the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
For example, if a person has zero hats, that means they do not have any hats.
The symbol for the number zero is "0".
It is the additive identity of common numbers.
This means that if a number is added to 0, then that number would remain unchanged.
Math with zero
Adding a number to zero results in that number.
For example, adding zero to three gives three.
Subtracting zero from a number always gives that number.
For example, subtracting zero from three gives three.
Subtracting a positive number from zero always makes that number negative (or, if a negative number is subtracted from zero, it makes the number positive).
Multiplying a number by zero always gives zero.
For example, multiplying forty-three by zero gives zero.
Dividing zero by a number always gives zero.
For example, dividing zero by forty-three gives zero.
Any number divided by zero has no answer.
In particular, zero divided by zero has no answer.
The following table includes all of the above examples along with other operations in a condensed, generalized form (where x represents any number).
History of zero
The idea of zero was first thought about in Babylon, India and in Central America at different times.
Some places and countries did not know about zero, which may have made it harder for those people to do mathematics.
For example, the year after 1 BC is AD 1 (there is no year zero).
In India, zero was theorized in the seventh century by the mathematician Brahmagupta.
Over hundreds of years, the idea of zero was passed from country to country, from India and Babylon to other places, like Greece, Persia and the Arab world.
The Europeans learned about zero from the Arabs, and stopped using Roman math.
This is why numbers are called "Arabic numerals".
The place of zero as a number
Zero is almost never used as a place number (ordinal number).
This means that it is not used like 1, 2, or 3 to indicate the order, or place, of something, like 1st, 2nd, or 3rd.
An exception to this is seen in many programming languages.
The number zero is a whole number (counting number).
The number zero is not a positive number.
The number zero is not a negative number, either.
The number zero is a neutral number.
Any number divided by itself equals one, except if that number is zero.
In time, zero means "now".
For example, when a person is counting down the time to the start of something, such as a foot race or when a rocket takes off, the count is: "three, two, one, zero (or go)".
Zero is the exact time of the start of the race or when the rocket takes off into the sky.
0 as a number
0 is the integer that precedes the positive 1, and follows −1.
In most (if not all) numerical systems, 0 was identified before the idea of 'negative integers' was accepted.
It means "courageous one" in hieroglyphics.
Zero is a number which means an amount of null size; that is, if the number of brothers is zero, that means the same thing as having no brothers, and if something has a weight of zero, it has no weight.
If the difference between the numbers of pieces in two piles is zero, it means the two piles have an equal number of pieces.
Before counting starts, the result can be assumed to be zero; that is the number of items counted before one counts the first item, and counting the first item brings the result to one.
And if there are no items to be counted, zero remains the final result.
While mathematicians all accept zero as a number, some non-mathematicians would say that zero is not a number, arguing that one cannot have zero of something.
Others say that if one has a bank balance of zero, one has a specific quantity of money in that account, namely none.
It is that latter view which is accepted by mathematicians and most others.
Normally speaking, there was no year zero between 1 BC and 1 AD.
More specifically, almost all historians leave out the year zero from the proleptic Gregorian and Julian calendars (that is, from the normal calendar used in English-speaking countries), but astronomers include it in these same calendars.
However, the phrase Year Zero may be used to describe any event considered so important, that someone might want to start counting years all over again from zero.
0 as a numeral
The modern numeral 0 is normally written as a circle or (rounded) rectangle.
In old-style fonts with text figures, 0 is usually the same height as a lowercase x.
On the seven-segment displays of calculators, watches, etc.,
0 is usually written with six line segments, though on some historical calculator models, it was written with four line segments.
The four-segment 0 is not common.
The number zero (as in the "zero brothers" example above) is not the same as the numeral or digit zero, used in numeral systems using positional notation.
Successive positions of digits have higher values, so the digit zero is used to skip a position and give appropriate value to the preceding and following digits.
A zero digit is not always necessary in a different positional number system.
Something called bijective numeration is a possible example of a system without zeroes.
The numerical digit zero
0 (zero) is also used as a numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals.
It is used to hold the place of that digit, because correct placing of digits affects a numeral's value.
In the numeral 10, which stands for one times ten and zero units (or ones).
In the numeral 100, which stands for one times a hundred plus zero tens plus zero units.
Telling zero and the letter O apart
The number 0 and the letter O are both round, though of different widths.
The difference is important on a computer.
For one thing, a computer will not do arithmetic with the letter O, because it does not know that it should have been a zero.
The oval-shaped zero and circular letter O came into use together on modern character displays.
The zero with a dot in the centre seems to have begun as a choice on IBM 3270 controllers (this has the problem that it looks like the Greek letter theta).
The slashed zero, looking like the letter O with a diagonal line drawn inside it, is used in old-style ASCII graphic sets that came from the default typewheel on the well-known ASR-33 Teletype.
This format causes problems because it looks like the symbol , representing the empty set, as well as for certain Scandinavian languages which use Ø as a letter.
The rule which has the letter O with a slash and the zero without was used at IBM and a few other early mainframe makers; this is even more of a problem for Scandinavians, because it looks like two of their letters at the same time.
Some Burroughs/Unisys computers display a zero with a backwards slash.
