the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
When Jesus prayed and talked to God, he called him "Father," and taught others to do the same.
Jesus also taught that one must be born again in order to receive God's Spirit, otherwise one remains separated from God, acting merely from their own mind, thus being vulnerable to deception by human philosophies or the many spiritual philosophies which do not come from God but from fallen angels, which are within various false religions.
After a person consciously accepts the free gift of eternal life, which Jesus's sacrifice offers, God comes to live in the individual, as God lived in humankind before the Fall.
God in Eastern religions
In Hinduism, there is only one God, named Brahman, but Brahman is said to have taken on many different incarnations.
Some of these are Rama, Krishna, Buddha, Shiva, Kali, Parvati, and Durga.
To many outsiders, the worship of God's different incarnations is considered to be the worship of many gods.
However, it is really only the worship of one God in different ways.
Some Hindus also believe that the spirit of God lives in everyone.
This idea is called Advaita Vedanta, which is the Hindu term for Monism.
In Shinto, there is not a single specific God, as is in most religions, but instead, a wide variety of deities called kami, they are the spirit and essence of all nature things, both animate and inanimate, even including rocks, trees and poetry, for example.
As Shinto is a  polytheistic religion, it is usually believed that there are eight-million Kami (八百万の神 yaoyorozu-no-kami), in the Japanese language, the number "eight-million" is normally used to mean infinity.
God in Western philosophy
One of the earliest Western philosophers to write about God in a monotheistic way was the Greek Aristotle, who describes god as the Supreme Cause.
Aristotle saw God as a being that makes everything happen, but is not influenced by anything else.
The idea of an "all powerful" God raises some interesting questions.
One of them is called the God paradox.
It asks whether God can make a mountain (or rock) that is so heavy he cannot lift it.
The question considers if a god "who can do anything" could do two things that are mutually contradictory.
There have been several attempts to prove the existence of God with logic.
Blaise Pascal said that it is better to believe there is a god, than to believe there isn't.
This argument is known as Pascal's wager today.
Note that Blaise Pascal was a mathematician, and he used this argument to illustrate the concept of expected value in statistics.
Other attempts known as the ontological argument, the cosmological argument, and teleological argument today.
Kurt Gödel formulated an argument for the existence of God using modal logic in the 1970s.
In folklore, a ghost is thought to be the spirit of a dead person or they are referred to as the supernatural by others.
Scientists say that there are no real ghosts, but many people believe that there are.
There are a huge amount of stories about ghosts in books and movies.
Sometimes the ghost is the spirit of a person who was killed by someone or who was already dead.
The ghost may stay on Earth because he or she has unfinished problems or is still trying to say goodbye to people who they missed.
Sometimes ghosts are said to live in a particular locality, for example an abandoned house or a place that existed hundreds of years ago.
Sometimes the ghosts in these stories exist because of some problem the person had during life or to say goodbye to loved ones, that was not solved before he or she died.
The ghost stays on Earth trying to fix the problem.
If the problem is fixed, the ghost can leave.
Many people say they have seen or heard ghosts.
People who try to talk to ghosts as their job are called mediums.
There can be bad ghosts and there can also be good ones.
There have never been any ghosts that have actually hurt or killed people, although people tell stories about it.
Many people believe they have seen ghosts.
Others believe they have felt ghosts near them.
Often the ghost is said to appear as a feeling of cold and a light or a misty cloud, but sometimes people say they have seen ghosts that look more like people.
Sometimes ghosts are said to come in human form.
Some ghosts might cause fear in the person who sees them, by being seen suddenly.
Some ghosts are said to be friendly and help people who have problems.
People or animals that can sense ghosts cannot feel them touching them as they are the spirit of a person, or a personified force.
Ghosts are said to form right after people die, or even centuries later.
Many people make up stories or urban legends.
Many try to prove the existence of these paranormal creatures with special technology such as heat sensors.
They also make TV shows dedicated to proving the existence of ghosts.
They often investigate cases where a person has seen one or visit a place of sighting.
Stories of ghosts can be found all over the world.
Chinese philosopher Confucius said "Respect ghosts and gods, but keep away from them."
The most feared spirit in Thailand is Phi Tai Hong, the ghost of a person who has died suddenly of a violent death.
The Koran discusses spirits known as jinn.
In Europe there is the recurring fear of "returning" or revenant deceased who may harm the living.
This includes the Scandinavian gjenganger, the Romanian strigoi, the Serbian vampir, the Greek vrykolakas among others.
Ghost and the musical traditions within the County of Nice, France
Ghostsandstories.com Ghost stories and haunted places.
Your Ghost Stories People sharing their ghost experiences.
It is one of the colors of the rainbow.
Green is between the yellow and blue colors in a rainbow.
Green paint can be made by mixing yellow paint and blue paint together.
Green light, like all light, is quanta—composed of photons.
The wavelength of green light is about 550 nanometers (one-billionth of a meter).
Most leaves of growing plants, such as trees and bushes, are green.
