the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Pronouns are different from common nouns because pronouns normally do not come after articles or other determiners.
For example, people do not say "the it".
Pronouns rarely come after adjectives.
They are also different because many of them change depending on how they are used.
For example, "we" is a 'subject' in grammar, but the word changes to us when used as an object.
Pronouns are the same as nouns because they both change for number (singular & plural), case (subject, object, possessive, etc.),
and gender (male, female, animate, inanimate, etc.)
Nouns and pronouns can be used in almost all the same places in sentences, and they name the same kinds of things: people, objects, etc.
Even though they can not normally come after determiners, or adjectives, neither can proper nouns.
Kinds of pronouns
Personal pronouns in English
A subject pronoun can replace a noun that is the subject of a sentence.
Refer to the table above; the subject pronouns are: I, You, He, She, It, We, They.
An object pronoun can replace a noun that is the object of a sentence.
A possessive pronoun shows who or what a noun belongs to.
Another type of personal pronoun is called the 'reflexive pronoun'.
Reflexive pronouns are the words ending in '-self' or '-selves', such as: myself, itself, themselves.
"It" and its other forms "its", and "itself" only refer to objects, not people. "
They" and its other forms "them", "their", and "theirs" can be used as a singular, for a person whose gender is unknown at the time, or for a person who does not identify with either the "she/her" or "he/him" pronouns.
For example: "The patient will be told how much they will be required to pay."
An adverb is a word used to tell more about a verb, and it almost always answers the questions how?,
when?,
where?,
how often?,
and in what way?.
Words like slowly, loudly, carefully, quickly, quietly or sadly are all adverbs.
Adverbs usually, but not always, end in -ly.
How did the man walk?
The man walked slowly.
How did the dogs bark?
The dogs barked loudly.
Adverb modifying a verb: He writes well
Adverb modifying another adverb: He writes very well
Adverb modifying an adjective: He is very well
In the first two examples the word 'well' is an adverb.
In the last example, it is an adjective.
This is one example in which the same word can be both an adjective and an adverb but not in the same sentence.
As a rule, the same word can play different roles but not in the same sentence.
It all depends on what the word is doing in the sentence.
It could be a noun, an adjective, an adverb, a verb, etc.
Example: take the word 'cool'.
In the sentence, "he walks cool", the word 'cool' is an adverb.
In the sentence, "cool the hot dish", the word 'cool' is a verb.
In the sentence, "it is a cool evening", the word 'cool' is an adjective.
In the first example, "he walks cool", the word 'cool' really means 'coolly' as in "play it cool" (do not get excited; be calm).
Adverb form
Most adverbs are formed by adding ly to the end of an adjective.
To see 100 adjectives used in Basic English, click here ---> : adjective
Sunday is one of the seven days of the week.
It is part of the weekend, along with Saturday.
Sunday is the Sabbath or day of worship for most Christians (for example, Easter is celebrated on Sunday).
Sunday is the beginning of the week in the United States, but is the end of the week in the United Kingdom.
Ottawa is the capital of Canada and is part of the province of Ontario.
It is south of the Ottawa River.
In 2004, there were about 808,391 people in the city.
The region has about 1,146,790 people.
The mayor of the city today (since December 2010) is Jim Watson.
Ottawa is in the Ottawa Valley on the border with the province of Quebec which is divided by the Ottawa River.
Ottawa is the fourth largest city in Canada and the second largest city in Ontario (after Toronto).
Ottawa is the only officially bilingual city in Canada, where the English language and the French language are official languages and have equal status.
Every official sign in the city is, as a result bilingual.
The reason for this bilingual status, is not only because Ottawa borders the French-speaking province of Quebec, the city itself has a large French-speaking minority.
The cities of Ottawa, Kanata, Nepean, Gloucester and Vanier and the villages of Manotick and Rockcliffe Park joined in the year 2000 to form the new city of Ottawa.
Ottawa also includes Orléans, which joined at that same time.
The city began with the name Bytown and became the city of Ottawa in 1855.
The Rideau Canal ends in Ottawa.
Ottawa has many museums, many buildings for the government of Canada and many parks.
There is a market area downtown.
There are many festivals during the year including Winterlude in February, The Tulip Festival in May, and BluesFest in the summer.
There is also a large celebration on July 1st for Canada Day.
CFRA 580
CKKL Kool 93.9
Ottawa has a hot-summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfa).
Rain and snow
The average  yearly precipitation in Ottawa is 943 millimetres.
2017 was a record year in Ottawa because there was precipitation of 1,213 millimetres during the first ten months of the year.
The old record was in 1972,  when the precipitation was 1,174 millimetres.
1826 establishments in North America
1820s establishments in Canada
A news agency is a kind of company.
It supplies information to newspapers, radio and television.
Brainpix  - Portugal/Brasil
Agentia
1EnGoogle
A mudguard, fender or wing is a part covering the wheels of a vehicle to stop it from throwing off mud, water or objects from the road.
It protects people and property from dirtiness, dampness, and damage.
They protect brakes and lights.
They protect the bicycle from getting rusted by mud and water.
They protect clothes from being dirty.
They protect from injuries.
A Para rubber tree (or simply, rubber tree) is the tree which naturally produces rubber.
It is native to tropical areas from South America, in the Amazon (Brazil), but was spread by European farmers to the Far East.
Para Rubber trees belong to the Euphorbiaceae family.
In the wild they may reach heights of 100 to 125 ft (30-38 m) with large cylindrical trunks with or without buttresses.
