the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
During the Cold War, Western Europe was a geographic and socio-political concept.
It meant the democratic European countries of the First World, which are also vaguely defined.
It was and still is distinguished from Eastern Europe by differences of economics, politics, and religion.
At its widest medieval definition, it includes the following 32 countries:
(Was eastern/Communist during the cold war)
(Was eastern/communist during the cold war)
Had the Largest Empire in the world
The Smallest Country in the world
Many of these countries were members of the Western European Union.
Many, such as Norway, are also in Northern Europe or in Central Europe or Southern Europe.
Today, the term Western Europe has to do with geography and with economics.
The concept is commonly associated with liberal democracy, socialism and also with the European Union, though that also has some countries of Eastern Europe.
In addition, Scandinavia (in Northern Europe) is commonly associated with social democracy and remains fairly neutral throughout international disputes.
The Iberian Peninsula, the most western part of Europe is similarly closely linked to the Americas.
It is a monotonous area with long and irregular coastlines.
A Furnace is a device used for heating.
The word has different meanings, though:
In American English, it is the name for a heating system in the house.
British English usually calls such systems boiler, heater or kiln.
There are industrial furnaces; these provide the heat so some process can take place.
An example of such a furnace would be the use in metallurgic processing.
Blast furnaces for example make iron.
Southern Europe is a region of the European continent.
The official definition of Southern Europe includes Iberian Peninsula, Italian Peninsula and Balkan Peninsula.
Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece and all northern Mediterranean countries of the European continent are considered part of Southern Europe.
Geographical definition
Geographically, Southern Europe would be the south half of the landmass of Europe.
This definition is relative, with no clear limits.
Geopolitical definition of the United Nations
For its official works and publications, the United Nations Organization has its own special definition of regions.
Corsica for example is part of France, thus not part of Southern Europe, but Italian Tyrol belongs to Southern Europe as it is part of Italy..
Climatical definition
The climatic definition of southern Europe would be similar to the areas of Mediterranean climate.
The Mediterranean climate is often thought to be a typical characteristic of Southern Europe.
Linguistic and cultural definition
Gibraltar (United Kingdom)
Italian Peninsula and Western Mediterranean islands
Corsica (France)
Balkans and Aegean islands
Ionian Islands
Aegean Islands
Corsica is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily, Sardinia, and Cyprus).
It is west of Italy, southeast of France, and north of the island of Sardinia.
Corsica is one of the administrative regions of France.
Big towns: (Corsican names)
Ajaccio ()
Bastia ()
Corte ()
Sartène ()
Saint-Florent ()
Calvi ()
L'Île-Rousse ()
Porto-Vecchio ()
Bonifacio ()
The land and weather
Corsica is the most mountainous Mediterranean island.
The low ground has a Mediterranean climate.
Winters are mild with moderate rainfall.
The climate of the high ground is cold and is wetter.
The natural vegetation is Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrubs.
The mountains are rich of forests of oak, and pine, except for the high ground.
Much of the coastal lowlands has been cleared for agriculture, which has reduced the mountain forests considerably.
The island has a natural park (Parc Naturel Régional de Corse), which protects thousands of rare animal and plant species.
The park was created in 1972 and includes the Golfe de Porto, the Réserve Naturelle de Scandola (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), and some of the highest mountains on the island.
This park is protected.
725 : Lombards settle in Corsica
754 : Carlo Magno, becomes king of the Lombards, and gives the lands of Corsica to the Pope.
1077 : The Pope Gregorio VII gives to an important priest of Pisa,the power for change or help things in Corsica.
1133 : Orders of priest separate itself in two parts, one for Genoa, and one for Pisa
1195 : A group of Genoa's soldier come in Bonifacio
1268 : A group of Genoa's soldier come in Calvi
1284 : Corse became property of Genoa
1383 : fondazione di Bastia da Genuva
1551 : Samperu Corsu attacks the Turks for France
1559 : Trattatu di Cateau-Cambrésis, Corsica is taken back by Genoa
1725 : Pasquale Paoli born
1730 : in December, Corsica is Independent
1732 : Peace of Corti
1735 : first constitution of Corsica
1736 : Teodoru di Neuhoff became the King of Corsica
1737 : Versailles meeting between France and Genoa
1755 : 14 July, Pasquale Paoli became "generale di a Nazione" by the court of Orezza
1755 : second constitution of Corsica written
1765 : University of Corti is open.
1768 : 15 May, at the "meeting of Versailles", Genoa sells Corsica to the French.
Corsica attacks France.
1768 : 9 October, soldiers of Pasquale Paoli, a freedom-fighter, won a battle against the French soldiers, during the battle of "U Borgu".
1769 : 9 May, Corsica loses in the battle of "Ponte Novu" against the French soldiers.
1769 : 13 June, Pasquale Paoli, leaves Corsica for Great Britain after France beats him in battle.
1769 : 15 August, Napoléon Bonaparte was born in Ajaccio
1789 : France says that "Corse is part of the French kingdom"
1790 : Becomes the "dipartimentu" of Corsica, with Bastia as the capital.
1793 : Corsica is separated in two parts, a part of "Liamone" and the part of "Golu"
1807 : Pasquale Paoli dies
1821 : Napoléon Bonaparte dies on the island of Saint Helena
1840 : travel of Prosper Mérimée on Corsica
1858 : 4 August, French becomes the official language of Corsica
The capital of the territorial collectivity of Corsica is Ajaccio ().
