the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The mortality rate probably does not exceed 3 percent.
Greatest improvement is seen in patients whose premorbid personalities were 'normal', cyclothymic, or obsessive compulsive; in patients with superior intelligence and good education; in psychoses with sudden onset and a clinical picture of affective symptoms of depression or anxiety, and with behaviouristic changes such as refusal of food, overactivity, and delusional ideas of a paranoid nature.
anxiety feelings and introspective activities; and feelings of inadequacy and self-consciousness are thereby lessened.
Lobotomy reduces the emotional tension associated with hallucinations and does away with the catatonic state.
Because nearly all psychosurgical procedures have undesirable side effects, they are ordinarily resorted to only after all other methods have failed.
The less disorganized the personality of the patient, the more obvious are post-operative side effects. ...
Convulsive seizures are reported as [effects] of prefrontal lobotomy in 5 to 10 percent of all cases.
Such seizures are ordinarily well controlled with the usual anti-convulsive drugs.
Post-operative blunting of the personality, apathy, and irresponsibility are the rule rather than the exception.
Other side effects include distractibility, childishness, facetiousness, lack of tact or discipline, and post-operative incontinence.
Jones W.L. 1983.
Ministering to minds diseased: history of psychiatric treatment.
The Black Pearl is a book for teens by Scott O'Dell first published in 1967.
It is about the son of a pearl dealer living in the Lower California peninsula.
It won the Newbery Honor in 1968.
The story is about a Mexican teenager named Ramon Salazar who works with his father finding and selling pearls.
One day, Ramon went diving in an underwater cave in search of pearls and found a pearl bigger than his fist.
It was so shiny and big that he thought that it was called the Pearl of Heaven.
The pearl was found in a lagoon that belonged to an Indian who warned Ramon that the pearl belonged to the Manta Diablo.
In 1977, Saul Swimmer directed the U.S.-Spanish co-production The Black Pearl, also known in Spanish as La Perla Negra.
Herman Melville: Moby-Dick (1851)
John Steinbeck: The Pearl (1947) (also set among the pearl divers of La Paz)
Ernest Hemingway: The Old Man and the Sea (1952) (aging Cuban fisherman struggling with a giant marlin)
A hot air balloon is a type of aircraft.
It is lifted by heating the air inside the balloon, usually with fire.
Hot air weighs less than the same volume of cold air (it is less dense), which means that hot air will rise up or float when there is cold air around it, just like a bubble of air in a pot of water.
The greater the difference between the hot and the cold, the greater the difference in density, and the stronger the balloon will pull up.
This means that balloons can carry more weight on a cold day, or if the air inside the balloon is very hot.
At higher temperature, the air molecules move faster.
This causes the molecules to spread out and therefore hot air is less dense than cooler air.
The hot air balloon is the oldest form of flying technology that can successfully carry people.
The earliest use of hot air to make objects fly was made in Ancient China.
Paper lanterns were sent into the air for signalling.
The first hot air balloon to carry a person was made by the Montgolfier brothers.
On 19 September 1783, they demonstrated their invention for King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette at the French court in Paris.
The passengers were a sheep, a duck and a rooster.
They flew for 480 metres.
The first flight carrying a person was on 15 October 1783.
It carried Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier.
The balloon was attached to the ground by a rope.
The first free flight, without being attached to the ground, was a few weeks later, on 21 November 1783.
It carried Marquis François d'Arlandes and Pilatre de Rozier.
The air is made up of molecules.
When the air is cold, these molecules are closer together.
When the air is hot, they move away from each other.
So, in the same space, there are fewer molecules in hot air.
Hot air is therefore lighter than cold air.
This makes it rise and carry up the balloon when the air inside it is heated.
The air is heated in the balloon with a burner, which uses bursts of fire to keep the air hot.
The fire is fuelled by propane.
The heated air is kept inside the balloon by its fabric.
This is called the "envelope".
It is usually made of nylon.
The passengers and the pilot stand in the basket, which is attached to the balloon by ropes.
The basket is usually made of wicker.
Baskets can come in many sizes.
It can have enough places for up to 36 people.
It depends the size of the balloon to carry that much weight.
A hot air balloon festival is a type of air show.
It is where ballooners display and fly their balloons together.
During these events, they fly in the morning and in the evening if the conditions allow it.
People can enjoy a balloon flight if they pay.
There are many activities.
Sometimes, the balloons are lit up against the night sky.
At these festivals, people can see different shapes of balloons.
Usually, they are kind of round but they may have forms.
Hot air ballooning
Hot air balloonat Library Think Quest
Gaius Julius Caesar (20 BC–4 AD) was one of two brothers adopted by the first Roman emperor, Augustus.
Both died in their early twenties, clearing the path for Tiberius.
Gaius Caesar had achieved the rank of Consul before his death.
20 BC births
4 deaths
A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft that has two fixed wings.
The lower wing is often attached to the body of the aircraft and the top wing is raised above.
Most early airplanes were biplanes because they have a stronger structure than a monoplane.
When engineers found how to makes strong monoplanes, biplanes became rare because they produce more drag.