This is because there is a chemical in leaves, called chlorophyll, which is colored green.
Meaning of green
Green is used as a color associated with jealousy.
The phrase "green-eyed monster" means a jealous person.
The color green is the color of nature.
Having a "green thumb" means that you're good at gardening.
Green is also the color of sickness.
The phrase "green around the gills" is an expression implying that the person is nauseated.
Green is a color associated with poison.
Paris green is a highly toxic element.
Green is a color of the Islamic religion.
Search the shade "Islamic Green" below.
Comparison of green, teal, blue and ultramarine
Tones of green color comparison chart
Chartreuse green
Harlequin green
Lime green
Olive green
God's eye view is a name for a point of view where the speaker or writer assumes they have knowledge only God would have.
It appears several ways:
In religion, when an institution claims to speak for a divine being.
In writing, when an author leaves the point of view of the main actor to start writing about things they could not know if the story were in real life.
In science, when a scientist ignores the way a subject-object problem affects statistics or an observer effect affects experiment.
In medicine when a doctor makes a claim that The Gaze they use on a patient, actually sees the problem, rather than making a guess at a problem.
In ethics when a statement is made about who or what is right, without an honest attempt to make the process of deciding this consider all points of view.
A special case of the last is in a wiki with a GodKing.
Often this person can get others to believe what they say about what is right, without making any special effort to be fair to other views.
Many people think René Descartes took a God's eye view when he said cogito ergo sum.
George Berkeley argued that optics from Isaac Newton and Johannes Kepler also had this problem.
Google LLC is an American  multinational corporation from the United States.
It is known for creating and running one of the largest search engines on the World Wide Web (WWW).
Every day more than a billion people use it.
Google's headquarters (known as the "Googleplex") is in Mountain View, California, part of Silicon Valley.
The motto of Google is "Do the right thing".
Since 2 September 2015, Google has been owned by a holding company called Alphabet Inc.. That company has taken over some of Google's other projects, such as its driverless cars.
It is a public company that trades on the NASDAQ under the ticker symbols GOOG and GOOGL.
Google's search engine can find pictures, videos, news, Usenet newsgroups, and things to buy online.
By June 2004, Google had 4.28 billion web pages on its database, 880 million pictures and 845 million Usenet messages — six billion things.
Google's American website has an Alexa rank of 1, meaning it is the most widely visited website in the world.
It is so widely known that people sometimes use the word "google" as a verb that means "to search for something on Google".
Because more than half of people on the web use it, "google" has also been used to mean "to search the web".
Larry Page and Sergey Brin, two students at Stanford University, USA, started BackRub in early 1996.
They made it into a company, Google Inc., on September 7, 1998 at a friend's garage in Menlo Park, California.
In February 1999, the company moved to 165 University Ave.,
Palo Alto, California, and then moved to another place called the Googleplex.
In September 2001, Google's rating system (PageRank, for saying which information is more helpful) got a U.S. Patent.
The patent was to Stanford University, with Lawrence (Larry) Page as the inventor (the person who first had the idea).
Google makes a percentage of its money through America Online and InterActiveCorp.
It has a special group known as the Partner Solutions Organization (PSO) which helps make contracts, helps to make accounts better and gives engineering help.
Google makes money by advertising.
People or companies who want people to buy their product, service, or ideas give Google money, and Google shows an advertisement to people Google thinks will click on the advertisement.
Google only gets money when people click on the link, so it tries to know as much about people as possible to only show the advertisement to the "right people".
It does this with Google Analytics, which sends data back to Google whenever someone visits a website.
From this and other data, Google makes a profile about the person and then uses this profile to figure out which advertisements to show.
The name "Google" is a misspelling of the word googol.
Milton Sirotta, nephew of U.S. mathematician Edward Kasner, made this word in 1937, for the number 1 followed by one hundred zeroes (10100).
Google uses this word because the company wants to make lots of stuff on the Web easy to find and use.
Andy Bechtolsheim thought of the name.
The name for Google's main office, the "Googleplex," is a play on a different, even bigger number, the "googolplex", which is 1 followed by one googol of zeroes 1010100
Android is an operating system for mobile devices and was originally made by Google as part of the Open Handset Alliance, which Google leads.
It is the chief competitor to Apple's iOS and Windows Phone by Microsoft (now discontinued).
Google Adsense is a free program that enables website publishers of all sizes to display relevant Google ads and earn money.
Google Analytics is the enterprise-class web analytics solution that gives one rich insights into his website traffic and marketing effectiveness.
Google Alerts Google Alerts are email updates of the latest relevant Google results (web, news, etc.)
based on one's choice of query or topic.
Google Allo was software for discussing with other people live.
Google Assistant is a virtual assistant application built into Android devices.
Blogger is a free tool that allows users to publish blogs on a Google website.
Google Books lets people search for books.
Google Calendar is an online calendar.
Google Chrome is a web browser that Google made.
Google Classroom is an online system for students.
It was popular during COVID-19.
Google Docs is an online Google full of docs.