And yet another convention common on early line printers left zero without any extra dots or slashes but added a tail or hook to the letter O so that it resembled an inverted Q or cursive capital letter O.
The letters used on some European number plates for cars make the two symbols look different.
This is done by making the zero rather egg-shaped and the O more circular, but most of all by cutting open the zero on the upper right side, so the circle is not closed any more (as in German plates).
The style of letters chosen is called fälschungserschwerende Schrift (abbr.:
FE Schrift), meaning "script which is harder to falsify".
But those used in the United Kingdom do not make the letter o and the number 0 look different from each other, because there can never be any mistake if the letters are correctly spaced.
In paper writing you do not have to make the 0 (zero) and O (letter O) look different at all.
Or you may add a slash across the zero in order to show the difference.
Zeroes of a function
Functions are explained in the Function (mathematics) article.
If the function f(x) = 0, then x is called a zero (or root) of the function f. For example, if the function f(x) is x2 − 1, then the zeroes of the function are +1 and −1, because f(+1) = (+1)2 − 1 = 0, and f(−1) = (−1)2 − 1 = 0.
Zeroes of a function are used because they are another way to talk about solving an equation, which is a main goal in algebra.
If we want to solve an equation like x2 = 1, then we can subtract the right-hand side of the equation from both sides, in this case 1.
Whatever we get on the left-hand side, in this case x2 − 1, can be called a function  f(x).
The right-hand side has to be zero, because we subtracted it from itself.
So f(x) = 0.
Finding the zeroes of this function is the same as solving this equation.
In the paragraph before, the zeroes of this function are +1 and −1, so they are the solutions of this equation.
We got this equation by subtracting the same thing from both sides, so we also have solutions to the equation we started with, in this case x2 = 1.
More generally, if we could find zeroes of functions, we could solve any equation.
Barrow, John D. (2001) The Book of Nothing, Vintage. .
Diehl, Richard A. (2004) The Olmecs: America's First Civilization, Thames & Hudson, London.
Ifrah, Georges (2000) The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer, Wiley. .
Kaplan, Robert (2000) The Nothing That Is: A Natural History of Zero, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Seife, Charles (2000) Zero: The Biography of a Dangerous Idea, Penguin USA (Paper). .
Tapan Kumar Das Gupta: "Der Ursprung des neuzeitlichen Zahlensystems - Entstehung und Verbreitung."
Norderstedt 2013. .
A History of Zero
Zero Saga
The Discovery of the Zero
The History of Algebra
Why numbering should start at zero by Edsger Dijkstra
Numbering Starts with Zero same topic as Dijkstra's article, including some more aspects
Zoology is the science  of studying animal life.
It is part of biology.
The word is pronounced Zō-ölogy, not Zoo-ology.
Animal life is classified into groups called phyla, of which there are at least thirty.
Zoologists are scientists who study animals.
They may work in laboratories, or do field research.
The methods are many and various.
At the heart, they cover the structure, function, ecology and evolution of animals.
The structure is investigated by dissection, and microscopic examination.
The function is investigated by observation and experiment.
Palaeontology supplies information about extinct animals.
Zoologists may be employed by universities, museums, or by zoos.
Short-list of zoologists
Louis Agassiz (malacology, ichthyology)
Jennifer Clack
Dian Fossey (primatology)
Jane Goodall (primatology)
John Gould, ornithology
Libbie Hyman (invertebrate zoology)
William Kirby (father of entomology)
Louis Leakey (palaeoanthropology)
Linnaeus (father of systematics)
Konrad Lorenz (ethology)
Richard Owen (Natural History Museum)
E.O. Wilson, (entomology, founder of sociobiology)
Jakob van Uexküll (animal behavior, invertebrate zoology)
Animal phylum
List of animal phylum
Zinc, sometimes called spelter, is a chemical element.
It is a transition metal, a group of metals.
It is sometimes considered a post-transition metal.
Its symbol on the periodic table is "Zn".
Zinc is the 30th element on the periodic table, and has an atomic number of 30.
Zinc has a mass number of 65.38.
It contains 30 protons and 30 electrons.
In total, 29 isotopes of zinc are known, and five of these occur in nature.
Some isotopes are radioactive.
Their half-lives are between 40 milliseconds for 57Zn and 5x1018 years for 70Zn.
Zinc is a metal that is mostly used for galvanizing and batteries.
It is the fourth most common metal.
Zinc is a shiny bluish grey metal.
When it has just been cut, zinc has a whitish-grey color.
If it is exposed to air, it will not stay shiny for long.
Its melting point is at (), boiling point is (), cooling point is at , and freezing point is at .
This temperature is lower than most transition metals but higher than tin or lead.
It can be melted on a cooking stove.
It boils at a low temperature for a metal.
It is not magnetic.
When heated a little, it becomes very flexible.
If it is heated more, it becomes very brittle.
It forms alloys easily with other metals.
Zinc is a reactive metal.
It is about as reactive as aluminium and more reactive than most of the more common metals, such as iron, copper, nickel, and chrome.
It is less reactive than magnesium.
Zinc can react with acids, bases, and nonmetals.
It does not rust in air, though.
A coating of zinc oxide and zinc carbonate forms on the surface of the zinc when it is in air.
