the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Yangchuanosaurus was a genus of theropod dinosaur from the Jurassic of China.
It was a fairly typical carnosaur, with a large head, sharp, serrated teeth, and relatively short arms (though not as short as those of Tyrannosaurus).
It was the largest predator in its part of the world.
Yangchuanosaurus probably preyed on sauropods, such as Mamenchisaurus, or stegosaurs, such as Tuojiangosaurus.
There are two species.
Y. zigongensis is from the Middle Jurassic, and Y. shangyouensis is from the Upper Jurassic.
Specimens were collected from the Dashanpu Dinosaur Quarry of Zigong, Sichuan.
The Middle Jurassic Y. zigongensis is known from four incomplete specimens.
There are two specimens of the Upper Jurassic Y. shangyouensis, which were at first put into separate species.
Later analysis showed they were probably different ages or variations of the same species.
The first skull is 82 cm (2.7 ft) long, and its total body length about 8 m (26 ft).
The other specimen was even larger.
It had a skull length of 1.11 m (3.6 ft).
It may have been up to 10.8 m (35.4 ft) long, and weighed as much as 3.4 metric tons (3.7 short tons).
There was a bony knob on its nose and multiple hornlets and ridges, similar to Ceratosaurus.
It had a massive tail that was about half its length.
Bones of Pelorosaurus have been found in England and Portugal.
It was a Brachiosaur, with front legs that were longer than its hind legs.
The name has been challenged, and has been the subject of long-lasting dispute.
Some palaeontologists prefer the name Cetiosaurus brevis.
The taxonomic status of Pelorosaurus is as a result very problematic.
Technically, Cetiosaurus brevis is its type species.
The position of Pelorosaurus is further undermined by the fact that several researchers hold that the genus is a nomen dubium ('doubtful name').
Pelorosaurus was one of the first dinosaurs described, and the naming procedures were not so well-developed at the time.
Its life-style is assumed to be similar to other brachiosaurs, eating from the higher branches of tall conifer trees.
Giovanni de Medici was born in Florence.
He was the second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent.
Cardinal Medici was elected pope on 9 March 1513.
On the 15 March he was ordained priest, and he was consecrated as bishop on March 17.
He was crowned Pope on 19 March at the age of 37.
"Leo X", Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911
Catholic Hierarchy, Pope Leo X
Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, Cardinal Medici
A crumpet is a kind of flat, small round bread that is raised by yeast.
They are about the same size as an English muffin.
They are made in crumpet rings that are four inches wide and usually one inch deep.
Crumpets are usually baked on a griddle and served toasted.
A well-baked crumpet has a brown bottom and a spongey top that has many tiny holes.
Crumpets are toasted whole, while English muffins are split and then toasted.
After the baking, crumpets are spread with butter or cream and jam.
The word of crumpet may come from the Middle English word crompid (cake), or curled (cake).
Or it may come from the past participle of the Middle English verb crumpen, which means to curl up.
It could also have come from crumb, crump, or crooked, all Old English.
Crumpet is also used as British slang for a particularly sexually attractive woman.
It Australian slang, it is part of the expression: "not worth a crumpet", meaning that somebody or something is useless.
The first recipe for crumpets was long ago, referred to frequently as the "crompid cake" by many.
The Oxford English Dictionary traced the history back to 1382.
The Oxford Companion to Food also says that the earliest published recipe for crumpets was by Elizabeth Raffald, in 1769.
There, the "crompid cake" is mentioned as well with buckwheat griddle cakes so it is believed that there is a connection between crumpets and the buckwheat pancake.
Elizabeth Raffald mentions it in her book of The Experienced English Housekeeper.
Her recipe is very similar to the modern crumpet recipe, especially in the baking, buttering, and serving.
Edam is a type of Dutch cheese.
It is named after the town that it comes from, Edam in the Netherlands.
Edam cheese is pale yellow.
It is often sold in round pieces, covered in red paraffin wax.
Edam that is sold in the Netherlands (and not exported) does not usually have wax on it.
The Night Angel Trilogy is a series of fantasy novels written by Brent Weeks.
The first book in the series, The Way of Shadows, was published in October 2008, and the third book, Beyond the Shadows, was published in December 2008.
The Way of Shadows
Shadow's Edge
Taylor Chorney (born April 27, 1987) is a Canadian-born American professional ice hockey defenceman.
He currently plays for the Pittsburgh Penguins of the National Hockey League (NHL).
He has also played for the Edmonton Oilers and St. Louis Blues.
He was drafted by the Edmonton Oilers with the 36th overall pick in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft.
He also was on Team USA at the 2006 World Junior Championships.
Chorney represented the USA again in the 2007 World Juniors, where he was team captain.
He made his NHL debut on April 10, 2009 against the Calgary Flames.
He recorded his first NHL point in his first game of the 2009-10 season, by assisting one of Zack Stortini's two goals on October 12, 2009 on the road against the Nashville Predators.
A homologous trait is any characteristic which is derived by evolution from a common ancestor.
This is contrasted to analogous traits: similarities between organisms that were evolved separately.
The term existed before 1859, but got its modern meaning after Darwin established the idea of common descent.p45
A homologous trait is often called a homologue (also spelled homolog).
In genetics, the term "homologue" is used both to refer to a homologous protein, and to the gene (DNA sequence) encoding it.
Homology vs analogy
According to Russell, we owe to Richard Owen the first clear distinction between homologous and analogous organs.