Famous biplanes include the Polikarpov Po-2, Sopwith Camel, Avro Tutor, Antonov An-2, Beechcraft Staggerwing, Boeing Stearman, Bristol Bulldog, Curtiss JN-4, de Havilland Tiger Moth, Fairey Swordfish, Hawker Hart, Pitts Special and the Wright Flyer.
The Stearman is particularly associated with stunt flying with wing-walkers.
White chocolate is a type of chocolate.
White chocolate is made of cocoa butter, milk, and sugar.
In the United States, white chocolate must be at least 20% cocoa butter, at least 14% total milk solids, at least 3.5% milk fat, and less than 55% sugar or other sweeteners.
In mountain areas, pilots usually take off from great height to fly down to the valley.
In flat areas, a winch is used to tow the paraglider to a height of up to 400 meters before it is released.
It is also possible to soar on the coast in laminar sea breeze.
Some more advanced pilots also launch from hot air balloons or helicopters.
For the book see here
Blank slate, or tabula rasa (which means the same thing) was a philosophical idea of John Locke.
It had, like much of philosophy, a history which went as far back as Aristotle, but it was Locke who made it known to our modern world:
"Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper void of all characters, without any ideas.
How comes it to be furnished? ...
To this I answer, in one word, from EXPERIENCE".
Humans, when born, are thought not have mental experience or knowledge, and that everything is learned after they grow.
In particular, Locke thought all knowledge came from sense data, and the mind is empty at the beginning.
By 'sense data' is meant the process of hearing, seeing, touching etc.
"Children are a sort of raw material put into our hands... [Their minds are] like a sheet of white paper".
"Our virtues and our vices may be traced to the incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these incidents could be divested of every improper tendency, vice would be extirpated [cut out] from the world".—The economist and social liberal William Godwin (1756–1836), who argued for human perfectibility and enlightenment.
Many have held similar views.
The founder of behaviourism, John B. Watson (1878–1938):
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors".
Throughout the 20th century the influence of evolution and genetics ran against these liberal ideas.
Ethology proved that much animal behaviour was inherited, instinctual, (innate and permanent).
Konrad Lorenz argued that the aggression so obvious in the history of mankind was a playing out of behaviour which had evolutionary advantage in our past.
The field of evolutionary psychology set out to examine the role played by evolution on our mental life.
If humans share a common evolutionary history with the other animals, it is likely that we inherit mental traits from our evolution.
The human ability to learn a language is inherited, and is of huge practical importance.
Very important also (though less obvious) is the way that our unconscious mind helps us get through life.
The apparatus which performs that mental activity is certainly inherited.
These are some reasons why a number of recent publications have rejected Locke's idea.
Behaviourism
Lined paper is paper with lines printed on it.
The lines are commonly parallel to each other, uniformly spaced with a larger space at the top.
The horizontal lines are meant to separate lines of hand-written text.
Lined paper is thinner than other types of paper
The coypu (or nutria, Myocastor coypus) is a large, plant-eating, rodent which lives in wetlands.
The nutria first came from South America including Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Chile, and Uruguay.
Animals were taken to Louisiana in the 1930s to be farmed for their fur.
Some of these animals escaped and are now living in the Louisiana coastal wetlands.
They have become a pest and have damaged the environment.
The Poincaré Conjecture is a question about spheres in mathematics.
It is named after Henri Poincaré, the French mathematician and physicist who formulated it in 1904.
The sphere (also called the 2-sphere, as it is a 2-dimensional surface, although it is usually seen as inside a three dimensional space) has the property that any loop on it can be contracted to a point (if a rubber band is wrapped around the sphere, it is possible to slide it down to a point).
Mathematicians say that the 2-sphere is simply connected.
Other spaces do not have this property, for example the donut: a rubber band that goes around the whole donut once cannot be slid down to a point without it leaving the surface.
Mathematicians knew that this property was unique to the 2-sphere, in the sense that any other simply connected space that does not have edges and is small enough (in mathematician terms, that is compact) is in fact the 2-sphere.
It is no longer true if we remove the idea of smallness however, as an infinitely large plane is also simply connected.
Also, a regular disk (a circle and its interior) is simply connected, but it has an edge (the bounding circle).
The conjecture asks whether the same is true for the 3-sphere, which is an object living naturally in four dimensions.
This question motivated much of modern mathematics, especially in the field of topology.
The question was finally settled in 2002 by Grigori Perelman, a Russian mathematician, with methods from geometry, showing that it is indeed true.
He was awarded a Fields Medal and the $1 million Millennium Prize for his work, both of which he declined.
The Poincaré conjecture can also be extended to higher dimensions: this is the generalised Poincaré conjecture.
Surprisingly, it was easier to prove the fact for higher-dimensional spheres: In 1960, Smale proved it to be true for the 5-sphere, 6-sphere and higher.
In 1982, Freedman proved that it was also true for the 4-sphere, for which he was awarded a Fields Medal.
Megafauna are large animals.
The word is most used for the Pleistocene megafauna  the large land animals of the last ice age, such as mammoths.
It is also used for the largest living wild land animals, especially elephants, giraffes, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, elk, condors, etc.
Its use is connected with the discussion about the Holocene extinctions after the ice age.
Most of the large land animals which were alive 12,000 years ago are now extinct, and there is much discussion as to what has caused this.
The two main theories are hunting by humans, and climate change.