This coating stops corrosion.
Acids can dissolve this coating and react with the zinc metal.
This reaction of zinc with an acid makes a zinc(II) salt such as zinc chloride and hydrogen gas.
This is a very common chemical reaction.
The reaction below is the reaction with hydrochloric acid.
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
Zinc can burn when powdered or in small pieces to make zinc oxide, a white powder.
The flame is bright blue-green.
2 Zn + O2 → 2 ZnO
Zinc oxide can dissolve in strong bases.
This reaction happens in some batteries that have zinc in them.
ZnO + H2O + 2 OH- → Zn(OH)42-.
Zinc is a chalcophile.
This means that it would rather react with sulfur and elements below it on the periodic table than oxygen.
That is why zinc sulfide is the most common zinc ore, not zinc oxide.
Chemical compounds
Zinc can make chemical compounds with other elements.
These chemical compounds are only in one oxidation state: +2.
A +1 compound has been found but it is hard to make.
There are no other oxidation states other than +1 or +2.
Most of these compounds have no color.
If they have a color, it is not the zinc that is making the color.
Zinc chloride is one of the most common zinc compounds.
They are quite unreactive.
They are a little acidic when dissolved in water.
They make a green flame when heated in a fire.
Zinc antimonide, gray semiconductor
Zinc arsenide, orange semiconductor
Zinc bromide, a shield against radiation
Zinc carbonate, ore of zinc
Zinc hydroxide, used in surgical bandages
Zinc iodide, used in X-ray picture-taking
Zinc nitrate, used as a mordant
Zinc oxide, used in sunscreen
Zinc phosphate, used in dentistry
Zinc sulfate, used in pigments
Zinc sulfide, common zinc ore
Five isotopes of zinc are found in nature.
64Zn is the most common isotope, with 48.63% of naturally occurring Zinc.
This isotope has a half-life of 4.3x1018 years.
This is so long, that its radioactivity can be ignored.
Similarly,  (0.6%), with a half life of 1.3x1016 years  is usually considered to not be radioactive.
The other isotopes found in nature are  (28%),  (4%) and  (19%).
Zinc is not found as a metal in the earth's crust.
Zinc is only found as zinc compounds.
Sphalerite, a mineral that is made of zinc sulfide, is a main ore of zinc.
Very little zinc is in the ocean.
Zinc ore is normally found with copper and lead ores.
There are some other zinc ores, such as smithsonite (zinc carbonate) and a zinc silicate mineral.
They are less common.
The zinc sulfide is concentrated by flotation.
There is a detergent that collects the zinc sulfide.
The impurities sink to the bottom and are removed.
Then the zinc sulfide is heated in air to make zinc oxide and sulfur dioxide.
2 SO2 + O2 → 2 SO3
The sulfur trioxide reacts with the zinc oxide to make zinc sulfate.
This makes a soluble form of zinc which can be processed more.
SO3 + ZnO → ZnSO4
The zinc sulfate is purified and electrolyzed.
This electrolysis makes oxygen, zinc, and sulfuric acid.
This makes a pure zinc that is known as "SHG" or special high grade.
Zinc oxide can also be reduced by carbon to zinc metal and carbon dioxide at high temperatures.
This is a blast furnace process similar to how iron is made.
Zinc is the fourth most common metal in the world.
About 10 million tons are made every year.
As a metal
Zinc is used in electrical batteries.
The alkaline cell and the Leclanche cell are the ones that use zinc the most.
It becomes oxidized and provides electrons for the battery to run.
About 59% of zinc is used for corrosion prevention, which includes galvanizing.
47% of the world's zinc is used for galvanizing.
This is used to protect another metal, usually iron, from rusting.
The zinc coating corrodes instead of the iron.
The zinc coating can be placed on the metal in two ways.
The metal can be dipped into a pot of melted zinc.
The zinc can also be electroplated on to the metal.
Dipping lasts longer but has a patchy surface that some do not think looks nice.
It is also used in motorboats and pipelines to slow rusting.
The motor of a motorboat often has a "bullet" of zinc, that will corrode easily, but will help other metal parts of the motor to stay rust free.
Zinc is used in alloys.
Brass is the most common zinc alloy.
Zinc can form alloys with many other metals.
Zinc aluminium is an alloy of zinc and aluminium, which makes good bearings.
Commercial bronze has zinc in it.
Sometimes cadmium telluride is reacted with zinc to make cadmium zinc telluride, a semiconductor.
Nickel silver is another zinc alloy.
Zinc can be used in the pipes of a pipe organ.
An alloy of tin and lead was used in the past.
Zinc is used in the US penny, where it only has a thin layer of copper.
The core is zinc.
Older pennies were made completely out of bronze.
A mixture of powdered zinc and sulfur can be used to propel a model rocket.
This reaction makes zinc sulfide, heat, light, and gases.
Zinc sheet metal is used to make zinc bars.
As zinc compounds
About 1/4 of zinc is used to make zinc compounds.
Zinc oxide can be used for sunscreen or paint pigment.
Zinc oxide also is a semiconductor.
Zinc chloride is used to preserve wood so it does not rot.
Some fungicides have zinc in them.
Zinc sulfate is used in dyes and pigments.