Google Drive is an online document editor.
Google Earth is the 3D version of Google Maps with a digital globe.
Google Groups is a place for users to discuss topics.
Google bought Deja News in 2001 and made it into Google Groups.
Google Images is an image search utility.
Google Maps is a service from Google to provide satellite pictures and road maps for everywhere around the world.
Google News is a facility which shows news stories from over 4,500 news sources.
Google News Archives
Google Pay is a way to pay online.
Users can send money using their credit cards or bank accounts to other users.
Google Photos is a software for organizing and editing photos.
Google Play is a sector that has games, and other things.
Google Products is a pack of Google software.
Google Search is a search utility.
Google Shopping lets the user find out about things for sale on the Internet.
Google Translate is an online translation service.
It can translate websites and text into other languages.
Google Sites is a service for making websites.
Google Video is a video search utility.
Google+ was a social networking service that is like Facebook.
The service launched on June 28, 2011.
Gmail is an e-mail service that Google started in 2004.
It is called Google Mail in the United Kingdom and Germany.
Users get free space to store e-mail.
Hangouts is an instant messenger where one can talk to friends.
it will shut down in late 2021 More Info Here
YouTube is a video hosting service which was bought by Google from PayPal for 1.65 billion dollars and now runs as a Google service.
The search engine
1998 establishments in the United States
Companies listed on NASDAQ
A gallon is a volumetric unit of measurement.
People have used many different gallons throughout history.
Only two gallons are still commonly used, which are the imperial and U.S. liquid gallon.
Sale of petrol
Petrol, also known as gasoline, is sold by the imperial gallon in four British Overseas Territories (Anguilla, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, and Montserrat) and six countries (Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Christopher and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines).
All of the countries and territories just mentioned also use miles per hour for speed limits and drive on the left side of the road.
Gasoline is sold by the U.S. gallon in Belize, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, and Peru, as well as in the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau.
Units of volume
A government is a group of people that have the power to rule  in a territory, according to the administrative law.
This territory may be a country, a state or province within a country, or a region.
There are many types of government, such as democratic, parliamentary, presidential, federal or unitary.
Governments make laws, rules, and regulations, collect taxes and print money.
Governments have systems of justice that list the acts or activities that are against the law and describe the punishments for breaking the law.
Governments have a police force to make sure people follow the laws.
Governments have diplomats who communicate with the governments of other countries by having meetings.
Diplomats try to solve problems or disagreements between two countries, which can help countries to avoid war, make commercial agreements, and exchange cultural or social experiences and knowledge.
Governments have a military force such as an army that protects the country from terrorists and other major threats that attack or which can be used to attack and invade other countries.
The leader of a government may have advisors and ministers for various departments.
Together they are called the administration.
Types of governments
Plato listed five kinds of government in The Republic:
The most common type of government in the Western world is called democracy.
In democracies, people in a country can vote during elections for representatives or political parties that they prefer.
The people in democracies can elect representatives who will sit on legislatures such as the Parliament or Congress.
Political parties are organizations of people with similar ideas about how a country or region should be governed.
Different political parties have different ideas about how the government should handle different problems.
Democracy is the government of the people, by the people and for the people.
However, many countries have forms of democracy which limit freedom of choice by the voters.
One of the most common ways is to limit which parties can stand for parliament, or limit the parties access to mass media such as television.
Another way is to rig the voting system by removing votes from opposition voters and substituting votes for the party in power.
Few countries are textbook democracies, and the differences between them has been much studied.
A monarchy is a government ruled by a king or a queen who inherits their position from their family, which is often called the "royal family."
There are two types of monarchies: absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies.
In an absolute monarchy, the ruler has no limits on their wishes or powers.
In a constitutional monarchy a ruler's powers are limited by a document called a constitution.
In modern times, monarchies still exist in Great Britain and the Commonwealth, the Netherlands, Spain, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and Thailand, along with several other countries.
A monarch may have one of several titles: King or Queen, Emperor or Empress, or Emir.
An aristocracy is a government run by the people of a ruling class, usually people who come from wealthy families, families with a particular set of values, or people who come from a particular place.
A person who rules in an aristocracy is an aristocrat.
Aristocracy is different from nobility, in that nobility means that one bloodline would rule, an aristocracy would mean that a few or many bloodlines would rule, or that rulers be chosen in a different manner.
Under a dictatorship, the government is run by one person who has all the power over the people in a country.
Originally, the Roman Republic made dictators to lead during time of war.
The Roman dictators (and Greek tyrants) were not always cruel or unkind, but they did hold on to power all by themselves, rather than sharing power with the people.
The Roman dictators only held power for a short period of time.
In modern times, a dictator's rule is not stopped by any laws, constitutions, or other social and political institutions, and can last many years or even decades.
After leaving the Spanish Empire, many countries in Latin America were dictatorships.
World War II was partly a war between dictators, and later new countries in Asia and Africa also were ruled by dictators.
