the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Many of the known specimens from the site have come from amateur collectors, and in 1996, an amnesty on previously collected fossils was put in effect, in the hope of getting privately owned collections back into public ownership and available to science.
The current surface of the Messel pit is roughly 60 m below the local land and is about 0.7 km² in area.
The oil-shale bed originally extended to a depth of 190 m.
47 million years ago in the Eocene when the Messel deposits formed, the area was 10° further south than it is now.
The period was just after the Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, and the climate and ecology of the site were very different from today.
A large series of lakes, surrounded by lush sub-tropical forests supported an incredible diversity of life.
The Messel lake bed was probably a center point for drainage from nearby rivers and creeks.
The pit deposits were formed during the Eocene epoch of the Palaeogene period about 47 million years ago.
This is based on dating of basalt fragments under the fossilbearing strata.
Its sediments extend 130 m downward and lie atop an older sandstone foundation.
The fossils within the shale show a remarkable clarity and preservation due to the unique depositional characteristics of the lake.
The upper layers of the lake had a great deal of life, but the bottom was anoxic.
Because the water was not much disturbed, little oxygen got to the lower levels.
This prevented many epifaunal (bottom-living) and infaunal (burrowing) species from living there.
That is why dead bodies were so little damaged.
Overturn of the lake layers (caused by seasonal variations) lowered oxygen content near the surface and led to a periodic "die-off" of aquatic species.
Combined with a relatively low rate of deposition (0.1 mm/yr), this was a prime environment for the preservation of fauna and flora.
Volcanic gas releases
The area around the Messel Pit was geologically and tectonically active during the Eocene.
Volcanic gas releases could account for the large deposition of non-aquatic species.
Subsurface shifts released large concentrations of reactive gases (such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide) into the lake and adjoining ecosystems, killing susceptible organisms.
During these releases, birds and bats might have fallen in if near the lake surface, and terrestrials could be overwhelmed near the lake shore.
The Messel Pit provides the best preserved evidence of early Eocene flora and fauna so far discovered.
Most other sites are lucky to contain partial skeletons, but Messel boasts extensive preservation of structural integrity, even going so far as to preserve the fur, feathers, and "skin shadows" of some species.
Unusual preservation has sparked some closely-reasoned interpretations.
The symptomatic "dumb-bell"-shaped bite marks on either side of the leaf vein on a fossilised leaf have been identified as the death-grip of a carpenter ant terminally parasitized by a fungus that, apparently then as today, took over its behaviour to release its spores at a good location; it is the earliest clear example of fungal behavioural manipulation.
The diversity of species is astonishing.
Here is a brief summary of some of the fossils found at the site:
Early primate fossil with anthropoid (i.e. non-lemuroid) characteristics: discovery made public May 2009 of Darwinius masillae
Nine mating pairs of fossil turtles have been found.
The turtles, Allaeochelys crassesculpta, were in coitus (in the act of having sex).
They are male-female pairs, with the male's tail tucked under the female, which is how they have sex.
Their death must have been rapid.
It is supposed that the turtles had started mating in the aerated surface waters of the ancient lake.
As they sank into deeper water, they were overcome by the release of toxic volcanic gas.
They were then buried in the lakebed sediment.
Turtles belonging to this clade are still living.
They have lost their reptilian scales, and their skin absorbs oxygen from the water.
Normally, this is an advantage: it helps them stay submerged for long periods.
However, under anoxic conditions it is a disadvantage, because carbon dioxide and dissolved poisons are absorbed as well.
Over 10,000 fossilized fish of numerous species
Thousands of aquatic and terrestrial insects, some with distinct colour still preserved
Many small mammals including pygmy horses, large mice, primates, ground dwellers (hedgehogs, marsupials, pangolins), aardvark relatives, and bats.
Many birds, particularly predatory species.
Crocodiles, frogs, turtles, salamanders, and other reptiles or amphibians
Remains of over 30 plant species, including palm leaves, fruits, pollen, wood, walnuts, and grapevines
The assemblage of fossils includes a South American anteater, two types of South American flightless birds, and an ancestor of the scaly ant-eater (Manis) of the old-world tropics.
Messel Fossils
Missing Link Found at Messel Pit?
Daily Mail article on fossils found at Messel pit; many colour photos
Jedi Mind Tricks is a hip hop group from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Jedi Mind Tricks formed when Vinnie Paz and Stoupe the Enemy of Mankind were in high school and Jus Allah later joined in 1999.
They debuted when they released their first EP, called Amber Probe.
Vinnie Paz (1993–present)
Stoupe (1993 - present)
DJ Kwestion (1997–present)
Jus Allah (1998–2002, 2005–2015)
The Psycho-Social, Chemical, Biological & Electro-Magnetic Manipulation of Human Consciousness (1997)
Violent by Design (2000)
Visions of Gandhi (2003)
Legacy of Blood (2004)
Servants in Heaven, Kings in Hell (2006)
A History of Violence (2008)
Violence Begets Violence (2011)
The Psycho-Social, Chemical, Biological & Electro-Magnetic Manipulation of Human Consciousness is the first studio album by American underground hip hop group, Jedi Mind Tricks.
It was released on November 4, 1997 through Superegular Records.
It was re-released in 2003 through Babygrande Records.
The producer of the album was Stoupe the Enemy of Mankind.
The album is sometimes called The Psycho-Social CD for short.
