the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
He and Baruch S. Blumberg won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1976.
They got the Nobel for work on kuru.
Kuru is the first human prion disease shown to be infectious.
Gajdusek's father, Karol Gajdusek, was from Büdöskö, Kingdom of Hungary, now Smrdáky, Slovakia.
He was an ethnic Slovak who was a butcher.
His mother's parents from Debrecen, Hungary.
Gajdusek was born in Yonkers, New York.
He graduated from the University of Rochester in 1943.
Gajdusek studied physics, biology, chemistry and mathematics.
He got an M.D. from Harvard University in 1946.
His postdoctoral research was done at Columbia University, the California Institute of Technology, and Harvard.
In the early 1950s, Gajdusek was drafted into the military as a research virologist at Walter Reed Army Medical Center.
In 1954 he went to work at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research in Melbourne, Australia.
In Australia, he began the work that led to his getting the Nobel Prize.
Gajdusek's best-known work was on kuru.
This disease was affecting many people among the South Fore people of New Guinea in the 1950s and 1960s.
Gajdusek felt there was a connect between the spread of the disease and the funerary cannibalism by the South Fore people.
He lived among the Fore and studied their language and culture.
He also performed autopsies on people who died of kuru.
Gajdusek thought that kuru was spread by the ritualistic eating of the brains of dead family members.
He proved this idea by infecting primates with the disease and showing that it had an very long incubation period of several years.
When the cannibalism was stopped, kuru stopped spreading in just one generation.
This was the first time it was shown that a non-inflammatory degenerative disease could be spread in humans.
Gajdusek was not able to identify what exactly spreads kuru.
Other research by Stanley Prusiner and others led to the finding of proteins called prions that caused these disease and other similar diseases.
Some people in the medical community, do not think that cannibalism was still practiced when Gajdusek did his research.
Willam Arens, an anthropologist, says that Gajdusek never saw cannibalism himself.
Researchers who worked with the Fore in the 1950s say that cannibalism was stopped in 1948.
This was almost a decade before Gajdusek went to New Guinea.
Many other researchers, including Robert Klitzman, S. Lindenbaum, R. Glasse, and researchers at the Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research have made reports that say that the cannibalism still happened.
Gajdusek became head of the laboratories for virological and neurological research at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 1958.
He was made a part of the National Academy of Sciences in 1974.
Child molestation conviction
During his trips in the South Pacific, Gajdusek had brought 56 children back to live with him in the United States.
He gave them the chance to have high school and college education.
Later, as an adult, one of these children said that Gajdusek molested him as a child.
Gajdusek was charged with child molestation in April 1996.
This was based on things in his own diary and what the victim told police.
He said this was true in 1997 and was sent to jail for 12 months.
After he got out of jail in 1998, he went to Europe.
He never returned to the United States and lived in Amsterdam, Paris, and Tromsø.
Gajdusek openly admitted molesting boys and his approval of incest.
Gajdusek's autobiography, written at the time of his Nobel Prize
Carleton Gajdusek: Obituary, Los Angeles Times
Current autobiography in Hungarian
GIS may stand for Geographic Information Sciences or for Geographic Information System.
These are two different but related things in geography.
The Geographic Information Sciences include many fields of knowledge that help to understand geographic information while a Geographic Information System is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of spatial or geographical data and allow for the study of "layers" of geographic information.
GIS also known as geographic information system is a computer system made for capturing and displaying positions on the earth’s surface and portraying data in many different ways on maps.
Its main job is to help in analyzing groups of data and in finding correlations or patterns.
For example a map could use GIS to find out the amount of rubbish in one area, and also include how many factories and types of factories are in that area.
GIS can store information about a location and help provide knowledge on many different topics in a location.
Users can specify a place via latitude and longitude, postal code or address.
Then GIS can provide information about the people in that area including: income, population and education levels.
It can also tell about physical things such as soil types, vegetation, water sources, manmade structures like buildings and roads.
Mike Pelino (born November 13, 1959 in Welland, Ontario) is a Canadian Ice hockey coach.
He has been an assistant coach for the New York Rangers from 2004 until 2009.
Pelino started his coaching career in the NHL as an assistant coach for the Florida Panthers in 2003.
In 2010, he became the head coach of the Peterborough Petes in the OHL.
Since 2013, he has been working for the Metallurg as an assistant coach in KHL.
In the 2013/2014 season the team won Gagarin's Cup and became the KHL champions.
Carl Sandburg (January 6, 1878 – July 22, 1967) was an American poet.
He won several awards, including three Pulitzer Prizes.
He also wrote a biography of Abraham Lincoln.
The majority of his poems were about the city of Chicago.
He was born in Galesburg, Illinois.
Hard Again is a album by Muddy Waters.
It was produced by Johnny Winter who also played guitar.
The record was his first for Blue Sky Records.
It was also the first studio album after he left Chess Records
The recordings lasted three days.
For the recordings Muddy used his then current touring band of guitarist Bob Margolin, pianist Pinetop Perkins, and drummer Willie "Big Eyes" Smith.
James Cotton played harmonica and Charles Calmeses the bass.
Three of the songs on the album – "Mannish Boy", "I Want to Be Loved", and "I Can't Be Satisfied" – were re-recordings of songs for Chess Records.
One of the songs recorded, "The Blues Had a Baby and They Named It Rock and Roll, Pt.