Examples of dictators include Josef Stalin, Adolf Hitler, Augusto Pinochet,  Idi Amin, Muammar al-Qaddafi, and Gamal Abdul Nasser.
These men ruled from when they took power until when they died, because they would not let anyone else take power from them.
There is no evidence of a woman serving as a dictator in modern times.
An oligarchy is a government ruled by a small group of powerful people.
These people may spread power equally or not equally.
More so a different version of a monarchy, where everyone makes decisions together instead of one person making them all or telling people what to do, such as in a Dictatorship.
An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chance to change things.
An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or passed down from father to son.
An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler, but several powerful people.
Some past examples of oligarchy are the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Apartheid South Africa.
A fictional example is the dystopian society of Oceania in the book Nineteen Eighty-Four.
Some critics of representative democracy think of the United States as an oligarchy.
This view is shared by anarchists.
An oligarchy may have a leader in the ruling group.
The history and the theory of government
The simplest idea of government is those who rule over people and land.
This may be as small as a community or village or as big as a continent (like Australia and India).
The people who rule can allow others to own land.
It is a deed by government that gives this right in the way that laws describe.
Some think they have the right to hold land without government permission.
This view is called libertarianism.
Others think they can do without government.
This view is called anarchism.
Almost every place on Earth is connected to one and only one government.
Places without government are where people follow traditions instead of government rules, small border disputed areas and the continent of Antarctica, because almost no people live there.
For every other place on Earth there is a government that claims 'sovereign control' over it.
The word "sovereign" is old and means "control by a King" (sovereign).
Governments of villages, cities, counties and other communities are subordinate to the government of the state or province where they exist, and then to that of the country.
It is from Kings and feudalism that modern governments and nation states came.
The capital of a country, for instance, is where the King kept his assets.
From this we get the modern idea of capital in economics.
A government may regulate trade as well as to rule over land.
Governments also control people and decide things about what morality to accept or punish.
In  many countries, there are strict rules about sexual intercourse and drugs which are part of law and offenders are punished for disobeying them.
Tax is how government is paid for in most countries.
People who buy, sell, import, invest, own a house or land, or earn money are made to pay some of the money to a government.
There are many theories of how to organize government better.
These are called theories of civics.
Many people think leaders must be elected by some kind of democracy.
That way, they can be replaced at election.
Many governments are not a democracy but other forms in which only a few people have power.
There are many theories of how to run a government better, and keep people from hurting each other.
These theories are part of politics.
Legal rights
Justice system
A galaxy is a group of many stars, with gas, dust, and dark matter.
The name 'galaxy' is taken from the Greek word galaxia meaning milky, a reference to our own galaxy, the Milky Way.
Gravity holds galaxies together against the general expansion of the universe.
In effect, the expansion of the universe takes place between groups of galaxies, not inside those groups.
Gravity holds the galaxy together.
The same applies to  groups and clusters of galaxies, such as our Local Group where the Milky Way is, and the Virgo Cluster, a collection of more than 1,000 (might even be 2,000) galaxies.
The gravitation is produced by the matter and energy in a galaxy or group of galaxies.
Everything in a galaxy moves around a centre of mass, which is also an effect of gravity.
There are various types of galaxies: elliptical, spiral and lenticular galaxies, which can all be with or without bars.
Then there are irregular galaxies.
All galaxies exist inside the universe.
The observable Universe contains more than 2 trillion (1012) galaxies and, overall, as many as an estimated  stars (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth).
There are galaxies of different sizes and type.
Typical galaxies range from dwarfs with as few as ten million (107) stars up to giants with a hundred trillion (1014) stars, all orbiting the galaxy's center of mass.
Galaxies may contain many multiple star systems, star clusters, and various interstellar clouds.
The Sun is one of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy; the Solar System includes the Earth and all the other objects that orbit the Sun.
Star clusters are not galaxies, they are inside galaxies.
Globular clusters are spherical-shaped star clusters which are part of the outer halo of the Milky Way.
One of the largest (and oldest) known star clusters, Messier 15, has several million stars, packed closely together, with a black hole at its centre.
The stars are too closely packed to get an accurate count, but it certainly has more stars than some of the smaller galaxies.
Within galaxy clusters, galaxies move relative to other galaxies.
They can and do collide.
When this happens, the stars generally move past each other, but gas clouds and dust interact, and can form a burst of new stars.
Gravity pulls both galaxies into somewhat new shapes, forming bars, rings or tail-like structures.
Many galaxies continue to form new generations of stars.
The Milky Way, and all spiral shaped galaxies like it (see right side image of NGC 2997), produce new stars at a rate of one or two stars per year.
This star formation happens in the vast interstellar clouds that account for about 1% to 10% of the mass of these galaxies.
Globular star clusters, on the other hand, are not currently forming stars because this activity happened billions of years ago and then stopped once all of the gas and dust clouds were used up.
In the astronomical literature, the word 'Galaxy' with a capital G is used for our galaxy, the Milky Way.
The billions of other galaxies are written as 'galaxy' with a lowercase g. The term Milky Way first came out in the English language in a poem by Chaucer.
