the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
That portion of Sandoval County which is within the San Ildefonso Indian Reservation, about 3 km², became an exclave bounded by Los Alamos County on the southwest, Santa Fe County on the east and Rio Arriba County on the north.
"Practical" exclaves
Some territories are not geographically detached from their motherland.
Nevertheless, they are more easily reached by entering a foreign country.
Very often, this is because of their location in a hilly area.
It may also be because the only road enters that foreign place before coming back to the mother country.
These territories may be called "practical exclaves," "pene-exclaves" or "quasi-exclaves" and can be found along many borders, particularly those that are not heavily defended.
They will only be attached to the motherland via an extremely small or thin slice of land.
Canada: St. Regis, Quebec: Part of the Akwesasne Mohawk Nation on the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River, it is attached by land to the St. Regis Mohawk Reservation in New York State; road access to the rest of Canada is only available through New York State.
Alaska: The Alaska Panhandle, though connected geographically, is inaccessible by road from the rest of the state.
One must drive through Canada to reach the area from elsewhere in the state
Minnesota: The Northwest Angle is attached by land to the Canadian province of Manitoba; road access to the rest of the United States is only available through Manitoba
Washington: Point Roberts is at the southern end of a peninsula; land access to the rest of the United States is only available through the Canadian province of British Columbia
"Practical" subnational exclaves
Virginia :The Eastern Shore, comprising Accomack County and Northampton County, is located at the southern tip of the Delmarva Peninsula.
It is connected to the rest of Virginia via the 23 mile (37 km) long Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel.
Iowa: Carter Lake, a part of Pottawattamie County, Iowa, is surrounded by Omaha, Nebraska on three sides and the Missouri River on the fourth; road access to Iowa is only available through Nebraska.
Michigan: The Upper Peninsula is attached by land to Wisconsin.
It can be reached from the Lower Peninsula of Michigan by the 5 mile (8 km) long Mackinac Bridge.
England: Pentreheyling can only be reached by road through Wales.
Historical exclaves
East Prussia, a German exclave during the Weimar Republic: it was separated from Germany after World War I, when Poland regained access to the Baltic sea.
East Prussia (essentially the old Duchy of Prussia) is now divided into Kaliningrad Oblast in Russia (see above) and the Warmian-Masurian Voivodship in Poland.
East Bengal (1947-1955) / East Pakistan (1955-1971), now Bangladesh, was an exclave separated from West Pakistan by 1600 kilometres of India's territory.
East Pakistan accounted for 70% of the exports of the country and was more populous than West Pakistan, and so in a sense it was actually the physically larger and politically more influential West that was the enclave and East Pakistan that was the Mainland.
Walvis Bay was a South African exclave in Namibia, before being incorporated with Namibia upon its independence.
List of countries that border only one other country
Enclaves of the world
Jan S. Krogh's Geosite
Article 'Tangled Territories' on European exclaves by Nicky Gardner of hidden europe magazine
exclave.info
In political geography, an enclave is a piece of land which has a different country totally around it.
If another country has sovereignty over it, it is also called an exclave of that other country.
It is usually landlocked, meaning it is completely encased by the surrounding country
Exclaves can also exist within a country.
This is when some administrative regions have holes (of other such regions) in them.
The word enclave is a relatively new word in the language of diplomacy: Diplomats are used to speaking French.
The word comes from late Latin inclavatus, which can be translated as shut in, locked up (with a key, from Latin clavis, key).
The word got in the English language in the year 1868.
exclave (with a similar meaning) followed 3 decades later.
Enclaves may be created for a variety of historical, political or geographical reasons.
Some areas have been left as enclaves simply because a river changed its course.
Since living in an enclave can be very inconvenient and many agreements have to be found by both countries over mail addresses, power supply or passage rights, enclaves tend to be eliminated and many cases that existed before have now been removed.
Sometimes it is the case, that enclaves are traded for one another.
Enclaved countries
Some enclaves are countries that are not part of any other country, and therefore not exclaves.
Three such countries exist:
The republic of San Marino, enclaved within Italy
Vatican City, within the city of Rome, in Italy
The Kingdom of Lesotho, inside South Africa
A panhandle is a word used in geography.
What people mean when they talk about panhandles is a narrow strip of land, that is surrounded on all sides except one, by one or more countries or regions.
The strip of land is connected to the country or region it belongs to on one side only.
This looks like the handle of a frying pan.