Together, these reasons are enough to explain why these previously successful animals are now extinct.
Elephant birds on Madagascar were certainly hunted to extinction, as were the Moas in New Zealand.
The moas had survived being hunted by Haast's Eagle, but they did not survive being hunted for food by the Maoris.
90482 Orcus (symbol ), originally known by the provisional designation 2004 DW, is a Kuiper belt object (KBO).
It is also a dwarf planet.
It was found by Michael Brown, Chad Trujillo and David Rabinowitz on February 17, 2004.
It was also seen in pictures from November 8, 1951.
Like Pluto it is in orbital resonance with Neptune but it stays on the opposite side of the Sun from Pluto.
A moon of Orcus was found on  22 February 2007.
The satellite was found at 0.25 arcsec from Orcus with magnitude difference of 2.7.
Assuming an albedo similar to that of the primary, the magnitude suggests a diameter of about 220 km.
It is thought to be a smaller KBO that was captured.
MPEC 2004-D09 announcing the discovery but attributing it to Raymond J. Bambery, Steven H. Pravdo, Michael D. Hicks, Kenneth J. Lawrence, Daniel MacDonald, Eleanor F. Helin and Robert Thicksten / NEAT
MPEC 2004-D13 correcting MPEC 2004-D09
Chad Trujillo's page on 2004 DW
First BBC article
First New Scientist article
Updated orbital elements from Lowell Observatory
AstDys orbital elements
Comfortably Numb is a rock song by Pink Floyd.
It was released on their album The Wall in 1979.
The song is about a rock star who is visited by a doctor.
The doctor gives him medicine allowing the rock star to perform again.
The lyrics were written by Roger Waters and the music was mostly written by David Gilmour.
This song became very popular and became part of every Pink Floyd tour since 1981.
It was even played by Roger Waters and David Gilmour on their individual solo tours.
In 2004 Scissor Sisters released a disco version of the song.
It reached number ten in the UK Singles Chart.
1979 songs
Pink Floyd songs
Intramuros is a district of the city of Manila in the Philippines.
It is surrounded by fortified walls built in the 16th century.
The Cucurbitales is an order of flowering plants, included in the rosid group of dicotyledons.
This order mostly belongs to tropical areas, with limited presence in subtropic and temperate regions.
The order includes various shrubs and trees, together with many herbs and climbing plants.
One of major characteristics of the Cucurbitales is the presence of unisexual flowers, with thick pointed petals (whenever present).
The pollination is usually performed by insects, but wind pollination, where flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next, is also present (in Coriariaceae and Datiscaceae).
The order consists of roughly 2600 species in eight families.
The largest families are Begoniaceae (begonia family) with 1400 species and Cucurbitaceae (gourd family) with 825 species.
The large families of Cucurbitales include several economically important plants.
Specifically, the Cucurbitaceae are responsible for some food species, such as squash, pumpkin (both from Cucurbita), watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris), melon and cucumber (both Cucumis).
The Begoniaceae are known for their horticultural species, of which there are over 130.
Cucurbitaceae is a plant family commonly known as melons, gourds or cucurbits.
It includes crops such as cucumbers, squashes (including pumpkins), luffas, melons and watermelons.
The family is predominantly distributed around the tropics.
Its edible fruits were amongst the earliest cultivated plants in both the Old and New Worlds.
Grapevine is a city of Tarrant County in the state of Texas in the United States.
Settlements in Tarrant County, Texas
A air pump is a pump that is used to inflate things, like a basketball.
The pump often has a needle at the end and can be used to inflate other objects as well.
Bicycle tires are normally filled with air.
With extensive use, the tires may lose air and need to be inflated.
Bruce Lorne Campbell (born June 22, 1958) is an American actor, producer, screenwriter and director.
He is known for his starring role in the 1981 horror movie Evil Dead.
He has since become a B-movie icon.
He starred as Sam Axe in Burn Notice on the USA Network.
He played Ronald Reagan in season 2 of the FX original series Fargo in late 2015.
People from Royal Oak, Michigan
Nachos are a snack food made with tortilla chips and cheese.
Sometimes they have jalapeños, sauce, beans, guacamole or meat on them.
Ignacio "Nacho" Anaya created nachos at the Victory Club in 1940 when Mamie Finan, a regular customer, asked if Anaya could bring her and three other women a different snack than usual.
Anaya went to the kitchen and spotted freshly fried pieces of corn tortillas.
In a moment of culinary inspiration, he added melted cheese and pickled jalapeño strips.
After tasting the snack Anaya created, Finan asked what it was called.
Anaya responded, "Well, I guess we can just call them Nacho's Special."
The dish was so popular, the owner of the Victory Club, Roberto de los Santos, put Nacho's Special on the menu and the snack quickly spread throughout the world.
When the Victory Club closed in 1961, Anaya opened his own restaurant, Nacho's.
A test bay is an area used in engineering.
It can be a hall, laboratory or even a department.
At these places, the produced materials are tested before delivery.
To test them, testing guidelines of industry or this firm are used.
The test bay is part of the quality management.
The protocols written during testing are evidences in case of insurance issues, say.
A unicycle is a pedal vehicle.
It is like a bicycle, but it has only one wheel.
It has a seat and pedals, but no chain or gears.