Zinc sulfide is used in fluorescent bulbs to convert the ultraviolet light to visible light.
In biology
Humans need a little bit of zinc to help their body run well.
If they do not get enough zinc in their food, they can get a mineral deficiency.
Almost two billion people have a zinc deficiency.
Zinc deficiency makes one more easily get infections.
Some people say that when we get colds, we should take more zinc.
Others say that zinc does not make a difference.
There are medicines that one can use when they have a cold.
People add tiny amounts of zinc compounds to vitamin pills and cereals to make sure that they get enough zinc.
Most single-tablet vitamins have zinc in them.
Zinc is found in at least 100 enzymes.
It is the second most common transition metal other than iron.
Zinc also is used by the brain.
The human body contains 2 to 4 grams of zinc.
A zinc enzyme helps remove carbon dioxide from blood.
Whole wheat has much zinc in it.
Large amounts of zinc metal are toxic.
It can dissolve in stomach acid.
When too much zinc is eaten, copper and iron levels go down in the body.
Zinc compounds can be corrosive in the stomach.
Zinc compounds put in the nose can ruin the sense of smell.
Chemical elements
Zebras are mammals of the family Equidae.
Zebras are African horses.
They are in the same genus as the common horse, Equus caballus, and donkeys.
Zebras are known for having many black and white stripes.
There are three main species of zebra, Grevy's Zebra, the Plains Zebra, and the Mountain Zebra.
Genus Equus
Grevy's Zebra (Equus grevyi)
Plains Zebra (Equus quagga)
Crawshay’s Zebra (Equus quagga crawshaii)
Selous' Zebra (Equus quagga borensis)
Grant’s Zebra or Boehm's Zebra, (Equus quagga boehmi)
Chapman's Zebra (Equus quagga chapmani)
Burchell's Zebra (Equus quagga burchellii)
Quagga (Equus quagga quagga)
Mountain Zebra (Equus zebra)
All zebras have very short fur because they live in hot areas.
Their fur has black and white stripes.
The main part of the body has mostly vertical stripes, and the legs have horizontal stripes.
They also have a dark line directly down their spine.
Each of the different zebra species has different type of stripes.
Each zebra has a unique pattern.
Despite many attempts, we do not really know what the advantage is of having those characteristic stripes.
There are different species and sub-species of zebra, and they all have stripes, so scientists think it must be important.
Zebras are social animals that spend time in herds, they graze together and sometimes even groom each other.
They can have babies (foals) when they are about five years old and can have one every year.
Zebras mainly eat grass, but they also eat fruit, leaves and some vegetables.
They always live near water and are an endangered species.
Modern zoos try not only to be for people's entertainment, but for education, research, and the conservation and protection of animals.
Many zoos are centers where rare animals are preserved when they are in danger of dying out.
These modern zoos also want to give the animals a natural life, so that they are healthy and behave normal.
This is done for the animals, but also that people can see the animals as if they were in nature, and not in a zoo.
Zoos cost money.
They educate the public on the biological diversity that makes up the world.
They help people and wildlife successfully coexist.
They pursue continuing research and education for people.
They preserve crucial natural resources.
They work to ensure zoos can provide the most natural environment possible for wildlife in its care.
Without enough money they cannot do these things.
Many zoos are not like the modern type of zoo.
There the animals are held in bad conditions.
They are kept in small cages, and they are bored and get sick.
There are different types of zoo all over the world.
Safari park
A safari park is a type of zoo where visitors can drive their own vehicles or ride in vehicles given by the park to see the animals.
Sometimes, visitors can feed the animals through the car windows.
The first safari park was Whipsnade Park in Bedfordshire, England.
It was opened by the Zoological Society of London in 1931.
Public aquarium
A public aquarium is a type of zoo which has lots of aquatic animals and plants for people to see.
Most public aquariums have very large tanks.
They may also have smaller tanks.
The first public aquariums were made in the mid-19th century.
A petting zoo is a type of zoo that has domestic animals and some wild animals that are very calm so that the visitors can touch and feed them.
Most petting zoos usually have very calm herbivorous domesticated animals, such as: sheep, goats, pigs, rabbits or ponies, to feed and touch them safely.
Few petting zoos have wild animals (such as pythons or baby big cats) touch.
These are rare and usually found outside Western countries.
Animal theme park
An animal theme park is a combination of a theme park and a zoo.
It mainly built for entertainment, amusement, and commercial reasons.
Many animal theme parks combine theme park elements, like entertainment and amusement rides, with zoo elements such as live animals kept inside cages so that visitors can see them.
Copyright is a law that gives the owner of a work (for example, a book, movie, picture, song or website) the right to say how other people can use it.
Copyright laws make it easier for authors to make money by selling their works.
It is one part of a group of laws about intellectual property (the others being trademark and patent law).
It helps protect authors from other people copying their works without permission and/or for commercial purposes.
With copyright, a work can only be copied if the owner gives permission.
If someone copies a work without permission, the owner can say they infringed their copyright.
When this happens, the owner may sue for the amount that should have been paid.
Most cases are handled by civil law.
In more serious cases, a person who copies a work that is protected under copyright could be arrested, fined or even go to prison.