Owen's definitions were:
Analogue: a part or organ in one animal which has the same function as another part or organ in a different animal.
Homologue: the same organ in different animals under every variety of form and function.
The distinction is made clear by examples such as the ear ossicles of mammals.
These little bones have, in the course of several hundred million years of evolution, made their way from the gill covers of fish to the rear jaw bones of Synapsids to their present position in the ear of mammals.
In the fossil record is evidence of this, and also in embryology.
Later in development, tiny bone structures break loose from the jaw and migrate to the inner ear area.
The ear ossicles are homologous with the jaw bones and the gill covers, but not analogous.
Level of analysis
A trait may be both homologous and analogous, depending on the level at which the trait is examined.
For example, the wings of birds and bats are homologous as forearms in tetrapods.
However, they are not homologous as wings, because the organ served as a forearm (not a wing) in the last common ancestor of tetrapods.
Cladistic terms
Homoplasy: evolved independently, but from the same ancestral structure.
Plesiomorphy: present in a common ancestor but secondarily lost in some of its descendants.
Synapomorphy: present in an ancestor and all of its descendants.
Gene sequences
Orthology: genes or sequences of DNA which are similar because they came from a common ancestor.
They were originally separated by a speciation event.
Orthologs (orthologous genes) are genes in different species which originated by vertical descent from a single gene of the last common ancestor.
The term "ortholog" was coined in 1970 by Walter Fitch.
Paralogy: when a gene is duplicated to occupy two different places in the same genome, the two copies are paralogous.
Paralogous genes often belong to the same species, but this is not necessary: for example, the haemoglobin gene of humans and the myoglobin gene of chimpanzees are paralogs.
Paralogs typically have the same or similar function, but sometimes do not.
At least one of the copies will be under less selection pressure, and may mutate and acquire a new function.
Xenology: Homologs resulting from horizontal gene transfer between two organisms.
Xenologs can have different functions, if the new environment is vastly different for the horizontally moving gene.
In general, though, xenologs typically have similar function in both organisms.
Deep homology
In evolutionary developmental biology,  the concept of deep homology is used to describe cases where growth and differentiation are controlled by genetic mechanisms that are homologous and deeply conserved across a wide range of species.
Textbook examples common to metazoa include the homeotic genes that control differentiation along the body, and pax genes (especially PAX6) involved in the development of the eye and other sensory organs.
An algorithm identifies deeply homologous genetic modules in unicellular organisms, plants, and non-human animals based on phenotypes (such as traits and developmental defects).
The technique aligns phenotypes across organisms based on the homology of genes involved in the phenotypes.
The Discovery Channel is a cable television channel about science, history, and nature.
It has programs such as Man vs. Wild, A Haunting, The Last Day of the Dinosaurs, MythBusters, and Dirty Jobs.
The Last Day of the Dinosaurs is a 2010 Discovery Channel television documentary about the extinction of the dinosaurs.
It portrays the asteroid as the cause of the extinction.
Featured genera
In the Pacific Northwest of North America, a Quetzalcoatlus is flying above the landscape, looking for food.
It finds a nest of Tyrannosaurus babies that have just hatched.
It picks them up in its beak and starts eating them.
Suddenly, the father appears and starts fighting the Quetzalcoatlus.
He grabs it by the wing, but it manages to escape.
Meanwhile, the asteroid is getting closer to Earth.
The narrator says that it was caused by the collision of two asteroids 150 million years ago.
One of the fragments is heading towards Earth.
In the Pacific Northwest, two male Triceratops fight for mating rights.
One of them wins.
The loser walks away.
Suddenly, two T. rexes attack and kill the Triceratops.
They start feeding on its carcass.
In what is today central Mexico, a herd of Alamosaurus is roaming the plains in search of food.
They are giants, even by dinosaur standards.
They are 60 feet long and 40 feet tall, and they weigh 30 tons.
Their huge size demands that they eat a lot of vegetation to maintain their bulk.
Meanwhile, the asteroid enters the Earth's atmosphere.
It is burning brighter than a million suns.
The scorching light sears the ''Alamosaurus eyeballs, blinding them.
Then the asteroid hits the Earth in the Gulf of Mexico, near the Yucatan Peninsula.
In a fraction of a second, it disentegrates into the planet.
The air temperature near the crash site now reaches 600 degrees Fahrenheit.
The Alamosaurus are burned alive.
In the Pacific Northwest, the Quetzalcoatlus can see the impact.
Meanwhile, Mongolia is 8,000 miles away from the point of impact.
A herd of Charonosaurus is drinking at a watering hole.
They are protecting their eggs.
Suddenly, a Troodon appears.
Its brain-to-body weight ratio is among the highest of any dinosaur.
It steals an egg, but is seen by the mother.
It runs into a cave.
A second Saurornithoides is in the cave.
The two predators start chasing the Charonosaurus.
They jump on its neck and slash with their retractable toe claws, killing their prey.
Then they start feasting on the carcass.
Millions of tons of dust and rock were thrown up into the air by the asteroid's impact.
This is the ejecta cloud.
In Mongolia, the ejecta cloud causes the temperature to become hotter.
As the air temperature reaches 120 degrees, the Troodons run inside the cave.
The temperature ticks upward every second.
The Charonosaurus go into the cave.
Inside the cave, it is cooler.
However, the Charonosaurus and Troodon are forced to share the cave with each other, even though they are enemies.