Jedi Mind Tricks albums
Violent by Design is the second studio album by American hip hop group, Jedi Mind Tricks.
It was released on October 3, 2000.
The producers of the album were Stoupe and Mr. Len.
The album was re-released on May 25, 2004 by Jedi Mind Tricks current label, Babygrande Records.
Visions of Gandhi is the third studio album by American hip hop group, Jedi Mind Tricks.
It was released on August 26, 2003.
The producer of the album was Stoupe.
Jus Allah quit the group after the release of Violent by Design.
The Mainstream Top 40 is an airplay chart from Billboard magazine.
It is also known as Pop Songs on billboard.com.
People often mistook it for the now discontinued Pop 100 Airplay chart.
The chart is solely based on radio airplay, ranking the week's hottest pop songs based on monitored radio detections from a panel of 200 Top 40/CHR radio stations in the United States as measured by Nielsen BDS Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems.
Arbitron sometimes refers to the format as contemporary hit radio.
Legacy of Blood is the fourth studio album by American hip hop group, Jedi Mind Tricks.
It was released on August 24, 2004.
The intro for the song features a promo that was cut by professional wrestler, Kane.
| name = Servants in Heaven, Kings in Hell
| artist = Jedi Mind Tricks
| released = September 19, 2006
| recorded = 2005-2006
| genre = East Coast hip hop, underground hip hop
| label = Babygrande
| producer = Stoupe
| prev_title = Legacy of Blood(2004)
, Kings in Hell(2006)
| next_title = A History of Violence(2008)
}}Servants in Heaven, Kings in Hell''' is the fifth studio album by American hip hop group Jedi Mind Tricks.
It was released on September 19, 2006.
The album was the group's most commercially successful release and was their first album that made it into the Billboard 200.
The album also won "Verse Of The Year" at the HipHopDX 2006 awards for Uncommon Valor: A Vietnam Story.
The lowest courts in the Isle of Man are the Summary Courts, Coroner of Inquests, Licensing Court, Land Court, etc.
These courts are presided over by magistrates.
There are two stipendiary magistrates, the High Bailiff and the Deputy High Bailiff, along with lay Justices of the Peace.
The court on the next level is the High Court of Justice of the Isle of Man.
It has two parts, the Civil Division and an appeal division called the Staff of Government Division.
The judges of the High Court are the Deemsters and the Judicial Officers.
The Deemsters are appointed by The Queen on the advice of the Secretary of State for Justice of the United Kingdom.
The Judicial Officers are appointed by the Lieutenant Governor.
The High Bailiff and the Deputy High Bailiff are ex officio Judicial Officers, and other Judicial Officers (full-time or part-time) may be appointed.
Often they are appointed because they have special knowledge of a complex legal case
Civil matters are usually heard at first instance by a single Deemster sitting in the High Court.
Criminal proceedings are heard at first instance before either the High Bailiff or the Deputy High Bailiff or a bench of lay magistrates, in less serious cases.
More serious criminal cases are heard before a Deemster sitting in the Court of General Gaol Delivery; in a defended case the Deemster sits with a jury of seven (twelve in cases of treason or murder).
Civil and criminal appeals are dealt with by the Staff of Government Division.
Appeals are usually heard by a Deemster (the one not involved with the case previously in the High Court or Court of General Gaol Delivery) and the Judge of Appeal.
Final appeal is to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom.
This dates back to an ancient right of the Manx to appeal to the Crown of England against the decisions of the Lord of Mann.
The right still exists, even though the Lord of Mann is now the Crown of England.
The right was confirmed by the Privy Council in their decision of Christian v. Corren in 1716, several years before revestment.
In the Isle of Man, and the Channel Islands, the Queen's Bench Division of the English High Court can hear appeals about habeas corpus.
This was to allow the king to find out why any of his subjects was being impisoned.
It dates from before the revestment, applied to all the king's dominions even for all other cases the Kings's Bench was restricted to England.
Manx law
Isle of Man Constabulary
Misery is a song by American band Maroon 5.
It was released on June 22, 2010 by A&M/Octone Records via the iTunes Store.
The song was released in advance of the band's mid-2010 tour, and is the first single from their third studio album, Hands All Over, which was released on September 21, 2010.
"Lady of Mann" redirects here.
For the wives of the Lords of Mann, see List of Manx consorts; or for the ship, see MS Lady of Mann.
Lord of Mann (), is used on the Isle of Man as part of Queen Elizabeth II's title.
The Lord of Mann was the island's feudal Lord Proprietor, the Monarch of England was head of state.
Relationship with the Crown
The title is not used on its own.
Since 1399, the Kings and Lords of Mann were feudal subjects of the reigning King of England, and then of Great Britain and the United Kingdom, who was the ultimate sovereign of the island.
This right of 'Lord Proprietor' was revested into the Crown when the Isle of Man was bought by the Isle of Man Purchase Act 1765 and stopped to exist separately.
However, for reasons of culture and tradition, the title Lord of Mann continues to be used.
For these reasons, the correct formal usage, as used on the Isle of Man for the Loyal Toast, is The Queen, Lord of Mann.
The title is now Lord of Mann regardless of gender.
However, during her reign Queen Victoria was styled as Lady of Mann.
List of Lords
Prior to 1504, the ruler of the Isle of Man was generally styled King of Mann.
