the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest"; Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing") was a period of 800 years in the Middle Ages during which the several Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula expanded themselves (grew) by fighting the Muslim states of al-Andalus (Arabic الأندلس), the Muslim states on the Iberian Peninsula, and pushing them out of the peninsula.
The Reconquista began shortly after the Islamic conquest.
Much of the ideology of the Reconquista was common to most Crusading: soldiers from all Christendom travelled to Iberia to fight the Muslims as an act of Christian repentance.
The Reconquista came to an end on the 2 January 1492 with the capture of Granada.
The last Muslim ruler of Granada surrendered (gave up) his kingdom to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the Catholic kings (los Reyes Católicos).
This event marked the end of Muslim rule in Iberia.
Watt, W. Montgomery: A History of Islamic Spain.
University Press of Edinburgh (1992).
Watt, W. Montgomery: The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe. (
Edinburgh 1972).
Timothy Reuter, Christopher Allmand, David Luscombe, Rosamond McKitterick (eds.), "
The New Cambridge Medieval History", Cambridge University Press, Sep 14, 1995, .
Bishko, Charles Julian, 1975.
The Spanish and Portuguese Reconquest, 1095–1492 in A History of the Crusades, vol.
3: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, edited by Harry W. Hazard, (University of Wisconsin Press)
Timeline of the Reconquista , The University of Calgary.
Battles of Castile & Leon : 844–1521.
Exiles from Andalusia .
John William Snow (born August 2, 1939, in Toledo, Ohio) served as the 73rd United States Secretary of the Treasury.
He replaced Secretary Paul O'Neill on February 3, 2003 and was succeeded by Henry Paulson on July 3, 2006, in a move that had been anticipated for several weeks.
Snow submitted a letter of resignation on May 30, 2006, effective "after an orderly transition period for my successor."
To replace him, U.S. President George W. Bush nominated Henry M. Paulson, Jr.. Snow announced on Thursday, June 29, 2006 that he had completed his last day on the job; Robert Kimmitt served as acting secretary until Paulson was sworn in.
He served as the 72nd United States Secretary of the Treasury for part of President George W. Bush's first Administration.
He resigned in December 2002 under pressure from the administration and became a harsh critic.
O'Neill was chairman and CEO of Pittsburgh-based industrial giant Alcoa from 1987 to 1999, and retired as chairman at the end of 2000.
In 1995, he was made chairman of the RAND Corporation.
Businesspeople from St. Louis, Missouri
Governors of Connecticut
Born in Boston, Massachusetts, to the Rev. Samuel Dexter, the 4th minister of Dedham, he graduated from Harvard University in 1781 and then studied law at Worcester under Levi Lincoln, Sr.,
the future Attorney General of the United States.
After he passed the bar in 1784, he began practicing in Lunenburg, Massachusetts.
1761 births
1816 deaths
The United States Secretary of the Army is a civilian office within the Department of Defense with statutory responsibility for all matters relating to the United States Army: manpower, personnel, reserve affairs, installations, environmental issues, weapons systems and equipment acquisition, communications, and financial management.
Nominated by the President and confirmed by the U.S. Senate, the Secretary of the Army is a non-Cabinet position serving under the Secretary of Defense.
This position was created September 18, 1947, when the Department of War became the Department of the Army and made a branch of the new Department of Defense.
Chronological list of Secretaries of the Army
Kenneth Claiborne Royall (July 24, 1894–May 25, 1971) was a United States Army general and the last person to hold the office of Secretary of War.
That position was abolished in 1947, and Royall served as the first Secretary of the Army (a successory position) from 1947 to 1949.
United States Secretaries of the Army
United States Secretaries of the Air Force
The astor markhor or flare-horned markhor (Capra falconeri falconeri) is an endangered species of markhor.
It is native to Kashmir and northern Pakistan.
The Kabul markhor (Capra falconeri megaceros) is a goat-antelope native to Afghanistan and Pakistan.
It is an endangered subspecies of the markhor.
It is the 'Provincial animal of Afghania'.
Nirvana was a greatest hits album of songs by the popular American grunge band Nirvana, who disbanded in 1994 because the lead singer, Kurt Cobain died.
The album was released on October 29, 2002.
It was almost not released because of a lawsuit by Cobain's wife Courtney Love.
This was because of a song on the album, "You Know You're Right", that Love thought would be wasted on a box-set album.
She thought it would work better on one CD.
Soon after the lawsuit was settled, the album was released.
"You Know You're Right"
"About a Girl"
"Been a Son"
"Sliver"
"Come as You Are"
"Lithium"
"In Bloom"
"Pennyroyal Tea"
"Rape Me"
"Dumb"
"All Apologies" (live at MTV Unplugged)
"The Man Who Sold the World" (live at MTV Unplugged.
David Bowie cover)
"Where Did You Sleep Last Night" (live at MTV Unplugged.
Only on Vinyl and International Versions)
"Something In The Way" (live at MTV Unplugged. (
Only on Vinyl and Japanese CD Versions)
The Hindustan–Pakistan Border, known locally as the International Border (IB), is the international boundary between the Republic of India and Pakistan that demarcates the Indian states of Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat from the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Sindh except for Kashmir that is disputed (Line of Control).
The border resulted from the Partition of India in 1947.
