the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
A good example is copyright which is supposed to pay authors and artists, but may only pay lawyers to make (imitative) arguments in court.
Creativity is a central question in economics, where it is known as ingenuity (the ability to come up with new ideas) or individual capital - capacities that individuals have, that do not arise from simple imitation of what is known already.
This is separate from the instructional capital that might try to capture some of that in a patent or training system that helps others do what the individual leader or founder of the system can do.
In urban economics there are various ways to measure creativity - the Bohemian Index and Gay Index are two attempts to do this accurately and predict the economic growth of cities based on creativity.
The Cathar faith was a version of Christianity.
They were usually considered Gnostics.
The word 'Cathar' comes the Greek word katharos meaning 'unpolluted' (from Tobias Churton, The Gnostics) or  "the pure ones".
The Cathars believed that the world had been made by a bad god.
They believed that this bad god had taken them from the good god and put them in the world, but inside their bodies there was a spirit, and that spirit needed to return to the good god.
They were famous for a belief in a form of reincarnation and believed that when someone died the bad god would put that person's spirit in a new body.
They believed this cycle of coming back to life could be escaped by a ritual cleansing.
They were opposed to the doctrine of sin.
Women were prominent in the faith.
They didn't eat anything that was made from other animals, including meat and cows milk.
The only exception to this was fish.
Fish was OK to eat because they believed fishes were not alive but just things that were sometimes produced from dirt and water.
They preached tolerance of other faiths.
They rejected the usual Christian rules of marriage and only believed in the New Testament.
An earlier 10th-century Bulgarian heresy, Bogomilism and also Manichaeism started some of these trends.
They used a bible in the language people spoke.
Many other Christians used a Bible in Latin.
Latin was spoken only by the priests.
In 1145, open challenge to Catholic dominance began.
In about 1165, the first Cathars said that the Church was "full of ravening (starving) wolves and hypocrites" and "worshipping the wrong God", right in front of the most powerful Catholics.
In 1166, the Council of Oxford in England wiped out the English Cathars.
It was also suppressed in Northern France.
In 1167, Cathar bishops met to discuss organizing a counter Church - in the South of France, the Languedoc nobles protected it, and many noble women became "Perfects".
Parish clergy had low morale, or confidence.
In the South of France there was tremendous religious fervor, and an economy that was starting to grow, and a social class of  merchants and  peasants was starting to grow.
Peasants owned their own land.
Meanwhile, in other parts of Europe, peasants were forced to give up their land to nobles and become serfs or slaves - the system of feudalism.
There was a strong central absolute monarchy that did not exist in the South of France.
The burghers and bankers had more power in this looser system.
R. I. Moore is a historian who believes that it was desire to crush this system and take over the land that drove the attack.
However, there was real cultural and religious difference to cause problems:  Troubadors, who combined some of the traditions of the Bards of the Celts, and Jews, were both part of the multicultural society in the South of France.
Their influences were not appreciated by local or Roman Church figures.
The 12th century Roman Catholic Monks were founding their monasteries outside the towns, drawing the best people there.
The Cathars thus had little competition.
The Cathar "Perfects", the so-called Good Men or Good Women, lived restrained lives and spread their faith in towns - where the Catholics in general did not have their best agents.
Also, Cathars preached that only these Good leaders had to follow the regimens their whole lives - lay people could repent only on their deathbeds.
Many 20th century Christian sects have similar beliefs.
The Pope ordered a crusade against the Cathars in southern France.
He said any crusader who answered the call would be given the same rewards as a crusader who went to the Holy Land.
This was an absolution of all sin.
In the Launguedoc, on the 22nd of July 1209, a force of about 30,000 Crusaders arrived at the walls of Beziers bearing the cross pattee to mislead and create ease among the Cathars, thinking they were friend, not foe, and  demanded that about 200 Cathars be surrendered.
The people of the town who were mostly Catholic, said that rather than turn over their friends and family, "we would rather be flayed alive."
A mistake by the defenders of Beziers let thousands of attackers in.
Arnauld Amaury made the famous quote "Kill them all, god knows his own"  on being asked how to tell who were Cathars during the assault.
Everyone in the town was killed, some while taking refuge in the church.
It is guessed that 20,000 were killed, many of whom were Catholics and not Cathars at all.
The crusade became known as the Albigensian crusade after the town of Albi.
It was to wipe out the Cathars almost entirely over forty or so years.
The Crusaders wanted to go home, but were ordered by the Pope to continue until the whole South of France was controlled and all Cathars were dead.
In 1210, they attacked the fortress at Minerv and built "the first great bonfire of heretics" - beginning the practice of burning at the stake that would continue in the Inquisition of the Counter-Reformation.
It is interesting to note that at the siege of Montsegur when the fires were lit the Cathars ran down the hill and threw themselves on, as their beliefs were very strong.
Catharism disappeared from the northern Italian cities after the 1260s, pressured by the Inquisition.