Thomas III Stanley, 1504-1521
Edward Stanley, 1521-1572
Henry Stanley, 1572-1593
Ferdinando Stanley, 1593-1594
Succession dispute (1594-1607)
In 1598, a succession dispute between the daughters of Ferdinando Stanley, 5th Earl of Derby and Stanley's brother, William Stanley was heard.
It was decided by the Privy Council that the right to the Isle of Man belonged solely to Queen Elizabeth I, and the letters-patent of 1405 which have conferred the Isle of Man to the Stanley family were declared null and void.
This was because Percy had not been subject to legal attainder, despite his treason, and the 1405 and 1406 letters-patent had therefore not taken effect.
The Law Lords on the Privy Council decided "the grant being by letters patent under the Great Seal of England, such right would descend according to the Common Law of England to the heirs general, and not to the heirs male", and the island was therefore awarded to Ferdinando's daughters; whereupon William agreed to purchase their several shares and interests.
The original letters-patent having been declared void, the Parliament of England in 1609 under James I passed a Private Act of Parliament entitled "An Act for assuring and establishing the Isle of Man in the name and blood of William, Earl of Derby" [(1609) 7 Jac.1 c.4] which established the title in law as Lord of Mann.
The lordship was conferred by letters-patent dated 7 July 1609 upon William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby.
Subsequent succession was under the terms of this grant.
Interim Lords (1607-1609)
Following the resolution of the succession dispute, it was ruled that the daughters of Ferdinando Stanley were the rightful heirs.
As the oldest of them would not reach the age of majority until 1609, two temporary Lords of Mann were appointed by James I, using letters patent, so that the daughters could benefit from the Island's revenues.
Henry Howard, 1607-1608
Robert Cecil, 1608-1609
Following the coming of age of the heirs to the Lordship of the Isle of Man, the rights over the island were sold to their uncle, William Stanley.
He took up the title of Lord of Mann following the passing of an Act of Parliament.
William I Stanley, 1609-1612
Elizabeth Stanley, 1612-1627
James I Stanley, 1627-1651 (known as 'the Great Stanley')
Thomas Fairfax, 1651-1660 (appointed by Oliver Cromwell during the English Interregnum)
Charles Stanley, 1660-1672 (restored by Charles II)
William II Stanley, 1672-1702
James II Stanley, 1702-1736
James III Murray, 1736-1764
Charlotte and John III Murray,  1764-1765
Revestment
In 1765, Charlotte Murray, 8th Baroness Strange, sold the suzerainty of the island to the British government for £70,000.
By the passage of the Isle of Man Purchase Act 1765 the title of Lord of Mann was revested into the British Crown.
It has therefore since been used on the Isle of Man to refer to the reigning Monarch of the United Kingdom.
The  was a series of several events during the Russian Civil War.
They happened between February and March 1920.
It ended with the killing of many Japanese people in Russia and most of the Russians living in the town Nikolayevsk-on-Amur.
Nikolayevsk-on-Amur is in the far eastern section of Russia.
In September 1918, about 350 troops of the 14th division the Imperial Japanese Army held the town.
They're were part of the Siberian Intervention.
Early in February 1920, the town also had about 450 Japanese civilians.
The Russian "White Army" also had about 300 members in Nikolayevsk.
Roughly 15,000 civilians also lived in Nikolayevsk.
In January 1920, the town had been surrounded by an army of four thousand controlled by Yakov Triapitsyn, an anarchist who was allied with the Red Army.
On February 24, the commander of the Japanese Army's people in Nikolayevsk realized that there were too many enemy troops, so he allowed Triapitsyn's troops to enter the town under a flag of truce.
However, Triapitsyn began rounding up all of his forces and deploying White Army supporters, the only force cooperating, the small Japanese garrison.
He then demanded that the Japanese garrison disarm–remove all their weapons they are holding, sure that the small Japanese force would not agree with his request.
The Japanese then had an unexpected attack on 12 March.
However, the attack was unsuccessful, and most people in the Japanese Army died.
The few who survived did not stop the attack until they were ordered by the Japanese high command.
Triapitsyn decided to attack the remaining Japanese troops, which helped capture the Japanese garrison and deaths of all but 122 Japanese non-army members.
In all, about 700 people died.
Triapitsyn decided to terrorize and kill any civilians he felt were a danger to his forces.
The other way to execute those who he only injured was to stab them with a bayonet and throw them into a hole in the Amur River.
Using this method, Triapitsyn and his army killed thousands of people in Nikolayevsk-on-Amur.
In late May, as other Japanese people were coming to help, Triapitsyn killed everyone living in Nikolayevsk-on-Amur–Japanese or Russian–and burned the town to the ground.
The Japanese government protested to the Bolshevik government in Moscow, demanding compensation for the execution of all the residents in Nikolayevsk-on-Amur.
The government of Russia responded by murdering Triapitsyn; however, the Japanese government felt that this didn't make up for what had happened.
Japan used this as an excuse to have it residents live in Sakhalin island, where they remained till 1925.
Early Life and education
Van Ness was born in Ghent, New York.
He is the son of Judge Peter Van Ness (1734– 1804), a lawyer and farmer.
The home and land were later purchased by Martin Van Buren, who renamed the estate Lindenwald.
Peter Van Ness is buried on the Lindenwald estate.
Early Career
Judicial career
On May 25, 1812, Van Ness was nominated by President James Madison to a new seat on the United States District Court for the District of New York.
He was confirmed by the United States Senate on May 26, 1812, and received his commission on May 27, 1812.