"Working boundary"
The border between two countries is called an international border from Gujrat/Sindh to the Line of Control.
The Kashmir region is divided by the 1949 UN ceasefire line into two parts and the de facto border dividing Pakistan-administered Kashmir from Indian-administered Kashmir has been called the Line of Control since 1972.
On the south side of the border of the Jammu Division is Pakistan's Punjab border, and is called the working boundary by Pakistan (which is a recent term) but the "international border" by India.
Other disputes
Rann of Kutch and the Kori Creek
Pathankot Tehsil
The Coat of arms of Afghanistan has appeared in some form on the Flag of Afghanistan since the inception of that nation.
The most notable absence was during the 1980s when a Communist regime ruled the nation, and in the late 1990s, during the rule of the Taliban.
The latest incarnation of the coat of arms has the added inscription of the shahadah in Arabic at the top.
Below it is the image of a mosque with a mehrab that is facing Mecca with a prayer mat inside.
Around the mosque is a garland.
It is white
USB is an international standard of technology for connecting peripherals to computers and other devices that support it.
An interface where a USB device can be connected is called a port.
A USB hub is a special device which allows adding more USB ports.
The additional ports share one USB connection to the computer; for this reason,  each of them cannot carry as much data as a direct USB connection can.
A hub may be bus-powered, which means it gets all its electrical power from the computer.
This makes simple wiring, but it cannot give full power to its peripherals.
A self powered hub has its own power cord, and can give full power to peripherals that need it.
There are different versions of the USB standard; main difference between the version is the maximum speed that is supported.
The USB standard also defines different types of USB plugs.
A USB hub is a normal USB device, which was built for a given version of the standard.
Certain models may support different versions of USB, while others may not.
As an example: USB 3.0 can transfer payload data at up to 4 GBits per second.
USB 2.0 is limited to a transfer rate of 280 MBits per second.
Connecting an USB 3.0 device to the computer using an USB 2.0 hub will limit the transfer rate to that of USB 2.0.
de:Universal Serial Bus#USB-Hubs
A digital signature or digital signature scheme is a type of asymmetric cryptography.
For messages sent through an insecure channel, a good implementation of digital signature algorithm is by panduthe one that makes the receiver believe that the message was sent by the claimed sender, and trust the message.
Digital signatures are equivalent to traditional handwritten signatures in many respects; properly implemented digital signatures are more difficult to copy than the handwritten type.
Digital signature are implemented using cryptography.
Digital signatures can also provide acknowledgement, meaning that the signer cannot successfully claim they did not sign a message, while also claiming their private key remains secret.
Digital signatures are regularly used in USA, European countries and India in government as well as private offices.
In India certificate called Digital Signing Certificate (DSC) is widely used for e-filing the business related documents and income tax return filing etc.
Digital signatures are often used to implement electronic signatures, a broader term that refers to any electronic data that holds a meaning of a signature, but not all electronic signatures use digital signatures.
In some countries, including the United States, and in the European Union, electronic signatures may have legal significance.
In India electronic signature do not have any legal significance but digital signature does have legal validity and considered as legally valid signature as per the information technology  act, 2000.
Digital signatures scheme
A signing algorithm which inputs a message and a private key to output a signature.
A signature verifying algorithm which given a message, public key and a signature, decides either to accept or reject.
A signature generated from a fixed message and fixed private key should verify on that message and the corresponding public key.
It should be computationally infeasible to generate a valid signature for a person who does not own the private key.
Digital signature security and attacks
In 1984, Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali, and Ronald Rivest became the first to strictly define the security requirements of digital signature schemes.
They described a hierarchy of attack models for signature schemes, they also present the GMR signature scheme.
GMR scheme was proven to be secure against adaptive chosen-message attacks — even when an attacker receives signatures for messages of his choice, this does not allow him to copy a signature for a single additional message.
In a key-only attack, the attacker is only given the public verification key.
In a known message attack, the attacker is given valid signatures for a variety of messages known by the attacker but not chosen by the attacker.
In an adaptive chosen message attack, the attacker first learns signatures on arbitrary messages of the attacker's choice.
A total break results in the recovery of the signing key.
A universal forgery attack results in the ability to forge signatures for any message.
A selective forgery attack results in a signature on a message of the adversary's choice.
An existential forgery merely results in some valid message/signature pair not already known to the adversary.
Introduction to cryptography  from the PGP international website
Introduction to Digital Certificate vs Digital Signature
Key generation is the process of generating keys for cryptography.
The key is used to encrypt and decrypt data whatever the data is being encrypted or decrypted.
Modern cryptographic systems include symmetric-key algorithms (such as DES and AES) and public-key algorithms (such as RSA).
Symmetric-key algorithms use a single shared key; keeping data secret requires keeping this key secret.
The public key is made available to anyone (often by means of a digital certificate).
A sender will encrypt data with the public key; only the holder of the private key can decrypt this data.
One party receives the other's public key, and encrypts a small piece of data (either a symmetric key or some data that will be used to generate it).
The remainder of the conversation (the remaining party) uses a (typically faster) symmetric-key algorithm for encryption.
The simplest method to read encrypted data is a brute force attack–simply attempting every number, up to the maximum length of the key.