There is no handlebar, it is steered by gripping the seat with the legs and twisting the body.
A rider keeps their balance by moving their arms, and controlling their speed.
It is usually used for acting and performing.
A unicycle is more expensive than a cheap bicycle, because unicycles are far less common.
There are two kinds of unicycles; giraffe unicycles and traditional unicycles.
Giraffe unicycles are much taller than traditional unicycles, and use a chain so that the performer's legs do not have to stretch very far.
Giraffe unicycles are mostly used by performers in circuses.
Unicycles are often used while the performer is simultaneously juggling or plate spinning.
To do this, performers usually rock back and forth on the unicycle.
This is called "idling".
It lets the performer pay attention to what they are doing in their hands, instead of to the ground in front of them.
To "idle" a unicycle, performers usually press one foot down, anchoring it in the bottom position of the wheel.
This foot both provides support and completes the rocking motion that is necessary to keep the unicycle balanced.
Many other tricks can be done when riding a unicycle.
This includes going backwards, riding up and down steps, pedaling with only one foot, hopping in place, wheel-walking (putting the feet on the tire instead of on the pedals) and riding over obstacles.
Chaiyaphum (Thai: ชัยภูมิ) is one of the Isan (north-eastern) provinces (changwat) of Thailand.
As of 2000, 1 million people live there, and has an area of 12,778.3 km².
The Governor is Thawon Phrommichai.
Chulabhorn Dam (เขื่อนจุฬาภรณ์) is a dam in Thailand.
It is named after a princess, Chulabhorn Walailak.
The dam is in Tambon Thung Lui Lai, Amphur Kon San, Chaiyaphum Province on the Nam Phrom River.
It is 700 metres long and 70 metres high.
It holds a reservoir of 31 square kilometres.
Chulabhorn Dam in Chaiyaphum
Matthew Langford Perry (born August 19, 1969) is a Golden Globe and Emmy nominated Australian-Canadian movie and television actor.
He is best known for his work as Chandler Bing in the sitcom Friends.
Matthew Perry was born in Williamstown, Massachusetts.
His mother, Suzanne Jane Louise Morrison (née Langford), is a Canadian journalist and was a press secretary to Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, and his father, John Bennett Perry, is an American actor and was a model.
Matthew Perry holds US and Canadian citizenship.
He is very good at French.
His parents divorced (broke-up) before his 1st birthday and his mother is re-married to Keith Morrison, a broadcast journalist.
Matthew Perry was raised by his mother in Ottawa.
While growing up in Ontario, Matthew Perry was very interested in tennis and started playing and soon became a top-ranked junior player (he has been good friends with professional tennis player Jennifer Capriati).
The schools he went to were Rockcliffe Park Public School, Lisgar Collegiate Institute, and Ashbury College, all of which are in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Variety announces Matthew Perry in Studio 60
Matthew Perry interview
Caspar David Friedrich (September 5, 1774 – May 7, 1840) was a 19th-century German Romantic landscape painter.
He is best known for landscapegifeowFGYpfvf[vf0[F7qfdyipyUSDGS[DSFQd79wfdgD[9FWQGDYFIGwf9uf[g[9EFG8C[9UGDC97UDGQASF9U[CQgef80q[eugF9E[wugfu9ewagu9egfpuaewogf9euos, which typically feature lonely figures against night skies, morning mists or Gothic ruins.
Alexander Stepanovich Popov () ( – ) was a Russian physicist and inventor who first showed how to use electromagnetic (radio) waves, although he did not apply for a patent for his invention.
Popov, Alexander
Dark energy is the name given to the force that is believed to accelerate the expansion of the universe.
Distant galaxies appear to be moving away from us at high speed: the idea is that the universe is getting bigger and has been since the Big Bang.
Measurements are now accurate enough to allow astronomers to tell that these galaxies seem to be accelerating away from us.
The universe is expanding at an increasing rate.
This faster and faster expansion is not understood by scientists.
There are many ideas for what might be causing the rapid expansion.
However, at the moment, cosmologists who study it do not have an answer.
It is as if there was something there in empty space providing a repulsive force (Anti-gravity) that makes the universe expand.
This has been named dark energy.
Metric expansion of space
The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) is in charge of the United Nations environmental activities, helping developing countries in making environmentally sound policies and encouraging sustainable development through sound environmental practices.
It began as a result of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in June 1972 and has its headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya.
UNEP also has six regional offices and other country offices.
The World Meteorological Organization and the UNEP established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988.
UNEP is also one of several Implementing Agencies for the Global Environment Facility (GEF).
1972 establishments
The Green Revolution was a spread of technology by Norman Borlaug, who earned the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 and is held to have saved over a billion people from starving to death, from the 1930s to the 1960s.
It was made up of the creation of different types of cereal grains that grew more food than average, more use of modern systems for watering crops, making management more modern, and the spread of hybridized seeds, man-made fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.
In the 20th century, big spending in modern and scientific research for agriculture led to the growth of more food in industrial countries.
The Rockefeller Foundation and Ford Foundation helped to change these scientific technologies to fit the conditions in developing countries.
The first research was on rice and wheat, two of the most important food crops for developing countries.