The territorial collectivity is divided in two départements: Corse-du-Sud and Haute-Corse.
These two départements were created on September 15, 1975 by the département of Corse.
Tourism is the biggest source of Corsican economy.
The island has a pleasant climate, beautiful mountains and really beautiful coastlines that make it a popular destination among the French and other Western Europeans.
However, the island has not had the same level of intensive development as other parts of the Mediterranean.
Tourism is particularly concentrated in the area around Porto Vecchio and Bonifacio in the south of the island and Calvi in the northwest.
Corsica is currently governed almost as any other région of France.
There are lots of movements on the island the independence of Corsica and of Corsicans from France.
The French government is against full independence.
There is support on the island for to have more autonomy, but polls show that a large majority of Corsicans are opposed to full independence.
Some groups who claim to support Corsican independence have carried out a violent campaign since the 1970s that includes bombings and a few accidental assassinations, usually against pieds-noirs and other non-Corsicans, or buildings of the French government.
Corsican independence groups attack when they are sure there won't be a danger for victims.
However, not all groups for independence has "nice treaties", Sometimes independence groups are known to practice extortion and other intimidatory tactics, similar to mafia activity in Sicily and southern Italy.
Non-Corsican homeowners may be threatened with the destruction of their home, or they are constrict to pay a "revolutionarian tax",for to help the groups in the attacks.
In 2000, Prime Minister Lionel Jospin agreed to give more autonomy to Corsica but just for stopping the violence.
The propose of autonomy for Corsica would have included greater protection for the Corsican language (Corsu), the island's traditional language (which is also considered to be a dialect of Italian).
However, the plans for increased autonomy were opposed by the Gaullist opposition in the French National Assembly.
In a referendum on July 6,2003, a narrow majority of Corsican voters opposed to the project from the government of Jean-Pierre Raffarin and Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy that would have suppressed the two départements of the island and granted more autonomy to the territorial collectivity of Corsica.
"U Corsu", language of Corsica
In Corsica the official language is French, but lots of people speak, "u corsu", the language of Corsica, protected by UNESCO.
Corsu shares some similarities with Tuscan dialects (with their accents) or to Gallurese language, spoken in the nearby island of Sardinia.
Corsu has two varietes, "Supranacciu", common in the northeast of theisland, (Bastia, Corte), and the "Suttanacciu" common in the south of the island, (Ajaccio, Sartene).
The native Corsican language is closer to Italian than French, but both come from Latin.
The ancient Romans spoke Latin.
In Corsica, football is a very common sport.
The island has in the first league of France ('Ligue 1'), 2 teams.
The AC Ajaccio and the SC Bastia.
Another very famous sport in Corsica, is volleyball, with the ''GFCO Ajaccio Volley-Ball' team.
PhotoGlobe - Corsica A collection of photos of Corsica together with GPS-based positions
CNN coverage of rejection of autonomy proposals in 2003
University of Corsica
Corsica travel information at Wikivoyage
Example of Corsican village
A maser is a device that produces light and heat by using atoms to release energy.
It was invented by Charles Hard Townes in the 1950s.
A maser takes the small vibrations in atoms and amplifies them to release electromagnetic radiation.
Originally, they were referred to by the acronym MASER or 'Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Unlike most radio transmitters, maser waves tend to have very similar wavelengths.
Their usage was first predicted by Albert Einstein.
In the 1960s masers were made to emit optical wavelengths, and soon were called lasers.
The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is an organization created by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, in order to continue the development of the web, and its languages.
Tim Berners-Lee also wants to make standards for the languages, and to improve them.
As of 2 April 2010, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) has 328 Members.
As of  9 June 2014, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) has 384 Members.
W3C - Homepage
Aetodactylus
Angustinaripterus
Arambourgiania
Araripedactylus
Araripesaurus
Arthurdactylus
Austriadactylus
Avgodectes
Azhdarcho
Bakonydraco
Batrachognathus
Beipiaopterus
Bennettazhia
Bogolubovia
Boreopterus
Brasileodactylus
Cacibupteryx
Campylognathoides
Caulkicephalus
Caviramus
Cearadactylus
Chaoyangopterus
Comodactylus
Criorhynchus
Ctenochasma
Cycnorhamphus
Dendrorhynchoides
Dermodactylus
Diopocephalus
Domeykodactylus
Dorygnathus
Eoazhdarcho
Eopteranodon
Eosipterus
Feilongus
Germanodactylus
Gnathosaurus
Gallodactylus
Haopterus
Harpactognathus
Herbstosaurus
Huanhepterus
Huaxiapterus
Istiodactylus
Jeholopterus
Jidapterus
Kepodactylus
Laopteryx
Liaoxipterus
Lonchodectes
Lonchognathosaurus
Longchengpterus
Mesadactylus
Montanazhdarcho
Nesodactylus
Noripterus
Normannognathus
Nurhachius
Ornithostoma
Parapsicephalus
Peteinosaurus
Phosphatodraco
Plataleorhynchus
Preondactylus
Pterorhynchus
Puntanipterus
Rhamphinion
Rhamphocephalus
Santanadactylus
Sinopterus
Siroccopteryx
Sordes
Tendaguripterus
Tropeognathus
Tupandactylus
Unwindia
Volgadraco
Wukongopteryx
Xericeps
Yikianopteryx
Deinonychus  was a medium theropod dinosaur.