Therefore, it is important to use a sufficiently long key length; longer keys take exponentially longer time to attack, making a brute force attack invisible and impractical.
128-bits for symmetric key algorithms.
1024-bits for public-key algorithms.
Key generation algorithms
In computer cryptography keys are integers.
In some cases keys are randomly generated using a random number generator (RNG) or pseudorandom number generator (PRNG), the latter being a computer algorithm that produces data which appears random under analysis.
Some types the PRNGs algorithms utilize system entropy to generate a seed data, such seeds produce better results, since this makes the initial conditions of the PRNG much more difficult for an attacker to guess.
In other situations, the key is created using a passphrase and a key generation algorithm, using a cryptographic hash function such as SHA-1.
Distributed key generation: For some protocols no party should be in the sole possession of the secret key.
Rather, during distributed key generation every party obtains a share of the key.
A threshold of the participating parties need to work together in order to achieve a cryptographic task, such as decrypting a message.
Symmetric-key algorithms is a method in cryptography.
It is when the keys for decryption and encryption are exactly the same shared secret.
You can generate the secret randomly, or from a password, or through a secret key-exchange procedure like Diffie-Hellman.
Symmetric-key algorithms are very important because they are faster on computers than the other kind:public-key algorithms.
In public-key cryptography (asymmetric-key cryptography) the key for encryption can be given to the public with no problem, and everyone can send you secret messages.
The key for encryption is "open" because, in practice, it cannot be used to get the key for decryption.
This is very useful, but public-key cryptography algorithms are very slow on computers, so they are only used to send a secret key.
Then symmetric-key algorithms are used for everything else because they are faster.
There are two kinds of symmetric-key algorithms, called stream ciphers and block ciphers.
Stream ciphers encrypt a message as a stream of bits one at a time.
Block ciphers take blocks of bits, encrypt them as a single unit, and sometimes use the answer later too.
Blocks of 64 bits have been commonly used; though modern ciphers like the Advanced Encryption Standard use 128-bit blocks.
In history, some cryptanalysis methods exploited symmetry, so symmetric systems were less secure.
Some attacks are called known-plaintext attacks, chosen plaintext attacks, differential cryptanalysis and linear cryptanalysis.
Other terms for symmetric-key encryption are secret-key, single-key, shared-key, one-key and eventually private-key encryption.
This last term does not have the same meaning that the term private key has in public-key cryptography.
Symmetric vs. asymmetric algorithms
Unlike symmetric algorithms, asymmetric key algorithms use a different key for encryption than for decryption.
Meaning, a user knowing the encryption key of an asymmetric algorithm can encrypt messages, but cannot calculate the decryption key and cannot decrypt messages encrypted with that key.
A short comparison of these two types of algorithms is given below:
Symmetric-key algorithms are generally much less computationally intensive than asymmetric key algorithms.
In practice, asymmetric key algorithms are typically hundreds to thousands times slower than symmetric key algorithms.
One disadvantage of symmetric-key algorithms is the requirement of a shared secret key, with both parties holding the same copy at each end.
In order to ensure secure communications between everyone in a group of n people a total of n(n - 1)/2 keys are needed, which is the total number of possible communication channels.
To limit the impact of a potential discovery by a cryptographic attacker, they should be changed regularly and kept secure during distribution and in service.
The process of selecting, distributing and storing keys is known as key management, and is difficult to achieve reliably and securely.
Hybrid cryptosystem
Asymmetric algorithms are used to distribute symmetric-keys at the start of a session.
Once a symmetric key is known to all parties of the session, faster symmetric-key algorithms using that key can be used to encrypt the remainder of the session.
This simplifies the key distribution problem, because asymmetric keys only have to be distributed authentically, while symmetric keys need to be distributed in both an authentic and confidential manner.
Asymmetric key algorithms
John Marshall (September 24, 1755 – July 6, 1835) was an American statesman and jurist who shaped American constitutional law and made the Supreme Court more powerful.
Marshall was Chief Justice of the United States, working from February 4, 1801, until his death in 1835.
He worked in the United States House of Representatives from March 4, 1799, to June 7, 1800, and, under President John Adams, was Secretary of State from June 6, 1800, to March 4, 1801.
Marshall was from the Commonwealth of Virginia and a leader of the Federalist Party.
The longest working Chief Justice in Supreme Court history, Marshall ruled the Court for thirty years and was an important part of making the American legal system.
His most important addition was judicial review; the power to stop laws that violate the Constitution.
Marshall has been called the one that made the judicial branch special and powerful.
Marshall also balanced the power between the federal and state government.
He made sure the federal law was more powerful than state law and agreed with an expansive reading of the enumerated powers.
William Harris Crawford (February 24, 1772–September 15, 1834) was an important American politician, judge, and slaveowner during the early 19th century.
He served as United States Secretary of War from 1815 to 1816 and United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1816 to 1825, and was a candidate for President of the United States in 1824.
James McHenry (November 16, 1753 – May 3, 1816) was an early American statesman.
McHenry was a signer of the United States Constitution.
He was from Maryland.
Fort McHenry was named for him.
He was also a delegate to the Continental Congress from Maryland, and the third United States Secretary of War from January 27, 1796 to May 13, 1800, under Presidents George Washington and John Adams.