When William Herschel wrote his catalogue of deep sky objects, he used the name spiral nebula for objects like the Andromeda Galaxy.
200 years later astronomers discovered that they are made of stars as the Milky Way is, so the term 'nebula' is now only used for diffuse structures within a galaxy.
There are two main kinds of galaxies, spiral galaxy and elliptical galaxy.
They are classified according to the Hubble Sequence.
A spiral galaxy is a galaxy that has a spiral shape.
Most of the galaxies in the universe observed by astronomers are spiral galaxies (about 77%).
Barred spiral galaxy (classified as "SB")
Unbarred spiral galaxy (classified as "SA")
NGC 1300 and NGC 1672 are examples of barred spiral galaxies.
The Whirlpool galaxy and Messier 81 are examples of unbarred spiral galaxies.
The identifying characteristics of a spiral galaxy are disk-shaped rotating, spiral arms, and a bulge in the galactic core.
The spiral arms are where new hot stars are born.
"Bulge" in the galactic core has old stars.
This feature is common to the most spiral galaxies.
An elliptical galaxy is a galaxy that has a ellipsoid (3D of ellipse) shape.
This type of galaxy are dominant in universe, especially in galaxy clusters.
The shape ranges from circle, ellipse, and cigar-shaped.
In Hubble Sequence, this shape can be represented as class :
E0 (circle-shape)
E53 (ellipse-shape)
E7 (cigar-shaped)
Elliptical galaxies have a large range in size.
The giant elliptical galaxy can be over a more 1 million light years and the smallest (know as "dwarf elliptical galaxy") are less than one-tenth the size of Milky Way The size of an elliptical galaxy can be measured as an effective radius which defines the area from which half its light comes.
The mass of elliptical galaxy is also large.
A giant elliptical galaxy can have mass of 1013 (many trillions) of solar masses.
Other kinds of galaxies
A lenticular galaxy is a galaxy seen in a disc shape.
Determining the shape of a lenticular galaxy is difficult because the shape can be between spiral galaxy and elliptical galaxy.
The shape can be known by looking at the bulge of the galactic center.
If the bulge is very bright, it is a spiral galaxy
IC 1101: the largest known galaxy, with about 100 trillion stars.
Galaxies, SEDS Messier pages
Galaxies — Information and amateur observations
The oldest galaxy yet found
Galaxies — discussed on BBC Radio 4's "In Our Time" programme
Galaxy classification project, harnessing the power of the internet and the human brain
How many galaxies are in our universe?
Geometry is the part of mathematics that studies the size, shapes, positions and dimensions of things.
We can only see or make shapes that are flat (2D) or solid (3D), but mathematicians (people who study math) are able to study shapes that are 4D, 5D, 6D, and so on.
Squares, circles and triangles are some of the simplest shapes in flat geometry.
Cubes, cylinders, cones and spheres are simple shapes in solid geometry.
Plane geometry can be used to measure the area and perimeter of a flat shape.
Solid geometry can also measure a solid shape's volume and surface area.
Geometry can be used to calculate the size and shape of many things.
For example, geometry can help people find:
the surface area of a house, so they can buy the right amount of paint
the volume of a box, to see if it is big enough to hold a liter of food
the area of a farm, so it can be divided into equal parts
the distance around the edge of a pond, to know how much fencing to buy.
Geometry is one of the oldest branches of mathematics.
Geometry began as the art of Surveying of land so that it could be shared fairly between people.
The word "geometry" is from a Greek word that means "to measure the land".
It has grown from this to become one of the most important parts of mathematics.
The Greek mathematician Euclid wrote the first book about geometry, a book called The Elements.
Plane and solid geometry, as described by Euclid in his textbook Elements is called "Euclidean Geometry".
This was simply called "geometry" for centuries.
In the 19th century, mathematicians created several new kinds of geometry that changed the rules of Euclidean geometry.
These and earlier kinds were called "non-Euclidean" (not created by Euclid).
For example, hyperbolic geometry and elliptic geometry come from changing Euclid's parallel postulate.
Non-Euclidean geometry is more complicated than Euclidean geometry but has many uses.
Spherical geometry for example is used in astronomy and cartography.
Geometry starts with a few simple ideas that are thought to be true, called axioms.
Such as:
A point is shown on paper by touching it with a pencil or pen, without making any sideways movement.
We know where the point is, but it has no size.
A straight line is the shortest distance between two points.
For example, Sophie pulls a piece of string from one point to another point.
A straight line between the two points will follow the path of the tight string.
A plane is a flat surface that does not stop in any direction.
For example, imagine a wall that extends in all directions infinitely.
Graph theory is a field of mathematics about graphs.
A graph is an abstract representation of: a number of points that are connected by lines.
Each point is usually called a vertex (more than one are called vertices), and the lines are called edges.
Graphs are a tool for modelling relationships.
They are used to find answers to a number of problems.
What is the best way for a mailman to get to all of the houses in the area in the least amount of time?
