the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Orthopox: variola virus, vaccinia virus, cowpox virus, monkeypox virus, smallpox (eradicated); Parapox: orf virus, pseudocowpox, bovine papular stomatitis virus; Yatapox: tanapox virus, yaba monkey tumor virus; Molluscipox: molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV).
Edward Drinker Cope (July 28, 1840 – April 12, 1897) was an American biologist.
He was notable for his work on fossil animals of North America.
Cope was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Cope was a paleontologist, comparative anatomist, herpetologist and ichthyologist.
He wrote many papers.
His parents were rich Quakers.
His father wanted him to be a farmer, but he became a scientist.
Later, they owned a museum in Philadelphia.
Mostly, he read books on his own to learn science and found things out himself.
He was not a teacher.
He did field work, and wrote a lot.
In the 1870s and 1880s, went to the American West to report what the land was like to the government.
He was often on a mapping team sent by the United States Geological Survey.
For a while he and Othniel Charles Marsh were competing to find dinosaurs.
This fight between them is called the Bone Wars.
Sometimes being a scientist cost him more money than he could afford.
In the 1880s, Cope lost so much money in his silver mines that he had to sell a lot of his fossil collection in 1886.
In the 1890s he was no longer poor, but he died when he was only 57.
1,400 of his articles were published in science journals.
He found over 1,000 species of extinct animals.
He wrote about hundreds of kinds of ancient fish.
He found dozens of dinosaurs.
He wrote about the evolution of mammalian  molars teeth, and produced two huge works on the amphibia and reptiles of North America.
Cope showed that horses evolved to be larger as they moved from woodland onto grassland.
The fact that the fossils show the mammals getting bigger over time is called Cope's rule.
Cope was the first son of Alfred and Hanna Cope.
His father was a serious Quaker and ran the shipping business started by his father, Thomas P. Cope.
The business was started in 1821.
His parents took him to gardens, museums, and zoos.
They taught him to read and write and draw.
He started going to school when he was 9 years old.
When he was 12, his parents sent him away to a Quaker boarding school.
At 15 years old he studied biology (natural history) and often visited  the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia.
They had a Natural history museum.
His letters home show he felt farm work was not for him.p15 Cope’s father made him get a summer job on a farm when he was 14 and 15.
When he was 16 he was not sent to the boarding school any more because his father wanted him to be a farmer.p100 His father wanted him to get more exercise, so he bought him a farm.
Cope rented out the land to farmers and worked on farms.
When he was 18 years old he, began working at the Academy of Natural Sciences part-time.
He took classes.
His father paid for them.
Still, his father said he should farm.
Until he was 23, his letters to his father kept saying he did not want to be a farmer and that he wanted to be a scientist.p100
He worked at the Academy of Natural Sciences for two years, and became a member.p21 He sometimes had to visit the Smithsonian Institution where he met Spencer Baird, who knew all about fish and birds.p107 He also joined the American Philosophical Society.
The Academy and the Society published journals, and they accepted his articles.
In 1861 when he was 21 years old, he wrote about classifying salamanders.
A salamander is an amphibian.p835 He then took a comparative anatomy class from a famous teacher at the University of Pennsylvania.
Cope then asked his father if he could learn German and French so he could read science books and novels in German and French.p101
European travels
At the beginning of the American Civil War Cope tried to get a job helping in a field hospital.
Then, when he was 22, he wanted to somehow help out the freed blacks.
That year, 1863, he and his fiancée broke up and he was sad.
He went to Ireland, England and Europe.
During his trip, he met famous scientists.p26-30
While in Germany, he first met his rival, scientist Othniel Charles Marsh.p11 On February 11, 1864, he wrote to his father, “I shall get home in time to . . .
be caught by the new draft.
I shall not be sorry for this . . .
certain persons . . .
would be mean enough to say that I have gone to Europe to avoid the war".p138
Cope’s return home to Philadelphia was before the end of the Civil War.
He married a Quaker girl he knew, Annie Pim.
She lived on a farm and the wedding was held at her house.
Cope wrote papers on fish, whales, and one on a fossil frog with a tail.p835 Cope’s father gave money to a small Quaker college called Haverford College.
The college gave Cope an honorary master's degree and hired him to teach Zoology.p48
Cope went on scientific trips to the American west and wrote letters to his parents and to his wife and daughter while on those trips.
He told his father that teaching took up too much of his time for him to make scientific discoveries.p143/6 He quit his job at the college.
He and his wife and daughter then moved to Haddonfield to be closer to the fossil beds in western New Jersey.
In Haddonfield, New Jersey were marlpits, where a dinosaur skeleton was discovered in 1858 by William Foulke and named Hadrosaurus foulkii by Dr. Leidy of Philadelphia's Academy of Natural Sciences.p151/8 Cope found more fossils in the marlpits there.
For example, he described Elasmosaurus platyurus and Laelaps in 1868.
Edward Cope also went on expeditions to caves; the last cave he visited was the Wyandotte Caves in Indiana in 1871.p151/5
In his 30s the Quaker wrote a lot of scientific papers that were published.
Charles Sternberg said that in the fossil fields of Kansas Cope had a "severe attack of nightmare . . .
every animal of which we had found trace during the day played with him at night . . .
sometimes he would lose half the night in this exhausting slumber".p167
Cope also looked for fossils in the west of the United States.
In 1872 he explored Eocene rocks.
The rocks were 55 to 38 million years old.
That year, he worked too much and had a breakdown.p583 In 1873 he studied the Titanothere beds (strata) of northeastern Colorado.