Back in the Pacific Northwest, fires burn across the forest floor at 9 miles per hour.
The Tyrannosaurus and the Triceratops are running to get away from the fire.
The panicked animals race up the valley slopes.
In Mongolia, the temperatures are finally starting to decrease.
The Troodon run outside and start feeding on a Charonosaurus corpse.
Soon, the Charonosaurus follow.
However, one stays near the protection of the cave.
However, the dinosaurs are not safe yet.
The ejecta cloud has caused a huge sandstorm.
As it hits, the Troodons are small enough to crouch for cover.
But the Charonosaurus are out in the open.
The harder they struggle and the deeper they gasp for oxygen, the more sand fills their lungs, until finally, they can't breathe.
It's hours before the winds die down.
The last Charonosaurus, protected once again by the cave, finds that it's the last of the herd.
But it's not the last remaining dinosaur in the neighborhood.
The Troodons were sheltered from the worst of the storm.
They have survived.
Instinct drives the Troodon back to their prime hunting spot, the watering hole, where the last remaining Charonosaurus is drinking.
The Troodon are desperate for food.
One of them has the confidence to attack.
The Troodon runs to theCharonosaurus and leaps on it.
It  starts slashing at its neck.
The Charonosaurus is still too exhausted to run.
Suddenly, the Charonosaurus crashes to the ground, crushing the Troodon to death under its weight.
The remaining Troodon starts eating the dead body of its companion.
A week after impact, food is in very short supply across the entire planet.
In the Pacific Northwest, two Triceratops are searching for food.
Their hunger drives them to the Pacific coast.
They see an island.
Protected from the fires by the surrounding ocean, the island is lush and green.
It has all the food that the Triceratops need.
But when the asteroid hit the Earth, it caused an earthquake under the ocean.
This causes a huge tsunami.
The ocean is dragged back hundreds of feet.
The path to the island is suddenly dry land.
The Triceratops walk across the land bridge to the island.
However, the tsunami crashes down on them, flooding the land.
The Triceratops drown.
In the days and weeks that follow, few dinosaurs remain.
In Mongolia, the starving Charonosaurus stays close to the cave that has saved it twice in the past.
Suddenly, it collapses, but not from starvation.
Bubbling to the surface from hot springs is one of nature's most toxic gases; Hydrogen Sulfide.
The Troodon runs up to the dead Charonosaurus.
Then it too dies from inhaling the poisonous gas.
In the Pacific Northwest, only a handful of dinosaurs patrol the gray wasteland.
An Ankylosaurus, severely weakened by hunger, is searching for food.
All it can find is a small bush.
But even that won't come without a fight.
A Triceratops roars at the Ankylosaurus.
Suddenly, a T. rex appears.
It roars at the herbivores.
Then it kills the Triceratops.
The Ankylosaurus tries to defend itself with its heavy tail club, but it's too weak to fight.
The Tyrannosaurus flips the Ankylosaurus over and bites its soft underbelly, killing it.
Then the Tyrannosaurus collapses from hunger.
It falls on the Triceratops''' horn and is impaled by it after tripping over the Ankylosaurus.
In Mexico, the first region to be hit by the asteroid, life still remains.
Buried in the cool ground inside its egg, an Alamosaurus baby has survived.
And so has an adult Alamosaurus.
All around the world, small handfuls of dinosaurs try to start over.
But their species are already considered extinct.
In order to survive, any species needs to maintain a critical mass of population.
If it falls below that threshold, then there's no way to climb back from certain extinction.
But life on Earth is not completely destroyed.
Out of the ruins, nature starts over.
A group of animals that have long been limited in success by the dinosaurs now become the new rulers of the Earth: mammals.
Eventually, they multiply and diversify.
10,000 species explode across the planet.
And one species, humans, branches off from its relatives and comes down from the trees.
They walk on two legs, evolve bigger brains, and eventually, they rule the planet.
They build cities that touch the sky, vehicles that can leave the planet, and weapons that can destroy it.
Inaccuracies
There is no evidence for a collision of meteorites.
Meteorites tend to break up as they enter the atmosphere
Troodon mongoliensis didn't live at the end of the age of dinosaurs.
It lived in earlier stages of the Late Cretaceous.
Charonosaurus wasn't discovered in Mongolia.
It lived in northeastern China.
It was found on the southern bank of the Amur River, on the border with Siberia.
The dinosaur models used here are the same as those used in Clash of the Dinosaurs.
The Parasaurolophus was used for the Charonosaurus, the Deinonychus was used for Saurornithoides, and the Sauroposeidon model was used for Alamosaurus.
The same Tyrannosaurus, Triceratops, Ankylosaurus, and Quetzalcoatlus models were also used.
It is never shown how the female Quetzalcoatlus dies.
However, she is last seen flying away from the tsunami, so it is presumed that she was killed by the tsunami.
When the narrator explains that the air temperature is hot enough to boil away the water in the Alamosaurus skin, water is seen flying off the dinosaurs' necks.
http://dsc.discovery.com/videos/last-day-dinosaurs/
Charonosaurus was a genus of hadrosaur that lived at the very end of the Upper Cretaceous, about 65 million years ago.
Its remains were found in China.
The partial skull resembles that of Parasaurolophus from North America.
This does not suggest a Bering land bridge existed during the Cretaceous period, since at that time North America was far away from Eastern Asia.
Instead, it is likely that this group of hadrosaurs all had a similar long, backward-projecting hollow crest.