The points could represent street corners and lines could represent the houses along the street. (
see Chinese postman problem)
A salesman has to visit different customers, but wants to keep the distance traveled as small as possible.
The problem is to find a way so they can do it.
This problem is known as Travelling Salesman Problem (and often abbreviated TSP).
It is among the hardest problems to solve.
If a commonly believed conjecture is true (described as P ≠ NP), then an exact solution requires one to try all possible routes to find which is shortest.
How many colors would be needed to color a map, if countries sharing a border are colored differently?
The points could represent the different areas and the lines could represent that two areas are neighboring. (
look at the Four color theorem)
Can a sketch be drawn in one closed line?
The lines of the drawing are the lines of the graph and when two or more lines collide, there is a point in the graph.
The task is now to find a way through the graph using each line one time. (
look at Seven Bridges of Königsberg)
Different kinds of graphs
Graph theory has many aspects.
Graphs can be directed or undirected.
An example of a directed graph would be the system of roads in a city.
Some streets in the city are one way streets.
This means, that on those parts there is only one direction to follow.
Graphs can be weighted.
An example would be a road network, with distances, or with tolls (for roads).
The nodes (the circles in the schematic) of a graph are called vertices.
The lines connecting the nodes are called edges.
There can be no line between two nodes, there can be one line, or there can be multiple lines.
In graph theory, Trees structures are widely used, they represent hierarchical structures.
A Tree is a directed or undirected graph where there is no cycle, meaning: no way of going from one vertex (for example a town) to the same one using each edge you use only once (walking only once on each road you take).
A visualization of the Seven Bridges of Königberg.
Leonhard Euler solved this problem in 1736, which led to the development of topology, and modern graph theory.
A graph is an abstract data structure.
It holds nodes that are usually related to each other.
A node is a dataset, typically in the form of ordered pairs.
Nodes are either connected or not connected to another node.
The relation between nodes is usually defined as an Edge.
Graphs are useful for their ability to associate nodes with other nodes.
Leonhard Euler used to live in a town called Königsberg. (
Its name changed to Kaliningrad in 1946).
The town is on the river Pregel.
There is an island in the river.
There are some bridges across the river.
Euler wanted to walk around and use each of the bridges once.
He asked if he could do this.
In 1736, he published a scientific article where he showed that this was not possible.
Today, this problem is known as the Seven Bridges of Königsberg.
The article is seen as the first paper in the history of graph theory.
This article, as well as the one written by Vandermonde on the knight problem, carried on with the analysis situs initiated by Leibniz.
Euler's formula was about the number of edges, vertices, and faces of a convex polyhedron was studied and generalized by Cauchy and L'Huillier, and is at the origin of topology.
The fusion of the ideas coming from mathematics with those coming from chemistry is at the origin of a part of the standard terminology of graph theory.
In particular, the term "graph" was introduced by Sylvester in an article published in 1878 in Nature.
Graph theory in perspective
Graph theory is an important part of mathematics and computer science.
To many such problems, exact solutions do exist.
Many times however, they are very hard to calculate.
Therefore, very often, approximations are used.
There are two kinds of such approximations, Monte-Carlo algorithms and Las-Vegas algorithms.
A goatee is a beard formed by a tuft of hair under the chin, resembling that of a billy goat.
Information on goatees
Herm is only 1½ miles long.
Cars are banned from the small island just like its Channel Island neighbour, Sark.
Unlike Sark, bicycles are banned too.
The sandy white beaches make Herm a walker's paradise.
Islands of the Channel Islands
History is the study of past events.
People know what happened in the past by looking at things from the past including sources (like books, newspapers, scripts and letters), buildings and artifacts (like pottery, tools, coins and human or animal remains.)
Libraries, archives, and museums collect and keep these things for people to study history.
A person who studies history is called a historian.
A person who studies pre-history and history through things left behind by ancient cultures is called an archaeologist.
A person who studies mankind and society is called an anthropologist.
The study of the sources and methods used to study and write history is called historiography.
People can learn about the past by talking to people who remember things that happened at some point in the past.
This is called oral history.
For example, when people who had been slaves and American Civil War survivors got old, some historians recorded them talking about their lives, so that history would not be lost.
In old times people in different parts of the world kept separate histories because they did not meet each other very often.
Some groups of people never met each other.
The rulers of Medieval Europe, Ancient Rome and Ancient China each thought that they ruled the only important parts of the world and that other parts were "barbarian".
But they were still connected, even if they didn't realize it.
Timeline of history
Pre-history
Ancient China and Japan, Korea, Mongolia
Ancient Southeast Asia - Cambodia - Thailand - Indonesia
Ancient North America - Iroquois, Mohawk, Huron, Haida, Lenape, Mohican, Cree, Sioux, Inuit, Dene
Ancient Central America - Aztecs, Maya, Olmecs, Toltecs, Teotihuacan, Mixtecs
Ancient South America - Inca, Chimu, Tihuanacu, Huari
Ancient Africa
Christian Rome - Justinian to the rise of Byzantium
Chinese Dynasties
Early Islamic Caliphate - Muhammad to The Crusades
Early Middle Ages - end of European Dark Ages to rise of Roman Catholic Church
High Middle Ages and the Crusades - conflict with Islam, Cathars, pagan tribes in Lithuania, etc.