Irrigation and the growth of better plant types, in addition to more use of fertilizers and pesticides, led to more food growth in Asia and Latin America, starting in the late 1960s.
The term “Green Revolution” was used to mean the large growth in agriculture that happened at this time.
The Afrikaans Wikipedia () is the Afrikaans-language edition of Wikipedia.
This edition was started in November 2001. ,
the site had over 26,000 articles.
Afrikaans Wikipedia main page
Susan George (born 1934) is a well-known writer on Third World poverty, underdevelopment and debt.
She is a fellow of the Transnational Institute and is a critic of the present policies of the International Monetary Fund and World Bank.
She has been a consultant to United Nations agencies and is a frequent public speaker.
She is American but lives in France.
How the Other Half Dies (Penguin) 1976.
Reprinted 1986, 1991  (An analysis of the real reasons for world hunger.)
A Fate Worse Than Debt (Penguin) 1988  (An analysis of the reasons for Third World debt.)
The Debt Boomerang (Pluto Press) 1992  (Continuing the theme of Third World debt and its harmful effects.)
The Lugano Report: On Preserving Capitalism in the 21st Century 1999
Another World Is Possible If (Verso Books) 2004
Susan George, Official page at Transnational Institute.
Writers from Akron, Ohio
The Victoria line is part of the London Underground network.
It is a deep-level underground metro line that runs from Brixton in south London to Walthamstow Central in the north-east.
It started running in 1968.
On the Tube map it is shown with a light blue color.
It is the fourth busiest line on the London Underground network.
It is the only line on the Underground, other than the two-stop Waterloo & City line, which is completely underground.
The only section of track to come above ground is the route to the depot from Seven Sisters to Northumberland Park.
The Underground line has hump-backed stations which allow trains to store gravitational potential energy as they arrive and to then use this energy as they leave the stations.
The stations are on top of small hills, or humps.
As the train travels up the hill to the station its weight helps it to slow down.
As the train leaves the station it travels down the hill, with gravity helping the train to speed up.
This saves 5% energy and makes the trains run 9% faster.
Each new platform built for the Victoria Line is 132.6 metres long.
Around 200 million people use the Victoria line each year.
A new tube railway running from Victoria to Walthamstow was first proposed by a Working Party set up by the British Transport Commission in 1948.
The main purpose of the line was to relieve congestion in the central area.
The Private Bill needed to build it was introduced into Parliament in 1955.
The Bill described a line from Victoria to Walthamstow (Wood Street).
There was also a proposal for an extension from Victoria to Fulham Broadway station on the District line, but this was not included in the Bill.
The construction work on the Walthamstow–Victoria section began in 1962.
It continued until 1972, when Pimlico station was opened.
A test tunnel from Tottenham to Manor House under Seven Sisters Road had been constructed in 1959 and this was later integrated into the running tunnels.
The Prince of Wales and the Duke of Edinburgh visited the line during its construction.
In July 1968, they visited the tunnels that were being built under Vauxhall Park.
Barbara Castle, the Minister of Transport gave approval on 4 August 1967 to build the Brixton extension.
Preparatory work started at a site on Bessborough Gardens near to Vauxhall Bridge Road in May 1967.
On 28 June 1968, Richard Marsh, then Minister of Transport approved the proposal to build a station at Pimlico.
The name "Victoria line" dates back to 1955.
Other suggestions were "Walvic line" (Walthamstow Central station–Victoria station) and "Viking line" (Victoria station–King's Cross station).
During the planning stages, it was known as Route C. Later, it was named the Victoria line after Victoria Station by David McKenna.
This suggestion was seconded by Sir John Elliot.
The Victoria line was designed to get rid of build-ups of traffic on other lines, such as the Piccadilly line.
It was also designed to have as many interchanges as possible, and all stations except Pimlico have an interchange with at least one other London Underground or National Rail line.
It had been intended to build the line past Walthamstow Central to Wood Street (Walthamstow), where it would come above ground to terminate next to the British Railways station.
However, a late decision in 1961 saw the line cut back to Walthamstow Central station.
Until 1968 this station was called Walthamstow (Hoe Street).
Each Victoria line station apart from Pimlico was built as an interchange station and several existing stations were re–arranged to allow for cross-platform interchange with it.
In some cases this was achieved by placing the Victoria line platforms on either side of the existing station.
In others the Victoria line uses one of the older platforms and the existing line was moved toto a new platform.
At Euston, northbound Victoria and Northern line (Bank branch) trains run along platforms next to each other, although they are travelling in opposite directions. "
Same-direction" cross-platform interchanges are available at Stockwell (with the Northern line), Oxford Circus (with the Bakerloo line), Highbury & Islington (with First Capital Connect, originally the Northern City Line) and at Finsbury Park (with the Piccadilly line).
All Victoria line stations were originally tiled in a light blue colour.
Each station was decorated with tiled motifs on seating recesses to differentiate them from each other.
During the construction of the Jubilee line in the late 1970s, the original motifs on Green Park station were replaced by motifs matching the new design for the Jubilee line platforms.
Platform humps were installed on all Victoria Line stations, except for Pimlico, during late 2010 and 2011.
This was done to provide step-free access to trains.
The Rail Vehicle Accessibility (Non Interoperable Rail System) Regulations 2010 and the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 created the need for the humps to be installed.