It may have been used for trumpeting their calls.
In other words, their skull shape was a basal feature.
Charonosaurus was a very large lambeosaurine hadrosaur (estimated around 13 m (42.5 ft) long), known from a partial skull found in Heilongjiang Province, northeastern China.
Adult and juvenile hadrosaur remains were found in the same area.
They give information on the rest of the skeleton; the femur length was up to 1.35 m. (4.5 ft).
Charonosaurus was featured in the Discovery Channel television documentary The Last Day of the Dinosaurs, where it was the prey of Troodon.
Dinosaur brains and intelligence are interesting topics.
Dinosaurs were once regarded as stupid animals, but it is now realised that some of the smaller carnivores had above average intelligence for reptiles.
This idea led to exaggerated portrayals in films like Jurassic Park.
The idea that Stegosaurus had a "brain the size of a walnut" (an oft-repeated phrase), was not quite accurate.
It had a brain the size of a dog's, but in proportion to its body, the brain was very small.
In the 1880s a well-preserved Stegosaurus braincase allowed Othniel Charles Marsh to get a cast of the brain cavity, which gave an idea of the brain size.
The endocast showed that the brain was indeed small: relative to body size, maybe the smallest among the dinosaurs.
The fact that an animal weighing over 4.5 metric tonnes (5 short tons) could have a brain of no more than 80 grams (2.8 oz) led to the idea that dinosaurs were unintelligent, an idea now largely rejected.
Marsh also noted a large canal in the hip region of the spinal cord, which could have accommodated a structure up to 20 times larger than the famously small brain.
This may have been used to coordinate the hind region in defence against theropod attack.
This function for the "second brain" is not proved by any direct evidence.
Brain-body size relationship
Brain size usually increases with body size in animals (is positively correlated).
That means large animals usually have larger brains than smaller animals.
The relationship is not linear however.
Generally, small mammals have relatively larger brains than big ones.
Mice have a direct brain/body size ratio similar to humans (1/40), while elephants have comparatively small brain/body size (1/560), though elephants are obviously quite intelligent animals.
Encephalization quotient (EQ)
The formula for the curve varies, but is usually given as Ew(brain) = 0.12w(body)2/3.
As this formula is based on data from mammals, it should be applied to other animals with caution.
For some of the other vertebrate classes the power of 3/4 rather than 2/3 is sometimes used, and for many groups of invertebrates the formula may give no meaningful results at all.
Intelligence in animals is hard to establish, but the larger the brain is relative to the body, the more brain weight might be available for complex cognitive tasks.
Rather than simply measuring raw brain weight, the EQ formula makes for a ranking of animals.
The ranking coincides better with the observed complexity of behaviour.
Mean EQ for mammals is around 1, with carnivorans, cetaceans and primates above 1, and insectivores and herbivores below.
It also puts humans at the top of the list.
The relationship between brain-to-body mass ratio and complexity of behaviour is not perfect, because other factors also influence intelligence.
These factors include the evolution of the recent cerebral cortex and different degrees of brain folding.
This increase the surface of the cortex, which is positively correlated to intelligence in humans.
Dinosaur brains
Problems with EQ
Traditional comparisons of brain volume to body mass in dinosaurs have estimated brain size as the volume of the endocast.
However, the brain of the modern reptile genus Sphenodon fills only about half of its endocranial volume.
Some paleontologists used this fifty percent estimate in their estimates of dinosaur brain volume.
Other workers have observed that details on the endocranial surface indicates that some fossil reptiles had brains that occupied a much larger portion of the endocranium.
Larsson notes that the transition from reptiles to birds prevents using a set ratio from being a valid approach to estimating the volume of the endocranium occupied by a dinosaur's brain.
Adding difficulty is the wide range of estimates for live mass.
One study estimated that the live masses for many dinosaur genera had a four-fold range.
Larsson laments that "[t]he broad ranges of body mass estimates, combined with the ambiguous ratio of endocranial volume occupied by the brain, present a high degree of uncertainty for [creating an] index of brain size".
Consequently, he attempted to minimize errors by making a different kind of comparison.
While it is difficult to estimate the absolute volume of the brain, the proportions of its various regions of the brain should be the same in the endocast as it was in the live brain.
Larsson's study compared the ratio of the cerebrum, which is clearly marked on the inside of skulls, to the rest of the endocast's volume.
According to Larsson, his technique is superior to traditional comparisons of brain volume to estimated live body mass.
Theropod brains
Most dinosaurs, and most theropods, had brains no better than present-day reptiles, so far as can be estimated.
In a 2001 study of a Carcharodontosaurus saharicus endocast, Hans Larsson found that both C. saharicus and Allosaurus had a ratio of cerebrum to brain volume that was very similar to non-avian reptiles.
By contrast, the Tyrannosaurus ratio was slightly in the direction of a more bird-like proportion.
Since tyrannosaurs are relatively basal coelurosaurs, this is evidence that the advent of the Coelurosauria marks the beginning of a trend in theropod brain enlargement.
Troodon's cerebrum-to-brain-volume ratio was 31.5% to 63% of the way from a nonavian reptile proportion to a truly avian one.
Archaeopteryx had a cerebrum-to-brain-volume ratio 78% of the way to modern birds.
The method used for Larsson's comparison was not the EQ, but a ratio of the size of the cerebrum to the whole brain.
The cerebrum is chiefly responsible for what might be called 'intelligent behaviour'.