On April 9, 1814, he was reassigned by operation of law to the newly subdivided United States District Court for the Southern District of New York.
Career as an author
Van Ness was the author of several political and judicial works, including: Examination of Charges against Aaron Burr (1803); The Laws of New York, with Notes, (with John Woodworth), (2 vols.
1813); Reports of Two Cases in the Prize Court for New York District (1814); and Concise Narrative of Gen. Jackson's First Invasion of Florida (1826).
Death and burial
Van Ness served on the bench until his death in New York City.
He was buried in Brooklyn's Greenwood Cemetery.
The sundae is an ice cream dessert.
It is usually made of a scoop of ice cream topped with sauce or syrup.
Sometimes, it has other toppings including chopped nuts, sprinkles, whipped cream, or maraschino cherries.
The first historically documented sundae was created on Sunday, April 3, 1892.
Sundaes are found and available to buy in many places, including fast foods, restaurants, and other luxury places.
Sundaes are usually sweeter than ice cream and the scoops of ice cream and flavors can be customized.
Wisconsin Historical Society ice cream marker
Historical documents supporting Ithaca as the birthplace of the sundae
sundae
Soyuz (, ) is a series of spacecraft designed for the Soviet space programme.
It was first used in the 1960s.
The Soyuz spacecraft is launched on a Soyuz rocket, the most frequently used and most reliable launch vehicle in the world to date.[1][2] All Soyuz spacecraft are launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.
The first Soyuz flight had no people aboard.
It launched on November 28, 1966.
The first Soyuz mission with a crew, Soyuz 1, launched on 23 April 1967 but crashed upon return, killing cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov.
Soyuz 3 (October 26, 1968) was the first successful manned mission.
Now, the Soyuz is widely considered the world's safest, most cost-effective human spaceflight vehicle.
Soyuz spacecraft were used to carry cosmonauts to and from Salyut and later Mir space stations, and are now used for transport to and from the International Space Station (ISS).
At least one Soyuz spacecraft is docked at the ISS at all times for use as an escape craft in the event of an emergency.
A round orbital module, which provides space for the crew;
A small reentry module, which gets the crew back to Earth;
A service module with solar panels, which contains instruments and engines.
Orbital module
The orbital module is also called the Habitation section.
It has all the equipment not needed for reentry, such as experiments, cameras and cargo.
It also contains a docking collar for docking to space stations.
It does not come back to earth.
Reentry module
The reentry module is used for launch and the journey back to earth.
Half of it is covered in heat protection tiles.
It comes back to earth.
The service module has solar panels.
It contains systems for temperature control, electric power supply, long-range radio communications and radio telemetry.
The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred on January 28, 1986, when the NASA's  broke up 73 seconds after liftoff.
All seven crew members were killed.
It was the 25th flight of a Space Shuttle.
The cause of the explosion was a part called an O-ring that broke in the right solid rocket booster.
During the flight, hot gases escaped from the O-ring and made it break apart.
Shuttles stopped flying for two and a half years.
The mission of the flight that ended in disaster was named STS-51-L. It was the tenth mission for Challenger.
STS-51-L was scheduled to deploy the second in a series of Tracking and Data Relay Satellites, carry out the first flight of the "Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy" (SPARTAN-203) / Halley's Comet Experiment Deployable in order to observe Halley's Comet, and for civilian teacher Christa McAuliffe to carry out several lessons from space as part of the Teacher in Space Project and Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP).
One of the crew members of this mission, Gregory Jarvis, was originally scheduled to fly on the previous shuttle flight (STS-61-C).
However, he was reassigned to this flight and replaced by Congressman Bill Nelson.
O-ring issues
The O-ring was a part of the Shuttle's solid rocket booster that, when working correctly, stopped hot gas escaping through joins in the booster's steel skin called field joints.
Each booster had three field joints, and each joint had two rubber O-rings, a main and a backup, that circled the booster.
When the boosters were tested in 1977, however, the force caused by the pressure inside the booster made the steel parts bend away from each other at the field joints, breaking the O-ring seals and allowing the hot gases to escape.
This was called "joint rotation", and if the "blow-by" of the hot gases against the O-rings was bad enough it could have destroyed the ring and caused the booster to explode.
However, it was also found that the rubber O-rings would shift under the forces of lift-off and form a seal anyway, which was called "extrusion", so the problem was not seen as serious by NASA.
Blow-by of the O-rings had been seen on early Shuttle flights, and a pattern was noticed by the engineers who built the boosters: more blow-by happened in cold temperatures.
The company that built the boosters, Thiokol, had been working on a fix but had not told NASA even though the O-rings were "criticality 1" parts, meaning that if they should fail to do their job, the rocket would be destroyed.
Criticality 1 parts were also not allowed to rely on a backup part for safety - this meant that the backup O-ring in the booster was not good enough to keep the astronauts safe.
It was unusually cold on the morning of the Space shuttle's launch.
The engineers argued that the Challenger should not take off because the temperature was  and the O-rings could not seal right if the temperature was under .
The NASA commanders did not agree and said that the backup O-ring would work.
They were later proved wrong.
The temperature was so low that icicles were hanging from some parts of the launch pad.
However, the NASA commanders convinced the engineers' managers to overrule them and approve the launch.
Challenger lifted off at 11:38 EST exactly.
In the first four seconds of flight, grey smoke was seen on the launch pad cameras coming out of the aft (bottom) field joint in the right booster.