The humps are a ramp type, similar to those being installed on some mainline stations.
They are of a masonry construction.
The first section opened was between Walthamstow Central and Highbury & Islington.
There was no opening ceremony for this.
The normal timetable started on 1 September 1968.
The first train left Walthamstow Central for Highbury & Islington at about 7:32 am.
Later that year, the section between Highbury & Islington and Warren Street was opened.
Again there was no ceremony.
The official opening ceremony for the line took place at Victoria station on 7 March 1969.
Queen Elizabeth II unveiled a commemorative plaque on the station concourse.
After a short ceremony, she bought a 5d (old pence) ticket and travelled to Green Park.
In new pence this would be about 2.08p.
This made her the first monarch to ride the Underground.
Princess Alexandra opened the Brixton extension on 23 July 1971.
She rode the train from Brixton to Vauxhall.
Service and rolling stock
Trains run every two minutes during peak periods (when its the busiest).
In normal service, all trains run from Brixton to Seven Sisters.
About three out of five continue to Walthamstow Central.
When the line first opened it was served by a fleet of 8-car 1967 tube stock trains.
Each is made up of two four-car units.
Later on, a number of cars of 1972 Mark I tube stock were adapted to work with the 1967 stock.
This meant that there were finally 43 trains, each of which was made up of two four-car units.
The 1967 tube stock was replaced by 2009 tube stock between 2009 and 2011 (see below).
At first, an articulated type of rolling stock was thought about.
This idea was not used because it would have been too hard to move the stock to Acton Works for heavy overhauls.
This is no longer a problem since train overhauls have been moved away from Acton Works to the builders' own works.
The new 2009 tube stock is wider and the carriage is slightly longer.
This means it can only run on the Victoria line, as it is too wide for the tunnels of other deep level tube lines.
The line has an Automatic Train Operation system (ATO).
The train operator (driver) closes the train doors and presses a pair of "start" buttons.
If the way ahead is clear, the ATO drives the train at a safe speed to the next station and stops there.
This system has been in place since the line opened in 1968.
This makes the Victoria line the world's first full-scale automatic railway.
When the Victoria line was built, there were severe budget restrictions.
As a result, the station infrastructure standards were lower than on older lines and on later extension projects.
Examples of these lower standards include narrower than usual platforms and undecorated ceilings at Walthamstow Central, Blackhorse Road and Tottenham Hale.
This also affects lighting levels.
At most stations between the up and down escalators there is a concrete staircase where an additional escalator could be installed, but has not been fitted.
It can cause severe congestion at peak times.
This has been remedied at Brixton in 2004 and at Vauxhall in 2006 where an additional escalator has been installed in place of the fixed stairway.
In addition, there have been station closures for safety reasons, when both escalators have been unserviceable.
Over many years, heavy equipment has been installed in fenced-off sections at the ends of platforms owing to the lack of anywhere else to install them.
It is not clear from Transport for London's Five-Year Investment Programme whether these shortcomings are likely to be remedied.
The 1967 stock was replaced bit by bit from July 2009 as part of Transport for London's 5-year £10 billion redevelopment project.
The replacement for the line's 1967 tube stock is the 2009 tube stock built by Bombardier Transportation.
The first train was built in 2006.
Testing of the new trains began in 2008.
The main fleet began to be introduced in 2009 and went into main service in 2010.
The last of the 1967 stock trains ran on 30 June 2011, after which the whole service was provided by 2009 stock.
Supporters of Tottenham Hotspur (and the club itself) have campaigned for a surface station to be opened next to Northumberland Park Station, next to the line's depot.
This would provide an improvement in transport links, seen as essential if the club's wish to redevelop their ground and increase crowd capacity is to become a reality.
The idea was looked into but Network Rail own the necessary land and need it for their own expansion plans.
When Crossrail 2 is built, it will lower the number of passengers on the Victoria line (there are too many at the moment).
It will offer an alternative route across Central London between Victoria and King's Cross St. Pancras.
For many years there have been proposals to extend southwards from Brixton one stop to Herne Hill.
Herne Hill is a railway station that can link passengers to Kent and other places.
The tube station would be on a large reversing loop with one platform.
This would remove a problem of having too many trains by getting rid if the need for trains to reverse at Brixton.
However, this would cost too much money for how little it would actually help passengers.
Given that the line is very overcrowded, this is the only extension that could ever happen.
Northumberland Park Depot is the service and storage area for trains on the Victoria Line.
It is the only part of the line not in tunnel.
It is next to Northumberland Park railway station, on Tottenham Marshes, Tottenham in the London Borough of Haringey.
The Depot is connected to the Victoria Line by a tunnelled branch line to a junction to the north of Seven Sisters.
It was opened with the first stage of the line in 1968.
There is a local campaign for platforms for the Victoria Line to be built at Northumberland Park station.
This is supported by the Haringey Council and by Tottenham Hotspur F.C. because the club thinks the new platforms are necessary for their plans to increase capacity at their White Hart Lane ground.
London Transport Museum Poster Archive – images of the station tiling motifs:
Transport in the London Borough of Lambeth
It discusses the effect of climate change and global warming on the world economy.
It is the largest and most widely known and discussed report of its kind.