The brains of dinosaurs were generally much like other reptiles in their proportions.
The exception is the coelurosaurs, which had cerebra proportionately larger than most reptiles, but proportionately smaller than modern birds.
Tellurium(IV) iodide, also known as tellurium tetraiodide, is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is TeI4.
Tellurium(IV) iodide is a black solid.
It breaks down when heated to tellurium(II) iodide and iodine.
It conducts electricity when melted.
It is made by reacting tellurium with iodine or by reacting tellurium with iodomethane, CH3I.
Tellurium(IV) fluoride, also known as tellurium tetrafluoride, is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is TeF4.
Tellurium(IV) fluoride is a white solid.
It reacts with water to make tellurium dioxide and hydrofluoric acid.
It reacts with many metals when heated.
It is made by reacting tellurium dioxide with sulfur tetrafluoride.
It can also be made by reacting cold fluorine with tellurium.
Another way is reacting selenium tetrafluoride with warm tellurium dioxide.
Fluorine can also react with tellurium(II) chloride or tellurium(II) bromide to make tellurium(IV) fluoride.
Tellurium(IV) oxide, also known as tellurium dioxide, is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is TeO2.
Tellurium(IV) oxide can be yellow or white.
The white form is the manmade form.
The yellow form is natural, also known as tellurite.
The manmade form is most common in chemical reactions.
At high pressure, the manmade white form turns into the yellow form.
It melts at a high temperature to make a red liquid.
Tellurium(IV) oxide does not dissolve in water.
It reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid.
It can react with many strong acids and powerful oxidizing agents.
It can also react with strong bases.
It makes one's breath smell like garlic when it is eaten.
It is used in devices that can convert light into sound.
It can make glass with special properties.
It can cause birth defects.
It also makes bad breath.
Tellurium(VI) oxide
Tellurium dioxide, TeO2
Tellurium trioxide, TeO3
Tellurium(VI) fluoride, also known as tellurium hexafluoride, is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is TeF6.
It is the oldest known tellurium fluoride.
Tellurium(VI) fluoride is a colorless gas.
It condenses to a white solid when made cold.
It has a very bad smell.
It is similar to selenium hexafluoride, even though it is less volatile (not as easily evaporated).
It reacts with water to make telluric acid and hydrofluoric acid.
It reacts with tellurium under  to make tellurium tetrafluoride.
It is made by reacting hot fluorine with tellurium.
Cold fluorine gas makes tellurium tetrafluoride.
It can also be made by reacting fluorine with tellurium trioxide.
Another way to make it is reacting selenium tetrafluoride and tellurium dioxide to make tellurium tetrafluoride, which is heated above  to make tellurium hexafluoride and tellurium.
Avram Glazer (born October 19, 1960 in Rochester, New York) is the joint-chairman of Manchester United Football Club with his brother Joel.
Glazer lives in New Orleans with his wife and their two children.
He is a son of Malcolm Glazer.
Avram
Telluric acid is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is H6TeO6.
It contains hydrogen and tellurate ions.
It contains the TeO66- form of the tellurate ion.
Telluric acid is a weak acid.
It is a powerful oxidizing agents.
It can be dehydrated to make tellurium trioxide.
The metatelluric acid, H2TeO4, does not exist.
Electrical resistivity is a concept in electrical engineering.
It is a measure of how much a material stops the flow of electric current through it.
Most metals have very low electrical resistivity.
More precisely, "the resistivity of a material of conductor is the resistance of its unit area of cross section and per unit of its length" The International System of Units uses the ohm metre for measuring how much electrical resistivity there is.
Electrical resistivity is the inverse of electrical conductivity.
This term is more used for semiconductors and insulators.
The resistivity of a substance is equal to the resistance of a rod of that substance which is 1 metre long and 1 square metre in cross-section.
This can be a 1 cubic Metre cube.
So we can also say that the resistivity of a substance is equal to he resistance between the opposite faces of a 1-metre cube of the substance.
The resistivity of a substance does not depend on its length or thickness.
It depends on the nature of the substance and temperature.
Manzanar was the name of a Japanese American internment camp in California.
It was near Lone Pine, California, in the desert near Death Valley.
Thousands of people were kept there; most of them were Japanese people from Los Angeles.
The camp opened in 1942 and was closed in 1945.
Today, the camp is a National Historic Site.
Don Philip Rupasinghe Gunawardena (11 January 1901 – 26 March 1972) was a Sri Lankan politician.
He introduced Trotskyism to Sri Lanka.
He studied in the United States and picked up liberal ideas there.
Sri Lankan politicians
"Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" is an extremely popular Christmas song that is played every holiday season.
The words were written by Ralph Blane and the music by Hugh Martin in 1943.
The song was first introduced by Judy Garland in the 1944 movie, Meet Me In St. Louis.
A modified version was introduced by Frank Sinatra who felt the original was too sad for his 1957 album, A Jolly Christmas.
It has also been recorded by many other performers including Christina Aguilera, Demi Lovato, Sam Smith and the Pretenders.
In 2007 ASCAP listed the song at number three in the 25 most played holiday songs.
1940s songs
Frank Sinatra songs
Hurricane Diane was really devastating to the East Coast of the US during 1955.
The storm caused severe destruction and an unusually severe death toll.
Diane was among several hurricanes which bashed the East Coast during 1955, the others being Connie and Ione.
The name Diane was later retired.