Titanothere was a large extinct herbivore.p183/194
The Wheeler Survey
In 1874 Cope volunteered for the Wheeler Survey.
These geological mapping trips were led by George Montague Wheeler.
They mapped parts of the United States west of the 100th meridian.p200 The 100th meridian west is the boundary between the dry West and the rainy East of the United States.
In 1874 Cope discovered the Puerco formation in New Mexico during the Wheeler Survey.p200 The Puerco formation was a layer of soft rock 500 feet thick along the upper Puerco River near Cuba, New Mexico.
It was green and black marl (that contained chemicals used in making fertilizer).
Fossils were later found by someone at a similar formation west of there in a different county.
Cope said it was like those fossils came from his Puerco formation, which he discovered.
His cliff may have been dug by the river over a long time and it looked like it had been there a long time.
It was something the scientists he knew had not seen before him.
As part of the Wheeler Survey, he was able to shop at commissaries.
He was able to get his finding in the reports the survey published.
He brought his wife and daughter along on one trip of the survey, renting a house for them.
As a volunteer, he paid his own way.p63
When Cope was 35, his father died, leaving him a quarter of a million dollars.p837 The next year, 1876, Cope moved his wife and daughter from their house by the apple orchard in Haddonfield, New Jersey back to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – this time to a row house in the City.
He bought two units and used the one next door as a paleo-lab for his fossil collection.
He stopped doing field work to catch up on his writing.
He hired teams to look for fossils for him.
And, he helped the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition set up their fossil displays.p218 In 1877 he was able to buy half of the American Naturalist.
He published papers so fast his rival, Professor Marsh, had doubts about when Cope’s fossils were found.
In August 1878 when he was 38, Cope sailed to the British Isles to attend a scientific convention in Dublin Ireland.
He then sailed to France to go to a two-day scientific convention there.
At one of the conventions he decided to buy some boxes of Argentine fossils, maybe for the museum in Philadelphia.
When Cope came back, two years-worth of collecting by his man Lucas awaited him.
This included a Camarasaurus, a sauropod.p42
The bone wars
Cope introduced his (then) friend Marsh to the marl pit owner, Albert Vorhees, when the two visited the site.
Later he discovered that Marsh had gone—behind Cope's back and made a private agreement with Vorhees: any fossils that Vorhees's men found were sent back to Marsh at New Haven.p35
In 1868 Professor Marsh said Cope put the skull of dinosaur at the tail end.
It was Elasmosaurus, a long-necked plesiosaur.
It turned out Marsh was right, and Cope was humiliated.
The feud lasted for the rest of Cope’s life.
Both became less wealthy trying to keep the other’s men from digging for fossils.
Each criticized the other’s work in the New York Herald.
Another time Marsh tried to keep Cope from getting his articles and books published, so Cope hired two fossil-finders away from Marsh.p257
In 1889, U.S. Geological Survey stopped giving grants to Cope.
Marsh persuaded John Wesley Powell to ask Cope to give the Survey the specimens Cope found back in 1874.p233/7 249 Cope did not want to give the fossils to the Survey because when he found them he was a volunteer paying his own way.
So, he spoke to the New York Herald.p245/9 The first article was on January 12, 1890.
Cope said Marsh underpaid his workers, and said some of what Marsh wrote was really written by others.
Also, he said Powell was spending tax money wrong and had made mistakes in classifying fossils.p404 Later, another article gave their side of the story.p206 As a result of the articles, the Survey lost its funding for fossil-finding.
Marsh got fired from the Survey.
And, Cope almost got fired from the University of Pennsylvania.p329/334 Cope wondered if people thought of him as “a liar . . .
actuated by jealousy and disappointment.”
He seemed sorry Marsh had been fired, writing to Paleontologist Henry Osborn, “I think Marsh is impaled on the horns of Monoclonius sphenocerus.p408
In 1882 Cope wrote a paper about a fossil  pelycosaur Edaphosaurus.
It looked like a lizard with a huge fin along its back.
In 1886 Professor Cope fired his fossil diggers and started selling some of his large fossil collection to museums.
He also wrote forty more scientific reports about their findings that year.p242
In 1889 he reported Coelophysis, a slender dinosaur from the Upper Triassic.
This little carnivore is one of the earliest dinosaurs found.
The same year, he succeeded Joseph Leidy, who had died the previous year, as professor of zoology at the University of Pennsylvania.
In 1892, Cope (then 52 years old) was granted expense money for field work from the Texas Geological Survey.
With his finances improved, he was able to publish a massive work on the Batrachians of North America, which was the most detailed work on the continent's frogs and amphibians ever done,p350 and the 1,115-page The Crocodilians, Lizards and Snakes of North America.
In the 1890s his publication rate increased to an average of 43 articles a year.p350 His final expedition to the West took place in 1894, when he prospected for dinosaurs in South Dakota and visited sights in Texas and Oklahoma.
In 1895 Cope re-hired Sternberg, who knew about the nightmares he had about dinosaurs, to look for fossils for him.p358
Cope sold fossils to museums.
For example, in 1895 the American Museum of Natural History in New York City bought his collection of about 10,000  fossil mammals.
Cope sold three other collections for $29,000.
Although his collection still contained more than 13,000 specimens, Cope's fossil hoard was much smaller than Marsh's collection, which was valued at over a million dollars.
Cope's death
In 1896 Cope got sick, and he died on April 12, 1897.
His friends told of how they remembered him.
They then held the reading of his will.
The American Journal of Science had an obituary about Cope.
The Naturalist had a longer one.
And, the National Academy of Sciences' journal had one years later.