Nicholas Stern, called the  "world’s top climate economist", endorses 350 ppm as “a very sensible long-term target.”
Energy efficiency and Sustainable energy
An Inconvenient Truth and Al Gore
Manuel Pino is a professor at Scottsdale Community College in Arizona.
Opposition to uranium mining has played a big role in Pino's life.
He has written about The Destructive Impact of Uranium Mining on Native American Culture.
He has spoken out at many international conferences about victims of uranium mining, depleted uranium, and associated cancer deaths.
In 2008, Manuel Pino received the Nuclear-Free Future Award.
Uranium in the environment
Uranium Mining and Indigenous People
Indigenous Leaders Call For End To Uranium Mining
Jacqui Katona is an Aboriginal woman who tried to stop the Jabiluka uranium mine in the Northern Territory.
In 1998 the Mirrar Aboriginal people, together with environmental groups, created one of the largest protests in Australia's history.
Katona won the 1999 U.S. Goldman Environmental Prize because she protected her country and culture against uranium mining.
Yes to land rights!
No to uranium mining!
Anti-nuke protests
Indigenous Australian activists
People from the Northern Territory
A third rail is a metal railway track that is placed on either side of a train track to provide electrical power to trains traveling along the tracks.
They are often used on subways and local train services.
Before third rails, electricity was carried in overhead wires.
In the 19th century engineers found ways to use electricity to power trains.
Scottish engineer Robert Davidson designed and built an electric locomotive in 1837 using batteries.
Locomotives powered by batteries could not be used on the main railways due to the frequent need to charge them.
German engineer Werner von Siemens in 1879 designed the first reliable electric locomotive to carry passengers.
Siemens' design used a 2.2kW electric motor and had a top speed of just over 13 km/h. This new locomotive hauled three passenger cars along a 300 meter circular railway track and carried about 90,000 people in four months during its trail run at the Berlin Industrial Exhibition.
Siemens' electric locomotive was the first train to use a third rail and power was provided by a dynamo built for this purpose.
Early electric trains were unable to access a widely available and reliable source of electricity.
A network of electricity that went wherever the rail line network went was needed.
Whilst many modern long distance trains use an overhead wire system to provide power, the third rail was the first successful means of supplying power.
It remains very much in use world-wide today, especially in local and rapid transit systems.
The third rail is usually located outside the two running rails, but occasionally between them.
The electricity is transmitted to the train by means of a sliding shoe, which is held in contact with the rail.
On many systems an insulating cover is provided above the third rail to protect employees working near the track; sometimes the shoe is designed to contact the side (called side running) or bottom (called bottom running) of the third rail, allowing the protective cover to be mounted directly to its top surface.
When the shoe slides on top, it is referred to as top running.
When the shoe slides on the bottom it is not affected by the build-up of snow or leaves.
Third rails typically carry hundreds of volts in high amperage current.
This makes them very dangerous.
In 2005 American James Maki fell onto the third rail at a Boston rail station and suffered extensive and disfiguring injuries.
As part of his treatment he became the second American recipient of a face transplant.
Many deaths occur around the world each year due to human contact with a third rail.
In New York City, there have been multiple cases of people dying because they have urinated on the third rail.
MSNBC - Stay alive!
Tips to survive a subway emergency
Yonge Street (pronounced "young") is a main street in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and its northern suburbs.
It was once listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the longest street in the world and is listed as a national historic site.
It was the site of Canada's first subway line.
Yonge Street is the home of or close to many places of interest in Toronto, including street and theatre acts, the Eaton Centre, the Hockey Hall of Fame and–at the very start of the road–'One Yonge Street', the offices of the Toronto Star newspaper.
The Yonge Line of the Toronto subway under or along it from south of King Street to Finch Avenue.
The Viva Blue BRT line goes along Yonge from Finch to Newmarket Bus Terminal.
Yonge Street is thought to be Toronto's main street, because of it splits the city into east and west, and the has the Yonge subway line running under it.
It is also the main place people come to celebrate events.
Parts of the street are often closed for events, such as an yearly street party.
Toronto's annual Gay Pride, Orange Order, and Santa Claus parades also use Yonge Street for a large part of their routes.
Canadian singer-songwriter Gordon Lightfoot has a song about Yonge Street, titled "On Yonge Street", on his album A Painter Passing Through.
2018 van incident
Eaton Centre
Toronto Star Building at One Yonge Street
Toronto Reference Library
2018 Toronto van incident
The Yonge Street Story (1793-1860), by F. R. Berchem, Natural Heritage Books, Toronto, 1977
Globe and Mail article on Yonge Street
A page which argues against Yonge Street's claim as the world's longest street
Portrait of Sir George Yonge
A Yahoo!
page that explains why Yonge Street is the longest street in the world
Yonge Street 1796 Plaque
Blog series on the southern section of Yonge Street
Google Maps of Yonge Street
The dinoflagellates are a large group of flagellate protists.
About half are photosynthetic, the rest are mostly heterotroph predators of other protists.
The ones which are photosynthetic are sometimes loosely called 'algae'; the one which are predators are sometimes loosely called 'protozoa'.
They have been classified as an order, a class and a phylum by different authors.
Active research is being done on their relationships.
Most are marine plankton, but they are common in fresh water habitats as well.