It was a dromaeosaur, and also a larger relative of the famous Velociraptor.
This 3.4 meter (11 ft) long Deinonychus lived during the Lower Cretaceous, about 115-108 million years ago.
Fossils have been found in the U.S. states of Montana, Wyoming, and Oklahoma.
Deinonychus is perhaps the single most important dinosaur discovered in the mid 20th century.
Ostrom's analysis
Paleontologist John Ostrom's study of Deinonychus in the late 1960s started the debate on whether dinosaurs were warm-blooded.
It is now accepted that all or most smaller theropods had feathers whose function was temperature regulation.
Ostrom noted the small body, sleek, horizontal, posture, and the enlarged claws on the feet, which suggested the animal was an active, agile predator.
Before this, the popular idea of dinosaurs had been one of plodding, reptilian giants.
Deinonychus means 'Terrible claw'.
This refers to the large, sickle-shaped claw bone on the second toe of each hind foot.
In life, a horny sheath over this bone extended the length.
Ostrom reconstructed the claw as over  long.
The species name antirrhopus means “counter balance”.
This refers to Ostrom's idea that the tail balanced the front of the body.
As in other dromaeosaurs, the tail vertebrae have ossified (bony) tendons and super-long bone processes.
These features seemed to make the tail into a stiff counterbalance.
A fossil of the closely related Velociraptor has an connected tail skeleton that is curved side to side in a long S–shape.
This suggests that, in life, the tail could swish to the sides with some flexibility.
Deinonychus remains have been found near those of the ornithopod Tenontosaurus.
Teeth discovered near  Tenontosaurus specimens suggest it was hunted or at least scavenged by Deinonychus.
A cheerleader is a person who does cheerleading, or leads cheers for sporting events or during competition.
This is usually done as a group.
It is done to keep the spirit of a sports team up.
This sport is originally from the United States.
It was first seen in the beginning of the 1900s.
It was, and is still used to support a local sports group (for example football).
Because of the athletic ability often needed in cheerleading, many people think cheerleading is a sport.
Cheerleaders perform routines that include dancing, tumbling, cheering, stunting and jumping.
Cheerleading teams can compete in competitions against other cheer teams as well as perform for different sporting events.
Cheerleading Squads
The My Opera Community started in August 2001 and will be shut down after February 2014.
It currently has over 16,000,000 members, who are from all over the world.
The My Opera Community Website
2001 establishments
Permanent used as an adjective usually means that something will stay for a long time or forever.
Its opposite is temporary.
Permanent may also mean other things.
Permanent is a mathematics function used in working with Matrix theory.
A permanent wave is a hair style.
In the card game, Magic: The Gathering, a permanent is any card that is put into play and stays there.
Linen is a material made from the fibers of the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum).
It is mainly used to make cloth, especially for light clothing and table coverings.
The flax plant is one of the plants humans have grown and used.
Linen cloth was already made at least 6,000 years ago in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
This makes linen one of the oldest fibers and cloths used by humans, besides wool and hemp.
Linen was for example also used to wrap Egyptian mummies.
Hieroglyphs, or hieroglyphics, are a type of writing that uses symbols or pictures to stand for sounds and words.
The Egyptians, Luwians and Mayan cultures are among those who used hieroglyphs.
They have also been found in Turkey, Crete, United States and Canada.
They are thought to have started when pictures were used to tell stories on pots and other artwork.
Over time, the pictures became letters.
The word hieroglyph comes from the Greek words ἱερός (hierós 'sacred') and γλύφειν (glúphein 'to carve' or 'to write'), and it was first used to mean Egyptian hieroglyphs.
The Greeks who came to  Egypt saw the picture letters, which were often found carved on house walls, tombs and monuments.
Ancient Egyptians used pictures to make a phonetic alphabet as in a rebus, so that each sound could be written with a picture-word, a phonogram or pictograph.
For example, a zig-zag for water n came to mean the letter "n", because the Egyptian word for water started with n. This same picture became our letter 'M' in the Latin alphabet, because the Semitic word for water started with m, and Semitic workers changed the symbols to fit sounds in their own language.
In the same way, our Latin letter 'N' came from the hieroglyph for snake D as the word for "snake" started with n in Semitic.
In Egyptian, this picture had stood for a sound like English "J" because of their word for snake.
Some pictures came to represent ideas, and these are known as ideograms.
The Egyptians used between 700 or 800 pictures, or glyphs.
They were written from right to left and from top to bottom.
They did not use punctuation.
Archaeologists believe that the Egyptians began using  hieroglyphs about 3300 or 3200 BCE.
They were in use for more than 3500 years.
Only the nobles, priests and government officials wrote in hieroglyphs.
They were hard to learn and took a long time to write.
People stopped using hieroglyphs when Christianity took hold in Egypt.
Writing in hieroglyphs became more rare: the last known inscription was made in 394 CE.
Hieroglyphs, like Japanese or Chinese characters, started out as ideographic characters, or writing made of pictures.
The ancient writing has no vowels, and all sounds in the writing are consonants.
Breaking the code
After the end of the Egyptian civilization in 30 BCE, people no longer knew how to read the hieroglyphs.
When the French took over Egypt in 1798, French soldiers found a large stone.
This is now called the Rosetta Stone.