2", was co-written by Brownie McGhee and another song, "Bus Driver", was co-written by T. Abrahamson.
An outtake from the recording sessions, "Walking Through the Park", appeared on the 2004 Legacy Recordings reissue CD, while several more unused tracks appeared on King Bee in 1981.
The album has been well received by several critics.
Dan Oppenheimer of Rolling Stone magazine said that "Mannish Boy" sounded like it was recorded live while both Oppenheimer and Daniel Gioffre of Allmusic state how powerful Willie "Big Eyes" Smith's drumming is.
Oppenheimer, Gioffre, and Robert Christgau all share the opinion that Hard Again is Muddy Waters comeback album.
Charts and awards
Hard Again peaked at #143 on the Billboard 200, which was his first appearance on the chart since Fathers and Sons in 1969.
Original album
"Mannish Boy" (Morganfield, Ellas McDaniel, Mel London) – 5:23
"Bus Driver" (Morganfield, Terry Abrahamson) – 7:44
"I Want to Be Loved" (Willie Dixon) – 2:20
"Jealous Hearted Man" – 4:23
"I Can't Be Satisfied" – 3:28
"The Blues Had a Baby and They Named It Rock And Roll, Pt.
2" (Morganfield, Brownie McGhee) – 3:35
"Deep Down in Florida" – 5:25
"Crosseyed Cat" – 5:59
"Little Girl" – 7:06
2004 bonus track
<li>"Walking Through the Park" – 3:55
The following people contributed to Hard Again:
Muddy Waters – vocals, guitar
Bob Margolin – guitar
Pinetop Perkins – piano
James Cotton – harmonica
Willie "Big Eyes" Smith – drums
Charles Calmese – bass
Johnny Winter – guitar, producer
Dave Still – engineer
Andy Manganello – assistant engineer
Joseph M. Palmaccio – mastering
Al Quaglieri – reissue producer
Chris Theis – mix engineer
musicbox-online Hard Again album review
In the 19th Century Scramble for Africa, the British Empire tried to control all of southern Africa.
They won control of the Cape of Good Hope in 1815 at the end of the Napoleonic Wars.
Many Boers (Dutch, German and French farmers) did not like Britain controlling the area.
The British taxed them, made English the official language, and in 1834 abolished slavery.
Some of the Boers moved north in the Great Trek and made a new country called the Orange Free State.
In 1877 the British Army moved in to control the Orange Free State in pursuit of diamonds, one of the Orange Free State's rich natural resources.
On 16 December 1880 the First Boer War began.
It took ten weeks in 1880 and 1881.
The British were defeated.
From 1896 to 1899 Governor of the Cape and High Commissioner for South Africa, Alfred Milner made preparations for another war in order to gain the wealth of the Orange Free State and in September 1899 British troops arrived in South Africa.
Paul Kruger president of the Transvaal sent Britain an ultimatum asking strongly for their departure.
Boer farmers from Sandspruit, Volksrust, the Orange Free State, and the Transvaal fought in the war.
As the Boers lost men in battle they recruited young boys and old men to fight.
Black people also fought alongside the Boers in the war and they made up 20 to 25 percent of total Boer manpower.
The German Empire was friendly to their cause, and the Boers used Krupp guns.
Much of the fighting was on  horseback.
As the Boers lost battle after battle they were eventually forced to make peace on the 23rd of March, 1902, and surrender to British authority.
19th century in South Africa
Lilly Ledbetter (born Lilly McDaniel April 1938) was the plaintiff in the American employment discrimination case Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. She has since become a women's equality activist.
Women's equality
Goodyear paid Ledbetter significantly less than men holding the same job.
This violated the Equal Pay Act of 1963 which said that she could sue to get the pay difference.
Her lawsuit eventually reached the Supreme Court.
The court said that she waited too long to sue Goodyear.
In response to the court decision, Congress passed the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, which is named after her.
Under the new law, other women will be able to get backpay after employers keep pay discrimination secret.
Ledbetter was a supervisor at Goodyear Tire and Rubber’s plant in Gadsden, Alabama, from 1979 until her retirement in 1998.
For most of those years, she worked as an area manager, a position largely occupied by men.
Initially, Ledbetter’s salary was in line with the salaries of men performing substantially similar work.
Over time, however, her pay slipped in comparison to the pay of male area managers with equal or less seniority.
By the end of 1997, Ledbetter was the only woman working as an area manager and the pay discrepancy between Ledbetter and her 15 male counterparts was stark: Ledbetter was paid $3,727 per month; the lowest paid male area manager received $4,286 per month, the highest paid, $5,236.
A documentary on the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009
English Wikisource has original text related to this article: Lilly Ledbetter on the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009
The German Democratic Republic (GDR), or East Germany, sent athletes to the Olympic Games from 1956 until 1988.
They have taken part in both the Summer and Winter Games.
From 1956 through 1966, East German athletes were a part of a combined team from both East and West Germany.
After 1966, the East Germans were a separate team.
They won a total of 519 medals at the Olympics.
Germany was divided after World War II.
Three separate states were created.
German athletes tried to take part in the 1948 games but the Allies did not let this happen.
Finally, in 1949, the National Olympic Committee for Germany was founded in the Western Federal Republic of Germany.
The IOC accepted it as both of the larger two larger German states.
The small, French-occupied Saarland and its NOC were separate until after 1955.