Crop trees reach a width of about 20 in. (
50 cm), usually with a short bole, and with a sloped taper.
Most rubber plantations are in South Asia and Southeast Asia.
When trees reach 5-6 years old, they are harvested.
Their trunks are cut just deep enough to tap the vessels without harming the tree's growth, and the sap is collected in small buckets.
This process is known as rubber tapping.
Older trees produce more latex, but they stop producing it after 30-40 years.
A safety curtain is a curtain in theatre at the front of the stage.
It is made of material that will not burn.
The safety curtain may be lowered during the intermission and after the performance.
A safety curtain is there in case there is a fire on stage.
It will stop the fire from spreading to the auditorium where the audience sits.
Opera terminology
Types of safety lamps
The first safety lamp was invented by William Reid Clanny.
It used bellows and water to separate gasses.
Later, two newer designs were invented.
One newer design was the Geordie lamp, made by George Stephenson, and the other was the Davy lamp, made by Sir Humphry Davy.
In 1815, Davy discovered that if a flame was in a lamp, it would not ignite the flammable gases in mines.
Coal mines are dangerous because of flammable gasses like methane that can accumulate (gather together).
A lamp with a naked (exposed) flame might make these flammable gasses catch fire, causing an explosion, which could kill people.
The safety lamp prevents the hot flame of the lamp touching the flammable gasses, reducing the chance of an explosion.
A Christmas stocking is a long sock hung by a fireplace or bed on Christmas Eve.
Christmas presents are put into it for children.
It came from an old legend.
Stockings are now  a European Christmas tradition.
These are the Austrian football teams and the leagues they played in for the 2021/22 season.
Admiral Bundesliga (First Division)
S.K. Sturm Graz from Styria
F.C. Red Bull Salzburg  from Salzburg
FK Austria Wien from Vienna
S.K. Rapid Wien from Vienna
WSG Tirol from Tyrol
SV Ried from Upper Austria
SK Austria Klagenfurt from Carinthia
Wolfsberger AC from Carinthia
TSV Hartberg from Styria
FC Admira Wacker Mödling from Lower Austria
SCR Altach from Vorarlberg
LASK from Upper Austria
Admiral Zweite Liga (Second Division)
FC Blau-Weiß Linz from Upper Austria
FC Liefering from Salzburg
SC Austria Lustenau from Vorarlberg
SKN St. Pölten from Lower Austria
FC Dornbirn from Vorarlberg
Floridsdorfer AC from Vienna
SV Lafnitz from Styria
Grazer AK from Styria
SKU Amstetten from Lower Austria
FC Wacker Innsbruck from Tyrol
Kapfenberger SV  from Styria
SK Rapid Wien II from Vienna
SV Horn from Lower Austria
Young Violets Austria Wien from Vienna
FC Juniors OÖ.
from Upper Austria
SK Vorwärts Steyr from Upper Austria
Regionalliga (Third Division)
The Regionalliga is divided into three sections.
Regionalliga Ost (East)
ASK-BSC Bruck/Leitha from Lower Austria
ASV Draßburg from Burgenland
SV Leobendorf from Lower Austria
FC Marchfeld Donauauen from Lower Austria
FC Mauerwerk from Vienna
FC Admira Wacker Mödling II from Lower Austria
SC Neusiedl am See from Burgenland
SV Stripfing from Lower Austria
FCM Traiskirchen from Lower Austria
TWL Elektra from Vienna
First Vienna from Vienna
Wiener Sport-Club from Vienna
SC Wiener Viktoria from Vienna
Wiener Neustädter SC from Lower Austria
Regionalliga Mitte (Middle)
SV Allerheiligen from Styria
TuS Bad Gleichenberg from Styria
Deutschlandsberger SC from Styria
FC Gleisdorf 09 from Styria
SK Sturm Graz II  from Styria
Union Gurten from Upper Austria
SC Kalsdorf from Styria
Junge Wikinger Ried from Upper Austria
SV Spittal/Drau from Carinthia
ATSV Stadl-Paura from Upper Austria
USV St. Anna from Styria
SK Treibach from Carinthia
Union Vöcklamarkt from Upper Austria
SC Weiz from Styria
FC Wels from Upper Austria
WSC Hertha Wels from Upper Austria
Wolfsberger AC II from Carinthia
Regionalliga West (West)
The league plays three seperate rounds with ten (Salzburg), eleven (Vorarlberg) or twelve clubs (Elite Liga).
The first and the second of each league plays a play off for promotion to 2.
The eight teams play against relegation to the Landesliga.
Eliteliga Salzburg
SV Kuchl
SV Austria Salzburg
TSV St. Johann
TSV Neumarkt
SV Seekirchen
SAK 1914
SK Bischofshofen
SV Wals-Grünau
Regionalliga Tirol
SC Schwaz
FC Kitzbühel
SV Wörgl
SV Telfs
FC Wacker Innsbruck II
FC Kufstein
SC Imst
SV Hall
SV Fügen
WSG Tirol Amateure
SV Innsbruck
Eliteliga Vorarlberg
VfB Hohenems
Admira Dornbirn
FC Wolfurt
RW Rankweil
SC Röthis
Dornbirner SV
FC Rotenberg
FC Lauterach
SW Bregenz
FC Egg
A. Lustenau Amateure
January 1 –  Strictly speaking, it was the first day of the 3rd millennium and 21st century in the Gregorian calendar, but according to Popular Culture, the first day of these two distinctions was January 1, 2000.
A nine foot tall rock was placed by an artist in Seattle's Magnuson Park, like the one in 2001: A Space Odyssey.