Alaska Panhandle is the state's southeast
A new town, planned community, or planned city is a kind of city that is designed by architects and engineers before it is built.
Most cities and towns just develop over the years, without a clear plan.
Urban planning is only used for later expansion.
Planned communities are designed with separate districts of the city for parks, stores, homes, and offices.
Many planned communities have a transportation system for commuters.
There are many examples of capital cities being planned throughout history: Baghdad, Iraq; Washington D.C., United States; New Delhi, India; Canberra, Australia; Brasília, Brazil; and Naypyidaw, Myanmar were all planned.
The International New Town Institute, a research organization
Settlements
A park is an open place in a city or town for nature.
There are often trees, benches, statues, and ponds in a park.
Some parks built in big cities are very large.
These can have fountains or picnic areas.
Sometimes, countries or regions set up national parks.
These are usually large areas of land.
Those areas are made to protect the habitats of animals.
Very often, a special permit is necessary to enter.
Building things in the park is usually forbidden, or needs a special permit.
A pond is a body of water smaller than a lake.
Ponds support  wide range of wildlife: ducks, turtles, swans, small fish, and frogs can live in a pond.
Usually, in most ponds sunlight can reach to bottom.
In some cases ponds do not last all year round.
This type of pond is called a vernal pond, or ephemeral, seasonal, or temporary wetlands.
These types of ponds do not have any fish.
Some ponds are now getting polluted because of humans.
A swan (Cygnini) is a kind of water bird, from the genera Cygnus and Coscoroba.
They are in the subfamily Anserinae, in the family Anatidae, which also includes geese and ducks.
Many swans live in colder places, such as northern Europe, Asia and North America.
They live on water.
They swim on top of the water and eat plants off the bottom of ponds, lakes, or oceans.
They also eat insects and other small animals.
A baby swan is called a cygnet.
Swans are tough, strong birds who will stand no nonsense from dogs or cats.
They may open their wings as a warning, but from then on a person is advised to keep clear.
Swans are highly protective of their nests.
They will attack anything they see as a threat to their chicks, including humans.
The swans are some of the largest flying birds.
They are large in size and have large feet and long necks.
The males are usually bigger and heavier than females.
The mute swan, trumpeter swan, and whooper swan are the largest swans.
They can be over 1.5m (60 inches) long.
They can weigh over 15kg (33 pounds).
Their wingspans (this means the length of both wings) can be almost 3m (10 ft).
Most swans are white.
They are found in the Northern Hemisphere.
This means they are found in Europe, Asia and North America.
However, the black swan is black with a red beak.
It lives in Australia.
The black necked swan has white flight feathers, and black outer feathers.
It lives in South America.
They also have a small area of skin between the eyes and beak that has no feathers.
This area can be different colors, such as yellow (for example, on a Bewick's swan) or orange (for example, on a mute swan).
Wild swans migrate.
They spend the cold part of the year eating and getting fat in one place and move to a warmer place to lay eggs and raise chicks, called cygnets.
The coscoroba swan is different to the other swans.
Some scientists think it is more like a duck or a goose.
It is the smaller than the other swans.
This swan lives in South America.
Bewick's swans used to spend a lot of time in Ireland and Britain and the Netherlands, but scientists say they have been moving east into Germany.
They spend less time in their winter feeding grounds than they did in 1970.
Scientists say they are following the changes in temperature in Europe.
The scientists found that individual swans do not change where they like to go during their own lifetimes.
Instead, different generations of swans go to different places from their parents and grandparents.
Genus Cygnus
Black swan (Cygnus atratus)
New Zealand swan (Cygnus atratus sumnerensis) †
Trumpeter swan (Cygnus buccinator)
Bewick's swan (Cygnus bewickii)
Whistling swan (Cygnus columbianus)
Whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus)
Black-necked swan (Cygnus melancoryphus)
Mute swan (Cygnus olor)
Genus Coscoroba
A pupa (plural: pupae or pupas) is part of becoming an adult for some insects, like some butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, and bees.
The pupal stage comes after being a larva; the next stage is adulthood.
Paul of Russia, a Russian Tsar
Prince Paul of Yugoslavia ("Pavle"), a prince of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in the 1930s
Paul (movie), a 2011 movie
Paul, Idaho, a city in the U.S. state of Idaho
Paul the Octopus, an octopus who seemed able to say who would win football matches
Geese are famously gregarious: they like to stick together.