The Rosetta Stone had writing in three different languages: hieroglyphs, Ancient Greek and demotic (a simplified form of hieroglyphs).
Jean François Champollion guessed that the writing on the stone was the same in three different languages.
By using the Ancient Greek, he was able to work out the name of the ruler, Ptolemy V, in hieroglyphs.
After many years of study, he was then able to work out how to read the other words.
A type of hieroglyphs was also used on Crete and the surrounding islands in the 2nd millennium BCE.
This writing system developed into a script called Linear A. For some time, both writing systems were used.
Of the 137 symbols are known, several resemble pictograms.
96 of the 137 known hieroglyphs occur in "words" and 32 seem to be logograms.
There are four numerals that represent 1, 10, 100 and 1000, respectively, and a symbol that looks like a small cross: it probably shows the beginning of the text.
Because there are relatively few symbols, the writing is probably syllabic, much like Linear A. Most of the known texts are short: occur on sigils and clay shards.
Papyrus is a kind of paper that was used in Ancient Egypt for writing.
It was first made as far back as the 3rd millennium BC.
It was made from a kind of reed called Cyperus papyrus.
This plant was originally grown in marshy areas around the Nile river.
The plant had a variety of uses.
The Egyptians also used the papyrus plants to make boats, mattresses, mats, rope, sandals, and baskets.
Specially cultivated papyrus, grown on plantations, was used to make the writing material.
They were first used in Ancient Egypt, but they were later used throughout the Mediterranean region.
Sodium hypochlorite is an unstable compound composed of sodium and hypochlorite ions.
It is stable in solution, though.
It is light green and has the chemical formula NaClO (or NaOCl).
It is used to disinfect (kill bacteria) and as a bleach to remove stains from clothing.
It is not good for cotton because the sodium hydroxide normally contained eats away the clothing fibers.
It reacts with acids to produce chlorine.
They have a lot of sugar.
Cooking.com: Raisins
Natural Benefits and Curative Properties
The World's Healthiest Foods: Raisins
A close-up photo of a raisin
Taste buds are small 'bumps' on the tongue.
They are the sense organs which detect the taste of things that go into the mouth.
They are involved in detecting the five (known) elements of taste perception: salty, sour, bitter, sweet, and umami.
Beyond the Tongue Map
Taste Perception: Cracking the Code
Scientists Explore the Workings of Taste Buds from National Public Radio's Talk of the Nation, July 22, 2005
fr:Langue (anatomie)#Papilles gustatives
A word for the young of some animals, usually cows, but also whales, dolphins, giraffes, bison, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, yaks and elephants.
A muscle in the lower leg.
Nectar, in botany, is a liquid made by the flowers of plants.
It is sweet because it has sugar in it.
Plants make nectar to attract pollinating animals.
It is made in glands called nectaries.
The nectaries are usually at the bottom of the perianth of the flower.
This means the animal trying to get the nectar has to touch the parts of the plant that are used for reproduction.
By doing this, the animal getting the nectar helps the plants reproduce.
Some plants make nectar outside the flower.
These plants do it to attract predatory insects.
These insects will eat both the nectar and any plant-eating insects found near the plant.
Nectar is economically important because it is where the sugar for honey comes from.
It is also useful in agriculture and horticulture because the adults of many predatory insects, as well as hummingbirds, eat nectar.
Some plants give off very rich scents, such as the Rocky Mountain Columbine
A hunting dog is any dog who helps humans in hunting.
There are several types of hunting dogs.
The major categories of hunting dog include hounds, terriers, cur type dogs, and gun dogs.
These categories have smaller groups in them that are based on different things the dogs are good at doing.
Types of hunting dogs
Hounds
There are two types of hounds, sight hounds and scent hounds.
The difference between them is if they use sight or smell to find what they are hunting for.
They are often used to hunt animals with fur.
In America, raccoon, coyote, and large predators are hunted with hounds, and traditionally in Britain hounds were used to hunt the fox.
These dogs are also called bird dogs.
They are used by hunters who carry shotguns to hunt small animals.
Gun dogs come in three main classes.
The classes are retrievers, flushing spaniels, and pointing breeds.
Retrievers
The main job of a retriever is to get the animal after the hunter shoots it.
Retrievers are very good in the water and often used by hunters shooting ducks.
Flushing spaniels
Flushing spaniels are used when birds being hunted are found in areas where they can hide, for example high grass.
The spaniel will run through the grass.
This makes the birds fly into the air so the hunter can shoot them.
Spaniels stay close to the hunter so when the birds start to fly, the hunter is close enough to shoot them.
Pointers find birds then stand still and point at where the bird is.
They often are farther away from the hunter than a spaniel would be.
By pointing instead of flushing the bird out, they give the hunter time to get close enough to shoot the bird.
These dogs are almost always used to hunt mammals.
Terriers are used to find the den or living space of the animal.
They will go into where the animal lives and either force it to run out or they will kill it.
Many of the animals hunted with terriers are animals that cause damage, for example, ground hogs, fox and badger.
Cur types
Curs are used in the same way as terriers but on larger animals.
Curs are used to hunt boars, raccoon, cougars, and other large mammals
A breed of dog is a particular subspecies that has been bred through time to exhibit certain characteristics, for example a bulldog is bred to be short and have a flat nose while a greyhound is bred to be light and run fast.
Some dogs are bred to look special which is why poodles have fluffy hair.