January 13 – A strong earthquake hits El Salvador, killing at least 800 (See also February 13).
January 15 – Wikipedia, a free encyclopedia, goes online.
January 20 – Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo becomes the 14th President of the Republic of the Philippines, replacing Joseph Estrada.
January 20 – George W. Bush replaces Bill Clinton and becomes the 43rd President of the United States.
January 22 – Four of the "Texas 7" are caught at a store in Woodland Park, Colorado and a fifth kills himself.
January 24 – The last two of the "Texas 7" are caught by police in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
January 26 – A 50-year-old DC-3 crashes near Ciudad Bolivar, Venezuela and kills 24 people.
January 26 – An earthquake happens in Gujarat, India; more than 20,000 die.
January 29 – Thousands of students in Indonesia tell President Abdurrahman Wahid that he should give up his job because he was caught doing something bad.
January 31 – A court finds one Libyan guilty and another innocent in the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 which crashed in Lockerbie, Scotland in 1988.
February 5 – Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman announced that they are not together anymore.
February 6 – Likud Party leader Ariel Sharon wins election as Prime Minister of Israel.
February 9 – American submarine USS Greeneville accidentally hits and sinks Japanese fishing ship Ehime-Maru.
February 12 – NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft lands on 433 Eros becoming the first spacecraft to land on an asteroid.
February 13 – An earthquake hits El Salvador, killing at least 400.
February 16 – Iraq disarmament crisis: British and U.S. forces carry out bombing raids attempting to destroy Iraq's air defense network.
February 16 – Baghdad suburb bombed by US and UK war planes, killing 3 people.
February 18 – During the Daytona 500 race, NASCAR driver Dale Earnhardt is killed in a car crash.
February 18 – FBI agent Robert Hanssen is arrested for being a spy.
February 19 – An Oklahoma City bombing museum is dedicated at the Oklahoma City National Memorial.
February 26 – Treaty of Nice was signed.
March 24 – Apple Computer's Mac OS X version 10.0 is released.
April 1 – An American EP-3E spyplane collides with a Chinese F-8 fighter jet and is forced to make an emergency landing in Hainan, China.
The U.S. crew was jailed for 10 days and the Chinese pilot, Wang Wei, went missing and thought to be dead.
April 1 – Former president of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Slobodan Milosevic surrenders to police special forces, to be tried on charges of war crimes.
April 26 – Junichiro Koizumi becomes Prime Minister of Japan.
April 28 – American Dennis Tito becomes the first space tourist.
May 1 – The Japanese cities of Urawa, Omiya, and Yono become one to form the city of Saitama.
May 10 – In Ghana, a sudden rush at a soccer game kills over 120.
May 24 – Mountain climbing: Sherpa Temba Tsheri, 16, becomes the youngest person to reach the top of Mount Everest.
May 25 – Mountain climbing: Erik Weihenmayer, of Boulder, Colorado, becomes the first blind person to reach the top of Mount Everest.
A 64-year old Sherman Bull, of New Canaan, Connecticut, becomes the oldest person to reach the top.
June 5-9 – Houston, Texas is devastated by flooding when Tropical Storm Allison hits the city.
Texas Medical Center lost years of research and data and thousands of lab animals.
Twenty-two people die; damage exceeds five billion American dollars.
June 7 – Tony Blair's Labour Party were selected for second term in UK General Election
June 11 – Timothy McVeigh is executed for the Oklahoma City Bombing.
June 19 – An American missile hits a soccer field in northern Iraq, killing 23 people and wounding 11.
June 20 – Andrea Yates drowns her children in a bathtub and confesses to her crime.
She would get life in prison for it.
June 21 – Total solar eclipse.
June 23 – An earthquake measuring 7.9 on the Richter scale, hits the south of Peru.
July 2 – The world's first self-contained artificial heart is implanted in Robert Tools.
July 16 – The FBI arrests Dmitry Sklyarov at a meeting in Las Vegas for violating a condition of the DMCA.
July 18 – In Baltimore, Maryland, a 60-car train derails in a tunnel, causing a fire that last for days and virtually shuts down downtown Baltimore.
July 19 – UK politician and novelist Jeffrey Archer is sentenced to four years in prison for perjury and perverting the course of justice.
July 23 – Megawati Sukarnoputri becomes the new president of Indonesia, replacing Abdurrahman Wahid.
August 9 – US President George W. Bush announces his support for federal funding of limited research on embryonic stem cells.
August 9 – In the Comoros, the military seizes power in the island of Anjouan that had declared independence.
They plan to rejoin the Comoros.
August 31 – PBS airs the final episode of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood with host Fred Rogers retiring
September 5 – Peru's attorney general files homicide charges against ex-President Alberto Fujimori.
September 6 – United States v. Microsoft: The United States Justice Department announces that it was no longer seeking to break-up software maker Microsoft and will instead seek a lesser antitrust penalty.
September 9 – Ahmed Shah Massoud, leader of the Northern Alliance, is assassinated in Afghanistan.
September 11 – Almost 3,000 people are killed in the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City, The Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, and rural Pennsylvania.
September 14 – The Nintendo GameCube is released in Japan.
September 15 – President George W. Bush says that the United States of America is at war against terror.
October 4 – The first case of anthrax in the U.S. is announced by federal officials.
October 7 – The 2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan begins.
October 10 – War on Terrorism: US President George W. Bush presents a list of 22 most wanted terrorists.
October 15 – NASA's Galileo spacecraft passes within 112 miles of Jupiter's moon Io.