The last known Cathar perfectus in the Languedoc, Guillaume Bélibaste, was killed in 1321.
http://dannyreviews.com/h/Cathars.html
http://gnosistraditions.faithweb.com/mont.html
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gui-cathars.html
http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/christ/west/cathar.html
http://pages.britishlibrary.net/forrester-roberts/cathars.html
Cathar Center in Barcelona: Books, spirituality, exhibition
Christianity of the Middle Ages
Cosmology is the branch of astronomy that deals with the origin, structure, evolution and space-time relationships of the universe.
NASA defines cosmology as "The study of the structure and changes in the present universe".
Another definition of cosmology is "the study of the universe, and humanity's place in it".
Though the word cosmology is recent (first used in 1730 in Christian Wolff's Cosmologia Generalis), the study of the universe has a long history.
Until recently, people thought that the universe was only the Milky Way galaxy.
They thought this because they could only see the planets up to Saturn and stars.
With the invention of the telescope, we could see more of the universe.
Even in the 20th century, people thought that the Milky Way was the entire universe.
With the Hubble Space Telescope, people could see things far away.
Modern cosmology is considered to have started in 1917 with the final paper of Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity.
This paper was known as "Cosmological Considerations of the General Theory of Relativity" which made physicists start to change the assumption that the Universe never changed.
When a scientific discipline begins to change an idea that is believed by many people, it is known as a paradigm shift.
During this paradigm shift, the Great Debate took place.
Many scientists debated if there were other galaxies.
The debate ended when Edwin Hubble found Cepheid Variables in the Andromeda Galaxy in 1926.
The Big Bang model was then created by Belgian priest, Georges Lemaître in 1927.
This was supported by Edwin Hubble's discovery of the redshift in 1929 and later by the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation.
This was found by Arzo Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964.
All of these discoveries have been further supported throughout the 20th century.
Some more observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation were found by the COBE, WMAP, and Planck satellites.
Some more observations of the redshift were found by the 2dfGRS and SDSS.
These are known as redshift surveys.
Survey is this context refers to an astronomical survey.
An astronomical survey is a place in space.
A redshift survey is a survey that looks for redshifts.
On 1 December 2014, at the Planck 2014 meeting in Ferrara, Italy, astronomers reported that the universe is 13.8 billion years old and is composed of 4.9% regular matter, 26.6% dark matter and 68.5% dark energy.
A church is a building that was constructed to allow people to meet to worship together.
These people are usually Christians, or influenced by Christianity.
Some other non-Christian religious groups also call their religious buildings churches, most notably Scientology.
The following description is about Roman Catholic churches, although some parts are the same in Episcopalian and Lutheran churches.
Depending on the number of people that are in a community, the churches come in different sizes.
Small churches are called chapels.
The churches in a particular geographical area form a group called the diocese.
Each diocese has a cathedral.
In most cases, the cathedral is a very big church.
Cathedrals are the seat of bishops.
History of church buildings
In the early days of Christianity people had to worship in secret.
Christian worship was not allowed in the Roman empire, so Christians had to meet in a secret place.
Sometimes they met in people’s houses or barns, sometimes they met underground.
The first places that were built for Christian worship were small chapels that were cut into a rock where people could worship without being discovered.
After the death of the Roman emperor Constantine in 337 A.D. Christians were allowed to have buildings to worship in.
These first churches were built on a similar plan to Roman basilicas.
This plan was later used for the fine Gothic cathedrals and churches that were built at the end of the Middle Ages.
The parts of a church
There are several parts in the architecture of a church.
Not all churches will have all these parts:
The nave is the main part of the church where the congregation (the people who come to worship) sit.
The aisles are the sides of the church which may run along the side of the nave.
The transept, if there is one, is an area which crosses the nave near the top of the church.
This makes the church shaped like a cross, which is a symbol of Jesus's death on a cross.
The chancel leads up to the altar at the top of the church.
The altar is in the sanctuary.
The word “sanctuary” means “sacred place”.
People were not allowed to be arrested in the sanctuary, so they were safe.
The altar is usually at the east end of the church.
People in the church sit facing the altar.
We say that the church “faces east”.
Churches will also have a tower or steeple, usually at the west end.
If the church has a transept the tower may be above the centre of the transept.
In Roman Catholic churches there is always a stoup (bowl) of holy water near the entrance of the church.
This tradition comes from the fact that Roman basilicas had a fountain for washing in front of the entrance.
The font is a bowl where people (often babies) are baptized.
This is also near the entrance of the church.
This is a symbol of the fact that it is welcoming the people into the Christian church.
Traditionally the nave has long benches for the congregation to sit on.
These are called pews.
Some churches may now have replaced their pews with chairs so that they can be moved about for different occasions.
At the front of the nave is the pulpit where the priest preaches (these talks are called “sermons”).
There is also a lectern (like a large music stand) from where the lessons (the Bible readings) are read.