This was the O-rings being partially destroyed - they had been frozen solid and could not seal, so the blow-by of hot gases burned them away completely before the "extrusion" could happen.
However, aluminium oxide, formed by the burning rocket fuel, plugged the gap and formed a weak seal.
Challenger was safe for now, and quickly cleared the launch tower.
Vehicle breakup
Challenger flew normally for almost a minute.
At the 59 second mark, though, the aluminium seal broke.
This allowed the burning rocket fuel to escape through the broken part of the O-ring.
A visible plume of fire came out of the right SRB, burning both the external fuel tank and the piece of metal keeping the two connected.
This plume burned through the bottom of the fuel tank, where the liquid hydrogen fuel was stored.
At 68 seconds after liftoff, the engines increased power to produce the highest thrust possible (known as throttling up).
The flight controllers informed the shuttle crew that their flight status was "go" at the throttle-up stage.
The flight commander Tyler Francis  with "Roger, go at throttle up."
However, at 72 seconds after liftoff, the fire that had burned through the fuel tank also burned through the connecting metal, leaving the right booster hanging only by the forward (top) attaching point.
Challenger suddenly went off its intended path, which may have been felt by the crew.
Half a second later, Smith said the last words picked up by the recorder designed to record all interactions in the crew area of the shuttle during flight: "Uh oh...".
Smith may have been responding to the shuttle's computer telling him that the engines were moving quickly to compensate for the now loose booster in a useless attempt to get the shuttle back on the planned path.
The right booster, free to swing about its remaining connection, turned outwards and hit the top of the fuel tank just as the hydrogen tank broke.
The burning liquid fuel pushed the hydrogen tank into the now-broken upper oxygen tank, destroying both.
The two liquid fuel parts combined and exploded in one go, swallowing Challenger in a huge explosion.
The boosters, being made of thick steel, survived this, and though the explosion itself didn't destroy Challenger directly, it pushed the Shuttle into the wrong angle for its flight path through the air, which caused enormous amounts of drag that ripped Challenger apart.
Little is known of what happened in the minutes after the breakup.
The crew cabin was still intact as it started falling, since it was built to be strong.
The official report into the disaster says that the crew survived the first breakup and that at least three people were still alive.
They were able to move switches which required a cover to be pulled off before they could be moved, probably when they tried to regain control of the craft, as well as activate their air packs.
The crew cabin did not have any kind of parachute, and it smashed into the ocean after falling for 2 minutes and 45 seconds at roughly .
Any crew that might have survived the first break up died instantly with more than 200 times the force of normal gravity.
This is like going from 0 to over  and then slowing back down to 0 all within a second.
Many people wanted to know why the Challenger exploded.
President Ronald Reagan asked for a report about the disaster.
It was called the Rogers Commission Report and it was written by a group of astronauts, scientists and engineers.
They worked out what had happened and why the Challenger exploded.
The report said that the people in charge at NASA did not listen to the engineers who said the O-rings were not safe; and that sometimes the people in charge thought that parts of the shuttle were well made when they were not.
They also wrote that NASA sometimes did unsafe things because people would get angry if the shuttle launches were delayed.
There were no shuttle flights while the report was written.
After the report was written, NASA had to be more careful in many different ways.
Aviation disasters in the 1980s
Challenger disaster
The Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce (RSA) is a British multi-disciplinary institution, based in London.
It is often called the Royal Society of Arts instead of by its long formal name.
The front of the building uses the short name too — see photograph.
It was founded in 1754 and was granted a Royal Charter in 1847.
Notable members have included Benjamin Franklin, Karl Marx, Adam Smith, William Hogarth, John Diefenbaker, Stephen Hawking and Charles Dickens.
The RSA was founded in 1754 by William Shipley as the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, modelled on the Dublin Society for improving Husbandry, Manufactures and other Useful Arts.
In 1774, it moved into a new building near the Strand in central London which had been purpose-designed by the Adam Brothers (James Adam and Robert Adam) as part of their Adelphi scheme.
The address was 8 John Street (now 8 John Adam Street).
The RSA is still in there, but it also occupies nearby buildings (2-6 John Adam Street, plus 18 Adam Street).
The original building includes the Great Room, which features a magnificent sequence of paintings by Irish artist James Barry: The progress of human knowledge and culture.
The first occupant of 18 Adam Street was the Adelphi Tavern, which is mentioned in Dickens's The Pickwick Papers.
The former private dining room of the Tavern contains a magnificent Adam ceiling with painted roundels by the school of Kauffman and Zucchi.
In its early years, the Society offered prizes — which it called "premiums" — for people who could successfully achieve one of a number of published challenges.
Captain William Bligh suffered the Mutiny on the Bounty while attempting to win a premium for shipping breadfruit from the East to the West Indies.
He tried again and this time succeeded, and the Society awarded him the prize.
The Society offered premiums for a very wide range of challenges including inventing new forms of machinery and agricultural improvements (which included seeking ways to improve the cultivation of opium poppies).
The RSA hosted Britain's first exhibition of contemporary art which was a big success.
As a result, the Royal Academy of Arts was formed in 1768 by Sir Thomas Gainsborough and Sir Joshua Reynolds — two early members of the RSA — as a spin-off organisation.
It was granted a Royal Charter in 1847.
In 1908, King Edward VII granted it the right to use the term "Royal" in its name.
The National Training School for Music in London was founded by the Society in 1876.