They can be moved in large herds because of this feature of their behaviour.
Both as chicks and as adults, geese show collective animal behaviour.
Geese migrate in groups in the spring and fall, flying together in a V-shape.
A male goose is called a "gander" and a baby goose is called a "gosling".
A group of geese is called a "gaggle".
Swan goose
Chinese goose
Ovaries (Singular: Ovary) are organs found in female organisms.
Ovaries are part of the reproductive system needed to reproduce sexually.
Most vertebrates have ovaries.
Usually animals have two ovaries.
Birds usually have only one working ovary; snakes have one ovary in front of the other.
The ovaries are similar to testicles in men.
Ovaries are shaped like eggs and are around 3 cm by 1.5 cm by 1.5 cm.
The ovary is found in the side walls of the pelvis.
Each ovary is attached to the Fallopian tube.
Usually each ovary takes turns releasing eggs every month.
Produce female sex hormones resulting in puberty
Produce ova (also called "egg cells"), which are the female reproductive cells.
During menstruation, an ovum is released from the ovary and enters one of the Fallopian tubes.
There, the ovum can be fertilised.
Ovaries have a certain number of eggs in them, so when eggs stop being released, this is the start of the menopause.
During this time, female hormones stop being produced.
Merck Online Medical Library: Female Reproductive System
An axe (or ax) is an ancient tool.
It is used to shape, split and cut wood.
The hand axe was probably the first tool in the Stone Age.
It did not have a handle.
In the past, axes were used as weapons by soldiers.
Today, axes are usually related to woodcutters and firemen.
Axes are simple machines.
They are in the category of wedges.
They are usually made of some sort of metal, mainly steel or iron.
They can have a metal or wooden handle.
A rhinoceros (rhino for short) is any animal in the family Rhinocerotidae.
They are in the order Perissodactyla, or odd-toed ungulates.
There are five living species.
Two of these species are native to Africa.
Three of these species are also native to Southern parts of Asia.
Family Rhinocerotidae
Black rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis
White rhinoceros, or square-lipped rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum
Javan rhinoceros, Rhinoceros sondaicus
Indian rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis
Sumatran rhinoceros, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis
All five rhinoceros species are native to Africa or Asia.
The two species in Africa are the White rhinoceros and the Black rhinoceros.
The three species in Asia (including islands of Indonesia) are the Javan rhinoceros, Sumatran rhinoceros, and Indian rhinoceros.
The rhinoceros is a herbivore.
Its favourite food is plants, branches and bushes (if it is a browser species), or grass (if it is a grazer species).
Rhinoceroses have a large horn on the nose.
Their horns are not like those of other horned mammals: the rhinoceros' horn is made of keratin packed together very tightly.
The rhinoceroses can weigh up to  and be up to  tall.
Rhinoceros and humans
Only the white rhinoceros is not in critical danger of becoming extinct.
They are protected, but hunted mainly by poachers, for their horns.
The horns are used in Asian medicine, similar to elephants and tigers, and for dagger handles in Yemen and Oman.
Loss of habitat is also a danger to rhinos.
Governments have made logging their habitat and poaching illegal.
Elasmotherium, a large extinct rhinoceros.
Rhinoceros information from the International Rhino Foundation
Alcoholic proof is a measure of how much ethanol there is in an alcoholic drink.
It is commonly used the world over, on the basis that 100 degrees proof is the equivalent of    50 % alcohol by volume (ABV or Alc/Vol).
In the United States, it is double the percentage of ABV.
Where it comes from
This system was introduced in the 18th century.
The British claim that this term has a nautical background.
Every evening, sailors would line up for their daily quota of grog/rum.
This had to first be proved to be as strong as promised and not watered down.
The spirit was tested with gunpowder: a mixture of water and alcohol proved itself when it could be poured on a small amount of gunpowder and still light up the wet powder.
If the powder did not ignite, the mixture had too much water in it and the  grog was considered below proof.
It might have happened  earlier, as the Americans claim that this definition came about in the 17th century when European traders began making a large quantity of distilled spirits and wine available to American Indians.
The very same process led to the nickname firewater, this time given by Native Americans.
There is no record of the finite strength of the distilled spirits in the context of its sale to or consumption by Native Americans.
A "proven" solution was defined as 100 degrees proof (100°).
People have found out that this takes 57.15% ethanol.
This value is still used as the British definition.
