blazer
K5 Blazer
Chevrolet Evanda/Epica
Chevrolet Rezzo
Official Chevrolet Site
Chevrolet in Canada
A sports car is a small, fast, quick-turning automobile.
Most of them only have two seats or very small seats in the back.
A sports car is different from an automobile for racing.
The sports car is allowed to drive on a normal road, whereas race cars cannot.
Since the invention of automobiles, people have tried to make them faster.
The first sports cars were made to be raced by rich people.
There are different versions of sports cars.
There are automobiles with the motor in the front and those with rear-wheel drive.
Examples are the Chevrolet Corvette or the Honda S2000.
There are also cars with the motor behind the passengers, in the middle of the car.
One of the first cars like this was the Lamborghini Miura.
Porsche uses a different layout.
The motor in a Porsche 911 is in the back, behind the rear wheels.
Since the 1980s, a lot of sports cars have four-wheel drive.
The motor in the front and front-wheel drive is only used in a few sports cars.
Most sports cars only have two seats.
There are some sports cars that also have small seats in the back.
For example, the Porsche 911.
The McLaren F1 has three seats, with driver sitting in the middle.
The fastest sportscar is the Bugatti Veyron Super Sport.
The maximum speed is .
Oldmobile was an automobile maker, owned by General Motors.
Oldmobiles were known for being affordable cars with good performance and new technologies.
The company was closed in 2004, due to the company being less popular.
The cars are still a popular GM car thanks to resale.
Custom Cruiser
Delta 88
Oldsmobile Silhouette
Toronado
2004 disestablishments
GMC is an automobile maker, owned by General Motors.
GMC is known for building trucks.
Some of them are small, while others, like those promoted as "Professional Grade", are big.
In the past, GMC was part of the General Motors Diesel Division which also made buses, motorhomes, and vehicles for the military.
The company was founded by Max Grabowsky in 1901.
It was bought by General Motors in 1909.
In 1989 GMC started to market the Suzuki Sidekick as the GMC Tracker in Canada.
In 2006 GMC announced it would start selling unibody crossovers, its first was the GMC Acadia, replacing the Safari minivan, GMC Envoy XL SUV and the Pontiac Montana SV6 minivan.
Saturn was an automobile maker.
It was owned by General Motors.
It was established on January 7, 1985.
Saturns are sold in the United States and Canada, some even being sold in Japan.
They are currently known for European styling, and no-haggle pricing.
IN the past, their most notable feature was plastic body panels.
General Motors tried to sell the company.
Penske Automtive was going to buy it, but decided not to.
Saturn Corporation went defunct on October 31, 2010 as part of General Motors downsizing due to its bankruptcy.
The company was succeeded by Buick as GM's captive import brand.
GM also decided to reuse some components of the brand's crossover for Chevrolet and GMC models.
L-Series
S-Series
Saturn official website
Saturn Owner's Fanclub
2010 disestablishments in the United States
Holden was an Australian car maker, owned by General Motors.
Holden was known for making rear-wheel drive cars with large, naturally-aspirated engines.
The company closed down in 2020.
Original models
Holden Camira
Holden Torana
Holden Kingswood
Holden Special
Holden Caprice
Holden Sandman
Toyota-based models
Holden Apollo (1989–1996)
Holden Nova (1989–1996)
Opel-based models
Holden Vectra (1997–2006)
Holden Zafira (2001–2005)
Holden Combo (1996–2012)
Holden Calibra (1991–1998)
Holden Insignia (2015–2017)
Holden Cascada (2015–2017)
Holden Tigra (2005–2007)
Holden Barina (1994–2005)
Holden Astra (1996–2009, 2015–2020)
Holden Commodore (2018–2020)
Chevrolet-based models
Holden Cruze (2009–2016)
Holden Malibu (2013–2016)
Holden Suburban (1998–2001)
Holden Volt (2012–2015)
Holden Barina (2011–2018)
Daewoo-based models
Holden Epica (2007–2011)
Holden Viva (2005–2009)
Holden Captiva (2006–2018)
Isuzu-based models
Holden Jackaroo (1981–2004)
Holden Rodeo (1981–2008)
Holden Monterey
Holden Frontera (1995–2004)
Holden Gemini
Holden Piazza
Holden Shuttle
Suzuki-based models
Holden Drover
Holden Scurry
Holden Cruze (2002–2006)
Holden Barina (1985–1994)
Holden Australia
Holden New Zealand
Holden Special Vehicles
Hummer is a type of Sport utility vehicle.