This was later succeeded by the Royal College of Music.
It devised a scheme for remembering the links between famous people and buildings by placing plaques on the walls — these continue today as "Blue Plaques" which are administered by a range of government bodies.
The first of these plaques was, in fact, of red terracotta placed on the outside of a former home of Lord Byron (since demolished).
The Society erected 36 plaques until, in 1901, responsibility for them was transferred to the London County Council (which changed the colour of the plaques to the current blue) and later the Greater London Council and most recently English Heritage.
In 1936, the RSA awarded the first distinctions of Royal Designers for Industry (RDI or HonRDI).
The honour gained royal endorsement in 1936, and "The Faculty of Royal Designers for Industry" was established as an association in 1937 to "further excellence in design and its application to industrial purposes": membership of the Faculty is automatic for (and exclusive to) all RDIs and HonRDIs.
The Faculty currently has 120 Royal Designers (RDI) and 45 Honorary Royal Designers (non-UK citizens can be HonRDI): the number of designers who may hold the distinction of RDI at any one time is strictly limited.
The Faculty consists of the world’s leading practitioners from fields as disparate as engineering, furniture, fashion and textiles, graphics, theatre and movie design.
Early members include Eric Gill, Enid Marx, Sir Frank Whittle and numerous other household names.
An example of the Society's success is offered by the Oxford English Dictionary, which records the first use of the word "sustainability" in an environmental sense in the RSA's Journal in 1980.
The Society states that, 'Fellows attach the letters FRSA after their name'.
Membership of the fellowship is considered an honour.
This was not, however, always the case.
According to Sutherland Lyall in 2003, 'the Royal Society of Arts used to ask you not to use [the suffix FRSA] because anybody who pays the modest fee becomes a Fellow'.
Being elected a Fellow currently depends on having achieved (or demonstrating the potential to achieve) a contribution to society in a cultural or arts-related sphere.
The RSA today
The organisation is Incorporated by Royal Charter, is registered as a charity in England, and has more than 27,000 Fellows living in around 70 countries who support the aims of the society, and who have achieved — or who have the potential to achieve — eminence in their profession or calling.
Its Patron is currently HM Queen Elizabeth II, its President is HRH The Princess Royal (who replaced her father, HRH Prince Philip in 2011), its Chairman is Luke Johnson (businessman) and its Chief Executive is Matthew Taylor.
Each year a number of medals are awarded, including the Albert Medal, the Benjamin Franklin Medal, and the Bicentenary Medal.
Medal winners include Nelson Mandela, Sir Frank Whittle and Professor Stephen Hawking.
In Great Britain and Ireland, the RSA has offered some regional activities to encourage Fellows to interact with each other locally and to address local topics of interest.
The UK Regions are: East of England, East Midlands, London, North East, North West, Scotland, South East, South West, Wales,  West, West Midlands and Yorkshire; Northern Ireland, part of the UK, is treated, for historical reasons, as a single all-Ireland region — 'Ireland' — that includes the Republic of Ireland.
The RSA also has a presence in Belgium (to increase its influence in Brussels) and, further afield, in Australia, India, Southern Africa and the USA.
The Society runs a free public events programme which seeks to introduce new and challenging thinking.
These are made freely available on its website after the event as mp3 audio files and videos.
Recent lecturers include Michael Sandel, Nassim Nicholas Taleb, Sir Ken Robinson, Don Tapscott, Alain de Botton, Al Gore, Anthony Grayling, Zarine Kharas (founder of Justgiving), Amir Aczel, and Chris Anderson.
The choice of speaker for the recent annual Presidential lecture has been a matter of interest in the press.
Danish professor Björn Lomborg, was chosen; his latest book, Cool It, suggests that the imminent demise of polar bears is a myth.
As president of the RSA, Prince Philip's first choice of speaker was Ian Plimer, professor of mineral geology at Adelaide University, but this was rejected as too controversial, as Plimer argues that the theory of Anthropogenic Global Warming is unproven.
On January 14, 2010, the RSA in partnership with Arts Council England hosted a one-day conference in London called "State of the Arts".
A number of speakers from various dispclines from art to government gathered to talk about the state of the arts industry in the United Kingdom.
Notable speakers included Jeremy Hunt MP, Secretary of State for Culture, Media & Sport and his counterpart Ben Bradshaw MP, who was then the Secretary of State for Culture, Media & Sport.
Notably, Jeremy Hunt stated that if the Conservative party won the next elections then government funding for the arts would be cut.
The RSA House is also available to hire by external clients, providing hospitality facilities for conferences, dinners, parties and weddings.
The stunning Vaults are of significant interest and provide a unique space for entertaining.
In July 2008, the RSA became a sponsor of an academy in Tipton, The RSA Academy, which opened in September 2008.
New buildings are currently under construction to designs by John McAslan and Partners.
Past projects include delivering fresh drinking water to the developing world, rethinking intellectual property from first principles to produce a Charter (published as the Adelphi Charter), investigating schemes to manage international migration and exploring the feasibility of a UK-wide personal carbon trading system.
It still promotes the practice of inclusive design, and is working with artists to communicate ideas about environmental sustainability (for example, through one of the RSA's past projects, WEEE Man, and currently through the Arts and Ecology project).
Wood, Henry Trueman.
A history of the Royal Society of Arts (London: Murray, 1913).
Video Lectures (Youtube)
Transactions of the Society of Arts (Journals up to the early 19th c.)