Martha Stewart (born Martha Helen Kostyra, August 3, 1941) is an American entrepreneur, author, and media personality.
Stewart is famous for the Martha Stewart Living TV show and magazine.
She was born in Jersey City, New Jersey to Polish-American parents.
In 2004, Stewart was convicted of obstructing justice and lying to investigators about a stock sale.
She served five months in a West Virginia prison.
She was on ABC but moved to another channel.
In May 2018, President Donald Trump said he was thinking about pardoning Stewart for her charges.
Paul Christison Edwards (born ) is an English  organist and composer of music for the Anglican Church.
Paul Edwards spent his childhood in the village of Turvey in Bedfordshire.
He liked church music, especially the sound of the big organ in the church at Turvey.
He became a chorister at St Paul’s Cathedral for four and a half years and then spent the same amount of time as lay clerk at Peterborough Cathedral.
He has been organist and choir master at several churches in Bedfordshire, including All Saints, Turvey and St. Paul's Church, Bedford.
He works as a teacher, piano accompanist and choral singer.
Edwards has made a series of recordings of interesting old organs of North Bedfordshire.
He has transcribed and edited ten volumes of 18th century English Organ Music.
The list of all his compositions has 450 opus numbers.
They include about 150 hymn tunes and a large number of anthems.
Many of these works have been published in collections including Hymns for Today’s Church, Psalms for Today and Carols for Today.
His carol No Small Wonder, written in 1983 was published in Carols for Today in 1986 and was recorded on LP by Canterbury Cathedral  Choir.
It was sung at the famous Nine Lessons and Carols service broadcast on the BBC Television by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge in 2000.
His music has been recorded on several CDs.
Edwards finds inspiration for his compositions in the English countryside, especially that of Norfolk   He also enjoys driving and photographing busses and coaches.
A lay clerk, also known as a lay vicar, is a term used in the United Kingdom to describe a male singer who sings in a cathedral choir or a choir belonging to a college of one of the large traditional universities.
A lay clerk is usually paid for the job.
When he is called "lay vicar" the term "vicar" comes from the Latin word "vice" (meaning "deputy").
A lay vicar is not in holy orders (he is not a priest).
Today there are a few female lay clerks, e.g. in Dublin.
The term "layman" was used in the Middle Ages for a chorister who sings some of the music that was too difficult for the priests to sing.
Today many of the lay clerks in places such as Oxford or Cambridge combine their work as layclerk with studying at University.
It is similar to a scholarship for studying.
Owen is probably best remembered today for coining the word Dinosauria (meaning 'Terrible Reptile'), and for his outspoken opposition to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.
Owen's technical descriptions of vertebrates were important.
His Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates (3 vols.
London 1866–1868) was a standard reference work for many years.
Controversies with his peers
"Owen: the most distinguished vertebrate zoologist and palaeontologist... but a most deceitful and odious man."
Richard Broke Freeman (Charles Darwin: a Companion.
Dawson 1978)
Owen credited himself and Georges Cuvier with the discovery of the Iguanodon, completely excluding any credit for the original discoverer of the dinosaur, Gideon Mantell.
This was not the first or last time Owen would deliberately claim a discovery as his own, when in fact it was not.
Owen was finally dismissed from the Royal Society's Zoological Council for plagiarism.
Owen was highly critical of Darwin's On the Origin of Species, in part because Darwin did not refer much to the previous scientific theories of evolution.
Instead, Darwin compared the theory of evolution by natural selection with the unscientific theory in the Bible.
Owen, in Darwin's opinion, was "Spiteful, extremely malignant, clever; the Londoners say he is mad with envy because my book is so talked about". "
It is painful to be hated in the intense degree with which Owen hates me".
"At the root was Owen’s feeling that Kew should be subordinate to the British Museum (and to Owen) and should not be allowed to develop as an independent scientific institution with the advantage of a great botanic garden."
In the first part of his career Owen was regarded rightly as one of the great scientific figures of the age.
In the second part of his career his reputation slipped.
This was not solely due to his underhanded dealings with colleagues; it was also due to the serious errors of scientific judgement which were discovered and publicized.
A fine example was his decision to classify man in a separate sub-class of the Mammalia (see Thomas Henry Huxley).
In this Owen had no supporters at all.
Also, his unwillingness to come off the fence concerning evolution became increasingly damaging to his reputation as time went on.
English palaeontologists
Ashcroft v. Al-Kidd is a 2011 case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court.
It was a civil lawsuit filed in federal court.
It argued that holding Muslim-Americans after the September 11 attacks was unconstitutional.
A young man named Lavoni T. Kidd was a prominent football player at the University of Idaho.
He is an American citizen.
While at college, Kidd converted to Islam and took the name Abudulla al-Kidd.
In 2003, the police arrested Al-Kidd as he was boarding a flight to Saudi Arabia, where he planned to study.
He was held for 15 nights under the federal material witness statute (a law that allows police to hold people who are going to testify in court) because he was going to testify in the trial of Sami Omar Al-Hussayen.
FBI Director Robert S. Mueller told Congress that al-Kidd's capture was one of the FBI's "success" stories.
Al-Kidd was never charged with a crime or called as a witness.
Al-Kidd went to court, suing John Ashcroft, who was United States Attorney General from 2001 to 2005.
Al-Kidd said he was strip-searched, shackled, interrogated without having a lawyer with him, and treated as a terrorist.
The American Civil Liberties Union lawyers who represented al-Kidd claimed he was one of 70 Muslim men who were treated this way.