Cope's ideas and character
Edward D. Cope was a Quaker.
His biographer Henry Osborn wrote, “If Edward... (had) doubts about the... Bible... he did not (tell) them in his letters to his family, but there can be little question... that he shared the intellectual unrest of the period".
Cope was conservative about women working or voting.
He felt the husband should be able to take care of his wife and that married women would vote the same as their husbands.p176
He was remembered as not liking the Negro accent, and he believed that if "a race was not white then it was inherently more ape-like".p26, 169, 176
Although his daughter Julia burnt many of his private papers, many of his friends have written about him.
Charles R. Knight, a former friend, said that Cope's language was so filthy that "in [Cope's] heyday no woman was safe within five miles of him".p109
People said Cope had great energy and activity and was always interesting, kind and helpful.
Others said he had a temper and said he was a "militant paleontologist".
Some say he was well-liked by those who lived when he did.p202
Views on evolution
Cope said Charles Darwin's book The Voyage of the Beagle had "too much geology in it".
Over his lifetime Cope's views on evolution shifted.p250 His original view, described in the paper On the Origin of Genera (1868), held that while Darwin's natural selection may affect the preservation of superficial characteristics in organisms, natural selection alone could not explain the formation of genera.
Cope's beliefs became one with an increased emphasis on continual and utilitarian evolution with less involvement of a Creator.p259 He became one of the founders of the Neo-Lamarckism school of thought, which holds that individuals can pass on traits acquired in its lifetime to offspring.
Although the view has been shown to be incorrect, it was common among paleontologists in Cope's time.p68 In 1887, Cope published his own Origin of the Fittest: essays in evolution, detailing his views on the subject.
He was a strong believer in the law of use and disuse—that an individual will slowly, over time, favor an anatomical part of its body so much that it will become stronger and larger as time progresses down the generations.
This theory fails because use and disuse does not affect the genetic code of the gametes, something which became clear in the generations after his death.
Alroy, John 1999.
Edward Drinker Cope (1840–1897) National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis.
University of California, Santa Barbara URL: http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/%7Ealroy/lefa/Cope.html  Retrieved, 2008-11-17.
Bowler, Peter 1977.
Edward Drinker Cope and the changing structure of evolutionary theory.
Isis, 68, #2, pp.
249–265 University of Chicago URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/230073 Retrieved, 2009-12-05 doi:10.1086/351770
Fowler, Henry W. 1963.
Special Anniversary Features: Cope in retrospect Copeia, vol.
1963, no.
195–198 URL:  Retrieved, 2009-12-04 American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists doi:10.2307/1441319
Gill, Theodore 1987.
Edward Drinker Cope, Naturalist - a chapter in the history of science.
The American Naturalist, 31, 370, pp.
831–886.
Chicago, IL :University of Chicago Press.
doi:10.1086/276725
Osborn, Henry Fairfield 1931.
Cope: master naturalist: life and letters of Edward Drinker Cope, with a bibliography of his writings.
Manchester, New Hampshire: Ayer Company Publishing.
Google Books No preview
Penick, James.
Professor Cope vs. Professor Marsh.
American Heritage, 22, iss.
URL: http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1971/5/1971_5_4.shtml
Romer, Alfred S. 1964.
Cope versus Marsh.
Systematic Zoology, 13, #4, 201–207.
URL:   doi:10.2307/2411780
The Academy of Natural Sciences Bone Wars: the Cope-Marsh rivalry.
URL:   Retrieved, 2009-11-08
Haverford College.
Quaker and Special Collections: Edward Drinker Cope papers  URL: http://www.haverford.edu/library/special/aids/edcope/  Retrieved, 2009-11-10
Dinosaurs named by Cope, at DinoData
Profile of Edward Drinker Cope  at the Niagara Falls Museum Collection
Edward Drinker Cope obituary, 1897 archived via JSTOR
American naturalists
Ichthyologists
The National Science Foundation (NSF) is a United States government agency where discoveries begin and supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering.
Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health.
With an annual budget of about US$6.87 billion (fiscal year 2010), the NSF funds approximately 20 percent of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States' colleges and universities.
In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics and the social sciences, the NSF is the major source of federal backing.
The NSF's director, deputy director, and the 24 members of the National Science Board (NSB) are appointed by the President of the United States, and confirmed by the United States Senate.
The director and deputy director are responsible for administration, planning, budgeting and day-to-day operations of the foundation, while the NSB meets six times a year to establish its overall policies.
NSF website
1950 establishments in the United States
1950s establishments in Virginia
Y tu mamá también (And your mother too) is a 2001 award-winning Mexican road movie.
It was directed by Alfonso Cuarón and written by him and his brother Carlos Cuarón.
It was released without a rating in the United States because the movie's distributors believed a market-limiting NC-17 was unavoidable.
This movie was released during 2002 in the US.
Movies directed by Alfonso Cuarón
Adriaan Blaauw (April 12 1914—December 1 2010) was a Dutch astronomer.
He was an expert on the development of groups of young stars and how they expand away from each other.
He discovered that some massive stars, known as runaways, can be moving at speeds of hundreds of kilometers per second.
He was the scientific director of the European Southern Observatory and later became its Director General.
From 1976 to 1979 he was the President of the International Astronomical Union.
It was first used by Theodosius Dobzhansky and his colleagues.
They collected samples from populations in western North America and Mexico, and grew them in 'population cages' in the laboratory.
They were interested in natural selection, genetic drift, and other aspects of population genetics.
In 1989 Diane Dodd gave laboratory populations of D. pseudoobscura two different food types, starch and maltose.