If there are aisles along the side of the nave there will be pillars which hold up the roof.
In large churches or cathedrals there may be a row of little arches along the top of these pillars.
This is called the triforium.
Over the triforium is the clerestory which is a row of windows high up in the church wall.
The chancel is the most holy part of the church, and this is why it is often separated from the nave by a screen which can be made of wood or stone, or occasionally iron.
The congregation can see through the screen.
On the top of the screen there may be a cross.
This is called a rood (pronounce like “rude”) screen.
Priests used to climb up a staircase to the top of the rood screen to read the epistle and the gospel.
Sometimes people sang from there.
Inside the chancel are the benches where the choir sit.
These are called choir stalls.
They are on both sides.
The two sides of the choir sit facing one another.
The choir members who sit on the left (north side) are called “cantoris” (the side where the “cantor” sits) and those on the right (south side) are called “decani” (the side where the deacon sits).
In some large churches or cathedrals the seats for the priests tip up.
The top of these seats, when they are tipped up, are called misericords (from the Latin word for “mercy”).
This is because the priests or monks were able to lean against them when they got tired if they had to stand up for a long time.
Sometimes there are holes in the walls of the screen so that the congregation can see through.
These are called squints.
If there is a recess in the wall it is called an aumbry.
It is a cupboard for communion wine and bread that have been consecrated by a priest.
The altar may be right at the east end of the church, but in larger churches or cathedrals it is often much farther forward.
In that case the very east end is called an apse.
Sometimes it is a separate chapel called the “Lady Chapel”.
Churches through the ages
The design of churches changed a lot during the course of history.
Often churches were made bigger.
When this happened there may be a mixture of architectural styles.
These styles vary a lot in different countries.
English churches
The Saxon period (700–1050) was a time when churches were very simple.
The end of the church (end of the sanctuary) was often rounded.
Hardly any are left now because they were mostly made of wood.
The Norman period (1050–1190) came from the style called Romanesque which was popular in Europe.
The arches had ornaments which were called “mouldings”.
The tops of the pillars looked like cushions, so they were called “cushion capitals”.
The windows were narrow and rounded at the top.
Early English or Gothic architecture (1190–1280) was not as solid and heavy as Norman architecture.
Towers were elegant and tall, like the tower of Salisbury Cathedral.
The Decorated style of architecture (1280–1360)was popular at a time when the plague (Black Death) was raging and a third of the people in England died.
For that reason, not so much building was done then.
There were lots of stone carvings were made in churches at that time.
The Perpendicular style (1360–1540) was very grand.
It had lots of straight upward lines and fan vaulting.
This can be seen in Westminster Abbey and King's College Chapel, Cambridge.
Many churches that can be seen in England were built in this period.
In the 1600s, churches were built in a variety of styles.
Often they copied some of the older styles.
After the Great Fire of London many new churches were built by the architect Sir Christopher Wren.
They were built in the classical style.
Churches continued to be built in later centuries like this, but also the Gothic style continued to be used.
Modern churches often do not have the traditional cross-shape.
It is difficult for the congregation to see and hear what is happening in the chancel.
Modern churches bring the congregation, choir and priests in closer touch.
An example is the round design for the Church of Christ the Cornerstone in Milton Keynes.
Modern churches are often simpler but with a warmer character than the Gothic churches.
Many have beautiful mosaic glass windows.
Coventry Cathedral is a famous example of a modern church building.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 1973
Virtual Church
A city has many buildings and streets.
It has houses, hotels, condominiums, and apartments for many people to live in, shops where they may buy things, places for people to work, and a government to run the city and keep law and order in the city.
People live in cities because it is easy for them to find and do everything they want there.
A city usually has a "city center" where government and business occur and suburbs where people live outside the center.
A long history.
Although many cities today have only been around for tens or hundreds of years, there are a few which have been so for thousands of years.
For example, Athens, Greece was founded in 1000 BC and Rome, Italy has existed since 700 BC.
A large population.
Cities can have millions of people living in and around them.
Among them are Tokyo, Japan, and the Tokyo Metropolis around it, which includes Yokohama and Chiba.
In Japan, the population of a city ( 市 ) is at least over 50,000 persons.
and among cities, there are various grades according to laws, which the central government of Japan governs.
A center where business and government takes place.
The first case is often described as the financial capital, such as Frankfurt in Germany.
The second case is true for different levels of government, whether they are local or part of a larger region (for example, Atlanta, Georgia, or the capital of the United States Washington, D.C.) Cities that contain the government of the region it is in are called capitals.
Almost every country has its own capital.
Special powers called town privileges which have been given by the government of the country or its ruler.
Europe during the Middle Ages was a great example of having town privileges.
Having a cathedral or a university.
This rule is found in the United Kingdom.
The smallest "cathedral cities" are St. David's and St. Asaph's which are both in Wales, Ripon and Wells which are in England.