A simpler ratio to remember is seven to four: 70° proof is 40% alcohol by volume.
A hydrometer can be used to measure the precise proof of a spirit.
This test has gone through many formal changes.
British proof spirits
In Britain, this replaced the Sikes hydrometer system (based on proof spirit) which was used since 1816, although officially the Customs and Excise Act of 1952 defined "spirits of proof strength" (or proof spirits):
"Spirits shall be deemed to be at proof if the volume of the ethyl alcohol contained therein made up to the volume of the spirits with distilled water has a weight equal to that of twelve-thirteenths of a volume of distilled water equal to the volume of the spirits, the volume of each liquid being computed as at fifty-one degrees Fahrenheit."
In the definition of the United States, the proof number is twice the percentage of the alcohol content measured by volume at a temperature of 60°F (15.5°C).
Therefore, "80 proof" is 40% alcohol by volume (most of the other 60% is water).
If a 150 proof beverage is mixed half-and-half with water, the drink is 75 proof.
US Federal regulation (CFR 27 5.37 Alcohol Content) requires that liquor labels state the percentage alcohol by volume (sometimes abbreviated ABV).
The regulations permit (but do not require) a statement of the degrees proof as long as it is right next to the percentage alcohol by volume.
Alcohol during production
Alcohol is produced by yeast during the process of fermentation.
The other product of fermentation is carbon dioxide, which is the gas that can make beer bottles explode or blow their tops off.
The amount of alcohol in the finished liquid depends on how much sugar there was at the beginning for the yeast to convert into alcohol.
In beer, the alcohol is generally 3% to 12% (6 to 24 proof) and usually about 4% to 6% (8 to 12 proof).
Depending on the strain of yeast, wines top out at about 14% to 16% (28 to 32 proof), because that is the point in the fermentation process where the alcohol concentration denatures the yeast.
Since the 1990s, a few alcohol-tolerant 'superyeast' strains have become commercially available, which can ferment up to 20%.
Very few microorganisms can live in alcoholic solutions.
The main three are yeast, Brettanomyces, and Acetobacter.
In what is essentially disinfection, yeast keeps multiplying as long as there is sugar to "eat", gradually increasing the alcoholic content of the solution and killing off all other microorganisms, and eventually themselves.
There are "fortified" wines with a higher alcohol concentration than that because stronger alcohol has been mixed with them.
Stronger liquors are distilled after fermentation is complete to separate the alcoholic liquid from the remains of the grain, fruit, or whatever it was made from.
The idea of distillation is that a mixture of liquids is heated, the one with the lowest boiling point will evaporate (or "boil off") first, and then the one with the next lowest boiling point, and so on.
The catch is that water and alcohol form a mixture (called an azeotrope) that has a lower boiling point than either one of them, so what distills off first is that mixture of 95% alcohol and 5% water.
Thus a distilled liquor cannot be stronger than 95% (190 proof); there are other techniques for separating liquids that can produce 100% ethanol (or "absolute alcohol"), but they are used only for scientific or industrial purposes.
100% ethanol does not stay 100% for very long, because it is hygroscopic and absorbs water out of the atmosphere.
History of the Sikes Hydrometer
Acetobacter is a kind of bacteria.
These bacteria are
known by their ability to change alcohol to acetic acid in the presence of air.
There are several species within this genus, and there are other bacteria that can form acetic acid under different conditions; but all of the Acetobacter are known by this ability.
Why Acetobacter is important
Acetobacter are important to people, because:
they are used to make vinegar (intentionally converting the ethanol in the wine to acetic acid)
they can destroy wine which it infects by producing big amounts of acetic acid or ethyl acetate.
Sometimes, Acetobacter is not wanted.
It can be killed by adding preservatives like Sulfur dioxides, or by getting rid of the air when the wine is stored.
Gram-negative bacteria
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the spiritual leader of the Church of England and in the Anglican Communion the leader of its mother church.
He is the head of the Church, and lives in the English city of Canterbury.
The Archbishop is chosen by the English monarch (the church's "supreme governor"), under guidance from senior bishops, acting in cooperation with the prime minister of the UK.
The office of Archbishop of Canterbury was founded in the year 597.
In that year, Saint Augustine came to England, to the area called Kent.
He had been sent by the Pope to convince the local people to become Christians.
The people accepted him and Christianity when their King (Ethelbert of Kent) became a Christian.