They rapidly evolved into two distinct groups after only eight generations with the different foods.
As the two groups both showed a strong preference for mating with their own type, this was claimed as an example of speciation by reproductive isolation.
Dodd's experiment has been repeated by others, and works with other kinds of fruit flies and foods.
In 2005, D. pseudoobscura was the second Drosophila species to have its genome sequenced, after Drosophila melanogaster.
A substitute teacher is a person who is paid to teach a school class when the normal teacher cannot be there.
This may be if the normal teacher is sick or out of town.
The term substitute teacher is often used in the United States, but in the United Kingdom, the term supply teacher is often used.
In Victoria, Casual relief teacher (CRT) is the term used.
Dana Welles Delany (born March 13, 1956) is an Emmy Award-winning American movie and television actress.
She is well known for her role as Colleen McMurphy on the ABC television show China Beach (1988–1991), Katherine Mayfair on Desperate Housewives (2007–2010) and Megan Hunt on Body of Proof (2011–present).
Fastball is an American rock band from Austin, Texas.
It started in the 1990s with the name Magneto U.S.A., but later changed its name to Fastball.
Fastball became popular around Austin, Texas.
It released its first album, Make Your Mama Proud, in 1996.
However, the band did not became famous until it released its second album, All The Pain Money Can Buy in 1998.
The first song on this album, The Way, became a hit.
This song was about an elderly couple who got lost while traveling to a family reunion and died.
However, band member Tony Scalzo, who wrote the song, gave the story a happier ending in the lyrics.
The album had another big hit, Out Of My Head, and the song Fire Escape also was played on the radio.
The band's next albums, The Harsh Light Of Day, Keep Your Wig On, and Little White Lies, did not sell as many copies as All The Pain Money Can Buy.
Tony Scalzo (vocals, bass guitar, keyboards, guitar)
Miles Zuniga (vocals, guitar)
Joey Shufflefield (drums)
Make Your Mama Proud (1996)
All the Pain Money Can Buy (1998)
The Harsh Light of Day (2000)
Keep Your Wig On (2004)
Little White Lies (2009)
Step into Light (2017)
The Help Machine (2019)
Person of the Year is an issue of the United States magazine Time that has come out each year since 1927.
Until 1999, it was called "Man of the Year."
The "Person of the Year" is not always a person.
It can be a person, group, idea, or thing that "for better or for worse...has done the most to influence the events of the year".
This means that being chosen is not an award, like being chosen as the "best person of the year."
The Person of the Year may be an enemy of the United States, like Adolf Hitler (1938) or Joseph Stalin (1939 and 1942).
Every year, Time chooses the person who they think has had the most effect on the things that have happened in that year (whether those things were good or bad).
The first Person of the Year was aviator Charles Lindbergh, in 1927.
Since then, Persons of the Year have included groups, whole generations, important objects, and even the Earth.
Since the list began, every serving President of the United States has been a Person of the Year at least once, except for Calvin Coolidge, Herbert Hoover, and Gerald Ford.
Franklin D. Roosevelt is the only person to have been named Person of the Year three times.
The December 31, 1999 issue of Time named Albert Einstein the "Person of the Century".
Franklin D. Roosevelt and Mahatma Gandhi were chosen as runners-up.
Persons of the Year
1927  1950
1951  1979
1980  2000
2001  2021
Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans (13 September 1676 – 23 December 1744) was a niece of Louis XIV and wife of Leopold, Duke of Lorraine.
She was later regent of Lorraine.
As a widow she was created Princess of Commercy.
Among her children was Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, father of Marie Antoinette.
She also had much input in the construction of the Château de Lunéville.
She also introduced the future architect "Germain Boffrand" to the royal courts in 1711.
Élisabeth Charlotte was born at the Château de Saint-Cloud the daughter of Philippe, Duke of Orléans and of his second wife, Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate.
Her father was the only sibling of King Louis XIV of France.
She was entitled to have the style of Her Royal Highness.
At birth, she was given the honorary style Mademoiselle de Chartres.
After the marriage of her two older half-sisters, Marie Louise and Anne Marie born of the first marriage of their father to Henrietta of England, she was known as Madame Royale, according to her status as the highest-ranking unmarried princess in France.
There were plans for her to marry Joseph Clemens of Bavaria (Élisabeth Charlotte herself refused), William III of England, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph I, Joseph was suggested by Pope Innocent XII himself, as well as her widowed first cousin Louis, Grand Dauphin.
Another was Louis Auguste de Bourbon, Duke of Maine, eldest son of Louis XIV and Madame de Montespan.
Élisabeth Charlotte was finally married on 13 October 1698 at the Palace of Fontainebleau to Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, son of Charles V, Duke of Lorraine, and of the Archduchess Eleonora of Austria.
The marriage was the result of the Treaty of Ryswick, one of its conditions being that the Duchy of Lorraine, which had been for many years in the possession of France, be restored to Leopold, a son of Charles V, Duke of Lorraine.
Thus, Élisabeth Charlotte was but an instrument to cement the peace treaty.
The House of Lorraine received a dowry of 900,000 Livres.
To everyone surprise, what had been expected to be an unhappy union turned out to be a marriage of love and happiness.
With the birth of her children, Élisabeth Charlotte showed great maternal instinct and a naturally caring character.
The marriage produced thirteen children, of which five survived into adulthood.
Three of them died within a week in May 1711 due to a smallpox outbreak at the Château de Lunéville, the country seat of the Duke's of Lorraine.