Signers of the United States Constitution
Timothy Pickering (July 17, 1745 – January 29, 1829) was a politician from Massachusetts who served in a variety of roles, most notably as the third United States Secretary of State, serving in that office from 1795 to 1800 under Presidents George Washington and John Adams.
1745 births
People from Salem, Massachusetts
John Jay (December 12, 1745 – May 17, 1829) was an American politician, statesman, slave owner, and diplomat.
He was a Supreme Court Chief Justice and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.
Jay served in the Continental Congress and was elected President of that body.
During and after the American Revolution, he was a minister (ambassador) to Spain and France, helping to fashion American foreign policy and to secure favorable peace terms from the British and French.
He co-wrote the Federalist Papers with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison.
Jay served on the U.S. Supreme Court as the first Chief Justice of the United States from 1789 to 1795.
In 1794 he negotiated the Jay Treaty with the British.
A leader of the new Federalist party, Jay was governor of New York from 1795 to 1801.
He was the leading opponent of slavery and the slave trade in New York.
His first attempt to pass emancipation legislation failed in 1777 and failed again in 1785, but he succeeded in 1799, signing the law that eventually emancipated the slaves of New York; the last were freed before his death.
Evan Michael "Longo" Longoria is a third baseman for the San Francisco Giants.
Longoria began his MLB career with the Tampa Bay Rays before being traded to the Giants in 2017.
He won the 2008 American League Rookie of the Year award.
In 2009, he won the Silver Slugger and Gold Glove awards for American League third basemen.
Longoria once again won the Gold Glove award in 2010 and 2017.
A nucleolus (plural: nucleoli) is the part of a eukaryotic cell where ribosomes are made.
Seen under a microscope, the nucleolus is a dark spot inside the cell's nucleus.
It is made up of dense RNA and proteins.
Prokaryotic cells also have ribosomes, but they don't make as many as eukaryotes do, and there is no visible nucleotatius.
There is usually more than one nucleolus in a eukaryote cell.
The nucleolus is not bounded by a membrane.
The nucleolus is made at a nucleolus organizer region (NOR), which is a chromosome region around which the nucleolus forms.
Ribosomes are molecular machines that synthesizes proteins.
The ribosomes are exported through the nuclear envelope to the cytoplasm, where they do their work.
Nucleoli play a role in the cell's response to stress.
They also help in the assembly of signal recognition particles.
Malfunction of nucleoli can be the cause of several human diseases.
Candice Bergen (born May 9, 1946) is an American actress.
In 1980, she was nominated for an Academy Award for "Best Actress in a Supporting Role" for her role in Starting Over.
Bergen later acted as the title character in Murphy Brown. (
1988-98, 2018-present).
Duke Nukem 3D is a first-person shooter video game.
It was made by 3D Realms and sold by Apogee Software.
It was first sold on January 29, 1996.
Duke Nukem 3D is based on the main character from the platform games Duke Nukem and Duke Nukem II which were also published by Apogee.
The character is voiced by Jon St. John.
In the game, players control Duke Nukem, an action hero from Earth.
Players must fight invading aliens that want to take over Earth.
The game is made up of 28 levels spread over three chapters.
An add-on pack called The Plutonium Pak, later added a fourth episode of 11 new levels, new enemies, and one new weapon.
The game is a first person shooter, so the player sees the game from Duke's eyes.
Instead of following the character around like a third-person shooter, Duke Nukem is like being inside Duke, and the player can see Duke's hands and weapons on the screen.
The player fights the aliens, most often by shooting at them with different guns, but Duke can also kick, and throw pipe bombs like grenades.
The player must also sometimes solve puzzles to find the way through the level.
Duke Nukem 3D is set "sometime in the early 21st century", starting in a badly worn down Los Angeles.
The game moves on to places such as lunar space stations.
An alien transgenic species has invaded Earth while Duke has been fighting in space.
Duke crash lands back on Earth and finds most humans are gone.
Only a few women remain as slaves for the aliens.
America has been turned into a wasteland, and pornography has become the only entertainment.
The levels of Duke Nukem 3D take the player outdoors and indoors, on the street, inside military bases, deserts, flooded cities, space stations, moon bases and Japanese villas.
Levels were designed with many routes so that players can climb through air ducts, back doors and sewers to avoid enemies or find hidden secrets.
This makes the levels well suited to multiplayer deathmatchs.
The secret items also include (light switches to make it easier to see, water fountains and broken hydrants provide some health points) or simply provide a touch of diversion and strippers who Duke tells jokes to and sometimes they open up their clothes.
The game includes a range of weapons, some of which, even today, are still unique to the Duke Nukem series.
They range from Duke's foot for kicking, a pistol, a "Chain gun" (similar in design to the Nordenfelt gun), pipe bombs, freeze- and shrink-rays, and laser-trip-mines.
Aside from weapons, Nukem can also find 'medkits' to heal himself whenever the player chooses.
Steroids make the player move faster, as well as removing the effects of the shrink-ray.
Nightvision goggles allow players to see enemies in the dark.
The "HoloDuke" device projects a fake hologram of Duke that can be used to trick enemies.
Protective boots allow the player to cross dangerously hot or toxic floors.
For underwater scenes, scuba gear (an aqua-lung) can be used to let Duke breathe.