Aschroft claimed that he had "absolute immunity" from civil lawsuits like al-Kidd's.
In other words, because his actions were part of his duties as Attorney General, nobody can sue him about those actions.
Ashcroft also claimed that he had "qualified immunity" that prevents such lawsuits unless the official violated someone's constitutional rights.
In 2009, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit found that Ashcroft could be sued and held personally responsible for the wrongful holding of al-Kidd.
On October 18, 2010, the United States Supreme Court agreed to hear Ashcroft's appeal.
Supreme Court decision
On May 31, 2011, the Supreme Court ruled against al-Kidd by a vote of 8-0.
(Usually there are nine Supreme Court Justices, but Justice Elena Kagan did not participate in the al-Kidd case.)
To show that Ashcroft could be sued, al-Kidd's lawyers had to meet a very high burden of proof.
They needed to prove that Ashcroft was directly involved in holding al-Kidd, or that he knew what was happening to al-Kidd.
The Court ruled that al-Kidd's lawyers had not proved these things.
They suggested that al-Kidd's detention was handled mostly by people who were much less powerful than Ashcroft.
All eight Supreme Court Justices agreed that the Ninth Circuit's ruling should be reversed.
However, the Justices reached this decision for different reasons.
Justice Antonin Scalia wrote a majority opinion.
He was joined by Chief Justice John G. Roberts and Justices Anthony Kennedy, Clarence Thomas, and Samuel Alito.
Scalia wrote that a Magistrate Judge had issued a valid arrest warrant for al-Kidd based on specific information about him.
Al-Kidd was not arrested in a general effort to sweep a large group of Muslims into jail  he was specifically arrested because he was suspected.
In a footnote in his opinion, Scalia argues with Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg about what type of "individualized suspicion" is needed to justify arresting a person.
Scalia wrote that a person does not need to be suspected of "wrongdoing"  he just needs to be suspected.
Scalia found that Ashcroft was protected from any possible lawsuits for ordering this group of arrests:
Concurring opinions
Justice Kennedy wrote a concurring opinion.
He was joined by Justices Ginsburg, Stephen Breyer, and Sonia Sotomayor for Part I of his opinion.
He also wrote that al-Kidd's lawsuit should be dismissed.
Kennedy wrote the second part of his opinion alone.
In this part, he described his concern that the Attorney General of the United States cannot be personally sued just because lower courts in some parts of the United States have made legal decisions opposing his policies.
Justice Ginsburg, joined by Justices Breyer and Sotomayor, wrote that it was "uncertain" just how powerful the Material Witness Statute was.
For example, she/ questioned whether a "law-abiding citizen" who was not suspected of wrongdoing could be sent to jail if he saw "a crime during the days or weeks before a scheduled flight abroad."
Ginsburg, Breyer, and Sotomayor were also concerned about how al-Kidd was treated in jail.
The Court did leave al-Kidd with the right to sue his jailers for mistreating him.
Brit milah is the Jewish ritual circumcision ceremony performed on eight-day-old male babies.
The foreskin is cut off from the end of the penis.
The operation is carried out by a person called a mohel, a ritual circumciser, who has been trained and qualified for this task.
This ceremony is important for many Jewish people as it is a symbol of the covenant that God made with Abraham.
Abraham is a patriach.
Lithium nitrate is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is LiNO3.
It contains lithium and nitrate ions.
Lithium nitrate is a colorless solid.
It makes a red flame when heated.
It breaks down when heated into lithium oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen.
Lithium nitrate is used in fireworks to make a red color.
It is also used in flares.
Lithium peroxide is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is Li2O2.
It contains lithium and peroxide ions.
Lithium peroxide is a white solid.
It is used to absorb carbon dioxide on spaceships.
It also releases oxygen when it absorbs carbon dioxide.
Lithium peroxide reacts violently with water to make oxygen.
It also is an oxidizing agent and can catch things on fire.
It is corrosive because it is basic.
Adam McKay (born April 17, 1968) is an American actor, director, writer and comedian.
Born in Pennsylvania, he directed and wrote several movies and won the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay in The Big Short.
Earth Hour is an event organized by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).
It is held on the last Saturday of March every year.
The WWF asks people to shut off their lights and appliances for one hour.
They want to raise awareness for climate change.
It was started in 2007.
Police action is a term for the use of military forces without declaring war.
Many military actions are called police actions.
People do not declare war commonly any more.
His first success was with Matthew Kaufman.
In 1981 they were the first to grow embryonic mice stem cells in a laboratory.
Evans, Oliver Smithies and Mario Capecchi discovered a technique in genetic engineering.
It is known as homologous recombination of transgenic DNA.
This is important because it is the most reliable method of changing animal genomes.
Ahmed Al Safi (, born 1971) is an Iraqi sculptor and painter.
AlSafiArt
Baghdad Journal - Artnet.com
Maria Stuarda is an Italian opera in three acts by Gaetano Donizetti, libretto by Giuseppe Bardari, after Friedrich Schiller's play Maria Stuarda.
It was first performed in Naples, on October 19,1835, under the name of Buondelmont due to censorship problems, and in its original version in Milan, on December 30, 1835.
One of Donizetti's finest work, it is notable for the confrontation scene between Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth I of England, which in real life never took place.
it was heartbreaking.
the sopranolater became famous and well loved.