Augustine became the first bishop in the kingdom of Kent and was later recognised as archbishop when a second diocese was created.
Since then, there has been an Archbishop at Canterbury in Kent.
The Archbishop of Canterbury used to be head of the Roman Catholic Church in England, but in the early 16th century the English church broke away from the Roman church.
The new church called itself the Church of England, and now the Archbishop is the leader of that church.
The current Archbishop is Justin Welby (from 2013).
The archbishop oversees the Province of Canterbury that is all the Church of England dioceses in the south and midlands of England.
The dioceses of Wales were also within the Province of Canterbury until 1920 when the Church in Wales became independent.
In the north of England another archbishop has the Diocese of York and other northern dioceses (including the diocese of Sodor and Man) to oversee.
Both archbishops are members of the House of Lords and rank very high in the official English order of precedence.
When a new monarch is crowned the placing of the crown on his head is done by the Archbishop of Canterbury.
The principal home of the archbishops is at Lambeth Palace in the south of London rather than at Canterbury itself.
Within the Diocese of Canterbury (which consists of eastern Kent and a small enclave in Surrey) the archbishop has at least two assistant bishops.
Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol or just alcohol, is a flammable, colorless chemical compound.
Its chemical formula is C2H5OH, also written as C2H6O. It is the active part of alcoholic drinks, which are drunk in most cultures worldwide.
It is also used as a solvent because it can dissolve many other chemicals and is not very toxic.
Yeast makes most of the ethanol that people use.
Ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel can be used instead of gasoline in cars and other engines.
Engines can use pure ethanol or ethanol mixed with gasoline.
In Brazil, ethanol fuel made from sugar cane provides 18 percent of the country's fuel for cars.
Because of this, Brazil does not have to buy oil from other countries.
Most cars in the U.S. can run on fuels that have of up to 10% ethanol in them.
Car makers like Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and GM also make vehicles specifically designed to run on higher ethanol blends.
Some of their engines can run on up to 85% ethanol (E85).
By mid-2006, there were about six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.
US E85 refueling map
International Chemical Safety Card 0044
Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk  See Ethanol in 3D (may take over a minute to load using a dial-up connection)
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the substance boils, or enters a state of rapid evaporation.
For pure water this is 100° Celsius or 212° Fahrenheit.
This is measured at one atmosphere, that is, the air pressure at sea level
Boiling points can be changed in several ways.
The addition of solutes or other substances usually changes the boiling point.
Additionally, changing the pressure on a liquid changes its boiling point.
The boiling point of a liquid depends on the pressure of the surrounding air.
An increase in air pressure increases the boiling point; a decrease decreases the boiling point.
In the low pressure environment at the top of Mt Everest for example, water boils at only 69 °C. (
156.2 °F).
Sugar, salt or other non-volatile solutes in water will usually make the boiling point higher.
Alcohol, in contrast, is a volatile chemical that lowers the boiling point of water.
Even a large amount dissolved in the water will usually make only small changes in the boiling point.
A platonic solid is a kind of polyhedron.
Each face is built from the same type of polygons
There are the same number of polygons meeting at every corner of the shape.
The platonic solids
Tetrahedron, has 4 sides, is made of triangles, and looks like a pyramid.
Cube, Hexahedron, has 6 sides, and is made of squares.
Octahedron, has 8 sides, and is made of triangles.
Dodecahedron, has 12 sides, and is made of pentagons.
Icosahedron, has 20 sides, and is made of triangles.
There are a lot more uses for Platonic Solids, but some of the main reasons are:the shapes are often used to make dice, because dice of these shapes can be made fair.
6-sided dice are very common, but the other numbers are commonly used in role-playing games.
Such dice are commonly referred to as D followed by the number of faces (d8, d20 etc.).
The tetrahedron (4 sided), cube (6 sided), and octahedron (8 sided), are found naturally in crystal structures.
The dodecahedron (12 sides) is combinatorially identical to the pyritohedron (in that both have twelve pentagonal faces), which is one of the possible crystal structures of pyrite.
However, the pyritohedron is not a regular dodecahedron, but rather has the same symmetry as the cube.
In meteorology and climatology, global numerical models of atmospheric flow are of increasing interest which use grids that are based on an icosahedron (20 sides,refined by triangulation) instead of the more commonly used longitude/latitude grid.
This has the advantage of better spatial resolution without singularities (i.e. the poles) at the expense of somewhat greater numerical difficulty.