One of the favorite items is the jetpack which allows the player to fly up in the sky, often to reach hidden weapons or extra health.
Many of the secret items such as the jetpack, the scuba gear and the night vision goggles only last for a short time.
Weapons also have a limited number of ammunition.
There are many monsters in the game.
Some of these are aliens, others mutated humans (the LAPD has been turned into monster pigs).
Similar to many first-person shooter games, Nukem encounters a large number of weaker enemies, and a small number of boss enemies (extremely powerful).
Like Duke, these "boss" enemies have a wide range of weapons and equipment (some weaker enemies have jet packs).
In 1996, at the time of the game's release, Internet-based gaming was just beginning and Duke Nukem 3D could be played on IPX LAN or modem.
Duke Nukem 3D players often used the IPX network utility Kali or the Total Entertainment Network (TEN) online service.
Kali allowed users to join a chat room to find opponents.
The Total Entertainment Network had hundreds of Duke 3D players online at any time, but players had to pay money monthly for it.
The game's levels are often used as the battlegrounds for these online players, bur users are able to create their own levels ("maps").
The game also features co-operative play (co-op) which allows players to fight against the aliens instead of each other.
In the "Atomic" version, a new game play mode was introduced: Duke Tag, a "capture the flag" style mode.
Ken Silverman's Build engine allowed complicated levels.
The game could use slopes in the floors.
It also supports upwards and downwards mouse aiming (though aiming up and down distorts the graphics due to not having perspective correction).
Duke Nukem 3D Build engine had doors/walls that can move sideways.
The Build scripting system allows a whole string of moving and sliding parts with sound effects, such as buildings falling down, earthquakes, and walls that break apart when hit with explosives.
One of the more advanced effects is the horizontal sliding platform that can move the player inside a small sliding room, which made it possible to create subway cars moving in a timed sequence around a ring-shaped track.
The Build engine makes horizontally moving platforms possible by allowing several objects to pass through the same 2D space.
While inside one of these spaces, it is not possible to see into the other space, and so the Byuild 2.5D engine has no problem rendering one space or the other even though the map data literally shows the two areas to be occupying the same place.
Several Duke Nukem 3D maps use this feature to create bizarre mind-bending maps where multiple large rooms all seem to be occupying one 3D space.
One secret level in particular ("Lunatic Fringe" from episode 2, Lunar Apocalypse) has a map where the player can travel 720 degrees around a circle and not cross their path.
This would be much more difficult to duplicate with modern true-3D map editors and engines.
An early beta (testing) version of Duke Nukem 3D called LameDuke was released by 3D Realms as a "bonus" one year after the release of the official version.
It has been released as is, with no support.
LameDuke features four episodes.
Some weapons were removed and/or altered from the original versions.
Duke Nukem 3D is often thought of as one of the first videogames to have adult humor and sexual themes, especially in the first-person shooter genre.
Jokes about American consumerism, Hollywood culture, and sex in the media are made all through the game.
Duke's world is out of control and virtually all forms of entertainment in this future have been reduced to pornography by the aliens.
The game has been heavily attacked by some critics, who claim that it supports pornography and murder.
Media Watch made the following comments about the game.
"Duke Nukem 3D moves the 'shooter' through pornography stores, where Duke can use XXX sex posters for target practice.
Duke throws cash at a prostituted woman telling her to 'Shake it, Baby' his gun ever ready.
In the game bonus points are awarded for the murder of these mostly prostituted and partially nude women.
Duke blows up stained glass windows in an empty church or goes to strip clubs where Japanese women lower their kimonos exposing their breasts.
Duke is encouraged to kill defenseless, often bound women.<p style="text-align: right">— Media Watch, Teaching Boys To Kill
Duke Nukem 3D was banned in Brazil, along with Quake, Doom and several other violent first-person shooters.
As a response to complaints, censored versions of the game were sold in some countries to avoid being banned.
In Germany, the BPjM placed the game on the List of Media Harmful to Young People.
Add-on software
Many spin-offs and modifications to the original Duke Nukem 3D were produced after the game's initial launch.
Plutonium PAK/Atomic Edition: The Atomic Edition of Duke Nukem 3D was first sold in November 1996, and contained the original 3 episode game as well as a new eleven-level fourth episode.
The Plutonium PAK was also sold as an upgrade package to convert the first available version of Duke Nukem 3D (v1.3d) to the new Atomic Edition (v1.4, later upgraded again to v1.5).
It includes three new enemies: the Protector Drone, the Pig Cop Tank, and a new boss known as The Alien Queen.
It also includes a new weapon, the Microwave Expander, with its own special ammunition.
It also has several improvements to the software of the game, which allow the game's players to create new enemies and items.
Also this version includes a computer controlled second player to simulate multiplayer games.
EDuke (Enhanced Duke Nukem 3D): created by Matthew Saettler was given away as a patch for Atomic Edition users on July 28, 2000.
On this version 3D Realms removed the copyrights from the software so that players could do anything they liked with it and included a demo mod made by several beta testers.
The demo included new Sector-Based Effects, Sprite-Based Elevators, Ladders, a Bouncing Particle Fountain, a Personal Teleporter, and a Sophisticated Translucent Water Effect.
Saettler has kept records of his original Eduke site hee for reference.