Hummer was first made by AM General who also made vehicles used by the United States Army.
The design of the Hummer H1 is based on the military High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV – Humvee).
Hummer used to be made by General Motors.
General Motors wanted to sell the brand, but they could not find a buyer, so the brand will stop being made.
H1, the first Hummer, based on the Humvee
AM General official site
GM's HUMMER homepage
General Motors vehicles
Sport utility vehicles
Vauxhall is a car manufacturer.
The company was founded in London in 1903 and was named after the area of the city where it was created.
The company is based in Luton, Bedfordshire.
They have 2 factories, 1 in Luton for production of the Vivaro van and 1 in Ellsmere Port for production of the Astra family car.
In March 2017, Vauxhall and parent brand Opel were brought by PSA, the company who owns Peugeot and Citroen.
Vauxhall Heritage
Vauxhall UK Website
Opel automobiles
The Battle of Dunkirk (French: Bataille de Dunkerque) (Also known as Operation Dynamo) was a major battle during World War II.
It lasted from the 26 May until 4 June 1940.
The Allied forces were split in two by a German armoured advance to the Channel coast at Calais.
The British and French commanders had been taken by surprise at the speed of the advance.
The northern part of the army was surrounded In Dunkirk, France, a port on the English Channel.
There they made a perimeter and waited for an evacuation.
The majority were able to escape.
French troops elsewhere continued the Battle of France.
WW2DB: Invasion of ''France and the Low Countries
1940 in France
May 1940 events
June 1940 events
The 1971 Bangladesh atrocities refer to the murder of many people in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) by the Pakistan National Army (PNA) during the Bangladesh Liberation War that began on March 26, 1971 with Operation Searchlight.
In 1947, the United Kingdom split British India into two countries: India and Pakistan.
The idea was that Hindus would live in India and Muslims would live in Pakistan.
But it was not so simple.
Because Hindus and Muslims lived in so many different places, East Pakistan and West Pakistan were about 1000 miles apart, with all of India in between them.
Also, not all Muslims are the same.
The East Pakistanis and West Pakistanis did not speak the same language and did not always like each other.
There were fewer West Pakistanis than East Pakistanis, but West Pakistanis controlled most of the government.
After the Bhola Cyclone damaged East Pakistan, West Pakistan did not send enough help.
Because of these things, East Pakistanis started to want to be a separate country from East Pakistan.
The government in East Pakistan started Operation Searchlight to stop this separatist movement.
East Pakistan would later become Bangladesh.
The people who lived there called themselves Bengalis.
Some of the Bengalis were not Muslims but Hindus.
In 1970, Pakistan held its first general election.
Before this, the military had limited voters' rights.
The West Pakistanis voted for many different political parties, but most of the East Pakistanis voted for the same political party, called the Awami League.
This meant the East Pakistani candidates would have a majority in Pakistan's assembly.
This East Pakistani political party was led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
General Yahya Khan, a West Pakistani and leader, did not want the East Pakistani candidates to run the country, so he declared martial law, meaning the army was in charge of the country.
The East Pakistanis were angry.
They did protests and riots in 1970 and 1971.
Khan and Mujibur met with each other to talk to try to solve the problems and stop the riots.
It looked like they had made an agreement.
But on March 25, 1971, Mujibur was arrested.
Then, thousands of West Pakistani soldiers, 60,000 to 80,000 of them, began killing East Pakistanis.
Bangladesh declared itself an independent country the next day.
West Pakistani soldiers killed Hindus, Bengali Muslims, smart people, students and politicians in order to kill them all.
They went to schools and killed everybody there.
The soldiers killed college professors at Dhaka University and other intellectual leaders because they thought they were the ones encouraging other East Pakistanis to want to be a separate country.
They especially killed Hindu leaders.
Then they killed young Hindu men because they thought young Hindu men would want to fight against them.
A TIME magazine article said "The Hindus are three-fourths of the refugees and most of the dead, have most disliked by the Muslim soldiers."
More than 200,000 women were raped.
Some of the women were raped in front of husbands or male relatives.
Other women were captured to be slaves for the West Bengali soldiers.
Two Muslims called Al-Shams and Al-Badr were told by the Pakistanis to kill Bengali Hindus and traitory Bengali Muslims also.
There are many graves with a lot of people in Bangladesh, and new graves with a lot of people are always being discovered.