East German authorities of the Nationales Olympisches Komitee für Ostdeutschland did not send their athletes to the 1952 games in an all-German team.
The wanted a team of their own.
This was not allowed by the IOC.
United German Team
East Germany agreed to take part in the 1956 Games.
German athletes from the East and West Germany took part in the games in 1956, 1960 and 1964 as the United Team of Germany.
This team was just called Germany at the time.
Success of East Germans
The GDR renamed their NOC to Nationales Olympisches Komitee der DDR in 1965.
It was accepted by the IOC in 1968.
At this point East Germany sent its own team to the Games.
They did not take part in the in 1984 Summer Olympics due to the Soviet boycott.
Although East Germany had a small population of about 16 million, they did very well.
From 1976 to 1988, they won the second most medals in each of their three summer Olympics, behind the Soviet Union.
They did much better than the West Germany.
In five winter games, they placed second four times and first in the 1984 Winter Olympics.
Many think that doping (mainly anabolic steroids) allowed East Germany to a world leader in sports for two decades.
They won many Olympic and world gold medals but many athletes failed doping tests or were believed to be taking performance enhancing drugs.
In many cases where doping was believed to happen, no proof was found so most of records and medals won by East German athletes still stand.
Aside from doping, East Germany soent a lot of money on sporta - mainly Olympic sports.
They did this for prestige, propaganda and rivalry with West Germany.
The government did a lot of work to find and train athletes and coaches that they believed would do very well.
This made it hard say that it was doping rather than very good performance that was the reason for them winning so much.
Germany undivided
In 1990, the German reformed back into Germany.
The "NOC of the GDR" joined the "NOC of Germany" on 17 November 1990.
The German athletes took part in the Olympic Games in a single team again from 1992 forward.
During the first decade after this, athletes from the Eastern part of Germany still won many of Germany's medals.
This shows that doping was not the only reason East Germany did so well in the Olympics.
It shows that their training conditions were also very important.
As trainers and athletes started to move freely around the country, this difference between east and west became smaller.
GDR Sport System in German
Sonar is a machine that uses underwater sound waves to find other objects in the sea.
A sonar can work by sending out sound and listening for echoes (active sonar), like a radar, or by listening for sound made by the object it is trying to find (passive sonar).
the transmitter creates the sound waves.
the hydrophone or hydrophone array converts the sound waves into electricity.
The first use of passive sonar was in 1490 by Leonardo da Vinci, when he put a tube onto water and listened.
Active sonar was first used in 1917 by Paul Langevin.
The word SONAR was created during the Second World War as an acronym for Sound Navigation and Ranging.
This acronym replaced the British acronym ASDIC.
The word is now thought by many people as a regular word, no longer as an acronym.
Rococo is an artistic style which originated in the 18th century in France.
Often referred to merely as Late Baroque, the Rococo developed from the Baroque artistic movement.
Whilst it kept several characteristics of the original style, including elaboration and ornate themes, it was also more playful and asymmetrical.
The Rococo is associated with the reign of French king Louis XV (Louis XIV is associated with the Baroque, whilst Louis XVI with Neoclassicism, albeit his style started off as Rococo at the beginning of reign).
Rococo's popularity was at its height towards the middle of the 18th century, fading out by the end in favour of Neoclassicism.
Rococo art and architecture was feminine, graceful, florid and ornate.
Creamy and pastel-like colours were used for paintings, unlike the darker shades in Baroque art.
Religion and politics were no longer necessarily the core theme of Rococo art, unlike the Baroque, and everyday life became more commonly represented.
In such a way, Rococo art revolved around themes such as love, romance, fun, landscapes, and mere portraits.
Additionally, Far Eastern themes became popular in Rococo, especially Chinoiserie.
Famous Rococo artists include Boucher, Watteau and Fragonard, amongst several others.
The Rococo has been the focus of much discussion, analysis and criticism by art historians throughout history.
It has been criticised over the years for being over-the-top, superficial and frivolous; in such a way, the term has even been used derogatively in various points of history.
Nevertheless, Rococo art and theatre has also received praise for the elegance, "beauty", and "charm" of its artwork.
Azerbaijani food is what people cook and eat in Azerbaijan.
Foods from different cultures have influenced Azerbaijani food.
However, it remained different from foods in other countries.
Many foods that started in Azerbaijan are now part of other cultures.
For the Azerbaijanis, food is an important part of the country's culture and is very connected with the history, traditions and values of the nation.
Out of 11 climate types in the world, Azerbaijan has nine.
This adds to the fertility of the soil, so there are many kinds of vegetables used according to seasons and the dishes.
The climate helps to create the richness of the food.
Fresh herbs, including mint, coriander, dill, basil, parsley, tarragon, leek, chive, thyme, marjoram, green onion and watercress, are very popular and are often put in the main dishes.
The Caspian Sea has many edible species of fish, including the sturgeon, Caspian salmon, kutum, sardines, grey mullet, and others.
Black caviar from the Caspian Sea is one of Azerbaijan’s best known delicacies wanted in many parts of the world.
The main courses of Azerbaijani cuisine are over 30 kinds of soups, including those prepared from plain yogurt.
One of the most famous dishes is plov.
Plov is a saffron-covered rice, served with different herbs.
The Azerbaijani cuisine has more than 40 different plov recipes.