The Mass Transit Railway or MTR (in Chinese, 香港鐵路有限公司, literally "Hong Kong Railway Company"; or 港鐵 for short) is the main rapid transit railway system in Hong Kong.
Since the MTR service first opened in 1979, the network has grown to more than 150 stations.
Built and run by MTR Corporation Limited, the MTR system is a very popular mode of public transport in Hong Kong, with around 2.46 million passengers riding each day.
Hong Kong's growing economy and the quick increase in population created a lot of traffic problems.
The Hong Kong government made a study of these problems.
The first line was opened in 1979.
The MTR was quickly popular with the people of Hong Kong, so later they built more lines to cover more ground.
People are still deciding how and where to expand the MTR network next.
History of the MTR
During the 1960s, the government of Hong Kong thought they need to accommodate increasing road traffic that growing Hong Kong's economy would bring.
British transport consultants Freeman, Fox, Wilbur Smith & Associates were appointed to study the transport system of Hong Kong.
The consultants released the Hong Kong Mass Transport Study in September 1967, which proposed the construction of a mass transport underground railway system in Hong Kong.
In 1970, an underground network with four lines was laid out and planned as part of the British consultants' new report, Hong Kong Mass Transit: Further Studies.
The four lines were to be the Kwun Tong Line, Tsuen Wan Line, Island Line, and East Kowloon Line.
However, the lines that were eventually constructed were somewhat different compared with the lines that were originally proposed by the "Hong Kong Mass Transport Study".
In 1972, the Hong Kong government authorised construction of the Initial System, a 20-km system that roughly translates to the Kwun Tong Line today (except the line now extends to Tiu Keng Leng).
Negotiations with four major construction consortia started in 1973.
The government's intention was to tender the entire project, based on the British design, as a single tender at a fixed price.
A consortium from Japan signed an agreement to construct the system in early 1974, but in December of the same year it pulled out from the agreement, stemming from fears of the Arab oil crisis.
Modified Initial System (Kwun Tong Line / Tsuen Wan Line)
Several weeks later, in early 1975, a government agency known as the Mass Transport Provisional Authority was established to take charge of the project.
It announced that the Initial System would be slightly reduced to 15.6 kilometres, and renamed it the Modified Initial System.
Plans for a single contract were also abandoned in favour of 25 engineering contracts and 10 electrical and mechanical contracts.
In addition, the government-owned Hong Kong Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC) was established to replace the Mass Transport Provisional Authority. (
This was the company succeeded by the MTR Corporation Limited on 30 June 2000)
Construction of the Modified Initial System (now part of Kwun Tong Line and Tsuen Wan Line) commenced in November 1975.
After almost four years, the northern section was completed on 30 September 1979.
On 1 October 1979, the northern section was opened, with trains running from Shek Kip Mei to Kwun Tong.
The route from Tsim Sha Tsui to Shek Kip Mei was opened in December of the same year.
In 1980, the first harbour crossing was made by an MTR train as the Kwun Tong Line was extended even farther to Chater station, now known as Central station.
To deal with increasing patronage, trains were also extended to six cars.
Tsuen Wan Line
The government approved construction of the Tsuen Wan Line in 1977, then known as Tsuen Wan Extension, and works commenced in November 1978.
The project added a 10.5-kilometre section to the MTR system, from Prince Edward to Tsuen Wan.
The line started service on 10 May 1982 with a total cost of construction (not adjusted for inflation) at HK$4.1 billion.
When service of this line started, the section of the Kwun Tong Line from Chater to Argyle, present-day Mong Kok station, was transferred to the Tsuen Wan Line.
Thus, Waterloo became the terminus of the Kwun Tong Line, and both Argyle and Prince Edward stations became interchange stations.
This change was made because system planners expected traffic of the Tsuen Wan Line would exceed that of the Kwun Tong Line.
This forecast proved quite accurate, necessitating a bypass from the northwestern New Territories to Hong Kong Island.
Launched in 1998, the Tung Chung Line serves exactly that purpose.
Although land acquisitions were made for a station at Tsuen Wan West, the station was never built.
This is not to be confused with Tsuen Wan West Station on KCR West Rail, which lies on the newly reclaimed area near the former ferry pier.
It is interesting to note that since the line's opening in 1982, this is the only line whose alignment has virtually remained the same for the past 23 years.
For example, the Kwun Tong Line's alignment has changed for 2 times since its opening - the taking over of Tsuen Wan Line from Mong Kok to Central, and the taking over of Eastern Harbour Crossing section by the Tseung Kwan O Line.
Island Line
Government approvals were granted for construction of the Island Line in December, 1980.
Construction commenced in October, 1981.
On 31 May 1985 the Island Line was opened with service between Admiralty and Chai Wan stations.
Both Admiralty and Central stations became interchange stations with the Tsuen Wan Line.
On 23 May 1986, service reached Sheung Wan station.
Construction for this station was delayed for one year as government offices which sat on top of the station had to be removed to a new location before construction could start.
Eastern Harbour Crossing extension
In 1984, the government approved the construction of the Eastern Harbour Crossing, a tunnel to be used by cars and MTR trains.
The Kwun Tong Line was extended across the harbour to Quarry Bay, which became an interchange station for the Kwun Tong Line and the Island Line.
The extension was launched on 5 August 1989.
An intermediate station, Lam Tin, started operations on 1 October 1989.