Commonly, the copy-right law will protect the authors and their heirs from 50 to 100 years since the first day of the authors' deaths.
In many countries, the governments tried to modify copyright law to meet international standards.
However, there are still some differences, according to the law culture each country.
In some countries, someone violating copyright law will be sued only to the civil law courts but other countries they can also be charged by criminal courts.
Copyright was originally made in the 18th century for books.
Before printing presses were made, books could only be copied by hand, which would take time.
But when printing presses were made, books could be copied faster and easier.
Because of this, some books were copied by people who did not own the book themselves.
So lawmakers gave only owners the right to copy.
National laws were somewhat standardized by international treaties.
Because technology got better over time, copyright began to cover other types of media such as pictures, sound, and film.
Commonly, copyright violation warning would be shown at the beginning of the media to warn audiences against violating copyright law.
Who owns copyright?
In most countries, there is no need to register the copyright, and some countries do not even have procedures to register copyrights.
But, where registration is available, many authors register anyway, especially for works that are sold for money.
That is because registration helps to prove that the copyright of a work belongs to a certain author.
If an author gets paid to make a work for someone else, the person who pays for making the work (for example, the author's employer) will often get to own the copyright instead of the author themselves.
For example, if a person working for a company, Microsoft creates a new computer software program at work, the Microsoft company would own the copyright.
It is very common that the company will instead register the copyright to avoid their employees from claiming their works.
Length of copyright protection
Copyright laws usually protect owners of copyright beyond their lifetime.
In some countries, such as Canada and New Zealand, works are protected for 50 years after the last living author dies.
In other countries, like the United States and the European Union, the protection lasts for 70 years after death.
When the period of copyright protection has ended, the written document, musical composition, book, picture, or other creative work is in the public domain.
This means that no one owns the copyright and everyone is free to copy, use and change them without having to ask for permission or pay the owner.
There is an exception to the rules of copyright, called fair use.
This means that people can copy a very small amount of a work to use in reviews or in research reports.
An example of fair use is when newspaper writers quote several sentences from a copyright-protected document to tell the story.
Another example of "fair use" is when a university professor quotes several sentences from a copyright-protected book in a review of the book, or in a research report.
Copyright in different countries
Different countries have different copyright laws.
Most of the differences are about:
whether or not the government's work falls under copyright,
how much longer copyright lasts after the author dies or after the work is created or published, and
what is and what is not fair use.
Problems with copyright
Some people argue that copyright laws make it easier for people to make new works and think of new ideas.
After all, if authors get to make money for the time, effort and money they put in, then they will want to make more works later, and make more money.
But others believe that copyright laws make it harder to be creative.
Without copyright, other people could reuse existing work, and copyright law often stops that.
Publisher control
If an author wants to sell a work, it's often easiest to give the copyright to a publisher.
The publisher will do all the selling, and in return for that service, will keep part of the money.
But the publisher has many different things to sell, and they may not want to sell the work the author made.
Authors often find it very hard to find a publisher willing to sell their work.
But without a publisher, it can be even harder for an author to sell his or her work.
In many markets, a few big publishers own the copyrights to almost everything available, and stores will not want to sell works published by small authors themselves.
Many people say copyright law helps big publishers stay in control, and keeps smaller authors out of the market. (
tragedy of the anticommons).
As a solution to these problems, groups of authors have come up with the idea of open content.
With open content, authors give everyone permission to copy, change and give away or sell their works, as long as they follow certain rules.
These rules are explained in an open content license.
Some possible open content rules are:
If a person changes the work, or if a person makes a new derivative work based on it, they must give the original author credit (they must say who wrote it).
If a person publishes the changed or derivative piece of work, they must let others use it under the same free license.
Under some licenses, a person cannot sell the piece of work or use it to make money.
World Intellectual Property Organisation. "
Understanding Copyright and Related Rights " (PDF).
Retrieved August 2008.
Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). "
Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent".
JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.
17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty.
for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)
"Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2008.",
{{Infobox country
| native_name                = <div class="center">Chunghwa Minkuo'ㄓㄨㄥㄏㄨㄚˊㄇㄣˊㄍㄨㄛˊZhōnghuá Mínguó</div>
| conventional_long_name                = Republic of China
| common_name                = Taiwan
| image_flag                = Flag of the Republic of China.svg
| alt_flag                = A red flag, with a small blue rectangle in the top left hand corner on which sits a white sun composed of a circle surrounded by 12 rays.
| image_coat                = National Emblem of the Republic of China.svg
| symbol_type                = Emblem
| alt_coat                = A blue circular emblem on which sits a white sun composed of a circle surrounded by 12 rays.
| image_map                = LocationTaiwan.svg
| map_caption                = red area shows territories controlled by ROC
| national flower                = plumflower.jpg
| alt_map                = A map depicting the location of the Republic of China in East Asia and in the World.