Other second courses include many kinds of kebabs and shashliks, including lamb, beef, chicken, and fish (baliq) kebabs.
Sturgeon, a common fish, is normally skewered (skewer is a thin metal or wood stick used to hold pieces of food together) and grilled as a shashlik, being served with a tart pomegranate sauce called narsharab.
Dried fruits and walnuts are used in many dishes.
The traditional condiments are salt, the spices black pepper, sumac, and especially saffron.
Much of the saffron comes from the Absheron Peninsula.
Black tea is the national drink, and is drunk after food is eaten.
It is also popular on its own or with dried fruits.
Another popular drink is sherbet, a sweet cold drink made of fruit juice mixed or boiled with sugar, often perfumed with rose water.
Azerbaijani sherbet is not sorbet, the cold dessert.
Comparison of Cuisine between North and South Azerbaijan , Azerbaijan International, Autumn 2000, pp.
Proverbs about Food in Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan International, Autumn 2000, pp.
Glorious Food!,
Special issue of Azerbaijan International, Autumn 2000.
Azerbaijani dishes: Photographs and descriptions
Azerbaijani cuisine: Descriptions of dishes by category on Advantour.com
Cuisine of Azerbaijan based on the book Azerbaijani Cooking  published in Baku
Selected recipes from Azerbaijani cuisine
Farida's Azerbaijani Cookbook
Azerbaijani Food
Foods by nationality
was a  after Bunkyū and before Keiō.
This period  spanned only slightly more than a single year from February 1864 through April 1865.
The nengō Genji means "original rule".
Events of the Genji era
8 July 1864 (Genji 1, 5th day of the 6th month): Skirmish at Ikedaya near  Kyoto, also known as  Ikedaya Jiken or Ikedaya Incident.
Samurai supporting the emperor clashed with police forces of the Tokugawa shogunate.
12 August 1864 (Genji 1, 11th day of the 7th month): Sakuma Shōzan is assassinated at age 53.
Anti-shogunate (sonno joi) forces were responsible for his death.
5-6 September 1864 (Genji 1, 5th-6th day of the 8th month): Bombardment of Shimonoseki
1865 disestablishments
"Kde domov můj" (pron. [
ɡdɛ ˈdomof muːj] "gdeh DOH-mohf MOO-ee") is the national anthem of the Czech Republic.
It—combined with the lyrics of Nad Tatrou sa blýska—was used as the anthem of Czechoslovakia, and after Czechoslovakia splitted into Czechia and Slovakia, "Kde domov můj" became the anthem of the former (Czechia, the short-form name for the Czech Republic).
It was created by Josef Kajetán Tyl and František Škroup in 1834 and was first published in the play Fidlovačka aneb žádný hněv a žádná rvačka.
Czech original
The lyrics were written by Fidlovačka in 1834.
Only the first verse is used as the anthem.
Czechoslovakia: 1918–92 lyrics
See also Nad Tatrou sa blýska.
kde domov můj.
bory šumí po skalinách.
V sadě stkví se jara květ
A to jest ta krásná země
země česká domov můj!
Země česká domov můj!
Nad Tatrou sa blýska, hromy divo bijú
Zastavme ich, bratia, veď sa ony stratia,
Where is my home, where is my home?
Over leas are waters streaming,
On the hills blue forests dreaming,
Flowery wolds Spring‘s happy skies,
Like as earthly Paradise:
There‘s the land so full of beauty,
Čechia, my fatherland!
Where God self to man had spoken:
Gentle be, but never broken,
Ever cheerful, hopeful, strong,
Bravely thwarting any wrong:
There‘s the land of manly honor,
Wo ist mein Heim, mein Vaterland,
Wo durch Wiesen Bäche brausen,
Wo auf Felsen Wälder sausen,
Wo ein Eden uns entzückt,
Wenn der Lenz die Fluren schmückt:
Dieses Land, so schön vor allen,
Böhmen ist mein Heimatland.
Hungarian version
Hol van honom, hol a hazám,
Hol patak zúg a hegyháton,
Csörgedez a rónaságon.
Üde virág a kertben,
Mint egy földi édenben.
Ez az istenáldotta föld,
Csehszlovák föld a hazám,
Csehszlovák föld a hazám.
A synchrotron is a type of particle accelerator where particles travel around many times in a circle.
It uses a magnetic field to turn the particles in the circle and an electric field to speed up the particles.
The components are carefully matched up with the travelling particle beam so that the circle stays the same size while the particles go faster.
Mark Oliphant invented the proton synchrotron.
Vladimir Veksler was the first to publish the idea.
Edwin McMillan constructed the first electron synchrotron.
The synchrotron is an improvement over the cyclotron where the particles travel in a spiral pattern.
A cyclotron uses a constant magnetic field and a constant-frequency applied electric field.
(One of these is varied in the synchrocyclotron).
Both of these fields are varied in the synchrotron to change the path from a spiral to a circle.
By carefully making the fields bigger as the particles gain energy, the width of the circular path can be kept the same as the machine accelerates the particles.
This allows the vacuum chamber for the particles to be a large thin circular pipe torus (donut shape).
It is easier to use some straight sections between the bending magnets and some bent sections within the magnets giving the torus the shape of a round-cornered polygon.
A path that acts like a very large circle can be constructed using simple straight and curved pipe segments, unlike the disc-shaped chamber of the cyclotron type devices.