Regent of Lorraine
Her husband died in 1729, leaving his wife Regent of Lorraine for their son, Francis Stephen of Lorraine.
After being educated in Vienna, Francis Stephen returned to Lorraine in 1737, ending his mother's tenure as regent.
Unable to prevent her son from giving up the duchy of Lorraine to Stanisław Leszczyński when he married the Habsburg heiress, Maria Theresa of Austria, Élisabeth Charlotte moved into the Château d’Haroué in nearby Commercy, which was turned into a sovereign principality for her to enjoy during her dowager years.
Élisabeth Charlotte died of a stroke, on 23 December 1744, one week after her daughter-in-law and grandchild, at the age of sixty-eight.
She was the last of her siblings to die and had outlived ten of her thirteen children.
Nine months after her death, her son Francis Stephen became Holy Roman Emperor.
She was buried in the funerary chapel of the Dukes of Lorraine in the Saint-François-des-Cordeliers church in Nancy.
Léopold, Hereditary Prince of Lorraine (26 August 1699 – 2 April 1700) died in infancy.
Élisabeth Charlotte of Lorraine (21 October 1700 – 4 May 1711) died of smallpox.
Louise Christine of Lorraine (13 November 1701 – 18 November 1701) died in infancy.
Marie Gabrièle Charlotte of Lorraine (30 December 1702 – 11 May 1711) died of smallpox.
Louis, Hereditary Prince of Lorraine (28 January 1704 – 10 May 1711) died of smallpox.
Joséphine Gabrièle of Lorraine (16 February 1705 – 25 March 1708) died in infancy.
Gabrièle Louise of Lorraine (4 March 1706 – 13 June 1710) died in infancy.
Léopold Clément, Hereditary Prince of Lorraine (25 April 1707 – 4 June 1723) died unmarried.
Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (8 December 1708 – 18 August 1765) married Maria Theresa of Austria and had issue.
Eléonore of Lorraine (4 June 1710 – 28 July 1710) died in infancy.
Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine (15 October 1711 – 3 July 1741) married Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia and had issue.
Charles Alexander of Lorraine (12 December 1712 – 4 July 1780) married Maria Anna of Austria and had issue.
Anne Charlotte of Lorraine (17 May 1714 - 7 November 1773) died unmarried.
13 September 1676 – 10 April 1684 Her Royal Highness Mademoiselle de Chartres [ Granddaughter of France ]
10 April 1684 – 13 October 1698 Her Royal Highness Mademoiselle
13 October 1698 – 27 March 1729 Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Lorraine
27 March 1729 – 14 March 1737 Her Royal Highness The Dowager Duchess of Lorraine
14 March 1737 – 23 December 1744 Her Royal Highness The Dowager Duchess of Lorraine, Princess of Commercy
Élisabeth Charlotte de Beauvau (1705–1754) daughter of the Prince of Craon who was close to the ruling family of Lorraine.
Élisabeth Charlotte of Lorraine (1700 –1711) her second child who died young.
Metalworking is the shaping of metals to create single parts, assemblies, or large scale buildings/objects.
There are many ways of shaping metal, including machining, metalspinning, forging, casting, goldsmith and fabricating.
Humans have been working metal for close to 7000 years.
Joshua Paul Davis, (born June 29, 1972) known by his stage name DJ Shadow, is an American music producer, DJ and songwriter.
He is an important person in the history of instrumental hip hop.
He became well known after his first album Endtroducing....., which was made entirely from samples.
He has a collection of over 60,000 records.
Thallium(I) carbonate, also known as thallous carbonate, is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is Tl2CO3.
It has thallium and carbonate ions in it.
Thallium(I) carbonate is a white solid.
It is similar to potassium carbonate.
It is highly toxic, though.
It reacts with acids like all carbonates do to make a thallium salt and carbon dioxide.
Thallium(I) fluoride, also known as thallous fluoride, is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is TlF. It has thallium and fluoride ions.
Thallium(I) fluoride is a white solid.
It also dissolves in ethanol.
It absorbs a little water in wet air.
Thallium(I) hydroxide, also known as thallous hydroxide, is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is TlOH.
Thallium(I) hydroxide is a yellow solid.
It dissolves in water to make a yellow and very basic solution, similar to potassium hydroxide.
It reacts with acids to make thallium salts.
It breaks down to thallium(I) oxide when heated.
Victor Amadeus III (Vittorio Amadeo Maria; 26 June 1726–16 October 1796) was King of Sardinia from 1773 until his death.
Although he was politically conservative, he carried out numerous administrative reforms until declaring war on revolutionary France in 1792.
Born at the Royal Palace of Turin, he was a son of Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia and his second wife Polyxena of Hesse-Rotenburg.
He was styled as the Duke of Savoy from birth.
As a young prince, he surrounded himself with intellectuals and stayed far from public life.
He married Maria Antonia of Spain (1729–1785), youngest daughter of Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese, on 31 May 1750 at Oulx and later had twelve children.
He had a loving relationship with his wife who exerted little influence over her husband].
The marriage had been arranged by Maria Antonia's half brother, the ruling Ferdinand VI of Spain.
King of Sardinia
When Victor Amadeus came to the throne in 1773 he started working on bureaucratic and military aspects of the reign.
He died at the Castle of Moncalieri having suffered an attack of apoplexy.
He died leaving an economically damaged kingdom and two key provinces–Savoy and Nice–devastated having suffered at the hands of French revolutionary forces.
He was buried at the Basilica of Superga in Turin.
Charles Emmanuel IV of Sardinia (24 May 1751–6 October 1819) married Princess Marie Clotilde of France in 1773, no issue.