Their populations are distributed depending on temperature, salinity, or depth.
The group includes many symbionts and bioluminescent species.
About 1,555 species of free-living marine dinoflagellates are currently described.
The latest estimates suggest a total of 2,294 living dinoflagellate species, which includes marine, freshwater and parasitic dinoflagellates.
Zooxanthellae
Some dinoflagellates are zooxanthellae: endosymbionts of marine eukaryotes, and animals such as anthozoan corals.
These reef-building corals largely depend on them.
Other organisms which can host zooxanthellae include jellyfish, clams, foraminifera, sea slugs i.e. nudibranchs, and also ciliates and radiolaria.
Red tides
Dinoflagellates are responsible for the 'red tides' which may poison fish.
They sometimes bloom in concentrations of more than a million cells per millilitre.
Some species produce neurotoxins, which in such quantities kill fish and accumulate in filter feeders such as shellfish, which in turn may pass them on to people who eat them.
This phenomenon is called a red tide, from the color the bloom imparts to the water.
Not all dinoflagellate blooms are dangerous.
Bluish flickers visible in ocean water at night often come from blooms of bioluminescent dinoflagellates, which emit short flashes of light when disturbed.
Although classified as eukaryotes, the dinoflagellate nuclei lack some key features of eukaryotic nuclei.
In fact, Dodge termed the dinoflagellate nucleus as mesokaryotic, due to its possession of intermediate characteristics between the coiled DNA areas of prokaryotic bacteria and the well-defined eukaryotic nucleus.
This group, however, does contain typically eukaryotic organelles, such as golgi complexes, mitochondria and chloroplasts.
The group contains many complex organelles and life styles.
Some have structures rather like vertebrates eyes; some have nematocysts; some live as plasmodia (multinucleate forms); some have two flagella; photosynthetic dinoflagellates contain a "bewildering array" of plastid types; and the whole of their genetics and cell biology is eccentric.
Fossil dinoflagellates are important in stratigraphy, the dating and correlation of strata.
During their life, dinoflagellates have a mobile planktonic form and a resistant cyst phase which enables them to survive over winter in sediment.
Only the cyst gets fossilised.
Their first certain appearance is in the Silurian period, with a big radiation in the Mesozoic era.p440 They are classified as Phylum Dinomastigota by Margulis and colleagues.
Alveolata
An epiphyte is a plant which grows on another plant, without being a parasite.
The term is also be used for bacteria, fungi, lichens and mosses which grow on plants.
However, most epiphytes (89%) are flowering plants; and about a third of all ferns are epiphytes.
An epiphyte gets its moisture and nutrients from the air and rain, and sometimes from debris accumulating around it.
The ones in the temperate zone are often mosses, liverworts, lichens and algae, and in the tropics ferns, cacti, orchids, and bromeliads.
Sometimes such plants are called air plants, because they do not root in soil.
This is misleading though, as there are many aquatic epiphytes as well.
Epiphytic organisms only take support from the host; they are usually not parasites.
Parasitic and semi-parasitic plants, like the mistletoe are not true epiphytes.
A miniature sheet or souvenir sheet is a small group of postage stamps still attached to the sheet on which they were printed.
They may be either regular issues that just happen to be printed in small groups, or special issues often commemorating some event, such as a national anniversary, philatelic exhibition, or government program.
The number of stamps ranges from one to about 25; larger sheets of stamps are simply called "sheets" with no qualifier.
The margins or selvage of the sheet may have additional printing, ranging from a simple statement of the occasion being commemorated, up to a full picture of which the stamp(s) are just a small part.
Bed sheet, a cloth used to cover a mattress.
Ice sheet.
Sheet of stamps (or press sheet), a unit of stamps printed on sheets of paper and sold at post offices.
Miniature sheet, a small group of postage stamps still attached to the sheet on which they were printed.
The Vietnamese Wikipedia () is the Vietnamese-language edition of Wikipedia.
Vietnamese Wikipedia main page
Mohammed Rafi (, , December 24, 1924 – July 31, 1980) was a popular Bollywood playback singer.
In a career of over 40 years, Rafi sang more than 26,000 songs in the national languages of India and sometimes in other languages.
In 1944, Rafi moved to Mumbai.
Rafi appeared in two movies.
In 1945, he appeared on the screen for the song "Tera Jalwa Jis Ne Dekha" in the film Laila Majnu.
He sang a number of songs as part of the chorus, including with K. L. Saigal from the movie Shahjahan (1946).
Rafi sang in Mehboob Khan's Anmol Ghadi (1946).
He had a duet with Noor Jehan in the 1947 film Jugnu, "Yahan Badla Wafa Ka".
After partition, Rafi decided to stay in India.
Noor Jehan migrated to Pakistan and made a pair with playback singer Ahmed Rushdi.
In his early career, Rafi associated with many contemporary music directors, most notably Naushad Ali.
In the late 1950s and 1960s, he worked with other composers of the era such as O. P. Nayyar, Shankar Jaikishan, S.D. Burman and Roshan.
In the early 1970s, Rafi recorded fewer songs.
He made a comeback as a leading singer in 1974.
On Thursday, July 31, 1980, Rafi died at 10:50 p.m., following a massive heart attack.