Airport Express and Tung Chung Line
The decision was made in October 1989 to construct a new international airport at Chek Lap Kok on Lantau Island to replace the overcrowded Kai Tak International Airport.
The government invited the MTR to build a train line, then known as the Lantau Airport Railway, to the airport.
But construction did not begin until the Chinese and British governments settled their financial and land disagreements in November 1994.
In the end, the new line was included in the financing plans of the new Hong Kong International Airport as the airport was not considered viable without direct public transport links.
Construction costs were also shared by the MTR which was granted many large-scale developments in the construction plans for the new stations.
The Lantau Airport Railway turned into two MTR lines, the Tung Chung Line and the Airport Express.
The Tung Chung Line was officially opened on 21 June 1998 by Hong Kong Chief Executive Tung Chee Hwa, and service commenced the next day.
The Airport Express opened for service on 6 July 1998 along with the new Hong Kong International Airport.
The Airport Express line is the second most popular means of transport to the Hong Kong International Airport.
In 2005, 22% of the commuters took the Airport Express to and from the airport.
Tseung Kwan O Line
The Quarry Bay Congestion Relief Works involved extending the Hong Kong Island end of the Kwun Tong Line from Quarry Bay to North Point via a 4.2–kilometre tunnel.
The project was initiated due to overcrowding at Quarry Bay and persistent passenger complaints about the five-minute walk from the Island Line platforms to the Kwun Tong Line platform.
Construction began in September 1997 and was completed in September 2001 at a cost of HK$3.0 billion (US $385 million).
The tried-and-true cross-platform interchange arrangement is repeated here.
Construction of the Tseung Kwan O Line was approved on 18 August 1998 to serve new housing developments.
Construction began on 24 April 1999 and the line officially opened in 2002, taking over the train tracks running through the Eastern Harbour Tunnel from the Kwun Tong Line, running from Po Lam to North Point.
When the line was opened, the Kwun Tong Line was diverted to Tiu Keng Leng on the new line.
Construction costs were partly covered by the Hong Kong Government and private developers which linked construction of the Tseung Kwan O Line to new real estate and commercial developments.
Previously less developed areas were opened up for development with more transport options.
West Rail Line
While the construction of the Tung Chung Line was still underway, the plan to build a railway corridor serving the northwestern New Territories was conceived.
Space had been reserved for the addition of an interchange station and two extra tracks (to allow nonstop service for the Airport Express) between Olympic and Lai King.
Originally known as the Airport Railway Phase 2, the contracts of the West Rail Line Interface Works were awarded shortly after construction works of the West Rail commenced.
The project comprised Mei Foo Interchange (modification of the existing Mei Foo station on the Tsuen Wan Line to provide a pedestrian link to the West Rail Line Mei Foo Station); Nam Cheong Station (an interchange station on the Tung Chung Line, jointly operated by the MTRCL and KCRC) and quadruplication works (the additional two tracks, four kilometres in length, allow the Tung Chung Line trains to stop at Nam Cheong without blocking the passage of Airport Express trains).
The works were completed in stages.
The Tung Chung Line trains have been diverted to the new track since mid May 2003, whereas the Mei Foo station interchange subway and the Nam Cheong station were opened at the same time the West Rail Line opened for public use in December 2003.
The Kowloon Southern Link extension from Nam Cheong Station to East Tsim Sha Tsui Station was opened on 16 August 2009, with West Rail Line trains now terminating at Hung Hom Station, interchange station for East Rail Line.
Interchange stations
The interchange between the Tsuen Wan Line and the Kwun Tong Line, the Island Line and the Tseung Kwan O Line, as well as that between the Kwun Tong Line and the Tseung Kwan O Line, are two stations long, allowing cross-platform interchange wherein a passenger leaves a train on one side of the platform and boards trains on the other side of the platform for another line.
For example, when passengers are travelling on the Kwun Tong Line towards Tiu Keng Leng, getting off at Yau Tong would allow them to switch trains across the platform for the Tseung Kwan O Line towards North Point.
Whereas, staying on the train and reaching Tiu Keng Leng would allow them to board the Tseung Kwan O Line trains towards Po Lam/LOHAS Park.
This design makes interchanging more convenient and passengers do not have the need to change to different levels.
However this interchange arrangement is not available for all transferring passengers at Kowloon Tong, Central, Hong Kong, Nam Cheong (Except transfer between Tuen Mun and Hong Kong bound trains), Mei Foo, Tai Wai Station (Except alighting from Ma On Shan Line to change southbound trains for East Rail Line) and Sunny Bay (Except alighting from Tung Chung bound trains to Disneyland Resort Line) stations, mainly because this service is available only when there are two continuous stations shared as interchange stations by two lines.
Two major works were undertaken to facilitate interchange between Kwun Tong Line and East Rail Line.
The modification of Kowloon Tong Station started in June 2001.
A new pedestrian link to Kowloon Tong Station southern concourse and a new entrance (Exit D) were opened on 15 April 2004 to cope with the increase in interchange passenger flow.
Modification to Tsim Sha Tsui Station involved upgrading station facilities and concourse layout to facilitate access from the East Tsim Sha Tsui Station via its pedestrian links.
New entrances to the subway links were opened on 19 September 2004 (Exit G) and 30 March 2005 (Exit F), with the whole scheme completed in May 2005.