The shape also requires the use of multiple magnets to bend the particle beams.
Straight sections are required at spacings around a ring for both radiofrequency cavities, and in third generation setups space is allowed for insertion of energy extraction devices such as wigglers and undulators.
Most synchrotrons use two types of magnets: dipole magnets to bend the particle beam and quadrupole magnets to focus the beam.
The maximum energy that a cyclic accelerator can impart is typically limited by the strength of the magnetic field(s) and the minimum radius (maximum curvature) of the particle path.
So, over time, physicist have built accelerators with bigger magnets and larger circles to reach higher particle energy levels.
In a cyclotron, the maximum radius is quite limited as the particles start at the center and spiral outward.
So, the entire path must be a self-supporting disc-shaped vacuum chamber.
Since the radius is limited, the power of the machine becomes limited by the strength of the magnetic field.
In the case of an ordinary electromagnet the field strength is limited by the saturation of the core (when all magnetic domains are lined up the same way, the field cannot not be further increased to any practical extent).
The arrangement of the single pair of magnets the full width of the device also limits the economic size of the device.
Synchrotrons overcome these limits, using a narrow beam pipe which can be surrounded by much smaller and more tightly focusing magnets.
The ability of this device to accelerate particles is limited by the fact that the particles must be charged to be accelerated at all, but charged particles under acceleration emit photons (light particles), which makes them lose energy.
The limiting beam energy is reached when the energy lost to the lateral (bending) acceleration required to maintain the beam path in a circle equals the energy added each cycle.
More powerful accelerators are built by using large radius paths and by using more numerous and more powerful microwave cavities to accelerate the particle beam between corners.
Lighter particles (such as electrons) lose a larger fraction of their energy when turning.
Practically speaking, the energy of electron/positron accelerators is limited by this radiation loss, while it does not play a significant role in the dynamics of proton or ion accelerators.
The energy of those is limited strictly by the strength of magnets and by the cost.
Design and operation
Particles are injected into the main ring at substantial energies by either a linear accelerator (linac) or by an intermediate synchrotron which is in turn fed by a linear accelerator.
The "linac" is in turn fed by particles accelerated to intermediate energy by a simple high voltage power supply, typically a Cockcroft-Walton generator.
Particles are designed to leave the linac at a specified speed ("injection velocity") for entry into the synchrotron.
The operators calculate the magnetic field strength needed to steer particles with the injection velocity on the path of the synchrotron.
The operators give the electromagnets enough current to create the right amount of magnetic field strength.
Starting from that initial magnetic field strength, the magnetic field is then increased.
The particles pass through an electrostatic accelerator driven by a high alternating voltage.
At particle speeds not close to the speed of light the frequency of the accelerating voltage can be made roughly proportional to the current in the bending magnets.
A finer control of the frequency is performed by a servo loop which responds to the detection of the passing of the traveling group of particles.
At particle speeds approaching light speed the frequency becomes more nearly constant, while the current in the bending magnets continues to increase.
The maximum energy that can be applied to the particles (for a given ring size and magnet count) is determined by the saturation of the cores of the bending magnets (the point at which increasing current does not produce additional magnetic field).
One way to obtain additional power is to make the torus larger and add additional bending magnets.
This allows the amount of particle redirection at saturation to be less and so the particles can be more energetic.
Another means of obtaining higher power is to use superconducting magnets, these not being limited by core saturation.
When the particles have reached their maximum energy, they are steered out of the synchrotron and aimed at a target.
Early synchrotrons used stationary targets.
In order to double the energy of a collision, physicists in the 1970s began to collide two particle beams travelling in the opposite direction instead of just one beam and a stationary target.
To have two beams that are travelling in the synchrontron in opposite directions, they used particles with the same mass but with the opposite sign.
For example, electrons and positrons or protons and antiprotons.
Large synchrotrons
One of the early large synchrotrons, now retired, is the Bevatron, constructed in 1950 at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.
The name of this proton accelerator comes from its power, in the range of 6.3 GeV (then called BeV for billion electron volts; the name predates the adoption of the SI prefix giga-).
A number of heavy elements, unseen in the natural world, were first created with this machine.
This site is also the location of one of the first large bubble chambers used to examine the results of the atomic collisions produced by the machine.
Another early large synchrotron is the Cosmotron built at Brookhaven National Laboratory which reached 3.3 GeV in 1953.
The first Cornell University synchrotron was built before 1950 with a power of 300 MeV.
Until August 2008, the highest energy synchrotron in the world was the Tevatron, at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, in the United States.
It accelerates protons and antiprotons to slightly less than 1 TeV of kinetic energy and collides them together.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which has been built at the European Laboratory for High Energy Physics (CERN), has roughly seven times this energy (so proton-proton collisions occur at roughly 14 TeV).
It is housed in the 27 km tunnel which formerly housed the Large Electron Positron (LEP) collider, so it will maintain the claim as the largest scientific device ever built.
The LHC will also accelerate heavy ions (such as lead) up to an energy of 1.15 PeV.
The largest device of this type seriously proposed was the Superconducting Super Collider (SSC), which was to be built in Texas.
This design, like others, used superconducting magnets which allow more intense magnetic fields to be created without the limitations of core saturation.
Its planned ring circumference was 87.1 kilometres (54.1 mi) with an energy of 20 TeV per beam of protons.
Construction was begun in 1991 but later cancelled in 1994.