Stella: Polyhedron Navigator Tool for exploring polyhedra
Paper Models of Polyhedra Many links
The Uniform Polyhedra
Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia o  Polyhedra
London South Bank University Water structure and behavior
Book XIII of Euclid's Elements.
Interactive 3D Polyhedra  in Java
The Euclidean algorithm is an algorithm.
It can be used to find the biggest number that divides two other numbers (the greatest common divisor of two numbers).
What the algorithm looks like in words
Euclid solved the problem graphically.
He said
If you have two distances, AB and CD, and you always take away the smaller from the bigger, you will end up with a distance that measures both of them.
The algorithm as an enumerated list
Start out with two positive integers m and n.
If the value of m is less than the value of n, switch the values of m and n
Find a number r equal to m modulo n
Let m have the same value as n
Let n have the same value as r
If n does not have the value of 0, go to step 2
The wanted value is in m.
The algorithm in pseudocode
Note: This pseudocode uses modular arithmetic instead of subtraction.
It does the same thing as above, but gets the answer faster.
Precondition: two positive integers m and n
Postcondition: the greatest common integer divisor of m and n
if m < n, swap(m,n)
while n does not equal 0
r = m mod n
m = n
output m
C/C++ source code
int euclid_gcd(int m, int n)
if(m < n)
temp = m;
m = n;
n = temp;
while(n !
temp = m % n;
int euclid_gcd_recur(int m, int n)
if(n == 0)
return euclid_gcd_recur(n, m % n);
An eukaryote is an organism with complex cells, or a single cell with complex structures.
In these cells the genetic material is organized into chromosomes in the cell nucleus.
Animals, plants, algae and fungi are all eukaryotes.
There are also eukaryotes amongst single-celled protists.
In contrast, simpler organisms, such as bacteria and archaea, do not have nuclei and other complex cell structures.
Such organisms are called prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes evolved in the Proterozoic eon.
The oldest known probable eukaryote is Grypania, a coiled, unbranched filament up to 30 mm long.
The oldest Grypania fossils come from an iron mine near Negaunee, Michigan.
The fossils were originally dated as 2100 million years ago, but later research showed the date as about 1874 million years ago.
Grypania lasted into the Mesoproterozoic era.
Another ancient group is the acritarchs, believed to be the cysts or reproductive stages of algal plankton.
They are found 1400 million years ago, in the Mesoproterozoic era.p57
The classification of the Eukaryota is under active discussion, and several taxonomies have been proposed.
Modern versions  disagree about the number of kingdoms.
It carrys DNA as well as it is an organism
Eukaryotic cells are usually much bigger than prokaryotes.
They can be up to 10 times bigger.
Eukaryote cells have many different internal membranes and structures, called organelles.
They also have a cytoskeleton.
The cytoskeleton is made up of microtubules and microfilaments.
Those parts are very important in the cell's shape.
Eukaryotic DNA is put in bundles called chromosomes, which are separated by a microtubular spindle during cell division.
Most eukaryotes have some sort of sexual reproduction through fertilisation, which prokaryotes do not use.
Prokaryotes do not have sexes, but they can pass DNA to other bacteria.
Their cell division is asexual.
Bacterial conjugation is when bacteria move a genetic element (often a plasmid or transposon) from one to another.
Internal membrane
In eukaryotic cells, there are many things with membranes around them.
All of them together are called the endomembrane system.
Simple bags, called vesicles or vacuoles, are sometimes made by budding off other membranes, just like how children make bubbles with their toys.
Many cells take in food and other things using something called endocytosis.
In endocytosis, the membrane closest to the outside bends inwards and then pinches off to make a vesicle.
Many other organelles that have membranes probably started off as vesicles.
The nucleus is surrounded by two membranes membrane that has holes in it so things can go in and out.
The nuclear envelope has things sticking out of it that look like tubes and sheets.
These are called the endoplasmic reticulum which is often shortened to ER.
The ER is works with moving proteins around and allowing them to mature.
The ER has two parts, the rough ER and the smooth ER.
The rough ER has ribosomes attached to it.
The proteins made by the ribosomes attached to the rough ER go to the inside the rough ER, called the lumen.
After that, they usually go into vesicles, which grow and pinch off from the smooth ER.
In most eukaryotes, the vesicles with proteins inside fuse with piles of flattened vesicles called the Golgi bodies, where the proteins inside are changed again.