Late Middle Ages - 13th century to 15th century
Late Islamic Caliphate - to fall of Muslim Spain
Renaissance - 15th century renewal of science etc.,
based on texts from Ancient Greece and Roman Empire that were preserved by Muslims and captured by Christians
European colonization of the Americas - 15th century impact on America
Baroque era - mid 16th century to mid-late 18th century
Conflict of Ottoman Empire with Austria-Hungary
Rise of the Qing Dynasty in China
Enlightenment - mid 17th century to late 18th century
History of Australia since colonizing Australia
Modern History and origins of modern world power structure
United Nations ascendance - how it became so central.
Chinese Revolution, Partition of India, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
US-Soviet Cold War including Korean War, Vietnam War, Soviet-Afghan War
Recent conflicts in the Muslim World - Arab-Israeli Wars, US invasion of Afghanistan, US invasion of Iraq
Recent conflicts in West Africa - Uganda, Chad, Rwanda, Congo, Liberia, Ivory Coast, and so on
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be-x-old:Гісторыя
Health is "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease" according to the World Health Organization (WHO).
Physical is about the body.
Mental is about how people think and feel.
Social talks about how people live with other people.
It is about family, work, school, and friends.
Aspects of health
Physical health
Physical fitness refers to good body health.
It is dependent on genetic determinators and also on social, economic and ecological factors.
That means, one's genes are partly responsible for one's physical health, but also other circumstances: where you live, how clean or polluted your water and the air around you is and also how good your social and medical system is.
It is also the result of regular exercise, proper diet and nutrition, and proper rest for physical recovery.
A person who is physically fit will be able to walk or run without getting breathless and they will be able to carry out the activities of everyday living and not need help.
How much each person can do will depend on their age and whether they are a man or woman.
A physically fit person usually has a normal weight for their height.
The relation between their height and weight is called their Body Mass Index.
A taller person can be heavier and still be fit.
If a person is too heavy or too thin for their height it may affect their health.
Better health is central to human happiness and well-being.
It also makes an important contribution to economic progress, as healthy populations live longer, are more productive, and save more.
Many factors influence health status and a country's ability to provide quality health services for its people.
Mental health refers to a person's emotional and psychological well-being. "
A state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is able to use his or her thinking and emotional (feeling) abilities, function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life."
One way to think about mental health is by looking at how well a person functions.
Feeling capable and efficient; being able to handle normal levels of stress, have good friends and family, and lead an independent life; and being able to "bounce back," or recover from hardships, are all signs of mental health.
It’s normal for all of us to feel worried, sad, upset, or have difficult emotions from time-to-time.
For most people though, these feelings are only temporary and are resolved without causing any long-term problems.
However, for some people, these negative feelings can become worse over time and lead to a mental health problem such as depression, anxiety, stress or obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
Public health refers to trying to stop a disease that is unhealthy to the community, and does not help in long life or promote your health.
This is fixed by organized efforts and choices of society, public and private clubs, communities and individuals.
It is about the health of many people, or everybody, rather than one person.
Public health stops instead of encouraging a disease through surveillance of cases.
To prevent being sick, it is good to act according to some simple advice:  Hand washing, regular check-ups,  vaccination programmes, drinking clean water and using condoms.
When infectious diseases break out, washing hands for about 30 seconds may be especially important.
Sometimes it is necessary to avoid masses of people or wear a surgical mask to protect yourself and to stop the spreading of the disease.
Teaching people how to live healthily and educate them, especially about sex and child-birth, is also very important.
Types for health:-
Physical Health
Mental Health
Emotional Health
Social Health
Harbour means to shelter or keep safe.
A harbor (or harbour) is a place where ships may shelter.
Some harbours are used as ports to load and unload ships.
The port will have quays or piers where the ships may be moored or tied up and a transport system for taking goods inland.
Often railway and road transport will be used.
Goods also move by pipeline transport and by smaller ships on rivers.
Harbors can be natural as in San Francisco or artificial as in ancient Carthage or a mix of both.
During the D-Day operations of 1944, two artificial harbors (named mulberry) were built just off the beaches where the invasion was going to happen.
Seaport
Hawaii (sometimes spelled "Hawai'i".)
is a U.S. state and the only U.S. State that is in Oceania.
It is the last state that joined the United States, becoming a state on August 21, 1959.
It is the only state made only of islands.
Hawaii is also the name of the largest island.
The capital and largest city of Hawaii is Honolulu on the island named Oahu.
Hawaii is known as the "Aloha State".
Aloha is a Hawaiian word that has many meanings like welcome, hello and goodbye.
Aloha also means love and care.