Ma On Shan Line
The Ma On Shan Line was constructed by the KCR to serve Ma On Shan and City One residential areas and operation of the line was outsourced to the MTR.
The system mostly runs on a viaduct between the middle of roads with stations, stopping right next to major buildings.
The only time the trains don't run on viaducts is when the railway meets the route 2 highway, where it runs in the middle and then raises back to a viaduct.
The railway is slightly different from all other Hong Kong railways because the trains run on the right, not the left; this is so that passengers can easily interchange from the Ma On Shan line to the East Rail Line towards Hong Hum.
The majority of passengers using the line get off the train at Tai Wai to interchange to the East Rail Line, using the line as a feeder route.
Disneyland extension
The Disneyland Resort Line, previously known as Penny's Bay Rail Link, provides service to the Hong Kong Disneyland Resort which was opened on 12 September 2005.
Service to Sunny Bay station on the Tung Chung Line started in 2005.
The new line and the Disneyland Resort station opened on 1 August 2005.
It is a 3.5–kilometre single-track railway that runs between Sunny Bay station and Disneyland Resort station.
The Disneyland Resort station itself was designed to blend in with the ambience of the resort.
The line currently operates fully automated, trains running every four to ten minutes without a driver, and the carriages were changed from the existing M-Train rolling stock to match the recreational and adventurous nature of the 3.5-minute journey.
Further expansion of the Airport Express
The new AsiaWorld-Expo Station is an extension of the Airport Express serving the new international exhibition centre, known as the AsiaWorld-Expo at Hong Kong International Airport.
The station opened on 20 December 2005 along with the exhibition centre.
To cope with the projected increase in patronage, Airport Express trains have been expanded to utilise eight carriages from the previous seven.
Additional trains will also be deployed on the Tung Chung line during major exhibitions and events.
Privatisation and merger
On 5 October 2000, the operator of the MTR network, MTR Corporation Limited (MTRCL), became Hong Kong's first rail company to be privatised, marking the beginning of the Hong Kong government's initiative to dissolve its interests in public utilities.
Prior to its listing on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange, the Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC) was wholly owned by the Hong Kong government.
The offering involved the sale of about one billion shares, and the company now has the largest shareholder base of any company listed in Hong Kong.
In June 2001, MTRCL was transferred to the Hang Seng Index.
MTRCL has often developed properties next to stations to complement its already profitable railway business.
Many recently built stations were incorporated into large housing estates or shopping complexes.
For example, Tsing Yi station is built next to the Maritime Square shopping centre and directly underneath the Tierra Verde housing estate.
On 11 April 2006, MTRCL signed a non-binding memorandum of understanding with the Hong Kong government, the owner of Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation, to merge the operation of the two railway networks in Hong Kong in spite of the strong opposition by the KCRC staff.
The minority shareholders of the corporation approved the proposal at an extraordinary general meeting on 9 October 2007, allowing MTRCL to take over the operation of the KCR network and combine the fare system of the two networks on 2 December 2007.
On 2 December 2007 the Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation (KCRC) granted a 50-year service concession (which may be extended) of the KCR network to MTRCL, in return for making annual payments to KCRC, thereby merging the railway operations of the two corporations under MTRCL's management.
At the same time MTRCL changed its Chinese name from "地鐵有限公司" (Subway Limited Company) to "香港鐵路有限公司" (Hong Kong Railway Limited Company), but left its English name unchanged.
After the merger, the MTR network included three more lines, East Rail Line, West Rail Line and Ma On Shan Line, as well as the Light Rail network and Guangdong Through Train to Guangzhou.
On 28 September 2008, fare zones of all commuter lines which is ex-KCR were merged.
A passenger could travel on these networks with only one ticket, except where a transfer is made between Tsim Sha Tsui and East Tsim Sha Tsui stations, where two tickets are required.
Safety on the MTR
Various campaigns and activities are taken to help ensure that the MTR is a safe system to travel on.
Poster campaigns displaying information on topics such as escalator safety are a common sight in all MTR stations, and announcements are made regularly as safety reminders to travelling passengers.
Bylaws have been recently introduced to deter potentially dangerous actions on the MTR, such as the ban of flammable goods on the MTR and rushing into trains when the doors are closing.
Penalties ranging from fines to imprisonment have been imposed for such offenses.
Metallic balloons are also banned due to previous incidents on KCR and on MTR's Island Line where a metallic balloon interfered with the operation of the overhead power lines.
Police officers patrol on trains and stations, and police posts are available at some stations.
The Hong Kong Police Force has a Railway District responsible for the MTR and the KCR.
Closed-circuit television cameras are installed in stations.
Tung Chung Line, the Airport Express and Tseung Kwan O Line, except Quarry Bay station, had platform screen doors (PSDs) installed upon construction.
These doors prevent people from falling onto the rails, and MTRC allowed the assumption that this implementation was primarily a safety campaign, without heavily promoting it directly.
In fact, the primary motivation was to separate the stations from the tunnels, hence allowing substantial energy savings on station air-conditioning and tunnel ventilation.
Automatic platform gates (APGs) have also been installed at the Sunny Bay and Disneyland Resort stations.
Their heights are half of the PSDs and only prevent people from falling onto the rails.
In June 2000, The MTR Corporation proceeded with its plans to retrofit 2,960 pairs of platform screen doors at all 30 underground stations on the Kwun Tong Line, Tsuen Wan Line, and Island Line in a six-year programme.