October 23 – Apple Inc. releases the iPod.
October 25 – Microsoft releases Windows XP.
November – The Doha Declaration relaxes the international intellectual property law by a bit.
November 4 – Hurricane Michelle hits Cuba, destroying crops and thousands of homes.
November 7 – The super-sonic commercial aircraft Concorde starts flying again after a 15-month break.
November 10 – The People's Republic of China became a member of the World Trade Organization.
November 12 – In New York City, an Airbus A300 crashes minutes after takeoff from John F. Kennedy International Airport, killing all 260 on board.
November 12 – 2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan: Taliban forces abandon Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan, as the Northern Alliance troops are coming (Northern Alliance fighters took Kabul on November 14).
November 13 – Doha Round: The World Trade Organization ends a four-day conference in Doha, Qatar.
November 13 – War on Terrorism: In the first such act since World War II, US President George W. Bush signs an executive order allowing military tribunals against any foreigners suspected of having connections to terrorist acts or planned acts on the United States.
November 16 – The first Harry Potter movie, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, is released, earning US $975.8 million, becoming the second highest earning movie around the world of all time, behind Titanic.
November 24 - Melanie Thornton, the German/American Pop singer, also the former member of La Bouche, dies in a plane crash going to Zürich, Switzerland, along with Maria Serreno-Serreno and Nathaly Van Het Ende of the German dance band Passion Fruit (band).
November 29 - George Harrison, former lead guitarist of The Beatles, dies of lung cancer at the age of 58.
December 2 – Enron scandal: Enron files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection five days after Dynegy canceled a US$8.4 billion buyout bid (At the time this was the largest bankruptcy in the history of the United States).
December 13 – The United States withdraw from the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.
December 13 – Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin, Raja of Perlis becomes the 12th Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.
December 14 – Annular solar eclipse.
December 22 – 2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan: Hamid Karzai became head of the interim government in Afghanistan.
December 27 – The People's Republic of China is granted permanent normal trade status with the United States.
February 18 – Dale Earnhardt – NASCAR race car driver
February 25 – Sir Donald Bradman, cricketer of Australia
March 12 – Robert Ludlum, writer of spy novels
March 22 – William Hanna, cofounder (with Joseph Barbera) of famous Hanna-Barbera animation studio
May 11 – Douglas Adams, writer of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
June 3 – Anthony Quinn, 86, actor
June 7 – Charles Templeton, Canadian cartoonist and television evangelist (b. 1915)
June 11 - Timothy McVeigh, 33, terrorist
June 21 – John Lee Hooker- Blues musician
June 23 – Yvonne Dionne, One of the Dionne Quintuplets
June 27 – Jack Lemmon, 76, actor and movie director
July 5 – Hannelore Kohl, 68, wife of ex-chancellor of Germany Helmut Kohl (suicide)
August 25 – Aaliyah, 22, American singer and actress
November 29 – George Harrison, 58, musician and former member of The Beatles
37,862 U.S. Citizens die in car crashes.
Approximately 40,000 citizens in the European Union die in car crashes
Chemistry – William S. Knowles
Chemistry – Ryoji Noyori
Chemistry – K. Barry Sharpless
Economics – George A. Akerlof
Economics – A. Michael Spence
Economics – Joseph E. Stiglitz
Literature – V. S. Naipaul
Medicine – Leland H. Hartwell
Medicine – Tim Hunt
Medicine – Sir Paul Nurse
Peace – United Nations
Peace – Kofi Annan
Physics – Eric A. Cornell
Physics – Wolfgang Ketterle
Physics – Carl E. Wieman
Fictional references to the year
Arthur C. Clarke set the 1968 movie 2001: A Space Odyssey in this year, the first year of the 21st century.
2001 Year-End Google Zeitgeist – Google's Yearly List of Major Events and Top Searches for 2001
Nisqually Earthquake Clearinghouse  – Information on the February 28th earthquake from the University of Washington
Sex is a type of reproduction common among living things.
Sex is used by plants and animals, and also by fungi and various single-celled organisms.
It usually needs two individuals which are different sexes from the same species.
It works by combining genes from more than one source.
Biological type
Asexual reproduction: an example is the binary fission of an amoeba.
Sometimes jellyfish, and many insects split or produce eggs without fertilisation.
These are all methods of asexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction: most plants and animals reproduce by a union of two different sexes.
Each sex makes the special cells used for reproduction.
The new organism is made when both types of cells are united in a fertilised egg or zygote.
Organisms that can make both kinds of cells for reproduction are called hermaphrodites.
For example, most snails are hermaphrodite.
Those organisms that produce sperm are called male, those that produce ova (eggs) are called female.
Some animals and plants are capable of reproducing either sexually or asexually.
Benefits and drawbacks
An offspring produced asexually inherits genes only from its parent.
Offspring produced sexually are genetically somewhat different from either parent.
They inherit genes from both parents.
In humans, sex is normally either male or female.
For example: John's sex is male.
Jane's sex is female.
Most of the time, the sex of a person depends on what sex chromosomes that person got from his or her parents.
A woman's ovum (egg cell) contains one X chromosome.
A man's sperm contains either an X or a Y chromosome.
When a sperm and ova combine to form a fertilised egg, the baby may get either of these chromosomes from its father.
If the baby gets two X chromosomes, it will develop into a female.
If the baby gets one X and one Y, it will develop into a male.
Before babies are born, their sex parts are already formed, but not ready yet.
During Puberty, the sex parts finish developing as well as other parts of the body like breasts and body hair.