The project had been poorly managed.
Some people say that the end of the Cold War resulted in a change of scientific funding priorities that contributed to its ultimate cancellation.
While there is still potential for yet more powerful proton and heavy particle cyclic accelerators, it appears that the next step up in electron beam energy must avoid losses due to synchrotron radiation.
This will require a return to the linear accelerator, but with devices significantly longer than those currently in use.
There is at present a major effort to design and build the International Linear Collider (ILC), which will consist of two opposing linear accelerators, one for electrons and one for positrons.
These will collide at a total center of mass energy of 0.5 TeV.
However, synchrotron radiation also has a wide range of applications (see synchrotron light) and many 2nd and 3rd generation synchrotrons have been built especially to harness it.
The largest of those 3rd generation synchrotron light sources are the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble, France, the Advanced Photon Source (APS) near Chicago, USA, and SPring-8 in Japan, accelerating electrons up to 6, 7 and 8 GeV, respectively.
Synchrotrons which are useful for cutting edge research are large machines, costing tens or hundreds of millions of dollars to construct, and each beamline (there may be 20 to 50 at a large synchrotron) costs another two or three million dollars on average.
These installations are mostly built by the science funding agencies of governments of developed countries, or by collaborations between several countries in a region, and operated as infrastructure facilities available to scientists from universities and research organisations throughout the country, region, or world.
List of installations
Note: in the case of colliders, the quoted energy is often double what is shown here.
The above table shows the energy of one beam but if two opposing beams collide head on, the centre of mass energy is double the beam energy shown.
Life sciences: protein and large molecule crystallography
LIGA based microfabrication
Drug discovery and research
"Burning" computer chip designs into metal wafers
Analysing chemicals to determine their composition
Observing the reaction of living cells to drugs
Inorganic material crystallography and microanalysis
Fluorescence studies
Semiconductor material analysis and structural studies
Geological material analysis
Proton therapy to treat some forms of cancer
List of synchrotron radiation facilities
Synchrotron X-ray tomographic microscopy
Energy amplifier
Superconducting Radio Frequency
Canadian Light Source
Australian Synchrotron
Diamond UK Synchrotron
Lightsources.org
CERN Large Hadron Collider
Synchrotron Light Sources of the World
A Miniature Synchrotron: room-size synchrotron offers scientists a new way to perform high-quality x-ray experiments in their own labs, Technology Review, February 4, 2008
Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory
Podcast interview with a scientist at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Indian SRS
Sameen Ahmed Khan, Synchrotron Radiation (in Asia), ATIP Report, No.
ATIP02.034, 28 pages (21 August 2002). (
ATIP: The Asian Technology Information Program, Tokyo, Japan, 2002).
Complete Report.
ALBA Light Source
Brave is a 2012 American computer-animated fantasy-adventure movie which stars Billy Connolly and Emma Thompson.
The movie was released on June 22, 2012, by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures and distributed by Walt Disney Pictures.
Pixar was the studio that worked on this movie.
It received positive responses from critics and won an Oscar.
The movie is set in Scotland during the Medieval period.
16-year-old Princess  causes chaos in the kingdom of DunBroch by not wanting to marry.
2012 animated movies
2012 comedy movies
2010s American comedy movies
was a  after Man'en and before Genji.
This period spanned the years from February 1861 through February 1864.
Events of the Bunkyū era
1861 (Bunkyu 1): Ukai Gyokusen established the first commercial photography studio (Eishin-dō) in Edo.
1861 (Bunkyu 1): Great comet of 1861.
January 1862 (Bunkyū 1, 12th month): The Bonin Islands (Ogasawara Islands) were confirmed as part of Japan.
1862 (Bunkyū 2): The Bunkyū Reforms reduced restrictions on daimyo which had beeb ordered by Ii Naosuke.
14 September 1862 (Bunkyū 2, 21st day of the 8th month): Satsuma samurai killed Charles Lennox Richardson at Namamugi on the Tōkaidō road, also known as the Namamugi Incident (Namamugi Jiken).
22 April 1863 (Bunkyū 3, 5th day of the 3rd month): Shogun Iemochi traveled in a great procession to the capital.
He had been summoned by the emperor, and he had 3,000 retainers as escort.
28 April 1863 (Bunkyū 3, 11th day of the 3rd month): Emperor Komei made an Imperial progress to the Kamo Shrines.
He was accompanied by the shogun and many feudal lords.
15-17 August 1863 (Bunkyū 3, 2nd-4th of the 7th month ): British Bombardment of Kagoshima in retaliation for the death of Charles Lennox Richardson.
National Diet Library, The Japanese Calendar -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection
"The procession of the Shôgun nearby Shono, in Shirasagi-zuka, Ise, at night," woodblock print by Utagawa Tsuyanaga
1861 establishments
1864 disestablishments
France has taken part in every Olympic Games with the possible exception of the 1904 Games.
In 1904, different sources list Albert Corey as taking place in the games for either the United States or France.
1900 Summer Olympics in Paris
1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix
1924 Summer Olympics in Paris
1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble
1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville
French athletes have won 671 medals at the Summer Olympic Games.
Fencing and cycling are their best sports.
France has won 94 medals at the Winter Olympic Games.
Most of these are in alpine skiing.
France at Olympic.org
France profile at London2012.com
was a  after Ten'ō and before Daidō.