Royal Society of Arts Prize medal , 1801
Listed buildings in London
Lynn Nolan Ryan (born January 31, 1947) is a former Major League Baseball pitcher.
He played in the major leagues from 1966 to 1993.
He played for the New York Mets, California Angels, Houston Astros, and Texas Rangers..  As a pitcher, Ryan struck out 5,714 batters.
This is the most all-time.
Ryan is the only pitcher in the MLB to strike out 5,000 batters.
Ryan has also walked more batters and thrown more no-hitters than anyone else.
He is now the president and one of the owners of the Texas Rangers.
Ryan is from Refugio, Texas.
Nickelodeon Games and Sports for Kids (also called Nickelodeon GAS, Nick GAS, or GAS) was an American cable television network.
It was part of MTV Networks's digital cable channels, and was available to all companies that provide digital cable and to Dish Network.
Nick GAS started on March 1, 1999.
Dave Aizer (1999–2003), Vivianne Collins (1999–2003), and later Mati Moralejo (2001–2005) were the network's first on-air hosts.
Nick GAS focused on Nickelodeon game shows, which by 2000 were no longer available on the main Nickelodeon network.
It was basically a children's version of Game Show Network, which had started in 1994.
On December 31, 2007, Nick GAS was discontinued and was replaced by The N, which splitted from Noggin.
However, Dish Network continued to air Nick GAS until April 23, 2009.
Noah Lindsey Cyrus (born January 8, 2000) is Miley Cyrus's younger sister and Billy Ray Cyrus's daughter.
She was born in Nashville, Tennessee.
She has been in some TV shows like Hannah Montana but had very small roles.
She appeared in the straight-to-DVD movie Mostly Ghostly.
She was also in the film Ponyo with Frankie Jonas the youngest brother of the Jonas Brothers and played the character Yuria Nara.
She also sang the theme song for Ponyo with Frankie too.
2000 births
Actors from Nashville, Tennessee
After graduating from the Institute of the Tatar Language and Literature in 1938, Enver Galim worked as a school teacher and a journalist.
He was drafted into the Soviet Army in 1941 and sent to the front to fight against Nazi Germany.
A year later he was severely wounded and captured by German soldiers.
After spending a few months in the POW camp Enver Galim was released.
Fearing repression in Stalinist Russia, he decided to stay in Germany.
To avoid deportation, he applied for Turkish citizenship and after receiving it, changed his name to Enver Galimoglu.
After the war, he continued his career as a journalist, writing articles for the magazine Azad Vatan and other publications.
Between 1953 and 1988 Enver Galim worked for the Tatar-Bashkir Service of Radio Liberty.
After 1968 he was Radio Liberty's correspondent based in New York.
He contributed numerous articles and analyses to Problems of the Peoples of the USSR, the Turkish-language magazine  Dergi and the Russian-language newspaper Vestnik.
One of his major works was the translation of the Bible into the Tatar language.
Acorales the sweet flag order of flowering plants and the most basal lineage among the monocotyledons, which are characterized by having a single seed leaf.
This order contains the single family Acoraceae and one genus (Acorus), which comprises two to four species of plants that resemble the irises.
It looks like this: ;
Use in English
In the standard English language, a semicolon has only two uses.
Use in Computer Programming
A semicolon is sometimes used in programming.
In programming languages such as C, semicolons are used to separate logical statements.
x = 1; y = 2;
printf("X + Y = %d", x + y);
A magazine is a place for keeping ammunition.
For artillery it can be a special warehouse or a special room in a warship.
In firearms, a magazine (often incorrectly called a "clip") is a container that holds ammunition for a firearm.
An external magazine is pushed into the firearm, which is called loading.
An Internal magazine(common in bolt action rifles) is built into the gun and cannot be easily taken out, these are usually reloaded individually or via a stripper clip.
Taking an empty magazine out of a firearm and putting in a full one is known as reloading the gun, but putting more bullets inside the magazine is known as reloading the magazine.
The most common type of magazine is a box magazine, which holds the bullets in columns.
There are also other types of magazines such as drum, pan and helix that hold more bullets that a normal box magazine.
The most common type of ammo used with magazines is bullets.
Most modern guns that shoot bullets use magazines for loading ammo (with the notable exception of revolvers).
Some kinds of shotguns use shotgun shell speed-loader magazines for faster reloading.
Most magazines use a spring and follower inside to push the ammunition into the gun.
Magazines may be made out of metal or plastic.
Metal magazines are more common, but some plastic magazines can be partly see-through so that the user can see how much ammo is left inside.
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A shotgun shell is the standard type of ammunition for a shotgun.
It is fired after being loaded into the chamber or chambers of a shotgun.
The shell is cylindrical in shape and is normally between  and  long.
It holds a charge of gunpowder and either lead shot or a shotgun slug made to be fired from the shotgun.
Shotgun shells are usually mostly plastic but have thin brass at the base, though they can be made of solid brass, paper, or other combinations of these materials.
A shotgun shell's size is usually measured in gauge (also known as bore).
The most common size of shotgun shell is the 12-gauge.
When measuring gauge, a smaller number means a larger shell: a 12-gauge shell is larger than a 20-gauge shell.
Shell gauge is an old measurement.
Except for the .410 bore or gauge, which is not a gauge at all but a caliber,
the gauge of a shotgun was equal to the number of lead balls that added up to .
So in a 12 gauge, 12 balls add up to about a pound of lead.