Principle roles and voice types
Maria Stuarda - soprano
Roberto Devereux is an Italian opera in three acts by Gaetano Donizetti, libretto by Salvatore Cammarano, after François Ancelot's Elisabeth d'Angleterre, it was first performed in Naples, on October 29, 1837.
It is a powerful and sweeping work and is sometimes considered one of the most "verdian" of Donizetti's operas.
After almost a century of neglect, it was revived in Naples by soprano Leyla Gencer in 1964, and has since then been regularly performed, notably by sopranos Montserrat Caballé and Beverly Sills.
The plot is about the love between Queen Elizabeth I of England and her favorite Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex.
Elisabetta I - soprano
Roberto Devereux - tenor
Sara, Duchess of Nottingham - mezzo-soprano
Duke of Nottingham - baritone
The Complete Dictionnary of Opera & Operetta, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993.
Roman Wales was an area of south western Britannia under Roman Empire control from the first to the fifth century AD.
Romans considered it to be part of "Roman Britain".
South east Wales was fully made Roman at the beginning of the fifth century.
Pre-Roman Wales
Up to and during the Roman occupation of Britain, the native inhabitants of Iron Age Britain spoke "Brythonic" languages (a sub-family of the Celtic languages) and were regarded as Britons (or Brythons).
The area of modern Wales was divided among a number of tribes, of which the Silures in modern south-east Wales and the Ordovices in central and northwest Wales were the largest and most powerful.
These two tribes were the ones who put up the strongest force to the Roman invasion: Mona (the island of Anglesey) was only conquered by Gnaeus Julius Agricola in 78 AD.
Roman invasion of Wales
The first attack on the Celtic tribes of what is now Wales was made under the legatus Publius Ostorius Scapula about 48 AD.
Ostorius first attacked the Deceangli in the north-east, who appear to have surrendered with little resistance.
He then spent several years campaigning against the Silures and the Ordovices.
Their resistance was led by Caratacus, who had fled what is now southeast England when it was conquered by the Romans.
He first led the Silures, then moved to the territory of the Ordovices, where he was defeated by Ostorius in 51 AD.
Caratacus fled to the Brigantes, whose queen handed him over to the Romans.
The Silures waged effective warfare against the Roman forces.
Ostorius died with this tribe still unconquered; after his death they won a victory over the Roman Second Augusta Legion, Legio II Augusta.
There were no more attempts to extend Roman control in Wales until the governorship of Caius Suetonius Paulinus, who attacked further north and captured the island of Anglesey in 60 or 61 AD.
However he was forced to stop the offensive to meet the threat from the rebellion of Boudica.
The Silures eventually came under Roman rule by Sextus Julius Frontinus in a series of campaigns ending about 78 AD.
His successor Gnaeus Julius Agricola subdued the Ordovices and recaptured Anglesey by the beginning of 78 AD.
Occupation and romanisation
The Romans occupied the whole of the area now known as Wales, where they built Roman roads and Roman forts, mined gold at Luentinum and conducted commerce, but their interest in the area was limited because of the difficult geography and shortage of flat agricultural land.
Most of the Roman remains in Wales are military in nature.
Romans are only known to have founded one town in Wales, Venta Silurum (Caerwent) in Monmouthshire, although the fort at Moridunum (Carmarthen) was later superseded by a civilian settlement.
The modern-day Wales is thought to have been part of the Roman province of "Britannia Superior", and later of the province of "Britannia Secunda", which also included part of what is now the West Country of England.
The later part of the third century witnessed a new concern: defending the coast from seaborne marauders from Hibernia (actual Ireland).
The response was a Saxon Shore-style fort at Cardiff and refurbishment elsewhere.
The remaining recognisably military posts seem to have been abandoned c.AD 393 when soldiers were needed to counteract a rebellion in Gaul.
There is some evidence that troops may have been left to guard the towns of Carmarthen and Caerwent into the fifth century.
End of Roman Wales
The town lacked substantial defences until the mid 4th century, when stone town walls were built.
A small garrison may have been based in the town during that period.
Large sections of the defensive walls are still in place, rising up to 5 metres (17 feet) in height in places.
The walls have been described as "easily the most impressive town defence to survive from Roman Britain, and in its freedom from later rebuilding one of the most perfectly preserved in Northern Europe."
Indeed, the Roman town remained occupied after the Roman troops left, until at least the end of the fifth century.
Caerwent has been even called the possible Camelot of King Arthur, because it is located only ten miles from the Roman fort Isca Silurum (actually Caerleon), that Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote was the place of the Round Table.
Furthermore, it appears that Christian worship was already established in the town in the fifth century, and it may have had a bishop.
A monastery was founded by Saint Tatheus in the 6th century, and a Christian cemetery was also established around the site of the present church.
The name Venta gave its name to the emerging Kingdom of Gwent, and the town itself became known as Caer-went or "Castra/Fort of Venta/Gwent".
Tradition holds that Caradog Freichfras of Gwent moved his court from Caerwent to Portskewett during the second half of the 6th century, finishing in this way the last romanised presence in Wales.
Aldhouse-Green Miranda, Ray Howell.
Gwent in Prehistory and Early History: The Gwent County History.
London, 2004.
A History of Wales.
London, 1994.
Millett, M. The Romanization of Britain.
Cambridge, 1990
Mommsen, Theodore.
The Provinces of the Roman Empire.
Barnes & Noble Books.
New York, 1996
Welsh People
Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales
Roman Wales on the RCAHMW website