Sometimes, the process of meiosis, which makes the sex cells, can go differently.
This can result in a person having 3 X chromosomes, or 2 Y chromosomes or XXY instead of XY.
Other times, the body may not follow exactly what their chromosomes are telling it to do.
Sexual reproduction first appeared about a billion years ago.
It evolved within single-celled eukaryotes.
The scientific community still discusses why it appeared, and why it still exists.
Reasons commonly given include:
Sex creates variation in offspring.
If there are traits that give an advantage to the organism, they spread more easily.
Traits that give a disadvantage tend to be removed quickly.
Sexual reproduction is a process that can only be found in eukaryotes.
These cells have a nucleus and mitochondria.
There are other kinds of organisms (other than animals, plants and fungi), the other eukaryotes – such as the malaria parasite – that also engage in sexual reproduction.
Some bacteria use conjugation to transfer genetic material between bacteria.
This is not the same as sexual reproduction, but it results in a similar mixture of genetic traits.
In sexual reproduction the cells used for reproduction, called gametes, are either eggs or sperms.
Fertilisation needs two different such cells.
The mechanism of cell division only works when one sperm alone enters the egg.
Once it is in, a fast reaction goes through the egg cell wall to shut off all other sperm.
Sex determination in biology is about the function of sex, not what individuals look like.
In humans, males and females usually look different.
In many species they do not, except for the sex organs.
Hermaphrodites produce both male and female gametes.
This system can be found in some animals, for example snails, and in most flowering plants.
In most cases there are separate sexes.
This means that an organism either produces male gametes or eggs, but not both at the same time.
The biological cause for an organism developing into one sex or the other is called sex determination.
As a result of sex determination, the organism is either male, or female.
The sex is determined through the genes the organism inherits from its parents.
The sex is determined through the environment.
Usually, sex is determined by an organism's genes.
With genetic sex determination, most alleles or genes that influence sexual development are on the same chromosome.
That chromosome is then called the sex chromosome.
Because genetic sex determination is controlled by a pair of sex chromosomes (or if of one of the chromosomes is there or not), there are usually the same number of male and female offspring.
In humans, for instance, sperms carry either an X or a Y chromosome, and they occur in roughly equal numbers.
Nongenetic
For some species sex is not determined by inheritance, but instead by environmental factors experienced during development or later in life.
Many reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination: the temperature embryos experience during their development determines the sex of the organism.
In some turtles, for example, males are produced at lower incubation temperatures than females; this difference in critical temperatures can be as little as 1-2 °C.
Some fish change sex over the course of their life.
This phenomenon is called sequential hermaphroditism.
In clownfish, smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female.
In many wrasse the opposite is true—most fish are female at birth and become male when they reach a certain size.
Sequential hermaphrodites may produce both types of gametes over the course of their lifetime, but at any given point they are either female or male.
In some ferns the default sex is hermaphrodite.
Ferns which grow in soil which has previously supported hermaphrodites are influenced by hormones remaining to develop as male.
The evolution of sex
A hacksaw is a tool for sawing.
A hacksaw is designed for cutting materials like very thin metals and plastic.
It has a handle on one end, and can be either pushed or pulled across the object being cut.
There are manual and electric hacksaws.
In gardening, a spade is a tool for digging.
It is similar to a shovel.
It has a straight handle, usually of wood and a blade, usually of steel.
For some purposes the difference between a spade and a shovel is important.
For example, spade more easily digs in hard soil; a shovel more easily moves gravel.
In card games a spade is one of the four shapes or "suits" of cards.
A hoe is a tool in farming and gardening.
It has a blade, usually metal, attached to a long handle, usually wood.
There are many types of blade and several uses, probably the most common of which is weeding.
Other uses include shaping the soil and harvesting root crops such as potatoes.
Along with the spade and fork, the hoe is considered a basic, essential hand farming implement.
A shovel is a tool used for moving loose material.
Shovels have a flat bottom head which is angled slightly from the handle to enable scooping and moving of material.
Although a shovel can be used for digging, it is much less efficient than a spade.
Spades are straight, and transmit force straight downwards.
Shovels move loose material, such as coal, snow, gravel etc.
They are usually made of metal at the bottom, and wood is sometimes used for the handle.
A plunger is a tool.
It is used to get rid of things that are blocking pipes.
The plunger is placed over one end of the pipe, and the handle is pushed up and down.
Doing this creates a sucking force, which makes the thing blocking the pipe move and unclog.
A ladder is a tool which is made for people to climb up or down.
Ladders have two vertical supports that go along the whole length of the ladder.
Between these supports are the horizontal rungs.
The rung is what the climber can put his foot on.
The climber can use his hands to hold on to the rungs above him, or to the supports at the side.
Ladders can be made of metal, wood or even rope.
There are different types of ladders.
Some ladders are made in one piece.
They can be carried around and made to lean against something such as the wall of a house.
There should be a good distance between the bottom of the ladder and the wall so that the ladder is not too vertical, otherwise the ladder might fall backwards and the climber would fall off.
Sometimes these ladders are extension ladders.
Extension ladders are made in two or more sections so that the ladder can fold up to make it easier to carry about and to store.
To open up the ladder, each section slides up almost to the top of the next section.
Step ladders are useful in the home or the garden to reach things that are not too high, e.g. ceilings or the tops of hedges.
They have two parts which are joined together by a hinge, so that they are shaped like an upside down V.  There is usually a platform at the top to stand on, but this can be dangerous unless great care is taken that the ladder will not wobble or fall down.
Some ladders are vertical (they go straight up or down).