This period started in August 782 and ended in May 806.
Events of the Enryaku era
782 (Enryaku 1, 6th month): Fujiwara no Uona was removed from his office.
783 (Enryaku 3, in the 3rd month): Fujiwara no Tamaro died at the age of 62 years.
783 (Enryaku 3, in the 7th month): Fujiwara no Korekimi was promoted in the hierarchy of the Imperial court.
793 (Enryaku 12): Construction began on the Buddhist temple complex at Enryaku-ji.
17 December 794 (Enryaku 13, 21st day of the 10th month): The Emperor moved by carriage in a grand parade from Nara to Heian-kyō.
796 (Enryaku 15): Copper coins were minted with the legend Ren-hei Ei-hō.
797 (Enryaku 16): Shoku Nihongi was written.
806 (Enryaku 25): Emperor Kammu died at the age of 70.
Imperial Household Agency (Kunaichō), Mausoleum of Emperor Kammu
9th-century disestablishments in Japan
782 establishments
806 disestablishments
Jean-Honoré Fragonard (5 April 1732 in Grasse – 22 August 1806 in Paris) was a French artist.
He is remembered as one of the most important French painters of the rococo style.
He was a pupil of François Boucher, and developed Boucher's style further.
At first he did historical paintings, but soon gave up on these.
He then painted things that were light-hearted, and slightly erotic.
His works include The Swing, A Young Girl Reading, and The Secret Meeting.
Together with Boucher and Antoine Watteau, he is one of the principal painters of French Rococo.
He lost his wealth during the French Revolution.
After the revolution, the painting style was different, because he had trouble adapting, he died a poor man.
Mathematicians show the relationship between different factors in the form of equations.
"Linear equations" mean the variable appears only once in each equation without being raised to a power.
A "system" of linear equations means that all of the equations are true at the same time.
So, the person solving the system of equations is looking for the values of each variable that will make all of the equations true at the same time.
If no such values can satisfy all of the equations in the system, then the equations are called "inconsistent."
is a system of three equations in the three variables , , .
A "solution" to a linear system is a choice of numbers for each variable such that every equation is true at the same time.
The following is a solution to the equation above:
It works because it makes all three equations true:
In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is a branch of linear algebra, a subject which is fundamental to modern mathematics.
Computer algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and such methods play a prominent role in engineering, physics, chemistry, computer science, and economics.
A system of non-linear equations can often be approximated by a linear system (see linearization), a helpful technique when making a mathematical model, computer model, or computer simulation of a relatively complex system.
For complex systems, there are many equations and many variables, not just two or three.
In many cases, the number of equations and variables in the system are the same.
In some cases, there are more variables than equations, and the solution will be a range of different values rather than one exact solution.
One method for solving such a system is as follows.
First, solve the top equation for  in terms of :
Now substitute this expression for x into the bottom equation:
This results in a single equation involving only the variable .
Solving gives , and substituting this back into the equation for  yields :
Using Matrices
Mathematically, the vector defined above is a 1-by-n matrix.
The system of equations can then be solved using the multiplication operation defined on matrices.
A, x and b are all part of the same algebraic field.
Solving a system of linear equations
There is no solution
There is exactly one solution
There are many solutions; the exact number depends on the properties of the field.
In many cases there will be an infinite number of solutions.
There are two categories of methods for solving a system of linear equations.
Iterative methods use many steps to get a solution, direct methods only need one step:
An example for a direct method is to solve the system for one variable; this variable can be eliminated and replaced by an expression that only uses other variables, or a number.
Doing this for all variables of the equation will lead to a solution of the system if it exists.
Another method is to transform two equations so that one of the sides of the equations is the same in both cases; it is then possible to write another equation, which replaces the two equations and reduces the number of equations by one.
Cramer's rule
Relaxation, including the Gauss-Seidel and Jacobi methods
Multigrid method
Krylow method
There are examples such as geodesy where there many more measurements than unknowns.
Such a system is almost always overdetermined and has no exact solution.
Each measurement is usually inaccurate and includes some amount of error.
Since the measurements are not exact, it is not possible to obtain an exact solution to the system of linear equations; methods such as Least squares can be used to compute a solution that best fits the overdetermined system.
This least squares solution can often be used as a stand-in for an exact solution.
Solving a system of linear equations has a complexity of at most O (n3).
At least n2 operations are needed to solve a general system of n linear equations.
The best algorithm known to date was developed by Don Coppersmith and Shmuel Winograd and dates from 1990.
It has a complexity of  n2.376 Unfortunately, it is of little practical use.
Using computers to solve systems of linear equations is used every day.
For example, it is used in weather forecasting models.
Hot dog factories use it to make small changes in the receipe as food ingredient prices change.
College cafeterias use it to figure out how much food to cook based on past experience when the cafeteria gives students the choice between multiple entrees.
WebApp descriptively solving systems of linear equations with a number of methods
Solving system linear equations online matrix calculator and tutorial.
Online Equations Solver
Online linear solver
Online Calculator of System of linear equations
François Boucher (29 September 1703 in Paris - 30 May 1770) was a French painter, mostly known as one of the main artists of the French rococo movement.
He painted several portraits of his patroness, Madame de Pompadour.
He is also known for his open-minded voluptuous paintings.
Gallery of selected works
The Valdivia expedition was a scientific exedition to explore the Deep sea.