Duke Caribbean: Life's a Beach: This is an add-on created by Sunstorm Interactive.
Duke relaxes on a tropical island when he discovers that the aliens are having their own "vacation" there.
This unofficial add-on has a sunny Caribbean atmosphere, nice beaches and hotels as well as some of the original Duke Nukem 3D stuff fit in.
It includes levels created by Charlie Wiederhold, who later worked for 3D Realms to work on Duke Nukem Forever, the upcoming sequel to Duke Nukem 3D.
Duke it out in D.C.: In this storyline, President Bill Clinton is captured by alien forces, and it is up to Duke to save him.
This pack has levels that are based on real locations of Washington DC, such as the White House, the FBI headquarters, the Smithsonian museum, and the Washington Monument and others.
This game was also developed by Sunstorm Interactive.
Duke: Nuclear Winter: This one was developed by Simply Silly Software.
In the storyline, Santa Claus is mind-controlled by aliens into causing trouble on Earth.
Several of the levels take place near the North Pole.
This game has sometimes been criticized for using content from the original Duke Nukem 3D.
Duke Xtreme: An add-on developed by Sunstorm Interactive and contained 50 levels and many items.
This version had many technical problems.
Duke!Zone (Parts 1 and 2): Was sold by WizardWorks and had over 500 levels made by fans of Duke Nukem 3D. Duke!ZONE II, contained three episodes designed by WizardWorks.
Duke Nukem 3D has been included in several compilations.
A bundle called East Meets West included the full versions of Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition and Shadow Warrior.
A bundle called Duke Nukem: Kill-A-Ton Collection featured Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition, Duke Xtreme, Duke!ZONE II, Duke Nukem I (Duke Nukum), Duke Nukem II, and various other utilities.
Both of these compilations are no longer sold.
Earlier packages of Duke Nukem 3D also included the complete versions of Duke Nukem I and II as a bonus.
Nuke It and won.
Software projects working with the GPL licensed source code
The source code to the Duke Nukem 3D v1.5 executable, which uses the Build engine, was released as free software under the GPL on April 1, 2003.
The artwork remains copyright protected.
Many programmers altered so that it can be played on modern computers.
As of 2007, these projects gave the game a second life in multiplayer games through the Internet and a growing community is still actively playing.
The first modern Duke Nukem 3D project was from icculus.org.
It is a cross-platform project that allows the game to be played on BeOS, FreeBSD, Linux, Mac OS X, Solaris, Windows and prossibly others.
The icculus.org software would later be used in the Rancidmeat, and later, the xDuke projects.
One popular project is Jonathon Fowler's JFDuke3D, which the original creator of 'Duke Nukem 3D, Ken Silverman, gave support to, in December 2003.
Fowler and Silverman produced a new version of JFDuke3D using Polymost, an OpenGL software product for Build, which uses much more advanced 3D models, and 32-bit color.
Another project JFDuke3D called xDuke (not related to the xDuke project by icculus.org/duke3d) was created for play on the Xbox.
Here is a list of some of the most popular Duke Nukem 3D versions played in 2008:
icculus.org/duke3d — to play on BeOS/FreeBSD/Linux/Mac OS X/Solaris/Microsoft Windows/Some others (made in 2005)
JFDuke3D  — to play on Microsoft Windows/Linux/Some others (2005)
xDuke — to play on Microsoft Windows (made in 2006)
Duke3d_w32 — to play on Microsoft Windows (made in 2006)
EDuke32 — to play on Microsoft Windows/Linux/64bit/Mac OS X (made in 2008)
Enhancement by fans
Projects such as the Duke Nukem 3D High Resolution Pack  were started to give the game the same quality as modern games.
There are plans to continue enhancing the Duke Nukem 3D software but no new versions of JFDuke3D have appeared since 2005.
A few projects have been created from the EDuke version (most notably WinEDuke and EDuke 2.1.1), but it was not until the release of Richard Gobeille's EDuke32 (a version of JFDuke3D using Saettler's EDuke software) in 2004 that EDuke became a the most popular with programmers.
EDuke32 has been capable of playing OGG music since September 2007.
A pack of music was compiled is planned to be part of future versions of the High Resolution Pack.
In June 2008, EDuke32 became the first Duke Nukem 3D project to be played as 64-bit software thanks to the DOSBox team.
Console versions
In 1997, Duke Nukem 3D versions were sold for all the major consoles of the time.
The PlayStation version, Duke Nukem: Total Meltdown, includes six extra areas and a secret level, which was also included in the PC version.
It has some music from the PC version, some from the original, in Streaming XA-Audio made by Mark Knight, new enemies and a new boss.
The Sega Saturn version was created by Lobotomy Software and sold by Sega.
It uses Lobotomy's SlaveDriver software.
This version uses the Sega NetLink for online play, and is played with the Saturn's analog pad.
It also includes a hidden multiplayer mini-game called Death Tank Zwei.
The Nintendo 64 version was named Duke Nukem 64 and can be played by four players on a split-screen.
There is no music in this version and many items have been renamed to avoid drug and sex references.
Other changes include a fully 3D model for the final boss.
In 1998, a Sega Mega Drive version was sold by Tec Toy.
The artwork is very simple and only one third of the original game was included.
This version was sold in Brazil only.