These are fixed onto something.
Examples are: ladders in a swimming pool for climbing in and out of the water, small ladders to climb up to a top bunk bed, ladders at the side of a big boat or at the side of a canal lock or of any other high or low construction where workmen may need to get up or down to do repairs.
Fire engines always have ladders.
They often have a turntable ladder which makes it possible for the ladder to be facing in any direction.
Rope ladders can be folded away easily.
They may be used for climbing trees or for rock climbing or in caves.
Oral history is history that is told rather than written down.
It is given through talking rather than reading a book.
It is usually passed from generation to generation in order to explain events that have occurred.
A generation can mean any group that is sorted by the time they were created.
In a family, a generation means all the people on one level of a family tree.
For example, your brothers, sisters and cousins are in the same generation as you.
In populations of people, a “generation” means groups of people born in different periods of time.
Each generation lasts for the average amount of time between the birth of parents, and the birth of their children.
”Generation” can also mean a wave or series of something, like a generation of car model (2nd generation for example).
Anything that is created in waves can have generations or editions.
Genes are parts of DNA.
DNA is a molecule inside a cell that carries the instructions for making the proteins the cell will need.
Each gene contains a single set of instructions.
These instructions usually code for a particular protein.
Humans have about 20,000 genes that code proteins and many more that are non-coding.
Half of a person's genes come from the mother.
The other half come from the father.
The definition
Originally: a hereditary unit which occupies a specific position (locus) on a chromosome.
Other definitions are ways the gene showed itself:
A unit which has one or more specific effects on the phenotype of an organism;
A unit that can mutate to various alleles;
A unit which recombines with other such units.
Modern definitions must take note of later discoveries.
There are now two classes of genes:p173
genes that are transcribed into RNAs and are translated into polypeptide chains.
genes whose transcripts (tRNAs, rRNAs, snRNAs) are used directly.
These are operators which serve as 'regulatory sequences' during transcription and translation of the DNA.
What genes do
Genes are passed on from parent to child and are an important part of what decides how children look and act (their biological properties).
Genes affect the way our bodies work, including how we look.
Our eye, hair and skin color are decided by genes.
It is said that genes cause genetic effects in our bodies.
A gene may be dominant or recessive.
These terms refer to the effect a gene has on the offspring who carry it in their genome.
For example, let's say a mother only has genes for brown hair and a father only has genes for red hair.
The child will inherit – receive – genes for red hair (from her father) and brown hair (from her mother).
The brown hair gene is 'dominant' to the red hair gene.
This means the child will have brown hair even though she has genes for both red and brown hair.
This means only one dominant gene is needed for the child to receive that particular trait, while two recessive genes are needed for one.
A recessive trait might stay hidden for many generations.
Let us use the child from the last example.
We will call her "Mary".
Mary has brown hair but has genes for both red and brown hair.
Let us say Mary grew up and married Tom.
Tom also has brown hair, but like Mary one of his parents had red hair.
This means Tom has genes for both red and brown hair.
Mary and Tom would each have a chance of passing either brown or red hair genes to their children.
This means that the children of Mary and Tom could have either red or brown hair.
This explains why a person might look different from their parents, but look like their grandparents or great grandparents.
Structure and function
The structure of a gene has many elements: the actual protein coding sequence is only a small part.
There are DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA.
Allele#Dominance
ENCODE, the complete analysis of the human genome
Classical genetics
Alliteration is when a sentence or phrase has many words that start with the same sound.
It is commonly used in advertising, poetry, headlines, and tongue-twisters.
Basically the first consonant repeats itself throughout the sentence.
Alliteration is common for poetry.
It was used one thousand years ago in Anglo-Saxon poems.
A fine example is a strophe from The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge:
The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,
The furrow followed free;
We were the first that ever burst
Into that silent sea.
Robert Browning used alliteration many times, too.
he employed it in the poem Summum bonum.
This is a Latin expression and means "all the best".
All the breath and the bloom of the year in the bag of one bee:
One example of alliteration is "Sally sold sea shells by the sea shore".
In Death Note, the pseudonym of the detective, L, is Ryuzaki Ryuga, his real name is L Lawliet.
Often, characters in books are named with alliteration.
Many names in Harry Potter feature alliterations (for example, Godric Gryffindor, Helga Hufflepuff, Rowena Ravenclaw, and Salazar Slytherin).
Similarly, in Hairspray, most characters' names feature alliterations (e.g. Tracy Turnblad, Link Larkin, Corny Collins, Dan Dougherty, Penny Pingleton, and Seaweed Stubbs).
Titles of books sometimes use alliteration, including the titles of all thirteen books (except the last one) in Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events.
Author Jeff Lindsay's novels about serial killer Dexter Morgan all feature alliteration in their titles: for example, Darkly Dreaming Dexter.
Another example is William Shakespeare's Love's Labour's Lost.
A common application of alliteration is in books intended for children learning about letters.
Animalia by Graeme Base famously applies alliteration within a storybook, going in order through each letter of the English alphabet and providing many sentences with alliteration.
Companies company use this alliterative effect all the time.
The major reason companies use this technique is to ensure that their brand name is memorable.
Think, for example, of all of the famous and well known brands and companies that have used alliteration in their names:
Alliterative names can also help you stand out in the crowd and can make you more memorable.
For example, both fictional characters and real people may stand out in your head as a result of the alliterative effect of their name.
Think of:
Phrases and quotes
Alliteration is commonly used since it adds interest to a sentence and can be a great way to help you remember names and phrases that you might other wide forget.