Maria Elisabetta Carlotta of Savoy (16 July 1752–17 April 1755) died in infancy.
Maria Giuseppina of Savoy (2 September 1753–13 November 1810) married Louis Xavier, Count of Provence in 1771, no issue.
Amedeus Alexander of Savoy (5 October 1754–29 April 1755) died in infancy.
Maria Teresa of Savoy (31 January 1756–2 June 1805) married Charles, Count of Artois in 1773, had issue.
Maria Anna of Savoy (17 December 1757–11 October 1824) married Prince Benedetto of Savoy in 1775, no issue.
Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia (24 July 1759–10 January 1824) married Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria-Este in 1789, had issue.
Maria Cristina Ferdinanda of Savoy (21 November 1760–19 May 1768) died in infancy.
Maurizio of Savoy (13 December 1762–1 September 1799) died unmarried of malaria.
Maria Carolina of Savoy (17 January 1764–28 December 1782) married Antony, Electoral Prince of Saxony in 1781, no issue.
Charles Felix of Sardinia (6 April 1765–27 April 1831) married Princess Maria Cristina of Naples and Sicily in 1807, no issue.
Giuseppe of Savoy (5 October 1766–29 October 1802) died unmarried of malaria.
26 June 1726–20 February 1773 His Royal Highness the Duke of Savoy
20 February 1773–16 October 1796 His Majesty the King of Sardinia
Thallium(I) iodide, also known as thallous iodide, is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is TlI. It has thallium and iodide ions in it.
Thallium(I) iodide is a yellow solid.
It turns red when heated gently.
It is very toxic like all thallium compounds.
Thallium(I) iodide is used in mercury-vapor lamps.
It is also used in a detector of radiation.
Thallium(I) oxide, also known as thallous oxide, is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is Tl2O. It has thallium and oxide ions in it.
Thallium(I) oxide is a black solid.
It reacts with water to make a yellow solution of thallium(I) hydroxide.
It reacts with carbon dioxide to make thallium(I) carbonate.
It reacts with acids to make other thallium salts.
It is used in some superconductors.
It is also used to make certain special types of glass.
Thallium(I) oxide, black
Thallium(III) oxide, white
Thallium(I) sulfide, also known as thallous sulfide, is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is Tl2S. It has thallium and sulfide ions in it.
Thallium(I) sulfide is a black solid.
It reacts with acids to make hydrogen sulfide and a thallium salt.
It is found as a mineral called carlinite, but it is rare.
It is the only thallium sulfide mineral that does not have another metal in it.
It is made in the laboratory by reacting thallium(I) sulfate with hydrogen sulfide or by heating thallium and sulfur together.
It was used in some of the first infrared detectors.
One of the first reliable infrared detectors used thallium sulfide and it was made in World War II.
Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon (13 March 1753 – 23 June 1821), was the daughter of Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, Duke of Penthièvre and of Maria Teresa d'Este.
At the death of her brother, Louis Alexandre de Bourbon, prince de Lamballe, she became the wealthiest heiress in France.
She married the future Philippe Égalité, and was the mother of France's last king, Louis Philippe I.  She was a princess of the blood by her marriage.
Marie-Adélaïde was born on 13 March 1753 at the Hôtel de Toulouse in Paris.
Styled Mademoiselle d'Ivoy initially and, as a young girl, until her marriage, Mademoiselle de Penthièvre (derived from the duchy inherited by her father).
The style of Mademoiselle de Penthièvre had been previoulsy borne by her sister Marie Louise de Bourbon (1751–1753) who died six months after Marie Adélaïde's birth.
She was raised in a convent, the Abbaye de Montmartre, overlooking Paris.
At the death, on 8 May 1768, of her brother and only sibling, the Prince of Lamballe, Marie Adélaïde became heiress to what was to become the largest fortune of France.
Her marriage to Louis Philippe Joseph d'Orléans, Duke of Chartres, son of the Duke of Orléans, had been envisaged earlier and, while the Duke of Penthièvre saw in it the opportunity for his daughter to marry into the family of the First Prince of the Blood, the Orléans did not want a union with an illegitimate branch of the royal family.
However, the Orléans' mind changed when the Prince of Lamballe's death left his sister sole heiress to the family fortune.
Although Marie Adélaîde was much in love with her Orléans cousin, Louis XV warned Penthièvre against such a marriage because of the reputation of the young Duke of Chartres as a womaniser.
During the first few months of their marriage, the couple appeared devoted to each other, but the duke went back to the life of libertinage he had led before his marriage.
It is during the summer of 1772, a few months after his wife had given birth to a stillborn daughter, that began Philippe's secret liaison with one of her ladies-in-waiting, Madame de Genlis, the niece of Madame de Montesson, the morganatic wife of Philippe's father.
Passionate at first, the liaison cooled within a few months and, by the spring of 1773, was reported to be "dead".
After the romantic affair was over, Félicité remained in the service of Marie Adélaïde at the Palais-Royal, a trusted friend to both Marie Adélaïde and Philippe.
They both appreciated her intelligence and, in July 1779, she became the governess of the couple's twin daughters born in 1777.
On 5 April 1791, Marie Adélaïde left her unfaithful husband and went to live with her father at the château de Bizy in Normandy.
In September 1792, having sided with the Revolution, the Duke of Orléans was elected to the National Convention under the name of Philippe Égalité.
Siding with the radical group called The Mountain (La Montagne), he was from the very beginning suspect in the eyes of the Girondists (Girondins), who wanted all the Bourbons to be banished from France.