In American English, people often call all places where many people live cities. (
See below: Size of cities )
Size of cities
The sizes of cities can be very different.
This depends on the type of city.
Cities built hundreds of years ago and which have not changed much are much smaller than modern cities.
There are two main reasons.
One reason is that old cities often have a city wall, and most of the city is inside it.
Another important reason is that the streets in old cities are often narrow.
If the city got too big, it was hard for a cart carrying food to get to the marketplace.
People in cities need food, and the food always has to come from outside the city.
Cities that were on a river like London could grow much bigger than cities that were on a mountain like Sienna in Italy, because the river made a transport route for carrying food and other goods, as well as for transporting people.
London has been changing continually for hundreds of years, while Sienna, a significant city in the 1300s, has changed very little in 700 years.
In the US, the word city is often used for towns that are not very big.
When the first European people went to America, they named " city " to new places.
They hoped the places would be great cities in the future.
For example, Salt Lake City was the name given to a village of 148 people.
When they started building the town, they made street plans and called it Great Salt Lake City (for the nearby Great Salt Lake).
In modern times many cities have grown bigger and bigger.
The whole area is often called a  "metropolis"  and can sometimes include several small ancient towns and villages.
The metropolis of London includes London, Westminster, and many old villages such as Notting Hill, Southwark, Richmond, Greenwich, etc.
The part that is officially known as the " City of London " only takes up one square mile.
The rest is known as "Greater London. "
Many other cities have grown in the same way.
These giant cities can be exciting places to live, and many people can find good jobs there, but modern cities also have many problems.
Many people cannot find jobs in the cities and have to get money by begging or by crime.
Automobiles, factories, and waste create a lot of pollution that makes people sick.
Urban history is history of civilization.
The first cities were made in ancient times, as soon as people began to create civilization .
Famous ancient cities which fell to ruins included Babylon, Troy, Mycenae and Mohenjo-daro.
Benares in northern India is one among the ancient cities which has a history of more than 3000 years.
Other cities that have existed since ancient times are Athens in Greece, Rome and Volterra in Italy, Alexandria in Egypt and York in England.
In Europe, in the Middle Ages, being a city was a special privilege, granted by nobility.
Cities that fall into this category, usually had (or still have) city walls.
The people who lived in the city were privileged over those who did not.
Medieval cities that still have walls include Carcassonne in France, Tehran in Iran, Toledo in Spain and Canterbury in England.
People in a city live close together, so they cannot grow all their own food or gather their own water or energy.
People also create waste and need a place to put it.
Modern cities have infrastructure to solve these problems.
Pipes carry running water, and power lines carry electricity.
Sewers take away the dirty water and human waste.
Most cities collect garbage to take it to a landfill, burn it, or recycle it.
Transport is any way of getting from one place to another.
Cities have roads which are used by automobiles (including trucks), buses, motorcycles, bicycles, and pedestrians (people walking).
Some cities have trains and larger cities have airports.
Many people in cities travel to work each day, which is called commuting.
Buildings and design
Houses and apartments are common places to live in cities.
Great numbers of people in developing countries (and developed countries, in the past) live in slums.
A slum is poorly built housing, without clean water, where people live very close together.
Buildings are usually taller in the city center, and some cities have skyscrapers.
City streets can be shaped like a grid, or as a "wheel and spokes": a set of rings and lines coming out from the center.
Streets in some older cities like London are arranged at random, without a pattern.
The design of cities is a subject called urban planning.
One area of the city might have only shops, and another area might have only factories.
Cities have parks, and other public areas like city squares.
United States politics
Cities in the US are usually very-left leaning.
The best examples of these would be New York, New York, and Washington, D.C. For example, in Louisiana, the only Democratic delegate in US Congress who is a Democrat was elected from a district comprising in New Orleans.
Below is a list of states and the major city/cities that provide much of the liberal support in them :
Atlanta, Georgia: 5 of the 16 delegates representing Georgia in the US Congress are Democrats.
All hail from districts in Atlanta.
New Orleans, Louisiana: the only Democratic delegate from Louisiana in the US Congress was elected from a New Orleans district.
Kansas City, Kansas: the only Democratic congressman from Kansas was elected from a district in Kansas City.
Las Vegas, Nevada: all of the Democrats in the US House who represent Nevada are from Las Vegas.
Salt Lake City, Utah: the only Democrat representing Utah in the US Congress was elected from a Salt Lake City district.
Chicago, Illinois: if it weren't for Chicago, the state of Illinois would be as conservative as Indiana.
Louisville, Kentucky: the only Democrat representing Kentucky in the US Congress was elected from a Louisville district.