Enjoy alliteration.
It is a very fun and useful literary device.
one, won
pail, pale
fore, four, for
it's, its
there, their, they're
Knight, night
which, witch
pore, pour
pear, pair, pare
see, sea, C
high, hi
wear, where
hare, hair
air, heir
whether, weather
too, to, two
ate, eight
no, know
by, buy, bye
flour, flower
right, write
be, bee
week, weak
rains, reins
higher, hire
fare, fair
Condensation is the process through which gas changes into a liquid when it touches a cooler surface.
Condensation is an important part of the water cycle.
It is the opposite of evaporation.
Condensation of water is when water changes from gas to a liquid or crystal shape.
Any gas can condense, either because the temperature is dropping or the pressure is increasing.
In either case the pressure of the condensing gas is higher than the vapor pressure of the gas, at that temperature).
During condensation, the molecules in the matter slow down.
Heat energy is taken away, causing the state of matter to change.
Condensation is exothermic.
This means that condensation makes the temperature go up.
Evaporation is the opposite and causes a temperature loss.
It is a useful process.
One use is in distillation.
The gas made from a boiling liquid mix is sent to a condenser, where the different parts condense differently.
This can purify a liquid, such as alcohol or water.
The condensing liquid makes heat, which must be removed for the condensation to continue.
International Consortium of Advanced Technologies and Security at SDSU
ScienceDirect - Heat transfer and evaporation in geothermal desalination units
[[kinematics
Precipitation is a form of water from the atmosphere.
It is a term in meteorology, and includes rain, snow, sleet, ice pellets dew, frost, and hail.
These form by condensation from atmospheric water vapor, and fall under gravity.
Fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions.
In that case, the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate.
If liquid, precipitation can be measured using a rain gauge.
The most common form of solid precipitation is snow.
Snow is made when temperatures are so cold that water vapor changes directly to solid crystals.
Frozen rain is hail or ice pellets.
Relative humidity is a way of describing how much humidity is present in the air, compared to how much there could be.
Meteorologists often use the relative humidity as a measurement to describe the weather at various places.
When the temperature is warm, more water vapor can be in the air than when it is cold.
If the actual amount of vapor is compared to the total amount there could be as a fraction, then the number tells if the air feels dry or moist.
The value is usually written in percent, where 0% means that the air is totally dry, and 100% means that it is so moist that mist or dew is about to form.
When the temperature is lowered to the dew point, relative humidity become 100% and the water vapor  condenses, making precipitation as dew, rain or snow (etc.).
Weather measurements
cs:Vlhkost vzduchu#Relativní (poměrná) vlhkost vzduchu
Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is a vitamin.
It is found in fresh fruits, berries and vegetables.
It is one of the water-soluble vitamins.
Vitamin C is important in wound healing.
Without enough vitamin C, a person can get a sickness called scurvy.
Lack of vitamin C was a serious health problem on long ocean trips where supplies of fresh fruit were quickly used up.
Many people died from scurvy on such trips.
Most animals make their own vitamin C. Some mammals cannot.
Those that cannot include the main suborder of primates, the Haplorrhini: these are the tarsiers, monkeys and apes, including humans.
Others are bats, capybaras and guinea pigs.
Vitamin C was first discovered in 1928.
In 1932, it was proved to stop the sickness called scurvy.
That fruit was a cure for scurvy was known long before vitamins were known to exist.
The results showed that lemons prevented the disease.
Lind wrote up his work and published it in 1753.
Lind's work was slow to be noticed.
In 1795 the British navy adopted lemon or lime juice as food for sailors.
As well as lemons, limes and oranges; sauerkraut, salted cabbage, malt, and soup were tried with different effects.
James Cook relied on sauerkraut to prevent the disease on his long voyages of exploration.
In 1912 the Polish American scientist Casimir Funk first used the word vitamin for something present in food in small amounts that is essential to health.
He named the unknown thing that prevented scurvy Vitamin C.
From 1928 to 1933, the Hungarian research team of Joseph L Svirbely and Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, and separately the American Charles Glen King, first took out vitamin C from food and showed it to be an acid they called ascorbic acid.
In 1933/1934, the British chemists  Norman Haworth and  Edmund Hirst, and separately the Polish Tadeus Reichstein, successfully synthesized the vitamin.
It was the first man-made vitamin.
This made it possible to make lots of vitamin C cheaply in factories.
Haworth won the 1937 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for this work.
Plant sources
The following table is to give an idea of how much vitamin C is in different plant foods.
Each individual fruit will vary.
|+ Table Showing Relative Abundance of Vitamin C in Principal Fruits and some Raw Vegetables
mg vitamin C per 100 grams of fruit
Fruit Continued
| CamuCamu ||  2800  ||  Lemon
| 40 ||  Grape ||  10
| Rose hip ||  2000  ||  Melon, cantaloupe
| 40 ||  Apricot ||  10
| Acerola ||  1600  ||  Cauliflower
| 40 ||  Plum ||  10
| Jujube ||  500  ||  Grapefruit
| 30 ||  Watermelon ||  10
| Baobab ||  400  ||  Raspberry
| 30 ||  Banana ||  9
| Blackcurrant ||  200
| Tangerine/ Mandarin oranges
| 30 ||  Carrot ||  9
| Indian gooseberry ||  445  ||  Passion fruit
| 30 ||  Avocado ||  8
| Guava ||  100
| Kiwifruit ||  90  ||  Spinach
| 30 ||  Crabapple ||  8
| Broccoli (raw) ||  90  ||  Cabbage (raw green)
| 30 ||  Peach ||  7
| Loganberry ||  80  ||  Lime
| 20 ||  Apple ||  6
| Redcurrant ||  80  ||  Mango
| 20 ||  Blackberry ||  6
| Brussels sprouts ||  80  ||  Melon, honeydew
| 20 ||  Beetroot ||  5
| Lychee ||  70  ||  Raspberry
| 20 ||  Pear ||  4
| Persimmon ||  60  ||  Tomato
| 10 ||  Lettuce ||  4
| Papaya ||  60  ||  Blueberry
| 10 ||  Cucumber ||  3
| Strawberry ||  50  ||  Pineapple
| 10 ||  Fig ||  2
| Orange ||  50  ||  Pawpaw ||  10  ||  Bilberry
Animal sources
Most species of animals synthesise their own vitamin C. It is therefore not a vitamin for them.