The fate of the Orléans family was sealed when Marie-Adélaïde's eldest son, the duc de Chartres, "Général Égalité" in the Army of the North commanded by Charles François Dumouriez, sought political asylum from the Austrians in March 1793.
On 6 April, all the members of the Orléans family still remaining in France were arrested.
After their arrest in Paris, Philippe Égalité and his son, the comte de Beaujolais, were imprisoned in the Abbey prison (prison de l'Abbaye) in Paris.
Later, the two were transferred to the prison of Fort Saint-Jean in Marseille, where they were soon joined by the duc de Montpensier who had been arrested while serving as an officer in the Army of the Alps.
The day before his father and brothers were arrested in France, the duc de Chartres rushed to Tournai, near the French border, where his sister Adélaïde and Mme de Genlis had been living since Philippe Égalité had made them emigrate in November 1792.
Upon the execution of her husband, Marie-Adélaïde, now known as "Veuve Égalité" (Widow Égalité), was incarcerated at the Luxembourg Palace, which had been transformed into a prison during the Revolution.
There she met the man who was to become the "love of her life", a former member of the National Convention named Jacques-Marie Rouzet.
The two always remained together and lived in Paris until 1797, when a decree banished the remaining members of the House of Bourbon from France.
Marie Adélaïde was exiled to Spain, as was her sister-in-law Bathilde d'Orléans.
Rouzet accompanied them to the Spanish border and managed to secretly join them in Barcelona where he became her chancellor.
Marie Adélaïde, Rouzet and the Orléans exiled in Spain returned to France in 1814 at the time of the first Bourbon Restoration.
After legal battles which lasted until her death, the bulk of her inheritance was eventually recovered.
She died in her castle at Ivry-sur-Seine having suffered from breast cancer.
She also was buried at the "Chapelle royale de Dreux".
Sometimes the princess is incorrectly named Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon-Penthièvre which is incorrect, and misleading (see her own signature above).
A daughter (10 October 1771) died at birth.
Louis Philippe I, (1773–1850) had issue.
Antoine Philippe, Duke of Montpensier, (1775–1807) died unmarried.
Françoise d'Orléans (1777–1782) died in infancy.
Adélaïde d'Orléans (1777–1847) died unmarried.
Louis Charles, Count of Beaujolais (1779–1808) died unmarried.
13 March 1753 – 25 September 1753 Her Serene Highness Mademoiselle d'Ivoy.
25 September 1753 – 5 April 1769 Her Serene Highness Mademoiselle de Penthièvre.
5 April 1769 – 18 November 1785 Her Most Serene Highness The Duchess of Chartres.
18 November 1785 – 6 November 1793 Her Most Serene Highness The Duchess of Orléans.
6 November 1793 – 27 June 1821 Her Most Serene Highness The Dowager Duchess of Orléans.
Thallium(I) sulfate, also known as thallous sulfate, is a chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is Tl2SO4.
It has thallium and sulfate ions in it.
Thallium(I) sulfate is colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
It is very toxic, though.
It dissolves easily in water and is similar to potassium sulfate.
It was used in rat poison, but since it is so similar to other chemicals, it poisoned some people and was outlawed.
It was also used for some medicines before it was found that it was too toxic.
It stops plants from germinating.
It is the main source of thallium in the laboratory and is used to make thallium(I) sulfide.
Thallium sulfate, like all thallium compounds, is very toxic.
This is because the size of the thallium ion is very similar to the size of the potassium ion.
After it goes into the cells, it cannot be used like potassium is used and so kills the cell.
It also gets absorbed through the skin.
Eating more than 1/2 gram can kill.
It gets deposited in the kidney, liver, brain, and similar places.
It has been blamed for the extinction of the Brown Fish Owl.
Thallium(III) halide
Monohalides
Thallium(I) fluoride, a white crystalline solid.
It is soluble in water, unlike the other thallium monohalides.
Thallium(I) chloride, sensitive to light.
Thallium(I) bromide, sensitive to light.
A pale yellow crystalline solid.
Thallium(I) iodide, at room temperature it is a yellow crystalline solid.
At higher temperatures the colour changes to red.
Trihalides
Thallium(III) halides are very rare.
Some of them are unstable.
The thallium(III) iodide does not form.
They are quite different to aluminium, gallium and indium trihalides.
Thallium(III) fluoride, also known as thallic fluoride, is made of thallium in its +3 oxidation state and fluoride ions.
It is made by reacting thallium(III) oxide with bromine trifluoride, fluorine, or sulfur tetrafluoride at a warm temperature.
Thallium(III) chloride, also known as thallic chloride, is made of thallium in its +3 oxidation state and chloride ions.
It disproportionates above 40°C, making thallium(I) chloride and chlorine.
It is made by reacting thallium(I) chloride with chlorine in an organic solution.
Thallium(III) bromide, also known as thallic bromide, is made of thallium in its +3 oxidation state and bromide ions.
It disproportionates at a low temperature to thallium(I) bromide and bromine.
It can be made by reacting thallium(I) bromide with bromine in water or an organic solution.
Thallium(I) triiodide, a black crystalline solid.
It does not contain thallium(III), but has the same structure as CsI3 containing the linear I3- ion.
Up quarks are subatomic particles that help make up many larger particles, like protons.
Up quarks have a charge of +2/3, and are the lightest of the six types (flavours) of quarks.
Like all fermions (non force-carrying particles), up quarks have a spin of 1/2.
They are affected by all four of the fundamental forces, which are gravity, the strong force, the weak force, and electromagnetism.