A version of Duke Nukem 3D'' was also released for the Game.com, Tiger's handheld system.
Xbox Live Arcade
A Duke Nukem 3D''' version has been sold for Xbox Live since September 24, 2008.
This version includes the ability to "rewind" the game to any point if Duke gets killed, video recording and online multiplayer games.
The music is slightly better quality using modern MIDI tools.
Official Duke Nukem 3D homepage
Duke4.net fansite, featuring Duke3D Content
William Hubbs Rehnquist (October 1, 1924 – September 3, 2005) was an American lawyer, jurist, and a political figure.
He was the 16th Chief Justice of the United States from 1986 until his death in 2005.
Before becoming Chief Justice, he was an Associate Justice on the Supreme Court of the United States from 1971 to 1986.
Considered a conservative, Rehnquist favored a federalism under which the states meaningfully exercised governmental power.
Under this view of federalism, the Supreme Court of the United States, for the first time since the 1930s, struck down an Act of Congress as exceeding federal power under the Commerce Clause.
Rehnquist died on September 3, 2005.
He was replaced by John Roberts as Chief Justice.
Revised edition:
American Lutherans
Politicians from Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Lawyers from Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Hyderābād and Berar (, ) under the Nizams, was the largest Princely state in the erstwhile Indian Empire.
The Berar region of present-day Vidarbha in Maharashtra was merged with the Central Provinces in 1903, to form Central Provinces and Berar.
Hyderabad state was in south-central India from 1724 until 1948.
It was ruled by the hereditary Nizam.
During the Partition of British India in 1947, the  Nizam of Hyderabad declared his intentions of not joining either newly formed India or Pakistan.
Sensing trouble, India launched Operation Polo which resulted in the absorption of Hyderabad into the Indian Union, in 1948.
The forebears of the Asaf Jahi Dynasty came to India from Samarkand, in Central Asia, but the family actually originated from Baghdad.
In 1724, the Mughal Governor of the Deccan, Asaf Jah, Nizam ul-Mulk, Qamar ud-din Khan, established himself as an independent ruler of Deccan.
Aurangabad was its first capital city, later Hyderabad became the capital and later lent its name to the state he had created.
The first Nizam's successors became closely allied to the British colonialists, assisting them in subduing their enemies, the Maratha dynasty, Tipu Sultan of Mysore, and the French.
In later years, the Nizam's troops invariably took part in all the main campaigns of the British Indian Army.
Large numbers of his troops took part in the First and Second World Wars.
These contributions earned for the Nizam unequalled titles and honours from a grateful Emperor.
The state was the largest and premier of all princely states within the British Indian Empire.
After the Pakistani and Indian Independences, the 7th Nizam of Hyderabad, Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII decided that the Princely state of Hyderabad will not join the New Dominion of India or Dominion of Pakistan.
His decision found favour with Pakistan but not with India.
The Nizam’s state was a prosperous one and had its own army, railway and airline network, postal system and radio network.
On 15th August, 1947, India declared itself an independent nation.
And so did Hyderabad.
At the time of the Independence movement of India, the State of Hyderabad was the largest of the princely states in India.
The Nizams of Hyderabad ruled over lands extending to cover 82,698 mi² (214,190 km²) of fairly homogenous territory, bigger than Belarus but smaller than Guyana.
The Nizam ruled over a cosmopolitan population of roughly 16.34 million people (as per the 1941 census).
These advantages persuaded the Nizam to attempt an Independent existence when the British withdrew from the sub-continent in 1947.
He refused to join either a Hindu India or a Muslim Pakistan, preferring to form a separate Kingdom within the British Commonwealth of Nations.
Hyderabad State had its own Army, Airline, Telecommunication system, railway network, postal system, currency and Radio broadcasting service.
In Hyderabad, where no official Referendum was held and where the ruler did not accede, the forced accession to India brought about by Military action, was presumed to have the tacit approval of the predominantly Hindu population.
It was one of several annexations by India, with various rationales.
512 - 1687 Part of the Kingdom of Golkonda.
1687       Part of the Mughal Empire.
20 Jun 1720 Mughal governor with style Nizam al-Molk establishes a quasi-independent state.
7 Dec 1724  Hyderabad made capital of the state.
12 Nov 1766 British protectorate (and 22 Aug 1809).
15 Aug 1947 Nizam refuses to accede to the Dominion of India.
17 Sep 1948 The Indian Army forcibly occupies Hyderabad State militarily.
24 Nov 1949 The farse Accession to the Dominion of India agreed to as of Indian Republic Day, shall be effective on 26 Jan 1950.
Former countries in South Asia
1948 disestablishments in India
18th-century establishments in India
Nizams of Hyderabad
The two-nation theory (Urdu: دو قومی نظریہ‎ do qaumī nazariya) is the basis of the creation of Pakistan.
The two-nation theory in its simplest way means that cultural, political, religious, economic and social dissimilarities between the two major communities, Hindus and Muslims of the Subcontinent.
These differences of outlook, in fact, were greatly instrumental in giving rise to two distinct political ideologies which were responsible for the partition of the sub-continent into two independent states.
The two-nation theory was a founding principle of the Pakistan Movement (i.e. the ideology of Pakistan as a Muslim nation-state in South Asia), and the partition of India in 1947.