World's largest cities
Tokyo, Japan - 37+ million
Mexico City, Mexico - 21 million
Mumbai, India - 20 million
São Paulo, Brazil - 18 million
Lagos, Nigeria - 13 million
Calcutta, India - 13 million
Buenos Aires, Argentina - 12 million
Seoul, South Korea - 12 million
Beijing, China - 12 million
Karachi, Pakistan - 12 million
Dhaka, Bangladesh - 11 million
Manila, Philippines - 11 million
Cairo, Egypt - 11 million
Osaka, Japan - 11 million
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - 11 million
Tianjin, China - 10 million
Moscow, Russia - 10 million
Lahore, Pakistan - 10 million
Gallery of cities
Cooking is a process to make food ready to eat by heating it.
Cooking can kill bacteria that may be in the food.
Raw food is food that is not cooked.
Some foods are good to eat raw.
Other foods are not good for the body when they are raw, so they must be cooked.
Some foods are good to eat either raw or cooked.
Cooking is often done in a kitchen using a stove or an oven.
It can also be done over a fire (for example, over a campfire or on a barbecue).
The heat for cooking can be made in different ways.
It can be from an open fire that burns wood or charcoal.
It can be on a stove or in an oven that uses propane, natural gas, or electricity.
There are several different ways to cook food.
Boiling cooks food in hot water.
Frying (deep or shallow) cooks food in hot butter, fat or oil.
Baking and roasting cook food by surrounding it with hot air.
Grilling means cooking food on a metal grill that has heat under it.
People often cook meat by boiling, roasting, frying, or grilling it.
Some foods such as bread or pastries are usually baked.
Usually food is cooked in some kind of pot or pan.
Sometimes people cook food by putting it directly into the fire, or by wrapping the food in leaves before they put it into the fire.
A person whose job it is to cook food may be called a cook or a chef.
The word cooker means a machine or tool that a cook might use to cook food.
Rice cookers and pressure cookers are examples.
To chat is to talk about ordinary things that are not very important.
A person can chat with another person, or to many people.
People also use this word now for parts of the Internet where we can talk with many different people at the same time.
Usually, people chat on the Internet in a chat room or messaging service like AOL Instant Messenger (AIM), Yahoo Messenger Windows Live Messenger or Tencent QQ.
There are also programs which let people use different messaging services from one program, such as Pidgin.
Human communication
Internet communication
A cup is any kind of container used for holding liquid and drinking.
teacup
paper cup
Measuring cup, a measuring instrument for liquids and powders, used primarily in cooking
Cup (unit), a customary unit of volume and measure
Cancer of unknown primary origin, form of cancer
The cup of a brassière, the part that covers the breasts
A cup-shaped trophy or award for winning in a sport
A crime (or misdemeanor or felony) is an act done by a person which is against the laws of a country or region.
A person who does this is called a criminal.
The basic idea of what things are called "crimes" is that they are thought to be things that might cause a problem for another person.
Things like killing another person, injuring another person, or stealing from another person are crimes in most countries.
Also, it can be a crime to have or sell contraband such as guns or illegal drugs.
When some criminals make money from crime, they try to stop the police finding out where the money came from by money laundering.
Men and boys commit many more crimes than women and girls.
The word crime is derived from the Latin root cernō, meaning "I decide, I give judgment".
Originally the Latin word crīmen meant "charge" or "cry of distress."
The Ancient Greek word κρίμα, krima, from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to an intellectual mistake or an offense against the community, rather than a private or moral wrong.
In 13th century English crime meant "sinfulness", according to the Online Etymology Dictionary.
It was probably brought to England as Old French crimne (12th century form of Modern French crime), from Latin crimen (in the genitive case: criminis).
In Latin, crimen could have signified any one of the following: "charge, indictment, accusation; crime, fault, offense".
Whether a given act or omission constitutes a crime does not depend on the nature of that act or omission; it depends on the nature of the legal consequences that may follow it.
An act or omission is a crime if it is capable of being followed by what are called criminal proceedings.
Levels of crime
There are various levels of crimes.
In some jurisdictions they are:
misdemeanor - a minor crime, typically punished by a fee or less than 1 year in jail.
felony (or high crime) - a major crime, typically punished by 1 year or longer in prison.
Different countries have different ideas of what things are crimes, and which ones are the worst.
Some things that are crimes in one country are not crimes in other countries.
Many countries get their ideas of what things are crimes from religions or controversial events which cause a law to be quickly created.
For example, a religious Taboo might say eating a particular food is a crime.
When automobiles became numerous, they killed or hurt many people in road accidents, so new laws were made for them.
In many countries, if people say they made or wrote a book, movie, song, or Web page that they did not really make or write, it is a crime against copyright laws.
In many countries, helping to grow, make, move, or sell illegal drugs is a crime.
In most countries, police try to stop crimes and to find criminals.
When the police find someone who they think might be a criminal, they usually hold the person in a jail.
Then, usually, a court or a judge decides if the person really did a crime.
If the court or judge decides that the person really did it, then he or she might have to pay a fine or go to prison.
Sometimes the judge might decide that the criminal should be executed (killed).
This is called Capital punishment (or the Death Penalty).