| national_anthem                = "National Anthem of the Republic of China"《中華民國國歌》
“National Flag Anthem of the Republic of China”《中華民國國旗歌》
| capital                = Taipei
| latd                = 25
| latm                = 02
| lats                = 00
| latNS                = N
| longd                = 121
| longm                = 38
| longs                = 00
| longEW                = E
| largest_city                = New Taipei
| official_languages                = none
| ethnic_groups                =
| government_type                = Presidential republic
| leader_title1                = President
| leader_name1                = Tsai Ing-wen
| leader_title2                = Vice President
| leader_name2                = Chen Chien-jen
| leader_title3                = Premier
| leader_name3                = Su Tseng-chang
| area_km2                = 36,191.4667
| area_sq_mi                = 13,973.6
| area_rank                = 136th
| percent_water                = 10.34
| population_estimate                = 23,174,528
| population_estimate_year                = 2011
| population_estimate_rank                = 49th
| population_density_km2                = 640
| population_density_sq_mi                = 1,658
| population_density_rank                = 16th
| demonym                = Taiwanese or Chinese or both
| GDP_PPP                = $900,210 billion
| GDP_PPP_rank                = 19th
| GDP_PPP_year                = 2011
| GDP_PPP_per_capita                = $39,245
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank                = 20th
| GDP_nominal                = $489.387 billion
| GDP_nominal_rank                = 24th
| GDP_nominal_year                = 2011
| GDP_nominal_per_capita                = $21,832
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank                = 37th
| sovereignty_type                = Establishment
| sovereignty_note                = Xinhai Revolution
| established_event1                = Wuchang Uprising
| established_date1                = 10 October 1911
| established_event2                = Republic established
| established_date2                = 1 January 1912
| established_event3                = End of Japanese rule in Taiwan
| established_date3                = 25 October 1945
| established_event4                = Constitution
| established_date4                = 25 December 1947
| established_event5                = Government relocated to Taipei
| established_date5                = 7 December 1949
| established_event6                = Withdrawal from the UN
| established_date6                = 29 January 1962
| established_event7                = First direct presidential election
| established_date7                = 23 March 1996
| HDI                = 0.868
| HDI_change                = increase
| HDI_ref                = http://www.dgbas.gov.tw/public/Attachment/11715383471.doc
| HDI_year                = 2010
| HD1_rank                = 18
| HDI_category                =
| Gini                = 34.1
| Gini_ref                =
| Gini_year                = 2008
| Gini_category                = medium
| currency                = New Taiwan dollar (NT$)
| currency_code                = TWD
| country_code                = TPE
| time_zone                = CST
| utc_offset                = +8
| time_zone_DST                = not observed
| utc_offset_DST                = +8
| date_format                = yyyy-mm-dd  yyyy年m月d日  (CE; CE+2697) or 民國yy年m月d日
| drives_on                = right
| cctld                = .tw, .台灣, .台湾
| calling_code                = +886
| footnotes                = a.  See also Names of China.
b.  Nanking (now Nanjing) was the seat of the government from 1928 until 1949 except during wars, when the government retreated to Taipei.
c.  Population and density ranks based on 2008 figures.
The Republic of China (), also known as Taiwan, is a island country in East Asia.
The People's Republic of China (PRC) is located to the northwest; Japan is to the northeast; the Philippines is to the south.
The Chinese Nationalists lost the Chinese Civil War to the Communists in 1949 and moved the government of the Republic of China from Nanjing to Taipei.
Constitutionally, it still claims the ownership of all of China, including Mainland China, however this is rarely noted in recent years.
The territory the Republic of China (ROC) controls is known by most people as the island of Taiwan.
Most places on Taiwan Island are called "Taiwan Province" by the government of the Republic of China for official business, except the two largest cities of Taipei and Kaohsiung.
West of Taiwan Island, there are three small groups of islands that also belong to ROC.
The Pescadores (Penghu, 澎湖列島): They also are part of Taiwan Province.
Quemoy (Kinmen, 金門): A part of Fujian province, called Kinmen County(金門縣).
Matsu (馬祖列島): the smallest county, called Lienchiang County(連江縣), also part of Fujian province
Diaoyutai Islands:The Diaoyutai Islands (釣魚臺列嶼|Diàoyútái Lièyû|ㄉㄧㄠˋㄩˊㄊㄞˊㄌㄧㄝˋㄩˊ) are a group of islands where nobody lives that the Republic of China (ROC) claims it belong to them, but also claimed by the People's Republic of China (PRC) and Japan.
In Japanese, the islands are known as the Senkaku Islands (尖閣諸島, Senkaku Shotō?).
The islands are now under the control of Japan.
Dong-Sha Islands:The Pratas Islands or Dong-Sha Islands (東沙羣島) consists of three islands in the northeastern South China Sea, 340 km southeast of Hong Kong.
Taiping (Traditional Chinese: 太平島|Tàipíngdǎo|ㄊㄞˋㄆㄧㄥˊㄉㄠˇ), also known as Itu Aba, is the largest of the Nansha Islands (Spratly Islands) in the South China Sea.
The ROC used to govern Mainland China too, from 1911 - 1949, and was a founding member of the UN (as China) in 1945.
Today, Mainland China is governed by the Communist People's Republic of China; see History and Political problems of China.
However, ROC still declares Mainland China as its territory officially.
The Republic of China also used to govern Mongolia.