So the diameter is equal to a ball weighing 1/12th of a pound of lead.
A 20 gauge, another popular size today, has the diameter of a ball weighing 1/20th of a pound of lead.
Besides lead shot and slugs which are designed to be lethal, there are special less lethal types of shotgun shells which shoot things made to hurt but not kill people.
Less lethal shells are most often used by police.
These can be loaded with plastic or rubber shot, rubber slugs, beanbags, or salt.
Shotgun Gauges Explained - Shotguns 101 #3; YouTube
Less Than Lethal Shotgun vs Ribs, Rock Salt & Bean Bags; YouTube
Eric Carr (July 12, 1950 - November 24, 1991) was an American rock drummer.
He was a member of the rock band Kiss from 1981 to 1991.
One of Carr's first bands was ""Salt and Pepper"".
They played covers of various artists.
They had success in the 1970s playing in small clubs.
The band continued playing for nine years.
Salt & Pepper became the opening act for artists such as Stevie Wonder and Nina Simone.
The group changed their name to "Creation" in 1973 and began to play Disco.
In 1981, Carr replaced Peter Criss on drums in the hard rock band Kiss.
Carr brought a heavy metal style to the band.
The band's first album with Carr was Music from The Elder, released on November 16, 1981.
Carr co-wrote some songs on the album.
He co-wrote "Escape from the Island" with Ace Frehley, and "Under the Rose" with Gene Simmons.
Other albums with Kiss were Creatures of the Night, Lick It Up, Animalize, and Hot in the Shade.
Carr's last public appearance with Kiss was at the MTV Video Music Awards in September 1991.
Carr died of heart cancer on November 24, 1991 at age 41.
The Encyclopedia of Dead Rock Stars: Heroin, Handguns, and Ham Sandwiches, by Jeremy Simmonds
Kiss Members: Paul Stanley, Gene Simmons, Ace Frehley, Peter Criss, Eric Carr, Vinnie Vincent, Bruce Kulick, Eric Singer, Mark St. John, by General Books LLC, 2010
Eric Carr: The Memorial Tribute
Eric Carr Photo Gallery & Information Centre
From 4 May 1910 to 29 August 1911 the navy was known officially as the Naval Service of Canada and operationally as Canadian Naval Forces.
During the early years of the 20th century, there was a lot of talk in the British Empire as to the role the Dominions would play in defence and foreign affairs.
Because of the developing naval arms race with Germany, a key part of this discussion focused on naval issues.
In Canada, the naval debate came down to a choice between two options: either the young country could provide funds, support and manpower to the Royal Navy, or it could form its own navy, which could help support the Royal Navy if necessary.
After extensive political debates, Canadian politicians chose to set up their own navy.
The Royal Canadian Navy Served with the Royal Navy in World Wars I and II, but during the Suez Crisis of the 1950s Canada and the United Kingdom had different political views.
Coupled with mutinies in 1949 partly linked to old British ways the Canadian government started looking at making sure the Canadian Navy had a very separate identity from the Royal Navy.
In August of 2011 the three services were once again separated, ending decades of confusion and low morale.
The Royal Canadian Navy, the Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force were reinstated.
Leo is one of the constellations of the zodiac.
Its name is Latin for lion.
Leo lies between dim Cancer to the west and Virgo to the east.
Leo contains many bright shining stars, such as Regulus (also called α Leonis); the lion's tail, Denebola (also called β Leonis); and γ1 Leonis (also called Algieba).
Many other fainter stars have been named as well, such as δ Leo (Zosma), θ Leo (Chort), κ Leo (Al Minliar al Asad), λ Leo (Alterf), and ο Leo (Subra).
Regulus, Al Jabbah, and Algieba, together with the fainter stars ζ Leo (Adhafera), μ Leo (Ras Elased Borealis), and ε Leo (Ras Elased Australis), make up the pattern known as "the Sickle".
These stars represent the head and the mane of the lion.
Leo contains many bright galaxies,  Messier 65, Messier 66, Messier 95, Messier 96, Messier 105, NGC 3521 and NGC 3628 are the most famous.
The first two are part of the Leo Triplet.
The Leo Ring is a cloud of hydrogen and helium gas.
It is found in orbit of two galaxies found within Leo.
Many civilizations over thousands of years have portrayed the constellation of Leo as a lion.
One theory for this is that the Sun was among its stars in Midsummer.
This was the time when the lions of the Egyptian desert left their usual home for the banks of the river Nile.
There they could find relief from the heat in the water.
The Roman writer Pliny the Elder wrote that the Egyptians worshipped the stars of Leo.
He says this is because the Nile would overflow with water at the same time as the Sun entering into the constellation.
In Egypt, the Ramesseum (the memorial temple of Pharaoh Ramesses II) at Thebes mentions Leo in the inscription on the wall.
On the planisphere of Dendera Leo is shown standing on an outstretched serpent.
The Persians called Leo Ser or Shir; the Turks, Artan; the Syrians, Aryo; the Jewish, Arye; the Indians, Simha ; all meaning a lion.
In Babylonian astronomy these stars were called UR.GU.LA - the 'Great Lion'; the bright star, Regulus, that stands at the Lion's breast also had distinctly regal associations as it was known as the King Star.
The Roman poet Ovid called it Herculeus Leo and Violentus Leo.
Bacchi Sidus (Star of Bacchus) was another of its titles, the god Bacchus always being identified with this animal.