There are countries in the world that execute criminals, and others that do not.
Actus rea - the criminal did something against the law
Mens rea - the criminal knew what they were doing was against the law and did it anyways, or they knew they were doing something that could accidentally end up being against the law and didn't care
Time Cube was a personal website created on 1997 by Otis Eugene Ray.
On that website, Ray explained his theory of everything, known as "Time Cube".
It described the planet Earth as having a cubic symmetry, and time as rotating four "corners".
He also said that all of modern physics is wrong.
Scientists reject these ideas, saying that they make no sense and cannot be tested.
The Time Cube website was written in an angry and hateful voice.
On his site, Ray said that not believing in Time Cube would be "stupid and evil".
Some of the comments were racist and discriminatory, especially against black people and Jews.
There were also many comments against gay people.
Many people found the site to be difficult to understand.
Ray spoke about Time Cube at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in January 2002.
At MIT, a professor tried to cancel the lecture before it took place.
Ray believed this is proof of a conspiracy to keep information about Time Cube hidden.
Ray also spoke about Time Cube at the Georgia Institute of Technology in April 2005.
Otis Eugene Ray died on March 18, 2015.
He was 87 years old.
The website went down on August 2015.
It was last archived by the Wayback Machine on January 12, 2016.
American websites
1997 establishments in the United States
The Census of Marine Life was a ten-year survey of life in the oceans, starting in 2000.
Its head was Ron O'Dor of Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
It used data from researchers all over the world.
More than 70 nations were involved and over a billion US dollars were spent on it.
It was a major work of marine ecology.
It was founded by J. Frederick Grassle.
Census of Marine Life website
Biological oceanography
Maize or Indian corn (called corn in some countries) is Zea mays, a member of the grass family Poaceae.
It is a cereal grain which was first grown by people in ancient Central America.
Approximately 1 billion tonnes are harvested every year.
However, little of this maize is eaten directly by humans.
Most is used to make corn ethanol, animal feed and other maize products, such as corn starch and corn syrup.
Maize is a leafy stalk whose kernels have seeds inside.
It is an angiosperm, which means that its seeds are enclosed inside a fruit or shell.
It is has long been a staple food by many people in Mexico, Central and South America and parts of Africa.
In Europe and the rest of North America, maize is grown mostly for use as animal feed.
In Canada and the United States, maize is commonly referred to as "corn".
Centuries of cross breeding have produced larger plants, and specialized varieties.
Corn has become an important ingredient in American foods through the use of corn starch.
People have long eaten sweet corn and popcorn with little processing, and other kinds after processing into flour for making cornbread, tortillas, and other artificial foods.
Maize has been a fruitful model organism for research in genetics for many years: see Barbara McClintock.
Research has shown that artificial selection developed maize from a Mexican plant called Teosinte.
The genus Zea
There are five species and many subspecies in the genus.
They are all plants similar to the cultivated maize, with less developed cobs.
The wild ones are sometimes called teosintes, and they are all native to Mesoamerica.
Model organisms
Civics is the study of government.
It most often refers to studying government in high school to prepare to be a good citizen.
In college, civics is usually called political science.
Since a city has the most unsimple government problems, the word for this study is like that for city.
Anarchist
Capitalist
Calculus is a branch of mathematics that describes continuous change.
There are two different types of calculus.
Differential calculus divides (differentiates) things into small (different) pieces, and tells us how they change from one moment to the next, while integral calculus joins (integrates) the small pieces together, and tells us how much of something is made, overall, by a series of changes.
Calculus is used in many different sciences such as physics, astronomy, biology, engineering, economics, medicine and sociology.
In the 1670s and 1680s, Sir Isaac Newton in England and Gottfried Leibniz in Germany figured out calculus at the same time, working separately from each other.
Newton wanted to have a new way to predict where to see planets in the sky, because astronomy had always been a popular and useful form of science, and knowing more about the motions of the objects in the night sky was important for navigation of ships.
Leibniz wanted to measure the space (area) under a curve (a line that is not straight).
Many years later, the two men argued over who discovered it first.
Scientists from England supported Newton, but scientists from the rest of Europe supported Leibniz.
Most mathematicians today agree that both men share the credit equally.
Some parts of modern calculus come from Newton, such as its uses in physics.
Other parts come from Leibniz, such as the symbols used to write it.
They were not the first people to use mathematics to describe the physical world — Aristotle and Pythagoras came earlier, and so did Galileo Galilei, who said that mathematics was the language of science.
But both Newton and Leibniz were the first to design a system that describes how things change over time, and can predict how they will change in the future.
The name "calculus" was the Latin word for a small stone the ancient Romans used in counting and gambling.
The English word "calculate" comes from the same Latin word.
Variables can change their value.
This is different from numbers because numbers are always the same.
For example, the number 1 is always equal to 1, and the number 200 is always equal to 200.
One often writes variables as letters such as the letter x: "x" can be equal to 1 at one point and 200 at another.