Provinces (省 shěng ㄕㄥˇ)(1st level):
Fujian Province
Special municipalities (直轄市 zhíxiáshì ㄓˊㄒㄧㄚˊㄕˋ)(1st and 2nd level):
Provincial cities (市 shì ㄕˋ)(2nd level):
Counties (縣 xiàn ㄒㄧㄢˋ)(2nd level):
157 Districts (區 qū ㄑㄩ), 17 Country-controlled cities (縣轄市 xiànxiáshì ㄒㄧㄢˋㄒㄧㄚˊㄕˋ), 41 Urban Townships (鎮 zhèn ㄓㄣˋ), and 153 Rural Townships (鄉 xiāng ㄒㄧㄤ) stand the 3rd level.
Districts stand under either Special municipalities or Provincial cities; Country-controlled cities, Urban Townships, and Rural Townships stand under Counties.
The Nationalists, led by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, got rid of the Qing Dynasty ruled by the Manchus, then they established the ROC and ended Imperial Dynastic Rule in late-1911.
The ROC at that time had Mainland China and all of what is now called Mongolia.
In 1949, the Chinese Communists fought a war against the Nationalists and won.
They established the People's Republic of China.
The Nationalists left mainland China and arrived in Taiwan.
After the ROC created a base on Taiwan, it hoped one day to capture the Mainland.
But Chinese Communists grew stronger, so the Nationalists never did go back.
The Communists say they replaced the ROC as the only government of China and also calls Taiwan their own.
Polls show a majority of people in Taiwan want to never be a part of the People's Republic of China.
Some of these people believe in complete Taiwan independence and want to rename the ROC (Taiwan) to "Republic of Taiwan" so Taiwan can participate in international affairs.
Most others want the status quo'', which means keeping everything the way it is now.
A small minority wish to someday unite with the People's Republic of China; they want Chinese reunification.
Most Taiwanese people speak the Standard Chinese language known as Mandarin, and others speak local dialects such as Min Nan (Taiwanese) or Hakka.
The Cantonese language, spoken in parts of southern China (for example, the province of Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macau), is not spoken in Taiwan.
A small percentage of Aboriginal Taiwanese speak aboriginal languages, but the rest of the Chinese people have treated them badly, and many of these people, and their languages, struggle to survive.
Some older Taiwanese people who went to school while the country was under Japanese rule can speak Japanese.
After the Nationalist government fled the Mainland in 1949, they brought Mandarin and promoted it in Taiwan.
Then everyone in the ROC had to learn Mandarin.
But, unlike the people in Mainland China, the Taiwanese never changed to simplified Chinese characters and so they have always used traditional Chinese characters.
In the past, students were not allowed to speak their mother tongue in school and were expected to speak only Mandarin.
Taiwanese, Hakka, and native languages were considered bad until the early 1990s, when education in these languages began to be taught in some school systems.
They were promoted, but by this time, many young people could speak only Mandarin.
Currently, nearly one third of Taiwanese report knowing some amount of English.
Full English fluency is not common, however.
The government plans to expand English education and make it an official language by 2030.
1949 establishments in Asia
Simple English Wikipedia gives information about a certain subject using fewer words and simpler grammar than the normal English Wikipedia.
Simple English Wiktionary
Plain English Campaign: a commercial advocate for the use of simple ("plain") English to communicate with the public.
Special English: the Voice of America form  of simple English used for public radio news items for a large audience.
Specialized English SPOTLIGHT word list for broadcasting in a controlled version of the English language.
Simplified English word list of ASD Simplified Technical English.
This is for the European Association of Aerospace Industries (AECMA, now ASD www.asd-europe.org).
Globish (Nerrière) by Jean-Paul Nerrière.
A prison  or jail is a building where people are forced to live if their freedom has been taken away.
The main use for prisons is as a punishment for breaking the law.
Those who break the law and are convicted (found guilty) in court can receive a prison sentence, which is an order to spend an amount of time in prison.
Prisons are usually run by the government.
There are other reasons why someone might be held in prison.
Sometimes, people can be held in prison before their trial (known as pre-trial detention or remand).
In times of war, captured soldiers may become prisoners of war and civilians (non-soldiers) may be placed in an internment camp.
In some countries, prisons are also used for political prisoners (people who disagree with the country's leader or government).
Other words for a prison include a gaol (pronounced like "jail"), penitentiary or correctional facility.
In the US, the words "prison" and "jail" mean separate things.
A US "jail" is run by a local government and holds people who have not yet had their trial or who have been convicted for a minor crime.
A US "prison" or "penitentiary" is run by the state or federal government and holds people who are serving a long sentence for a serious crime.
Outside of North America, "prison" and "jail" mean the same thing.
There are lots of slang words for prisons.
Prison buildings and facilities
Prisons are usually surrounded by walls and gates.
There are usually many locked gates inside the prison to control the inmates.
The inmates sleep in small locked rooms called cells.
Cells have a bunk bed, a toilet, and a sink.
Inmates are allowed to leave their cell every day for exercise.
Some inmates work in the prison during the day, either in a factory or doing cooking or cleaning.
Law enforcement officers called prison guards watch the inmates.
The manager of a prison is called the warden (US, Canada), superintendent (some parts of the US, India) or governor (UK, Australia).
The level of security a prison has depends on the type of prison.
A "maximum security prison" has even more protection than a regular prison.