Synthesis is achieved through a sequence of enzyme driven steps, which convert glucose to ascorbic acid.
It is carried out either in the kidneys, in reptiles and birds, or the liver, in mammals and perching birds.
The loss of an enzyme concerned with ascorbic acid synthesis has occurred quite frequently in evolution and has affected most fish, many birds; some bats, guinea pigs and most but not all primates, including humans.
The mutations have not been lethal because ascorbic acid is so prevalent in the surrounding food sources.
It was only realised in the 1920s that some cuts of meat and fish are also a source of vitamin C for humans.
The muscle and fat that make up the modern western diet are however poor sources.
As with fruit and vegetables cooking destroys the vitamin C content.
{| class="wikitable"=
|+ Table Showing Relative Abundance of Vitamin C in Foods of Animal Origin
mg vitamin C per 100 grams food
Food of animal origin (contd)
Food of animal
| Calf liver (raw) ||  36  ||  Chicken liver (fried )
| 13 ||  Goats milk (fresh) ||  2
| Beef liver (raw) ||  31  ||  Lamb liver (Fried)
| 12 ||  Beef steak (fried) ||  0
| Oysters (raw) ||  30  ||  Lamb heart (roast)
| 11 ||  Hens egg (raw ) ||  0
| Cod Roe (fried) ||  26  ||  Lamb tongue (stewed)
| 6 ||  Pork Bacon (fried) ||  0
| Pork liver (raw) ||  23
| Human milk (fresh)
| 4 ||  Calf veal cutlet (fried) ||  0
| Lamb brain (boiled) ||  17
| Cows milk (fresh) ||  2  ||  Chicken leg (roast)
Artificial chemical synthesis
Vitamin C is produced from glucose by two main routes.
The Reichstein process developed in the 1930s uses a single pre-fermentation followed by a purely chemical route.
The more modern Two-Step fermentation process was originally developed in China in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages.
Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from the glucose feed.
Functions of vitamin C in the body
In living organisms, ascorbate is an antioxidant, since it protects the body against oxidative stress.
It is also a cofactor in at least eight enzymatic reactions, including several collagen synthesis reactions that cause the most severe symptoms of scurvy when they are dysfunctional.
In animals, these reactions are especially important in wound-healing and in preventing bleeding from capillaries.
Vitamin C is needed for the production of collagen in the connective tissue.
These fibres are in many places throughout the body; providing firm but flexible structure.
Some tissues have a greater percentage of collagen, especially: skin, mucous membranes, teeth, and bones.
Vitamin C is required for making of dopamine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline in the nervous system or in the adrenal glands.
Vitamin C is also needed to make carnitine, important in the transfer of energy to the cell mitochondria.
It is a strong antioxidant.
The tissues with greatest percentage of vitamin C—over 100 times the level in blood plasma—are the adrenal glands, pituitary, thymus, corpus luteum, and retina.
The brain, spleen, lung, testicle, lymph nodes, liver, thyroid, small intestinal mucosa, leukocytes, pancreas, kidney, and salivary glands usually have 10 to 50 times the concentration present in plasma.
Vitamin C deficiency
Loose teeth
Superficial bleeding
Fragility of blood vessels
Poor healing
Compromised immunity
Mild anemia.
Daily requirement
A healthy person on a balanced western diet should be able to get all the vitamin C needed to prevent the symptoms of scurvy from their daily diet.
People who smoke, those under stress and women in pregnancy have a slightly higher requirement.
40 mg per day UK Food Standards Agency
60–95 mg per day US Food and Nutrition Board 2001 revision.
200 mg per day - Linus Pauling Institute and US National Institutes of Health (NIH) Recommendation.
3000 mg per day - Vitamin C Foundation's recommendation.
6000–12000 mg per day–Thomas Levy, Colorado Integrative Medical Centre recommendation.
6000–18000 mg per day - Linus Pauling's daily recommendation
High doses (thousands of mg) may result in diarrhoea, which is harmless if the dose is reduced immediately.
Some researchers (Cathcart) claim the onset of diarrhoea to be an indication of where the body’s true vitamin C requirement lies.
The small size of the ascorbic acid molecule means the kidneys cannot retain it in the body.
Quite a low level in the blood serum will cause traces to be present in the urine.
All vitamin C synthesising mammals have traces in the urine at all times.
In April 1998 Nature reported alleged carcinogenic and teratogenic effects of excessive doses of vitamin C. This was given great prominence in the world's media.
The effects were noted in test tube experiments and on only two of the 20 markers of free radical damage to DNA.
They have not been supported by further evidence from living organisms.
Almost all mammals manufacture their own vitamin C in amounts equivalent to human doses of thousands of milligrams per day.