The different meanings are brought together in the term "Aloha Spirit" to describe the friendly people of Hawaii.
Hawaii is an archipelago, a long chain of islands.
There are eight main islands and many small islands and atolls.
They are the tops of underwater volcanos.
The main islands are Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, Maui and Hawaii.
The first people of Hawaii were Polynesians.
They came to the islands sometime between 200 and 600 AD.
Captain James Cook is given credit for discovering the islands for the Europeans in 1778.
Others may have been there before him.
Captain Cook named the islands the Sandwich Islands for the fourth Earl of Sandwich, John Montague.
Kamehameha I was the first king of Hawaii.
He united the separate small Hawaiian kingdoms into one large kingdom in 1795.
In 1893, American soldiers stopped Queen Liliuokalani from leading Hawaii when American business people took over the government and made their own laws.
She was the last monarch of Hawaii.
She also wrote the original words of the song called Aloha Oe.
The American business people made Hawaii into a republic for a short time.
The new leader, Sanford Dole was called the President of Hawaii.
In 1898, the United States of America took over the government and made Hawaii into a territory.
In 1959, Hawaii became the fiftieth American state.
The biggest industry of Hawaii is tourism.
Almost 7 million people visited in 2000.
Important exports are sugar, pineapple, macadamia nuts, and coffee.
State symbols
The state flower is the yellow hibiscus (Hibiscus brackenridgei or ).
The state bird is the Hawaiian goose (nene).
The state fish is the reef triggerfish, also called the .
The state tree is the candlenut, also called kukui.
The state song is Hawaii Ponoi.
The state motto is .
In English it says, The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness.
1959 establishments in the United States
Honolulu is the capital city of the U.S. state of Hawaii.
It is also the largest city in Hawaii and it has the most important harbor.
It is on the south-east shore of the island of Oahu.
Honolulu means "sheltered harbor" in the Hawaiian language.
No one knows for sure when Honolulu was first settled or when the name was first used.
Honolulu harbor was called Kulolia before foreigners came.
The first foreigner was Captain William Brown of the English ship Butterworth, in 1794.
He named the harbor Fair Haven.
Other foreign captains is started calling it Brown's Harbor.
The name Honolulu was used some time after that.
Honolulu quickly became the most important harbor of Hawaii.
At that time, sandalwood was a big export.
Honolulu was also an important supply point for whalers.
Kamehameha III made Honolulu the capital city of the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1850.
It was also the capital of the Republic of Hawaii and the Territory of Hawaii.
It stayed the capital when Hawaii became a state in 1959.
Notable people
Ferdinand Marcos, President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986, died in Honolulu
Bruno Mars, singer, was born in Honolulu
Barack Obama, 44th President of the United States, was born in Honolulu
Nicole Scherzinger, singer, was born in Honolulu
Jason Momoa, Actor currently lives in Honolulu
State capitals in the United States
1907 establishments in North America
1900s establishments in Hawaii
County seats in Hawaii
The Island of Hawaiʻi is the largest U.S. Hawaiian Island, and it is the farthest south.
It is also called the "Big Island."
Its area is 4,038 sq.
miles (10,458 km2).
The widest part of the island is 93 miles (150 km) across.
The Big Island has more than half (~62%) of the total land area of State of Hawaii.
It is part of County of Hawaii.
The island is seven separate shield volcanos that erupted more or less one at a time, one partly covering the other.
These are (from oldest to youngest): Kohala (extinct), Mauna Kea (dormant), Hualalai (dormant), Mauna Loa (active), Kulani (extinct, mostly buried), and Kilauea (very active).
The volcanos were caused by the Pacific oceanic tectonic plate moving over a hotspot.
There lava from the Earth's lower mantle or upper core is close to the surface.
The largest city on the island is Hilo.
Hilo has many historic buildings, interesting shops, parks, many performances, festivals and events.
It is on the rainy, east side of the island.
The city of Kailua-Kona is on the dry, west side of Hawaii, and is popular with tourists.
MacDonald, G. A., and A. T. Abbott.
Volcanoes in the Sea.
of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
441 p.
History and culture of Hilo. (
Retrieved from http://www.hiloliving.com/Hilo_Culture.html
Islands of Hawaii
"Hawai`i Pono`i" is the state song of Hawaii.
The words were written by King David Kalakaua, the music by Prof. Henry Berger, the Royal Bandmaster. "
Hawai`i Ponoi" was also the anthem of the Kingdom of Hawai`i and the Territory of Hawai`i.
Hawai`i pono`i
Nana i kou, mo`i
Kalani Ali`i,
ke Ali`i.
Makua lani e
Kamehameha e
Na kaua e pale
Me ka ihe.
Hawai`i's own true sons,
be loyal to your chief
Your country's liege and lord,
the ali'i.
Father above us all,
Who guarded in the war
With spears.
Culture of Hawaii
National anthems
Healing is a process that happens in the body.
Through healing, cells are able to repair damaged tissue.
The damaged tissue is replaced with tissue of the same kind.
This is called regeneration.