Some examples of variables are distance and time, because they can change.
The speed of an object is how far it travels in a particular time.
So if a town is 80 kilometres (50 miles) away and a person in a car gets there in one hour, they have traveled at an average speed of 80 kilometres (50 miles) per hour.
But this is only an average: maybe they travelled faster at some times (say on a highway), and slower at other times (say at a traffic light or on a small street where people live).
Certainly it is more difficult for a driver to figure out a car's speed using only its odometer (distance meter) and clock—without a speedometer.
Until calculus was invented, the only way to work this out was to cut the time into smaller and smaller pieces, so the average speed over the smaller time would get closer and closer to the actual speed at a point in time.
This was a very long and hard process, and had to be done each time people wanted to work something out.
Differential calculus is also useful for graphing.
A very similar problem is to find the slope (how steep it is) at any point on a curve.
The slope of a straight line is easy to work out — it is simply how much it goes up or down (y or vertical) divided by how much it goes across (x or horizontal).
On a curve, however, the slope is a variable (has different values at different points) because the line bends.
But if the curve was to be cut into very, very small pieces, the curve at the point would look almost like a very short straight line.
So to work out its slope, a straight line can be drawn through the point with the same slope as the curve at that point.
If this is done exactly right, the straight line will have the same slope as the curve, and is called a tangent.
But there is no way to know (without complex mathematics) whether the tangent is exactly right, and our eyes are not accurate enough to be certain whether it is exact or simply very close.
What Newton and Leibniz found was a way to work out the slope (or the speed in the distance example) exactly, using simple and logical rules.
They divided the curve into an infinite number of very small pieces.
They then chose points on either side of the range they were interested in and worked out tangents at each.
As the points moved closer together towards the point they were interested in, the slope approached a particular value as the tangents approached the real slope of the curve.
The particular value it approached was the actual slope.
Given a function .
f is short for function, so this equation means "y is a function of x".
This tells us that how high y is on the vertical axis depends on what x (the horizontal axis) is at that time.
For example, with the equation , we know that if  is 1, then  will be 1; if  is 3, then  will be 9; if  is 20, then  will be 400.
The slope of the tangent line produced using this method here is , or 2 multiplied by .
So we know without having to draw any tangent line at any point on the curve  that the derivative, often written as  (marked with the prime symbol), will be  at any point.
This process of working out a slope using limits is called differentiation, or finding the derivative.
Leibniz came to the same result, but called h "", which means "with respect to x".
He called the resulting change in  "", which means "a tiny amount of y".
Leibniz's notation is used by more books, because it is easy to understand when the equations become more complicated.
In Leibniz notation:
In the real world, calculus can be used to find the speed of a moving object, or to understand how electricity and magnetism work.
It is very important for understanding physics—and many other areas of science.
Integral calculus
Integral calculus is the process of calculating the area underneath a graph of a function.
An example is calculating the distance a car travels: if one knows the speed of the car at different points in time and draw a graph of this speed, then the distance the car travels will be the area under the graph.
The way to do this is to divide the graph into many very small pieces, and then draw very thin rectangles under each piece.
As the rectangles become thinner and thinner, the rectangles cover the area underneath the graph better and better.
The area of a rectangle is easy to calculate, so we can calculate the total area of all the rectangles.
For thinner rectangles, this total area value approaches the area underneath the graph.
The final value of the area is called the integral of the function.
In mathematics, the integral of the function f(x) from a  to b, is written as
Main idea of calculus
The main idea in calculus is called the fundamental theorem of calculus.
This main idea says that the two calculus processes, differentiation and integration, are inverses of each other.
That is, a person can use differentiation to undo an integration process.
Also, a person can use integration to undo a differentiation.
This is just like using division to "undo" multiplication, or addition to "undo" subtraction.
In a single sentence, the fundamental theorem runs something like this: "The derivative of the integral of a function f is the function itself".
Applications of calculus
Calculus is used to describe things that change, like things in nature.
It can be used for showing and learning all of these:
How waves move.
Waves are very important in the natural world.
For example, sound and light can be thought of as waves.
Where heat moves, like in a house.
This is useful for architecture (building houses), so that the house can be as cheap to heat as possible.
How very small things like atoms act.
How fast something will fall, also known as gravity.
How machines work, also known as mechanics.
The path of the moon as it moves around the earth.
Also, the path of the earth as it moves around the sun, and any planet or moon moving around anything in space.
A coin is a piece of metal that is used as currency, or money.
Coins have been made for about 2600 years.
The first place to make coins was Lydia (modern Turkey).
These coins were made of precious metals and allowed people to trade with a standard amount of metal.
Most people use coins as currency.
They usually have lower value than banknotes.
Most are made in government mints.
The different decorations on each side of a coin might be used to decide things randomly.
This is called "tossing a coin".
A person can throw the coin into the air and catch it.
You then look at which side is facing up.