Like all quarks, Up quarks are elementary particles, which means that they are so small that scientists believe that they can not be divided any more.
Protons (which have a total charge of +1) are made of two up quarks (which have a charge of +2/3) and one down quark (which have a charge of -1/3).
Neutrons (which have a total charge of 0) are made of one up quark, and two down quarks.
Up quarks can also be used to create more complex particles, such as pions.
The Rape of the Lock is a poem written by Alexander Pope, mocking heros and heroines.
It was first published anonymously in Lintot's Miscellany in May 1712.
The poem is sarcastically laughing at the epic world of the gods.
It was based on an incident that was remembered by Pope's friend, John Caryll.
Arabella Fermor and Robert Petre were both from Catholic families at a time in England when Anglicanism was very important.
Petre, lusting after Arabella, had cut a lock of her hair to keep without permission, which made the two families have a big argument.
This was because in those days, cutting off a lock of the lover's hair was scandalous and symbolized improper love.
Pope, also a Catholic, wrote the poem to make the two families reconcile and be happy again.
He made the character Belinda to represent Arabella in the poem.
Pope's poem mocks all the traditions of classics.
Although the poem is funny at times, Pope keeps a sense that beauty is fragile, and that just because Belinda loses a lock of her hair she is very deeply hurt.
Three of Uranus's moons are named after characters from The Rape of the Lock: Belinda, Umbriel, and Ariel.
"The Rape of the Lock:" Study Guide With Complete Text and Detailed Explanatory Notes
The Gorgonopsids  were Therapsids, a group of tetrapods which eventually gave rise to the mammals.
Gorgonopsids were a successful group which lived during the Permian period, about 260 million years ago.
They became extinct in the Permian–Triassic extinction event.
They were the major predators of their day.
They had large, powerful, square-shaped jaws with huge, sabre-like canine and interlaced, socket-like teeth.
Many fossils have been found in South Africa.
The largest known, Inostrancevia, was the size of a large bear with a 45 cm long skull, and 12-cm long sabre-like teeth.
Rubidginae, which had large, broad skulls,
Gorgonopsinae, which included most of the gorgonopsid genera.
Inostranceviinae
Gorgonops (literally "Gorgon' face") is the name given to an extinct genus of therapsid which lived about 255-250 million years ago, during the latest part of the Permian period.
It was a typical representative of the Gorgonopsia, the dominant predators of their day, which in the largest forms grew to over four meters long.
Down quarks (sometimes written as a "d") are very small particles that help make up many larger particles, like protons and neutrons.
Down quarks have a charge of -1/3.
Since Down quarks are fermions (which means that no two of them can exist in the same space at the same time), they have a spin of 1/2.
Down quarks are the second lightest quark, the first being up quarks.
Strange quarks are the third lightest quarks, which are subatomic particles that are so small, they are believed to be the fundamental particles, and not further divisible.
Like down quarks, strange quarks have a charge of -1/3.
Like all fermions (which are particles that can not exist in the same place at the same time), strange quarks have a spin of 1/2.
What makes strange quarks different from down quarks–apart from having 25 times the mass of down quarks–is that they have something that scientists call "strangeness."
Strangeness is basically a resistance to decay against strong force and electromagnetism.
This means that any particle that contains a strange quark can not decay due to strong force (or electromagnetism), but instead with the much slower weak force.
It was believed that this was a 'strange' method of decay, which is why the scientists gave the particles that name.
Strange quarks can be found in particles such as kaons and some hyperons.
Scientists began noticing strangeness when these particles did not decay as quickly as their masses would have suggested they would have.
However, it took them a long time to even guess strangeness was the answer because it took over 16 years to predict it after the discovery of kaons.
Charm quarks or c quarks are the third most massive of the six quarks.
Like all quarks, they are thought to be so small that they can not be divided. (
They are called elementary particles for this reason).
Similar to up quarks, charm quarks have a charge of +2/3.
Although charm quarks are not extremely common, they can be found in particles created by particle accelerators (which smash atoms together at extremely high speeds), such as J/ψ mesons, D mesons, and other charmed particles.
Since they are fermions (particles that can not have more than one of that particle at the same place at the same time), charm quarks have a spin of 1/2.
The discovery of charm quarks – and J/ψ mesons – led to a rapid series of scientific breakthroughs.
These events are known as the November revolution.
Ōsaka Station (大阪駅,おおさかえき) is a railway station of JR West in Kita-ku, Osaka, Japan.
This station is also connected to Umeda Station.
JR West
Tōkaidō Line (JR Kyoto Line, JR Kobe Line)
Special Rapid Service, Rapid Service
Shin-Ōsaka - Ōsaka - Amagasaki
Shin-Ōsaka - Ōsaka - Tsukamoto
JR Takarazuka Line
Rapid Service, Tambaji Rapid Service, Local
Ōsaka - Amagasaki
Osaka Loop Line
Yamatoji Liner
Ōsaka → Shin-Imamiya
Yamatoji Rapid Service, Kansai Airport Rapid Service, Kishuji Rapid Service, Rapid Service
Temma - Ōsaka - Nishikujo
Direct Rapid Service, Regional Rapid Service, Local
Temma - Ōsaka - Fukushima
Umeda Station
Railway stations in Osaka Prefecture
Othniel Charles Marsh M.A PhD LL.D (October 29, 1831 – March 18, 1899) was one of the leading paleontologists of the 19th century.
He discovered and named many fossils found in western North America.
Marsh was born in Lockport, New York, into a family of modest means.
However, he was the nephew of the very rich banker and philanthropist, George Peabody.
He graduated from Yale College in 1860.