It was a German expedition, done in 1898 and 1899.
A ship was bought from Hamburg-Amerikanischen Packetfahrt-Actien-Gesellschaft HAPAG and given instruments to be able to perform scientific measurements.
The ship left Hamburg on 31st July 1898 and returned on  1st May 1899.
The ship had travelled over  32.000 nautical miles.
The expedition was very successful.
The results were published in 24 volumes; publishing them took until 1940.
Spain first took part in the Olympic Games in 1900.
It has sent athletes to compete in most Summer Olympic Games since 1920.
Spain has taken part in every Winter Olympic Games since 1936.
Spain boycotted the 1936 Summer Olympics in Nazi Germany.
They also boycotted the 1956 Games in Melbourne because of the Soviet Union's invasion of Hungary.
The equestrian events in 1956 took place five months earlier in Stockholm, and Spain did compete in those events.
Spain hosted the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona.
Barcelona was the home city of the International Olympic Committee's president at the time, Juan Antonio Samaranch.
Spanish athletes have won a total of 132 medals.
Sailing has given them their largest number of medals in one sport.
Spain has only won two medals at the Winter Games.
The Spanish Olympic Committee (Comité Olímpico Español) was created in 1924.
Spain profile at London2012.com
Croatia took part in the Olympic Games for the first time as an its own nation in 1992.
It has taken part in every Games since then.
Before 1992, Croatian athletes competed for Yugoslavia at the Olympics.
The National Olympic Committee for Croatia is the Croatian Olympic Committee.
It was created in 1991.
The IOC accepted the committee in 1993.
Croatian athletes have won 23 medals at the Summer Olympic Games.
They won gold medals by the men's handball team in 1996 and 2004.
At the Winter Olympic Games, Janica Kostelić won six medals (four gold) between 2002 and 2006.
Her brother Ivica won several silver medals (in 2006 and 2010).
Jakov Fak won a bronze in 2010.
Results by Games
Medals per sport
Croatia profile at London2012.com
Croatia at Olympic.org
Sport in Croatia
Cyprus earned its first Olympic medal in the 2012 Summer Olympics.
Pavlos Kontides earned a silver medal in the men's laser sailing event.
They almost won a medal in the 2008 Olympics when Antonis Nikolaidis lost the bronze medal shoot-off in men's skeet.
The first athlete from Cyprus in the modern Olympics was Anastasios Andreou in 1896.
He competed under the Greek flag.
At this time, Cyprus was a British colony.
The olympics does not recognise Northern Cyprus and Turkish Cypriots are unable to participate.
Cyprus profile at London2012.com
The Czech Republic first took part in the Olympic Games as an independent country in 1994.
It has competed in every Summer Olympic Games and Winter Olympic Games since then.
Before 1993, Czech athletes took part in the Olympics from 1920 to 1992 as Czechoslovakia and from 1900 to 1912 as Bohemia.
Athletes from the Czech Republic have won a total of 43 medals at the Summer Games.
Canoeing, shooting  and athletics have been their best sports.
They have also won 16 medals at the Winter Games.
Most of their medals came from  the Czech Republic national ice hockey team and cross-country skier Kateřina Neumannová.
The National Olympic Committee for the Czech Republic is the Czech Olympic Committee.
It was founded in 1899 and accepted by the International Olympic Committee in 1993.
Czech Republic profile at London2012.com
was a  after Hōki and before Enryaku.
This period started in January 781 and ended in August 782.
Events of the Ten'ō era
22 December 781 (Ten'ō 1, 3rd day of the 12th month):  In 11th year of  the reign of Emperor Kōnin's reign (光仁天皇11年), he abdicated.
Soon after, Emperor Kammu is said to have accepted the monarch's role and duties and powers (sokui).
8th-century disestablishments in Japan
782 disestablishments
781 establishments
Scaphognathus was a rhamphorhyncoid pterosaur found in the Solnhofen limestone of the  Upper Jurassic.
It had wings that was about one meter long and a long tail shaped like a leaf.
The leaf-tail probably acted like a rudder, helping it steer through the air.
It was probably a diurnal (daytime) flier, where Rhamphorhynchus was probably nocturnal.
Scaphognathus ate Pholidophorus fish.
Czechoslovakia in the Olympics is a history which includes 32 games in 20 countries and 2,000+ athletes.
Since 1920, Nicaragua has contributed to the growth of the "Olympic Movement".
The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for Czechoslovakia was CZS.
Czechoslovakia was peacefully separated into two nations in 1993.
The Czech Republic is now is CZE and Slovakia is now SVK.
Czechoslovakia first took part in the Olympic Games in 1920.
Before this, it competed as Bohemia from 1900 to 1912.
The nation sent athletes to compete almost every Summer Olympic Games since then.
They did not take part in the 1984 Games as part of the Soviet boycott of those Games.
In 1993, Czechoslovakia was divided into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
Each of these countries sent their own teams to the Olympics since 1994.
Czechoslovakian athletes have won a total of 143 medals at the Summer Games.
Most of these medals were won in gymnastics.
The nation also won 25 medals at the Winter Games.
Ski jumping and ice hockey have been their best sports.
This table of summer sports does not include the bronze medal won in ice hockey at the 1920 Summer Olympics.
This table includes the bronze medal won in Ice hockey in the 1920 Summer Olympics.