Some prisons in the United States have a section called "death row", where people who have been sentenced to death are kept in prison until their execution.
On the other hand, an "open prison" is a prison where inmates can often travel out of the prison.
These are used for prisoners who have been convicted of minor crimes, or who will soon be released.
The United Nations made the "Standard Minimum Rule" for human treatment for prisoners in 1955.
Also the Article 10 of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights also affirm the treatment with humanity for them in prison.
In some prisons, people imprisoned for child sexual abuse are separated from other prisoners for their own safety.
Rehabilitation: Prisons should be places that turn the prisoners into good people.
Deterrence: People should be scared by the thought of going to prison, so they will not want to commit crimes.
Incapacitation: Locking criminals up stops them from committing more crimes.
Retribution: By forcing them to spend time in prison, society is taking revenge against people who break the law.
Pre-trial detention
the court thinks that the person may not come to their trial,
the court thinks that the person may be a danger to the community, or
(mainly in the US) the court has asked for bail money but the person cannot pay the amount.
In some parts of the US, a person who is arrested may be held at a county jail until they decide whether to charge or release the person.
In other places, a person who is arrested will be held at a police station, not a prison.
Special prisons
There are special prisons for people under the age of 18 who commit crimes.
These inmates are called young offenders or juvenile offenders.
These places will not always have the word "prison" in their name, instead having names like "Young Offenders' Institution".
People who think that we should have prisons say that removing people who commit crimes from society prevents them from committing more crimes and punishes them for their behavior.
They also say that putting people in prison may also prevent others who are likely to commit similar crimes from committing them.
People who think that we should not put people in prisons say that being put in prison makes people more violent and angry.
People who commit minor crimes that are sent to prison meet violent criminals.
As well, when people are sent to prison, they cannot see their family or children, which can cause problems for their family.
Sometimes people are put in prison who have done nothing wrong.
An American theory that is critical of prisons is called the prison industrial complex.
People who believe in the prison industrial complex think that private prison companies want lots of people to be put in prison in order to make money.
Number of people in prison
As of 2006, there are currently nine million people in prison in the world.
The United States currently has the most people in prison; it has more than 2 million people in prison.
In 2002, both Russia and China also had over 1 million people in prison.
In 2003, the United Kingdom had 73,000 people in prison; France and Germany had a similar number of people in prison.
Famous prisons in history
Alcatraz, San Francisco (historical)
Attica Correctional Facility, Attica, New York, scene of the most infamous prison riot in United States history
The Bastille, Paris, France (historical) In French
Devil's Island French Guiana (historical)
Leavenworth, Kansas, site of a federal prison and the military's primary prison, the United States Disciplinary Barracks.
Rikers Island, New York City, US (since 1884)
Sing Sing Correctional Facility, Ossining, New York, U.S. (since 1828)
The Tower of London, London, England (historical)
Cultural references to prisons and prison life
There are many books and poems about prisons or prison life, such as The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas, père and The Ballad of Reading Gaol by Oscar Wilde.
A Clockwork Orange (1971) directed by Stanley Kubrick
Papillon (1973) directed by Franklin J Schaffner
Stir Crazy (1975) directed by Sidney Poitier
Midnight Express (1978) directed by Alan Parker
Escape from Alcatraz (1979) directed by Don Siegel
The Shawshank Redemption (1994) directed by Frank Darabont
Dead Man Walking (1995) directed by Tim Robbins
The Green Mile (1999) directed by Frank Darabont
Lockdown (2000) directed by John Luessenhop
There have also been television programs, such as Prisoner: Cell Block H (1979–1986), Prison Break (2005–2009), Lockup (2005 - present) and Lockdown: Americas Hardest Prisons (2006 - present).
A current TV show about a women's prison is Orange Is the New Black.
County jail is a term used for local administrative security prisons that are in each county of the United States and for those awaiting trial as well those serving short sentences.
Some of these institutions can also hold sentenced maximum security immates and some who are awaiting transport to state prisons if they're convicted of crimes.
state prisons is a term used for prisons that are in each state of the United States and for criminals convicted of crimes that land them in these institutions.
federal prison is a term for special prisons that are in each state of the United States, run by the Federal Bureau Of Prisons and for criminals who committed federal crimes that land them in these institutuions.
military prisons is a term for special prisons that are in each state of the United States, run by the miltary and for criminals who are convicted of war crimes that land them in these institutions.
Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: the Birth of the Prison, New York: Random House 1975.
Mexico (; official name: United Mexican States , ) is a country in North America.
Mexico is south of Texas, California and other American states.
Guatemala and Belize are south of Mexico.
Mexico is between the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico.
People living in Mexico or who are from there are called Mexicans.
Most Mexican people speak Spanish.
There are also Mexicans who speak Native American languages, like Nahuatl, Mayan, and Zapotec.
The capital of Mexico is Mexico City.
Before the Europeans came, many Native American cultures existed in Mexico.
The earliest was the Olmec culture in the south.
The Olmecs are famous for the large stone heads they made.
On the Yucatán peninsula lived the Mayans.
The Mayans lived in city states ruled by kings.
The Mayans were most powerful between 200 and 900 A.D. Another powerful empire belonged to Teotihuacan.