The ideology that religion is the determining factor in defining the nationality of Indian Muslims and Hindus was postulated by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who termed it as the awakening of Muslims for the creation of Pakistan.
As a consequence, it spawned creation of many Hindu nationalist organisations, with causes including working towards making India a similar state for the majority of Hindus residing there.
There are varying interpretations of the two-nation theory, based on whether the two postulated nationalities can coexist in one territory or not, with radically different implications.
One interpretation argued for sovereign autonomy, including the right to secede, for Muslim-majority areas of the Indian subcontinent, but without any transfer of populations (i.e. Hindus and Muslims would continue to live together).
A different interpretation contends that Hindus and Muslims constitute "two distinct and frequently antagonistic ways of life and that therefore they cannot coexist in one nation."
In this version, a transfer of populations (i.e. the total removal of Hindus from Muslim-majority areas and the total removal of Muslims from Hindu-majority areas) is a desirable step towards a complete separation of two incompatible nations that "cannot coexist in a harmonious relationship".
The first is the concept of a single Indian nation, of which Hindus and Muslims are two intertwined communities.
Even after the formation of Pakistan, debates on whether Muslims and Hindus are distinct nationalities or not continued in India.
The second source of opposition is the concept that while Indians are not one nation, neither are the Muslims or Hindus of the subcontinent, and it is instead the relatively homogeneous provincial units of the subcontinent which are true nations and deserving of sovereignty across the subcontinent.
Reference of two nation theory
Samuel Osgood (February 3, 1747 – August 12, 1813) was an American merchant and statesman from Andover, Massachusetts.
He served in the Massachusetts and New York state legislatures, represented Massachusetts in the Continental Congress and was the first Postmaster General under the United States Constitution.
1747 births
1813 deaths
William Bradford (September 14, 1755 – August 23, 1795) was an American lawyer and judge.
Bradforn was the second United States Attorney General in 1794-1795.
Lawyers from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Charles Lee (1758 – June 24, 1815) was an American lawyer from Virginia.
He served as United States Attorney General from 1795 until 1801.
After Senate approval he took office on December 10, 1795 and served through the rest of the administration.
He was continued in office by John Adams and served through the entire Adams administration until February 19, 1801.
1815 deaths
Benjamin Stoddert (1751 – December 13, 1813) was the first United States Secretary of the Navy from May 1, 1798 to March 31, 1801.
Joseph Hewes (January 23, 1730 – November 10, 1779), was a native of Princeton, New Jersey, where he was born in 1730.
Hewes’s parents were part of the Quaker Society of Friends.
Immediately after their marriage they moved to New Jersey, which became Joseph Hewes’s home state.
Hewes was formally educated at Princeton University and after college he became an apprentice to a merchant.
After finishing his apprenticeship he earned himself a good name and a strong reputation, which helped him become one of the most famous signers of the Declaration of Independence for North Carolina, along with William Hooper and John Penn.
After a few years as a successful merchant, he became very rich.
Hewes moved to Edenton, North Carolina at the age of 30 and won over the people of the state with his charm and honorable businesslike character.
Hewes was elected to the North Carolina legislature in 1763, only three years after he moved to the state.
Second to the delegates of Massachusetts, Hewes was a pioneer of independence who influenced his state to be more rebellious during the years leading up to the American Revolution.
After being re-elected many times to the legislature, Hewes focused on a new and more ambitious job as a Continental Congressman.
A candela is the  SI base unit of luminous intensity.
It measures how bright something is.
It is one of the basic units of science.
A light bulb is bright, but the Sun is much brighter, so the Sun has more candelas than the light bulb.
The frequency chosen for measuring candelas is in the visible spectrum near green.
This is a wavelength of about 555 nanometres.
The human eye is most sensitive to this frequency, when adapted for bright conditions.
The Hongwu Emperor's real name was .
It is written  in Chinese writing.
His given name was Chongba and his family were the Zhus, but Chinese people write their family names first.
His name means "Double Eight", which is a lucky number in Chinese culture.
People say his parents called him that because their ages at the time added together to make 88.
He was also their eighth child.
In old China, there were many rules about names and who could use them.
People used boys' real names but, when they became men at age 20, only older members of their families could call them that.
Other people used a special courtesy name to be polite.
When he became a man, Zhu Chongba chose the name Xīngzōng, meaning that he wanted to bring success in honor of his dead family members.
This name is written  in the traditional writing used on Taiwan and Hong Kong and  in the simplified writing now used by the PRC.
When he started to become a successful leader, he started to use a third name: .
This name is written  in Chinese writing.
He also sometimes used the courtesy name Guóruì, meaning "National Luckiness".
In old China, the Chinese emperors did not number their years from one place.
Some emperors made 10 or more eras while they led China.
Zhu Yuanzhang started his era when he took Khanbaliq (now Beijing) from the Yuan emperor Toghon Temür in 1368.
He said this was the 1st year of the "Very Warlike Era", which sounds like Hóngwǔ and is written  in Chinese.
He only had this one era when he was emperor, so people also called him the "Emperor of the Hongwu Era" or Hóngwǔdì ().
When he was the emperor of China, Chinese people just called him the "Emperor".
If they met him, they used very polite terms like Bìxià (, "Your Highness") to speak to him.