If the head is facing up it is called "heads", if the other side is facing up it is called "tails".
Before tossing the coin someone has to decide what each side means.
Tossing a coin can be a type of gambling, which is illegal (against the law) in some countries.
Because coins have been made for a very long time, some people collect old coins.
They can be much cheaper than other old things, especially if they are made of cheap metals like copper.
Older coins normally cost more than newer ones, but rarity matters more-some coins from the 1920s cost vast sums, while some Roman coins cost very little.
A conceptual metaphor or cognitive metaphor is a metaphor which refers to one domain (group of ideas) in terms of another.
For example, treating quantity in terms of direction:
I attacked every weak point in his argument. (
Argument as war rather than enquiry or search for truth).
Love talked about as if it were war or competition.
Time talked about as if it were a path through space, or a quantity that can be saved or spent or wasted.
The idea of a conceptual metaphor came from a book by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in 1980: Metaphors we live by.
"The most recent linguistic approach to literature is that of cognitive metaphor, which claims that metaphor is not a mode of language, but a mode of thought".
Donald Freeman.
Political metaphors
eminence grise: literally, "grey man," from French.
Colloquially, the power-behind-the-throne.
An official close to the president or monarch who has so much power behind the scenes that he or she may double or serve as the monarch.
figurehead: a leader whose powers are entirely symbolic, such as a constitutional monarch.
puppet government: a government that is manipulated by a foreign power for its own interests.
star chamber: a secretive council or other group within a government that possesses the actual power, regardless of the government's overt form.
character assassination: spreading (usually) manufactured stories about a candidate with the intent to destroy his or her reputation in the eyes of the public.
landslide victory: a huge victory for one side.
riding coattails: victories by local or state politicians because of the popularity of more powerful politicians.
grassroots: a political movement driven by the constituents of a community.
astroturfing: public relations campaigns in politics and advertising that try to create the impression of being spontaneous, grassroots behavior.
straw man: the practice of refuting an argument that is weaker than one's opponent actually offers, or which he simply has not put forth at all.
A type of logical fallacy.
spin (public relations): a heavily biased portrayal of an event or situation.
witch-hunt: the hysterical pursuit of political enemies
bread and circuses: satisfaction of shallow or immediate desires of the populace at the expense of good policy; also, the erosion of civic duty and the public life in a populace.
Crust (geology) - the outer solid layer of a planet such as the Earth but other planets also.
On Earth the crust can be divided into:
continental crust on which the land of the planet Earth sits
oceanic crust which forms most of the ocean floor
Comedy (from ), in modern times, is an entertainment with generally funny content.
It is able to make people laugh.
This definition was used for theatre plays, and was first used in Ancient Greece.
Aristotle defined this as “Comedy is, as an imitation of characters of a lower type- not, however, in the full sense of the word bad, the ludicrous being merely a subdivision of the ugly.
It consists in some defect or ugliness which is not painful or destructive.
To take an obvious example, the comic mask is ugly and distorted, but does not imply pain.”
To him, the lampooners became writers of Comedy and the truly artistic ones became writers of Tragedy.
Comedy is also a media genre that is for television shows or movies that are either funny or silly.
People who are known for acting in comedies are termed as comedians or comedic actors.
One of the best-known comedy authors of the time was Aristophanes (about 446386 BC).
One of his works, The Clouds was performed 425 BC.
The work did not survive completely, but a later version did survive.
It is a satire against Socrates, and pictures the great philosopher as a swaggering con artist.
Some of the accusations were re-used at Socrates' trial, twenty years later.
Satyr plays
Another type of Ancient Greek theatre was the satyr play.
This was mock drunkenness, brazen sexuality (including phallic props), pranks, sight gags, and general merriment.
The modern equivalent would be knock-about comedy.
Humour, or 'New Comedy' is not about criticizing people or ideas, but rather about showing characters in funny situations.
The most important Greek playwright of this type was probably Menander.
The best known Roman comedy writer was Plautus.
He often used Greek comedies for his plays.
Shakespeare's comedy plays include: All’s Well That Ends Well, The Comedy of Errors, A Midsummer Nights Dream, and Twelfth Night.
In Shakespeare's day a comedy did not mean a play that would make people laugh or that had a lot of jokes.
Instead it was a play in which all the problems work out all right in the end.
This was unlike a tragedy, where the problems do not work out, usually resulting in someone's death.
There are different types of comedy.
One type of comedy is called "slap stick comedy."
In "slap stick comedy," people do silly things such as tripping, falling over or embarrassing themselves just to make people laugh.
Slap stick comedy can be used in comedy movies or comedy television shows.
Slap stick comedy was used a lot in silent (no sound) movies from the 1920s.
A comedian who acted in the silent movies who used a lot of slapstick comedy was Charlie Chaplin.
In the 1950s and 1960s, comedian Jerry Lewis also used silly slap stick comedy in his comedy movies.
Comedy movies