The programme made MTR the world's first railway to undertake the retrofitting of PSDs on a passenger-carrying system already in operation.
A prototype design was first introduced at Choi Hung station in the 3rd quarter of 2001.
HK$0.10 per passenger trip was levied on Octopus card users to help fund the HK$2 billion retrofit programme.
The whole installation scheme was completed in October 2005.
The original completion year was 2006.
The MTR Corporation said that part of the cost had to be assumed by passengers.
Station facilities, amenities and services
With the high level of daily passenger traffic, facilities of MTR stations are built with durability and accessibility in mind.
The elevators and escalators in stations are heavy duty, with the elevators installed by Otis Elevator Company/Fujitec and the escalators installed by Constructions Industrielles de la Mediterranée and Otis Elevator Company.
Unlike many other metro systems around the world, "main line" MTR stations do not have toilet facilities, although their installation has been contemplated.
Only stations on the Airport Express and Disneyland Resort Line have access to toilet facilities.
The MTR network is unique in its arrangement of interchange stations.
Interchange stations between the Island, Tsuen Wan, Kwun Tong and Tseung Kwan O lines are arranged in pairs; such an arrangement allows cross-platform interchange wherein a passenger leaves a train on one side of the platform and boards trains on the other side of the platform for another line.
Most of those stations make use of a cross-platform interchange system, where the commuter can change to another line on the opposite platform.
For example, when a person is travelling on the Kwun Tong Line towards Tiu Keng Leng, getting off at Yau Tong would allow him to change trains across the platform for the Tseung Kwan O Line towards North Point.
Whereas, staying on the train and reaching Tiu Keng Leng would allow you to change trains for the Tseung Kwan O Line towards Po Lam.
This not only makes it more convenient for passengers, it also reduces the amount of traffic per station.
Riders are made aware of the closest connection point by way of in-train visual and auditory messages.
Although riders can disregard these tips, the design of the stations are for the convenience of passengers.
Telecommunications network coverage
A full GSM (GSM-900 and GSM-1800), CDMA and TDMA mobile phone network is in place throughout the MTR system of stations and tunnels.
Passengers can stay connected underground.
Currently, full 3G network coverage in all stations and tunnels (except West Rail Line) for the MTR system has been provided by 3 Hong Kong, SmarTone-Vodafone and PCCW Mobile.
Passengers with subscription services will be able to make video calls and access high speed video content on their mobile phones regardless whether the train is above ground or under ground.
Shops and other services
Until recently, MTR stations only had branches of the Hang Seng Bank and Maxim's Cakes stores, owned by Jardine Matheson, and a handful of other shops.
Since the privatisation of the MTR, however, numerous shops have been added to certain stations, turning them into miniature shopping centres.
Services available at most stations include:
Hang Seng Bank branches and ATMs
Bank of China ATMs
7-Eleven or Circle K convenience stores
Apart from retailers, there are also dentists and medical clinics, drycleaners, and florists along the Tseung Kwan O Line.
Standard services include payphones, vending machines (Coca-Cola only), and self-service photo-booths.
Free magazines and newspapers
Recruit was the first free magazine which was solely distributed in MTR stations since July 1992.
However, in July 2002, the contract between the magazine and MTR was terminated.
Another recruitment magazine Jiu Jik (招職), published by South China Morning Post, replaced Recruit as the only free recruitment magazine distributed in MTR stations on every Tuesdays and Fridays.
At the same time, there was another entertainment magazine Hui Kai Guide (去街 Guide).
However, it is no longer distributed in MTR stations since 2006.
The Metropolis Daily (都市日報), published by Metro International, is the first free newspaper distributed free in MTR stations from Monday to Friday (except public holidays); and in 2005, there is another weekend newspaper Express Post (快線周報), distributed every Saturday except public holidays.
The Metropop (都市流行), also published by Metro International, started its distribution in MTR stations every Thursdays since April 27 2006, few months after the termination of Hui Kai Guide.
It is a weekly magazine featuring cultural affairs and city trends.
Extra services for Airport Express
The Airport Express also offer value-added services to travellers on the line.
Toilets and check-in facilities are available at every station on the line.
A free Airport Express shuttle bus service transports travellers from stations to their respective hotels as well.
Flight passengers can even have in-town check-in at the station, which offers a more convenient and time-saving routine.
Fares and tickets
As of January 2005, there are two different fare classes on the MTR: Adult and concessionary.
Only children below the age of 12, senior citizens 65 years or older, or full-time Hong Kong students between the ages of 12 and 25 qualify for the concessionary rate.
Children below the age of 3 travel free.
Similar to some other metro systems in the world, the fare payable by a passenger depends on the approximate distance travelled.
However, taking any particular station as the origin, the other stations fall into fare "zones" depending on the distance from the origin.
The fare to all stations in a "zone" is the same and increases with distance, especially if the journey involves a harbour crossing.
Adult fares range from HK$3.80 to $26.00.
Concessionary fares are usually half the adult fare, and range from HK$2.40 to $13.00.
Fares for the Airport Express Line are significantly higher.
The price of using MTR is very low.
For example, the price of going from Tsing Yi to Causeway Bay by taxi is around HK$200.
Travelling the same distance by MTR costs HK$11.80 for grown up people and HK$5.40 for young and very old people.