Vesicles are sometimes changed so they can do one thing very well.
This is called specialization, or differentiation.
For example, lysosomes have enzymes inside them that break down the food the comes from food vacuoles, and peroxisomes have enzymes that break down peroxide, a poison, so it is not poisonous anymore.
Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which are vacuoles that can fuse or pinch off from the outer membrane.
Contractile vesicles are often used to get and get rid of unneeded water.
Extrusomes shoot out stuff that make predators go away or catch food.
In multicellular organisms, hormones are often made in vesicles.
In the complicated plants, most of the inside of a plant cell is taken up by a central vacuole.
That central vacuole is the main thing that keeps osmotic pressure so the cell can hold its shape.
Because the cell organelles of eukaryotes have different (polyphyletic) origins, the question arises as to whether the group is a unified clade or not.
It is certain that the protists are not.
Cell organelles are specialised units which carry out well-defined functions, like mitochondria and plastids.
The first such events took place between ancient bacteria to produce the double-membrane class known as gram-negative bacteria.
Since the gram-negative bacteria include the cyanobacteria, this was the first of several such events in the history of the eukaryotes.
Role of the Archaea
Protista is a group of different single-celled organisms.
More accurate taxonomies have been proposed, but scientists are still discussing them.
For this reason, Protista is still useful for talking about these organisms.
One modern scheme for the classification of the Eukarya is as follows:
The Eukarya may only be unified in the sense that the cells are a community derived from bacteria and archaea; opinions vary.
Like the Protista, the Eukarya may be a polyphyletic assembly, though a useful one.
However, as mentioned above, all branches of the Eukarya have sexual reproduction.
That, and the general organisation of the nucleus, are the defining features.
These two points are the main evidence for monophyletic origin.
Unicellular organisms are organisms that have one  cell.
They are divided into two quite different types, from  different classification kingdoms.
The prokaryotes, bacteria and archaea, have cells with no nucleus and a simple cell structure.
Eukaryotes have a nucleus, and a more complex cell structure.
The differences between the prokaryota and eukaryota are significant.
Eukaryotes possess a nucleus and various subcellular organs called organelles, and prokaryotes do not.
Almost all unicellular organisms are microorganisms but you can observe eukaryotes and many prokaryotes by using a compound microscope.
Bacteria just appear as dark dots.
To gather unicellular organisms for observation, one can place a cover slip on the surface of pond water, and leave it overnight.
By the next morning, numerous unicellular organisms will have grown entire colonies on the bottom of the slip.
They multiply fast: colonies can double their size in between 30 minutes and a few hours.
Unicellular organisms can be found everywhere.
The oldest forms of life existed 3.8 billion years ago, if not longer.
They pursue a variety of strategies for survival: photosynthesis (cyanobacteria), chemotrophy (many archaea), and heterotrophy (amoeba).
Some unicellular organisms have flagella, little tails they use for locomotion, or lobopods, extensions of the cellular skeleton (cytoskeleton), which appear as bloblike arms.
The flagella of our unicellular ancestors occurs all the way up into the animals, where it makes an appearance as flagellated sperm.
Of all the six eukaryote supergroups, four are exclusively composed of unicellular organisms.
Unicellular organisms vary in size, with the smallest bacteria measuring only a third of a micron (300 nanometers) across, ranging up to the titanic plasmodial slime molds, which can grow to 20 cm (8 in) across.
The largest unicellular organisms may have millions of nuclei scattered throughout the cellular envelope.
To observe some of the smallest unicellular organisms requires an electron microscope, while the very largest can be seen with a microscope or anything that enhances images.
Multicellular organisms
About the kingdom Protista
Multi-cellular organisms are  organisms with more than one cell.
This is the case for animals, plants and most fungi.
In such organisms, cells are usually specialised.
All the cells with the same function work together.
Such a group of cells is then called a tissue.
Multi-cellular organisms have a set of cells that specialize in reproduction.
Reproduction in such organisms is usually sexual.
The sex cells are either sperm or ovum (also named "egg") cells.
If they are sperm cells, the organism is male, if they are egg cells it is female.
If both are present, the organism is a hermaphrodite.
The earliest forms of life in the fossil record are cyanobacteria from the Archaean era at 3.5 billion years ago.
They grew as single cells but lived in colonies as stromatolites.
The first multicellular fossils have been found in 2.1 billion years old Palaeoproterozoic rocks from the Gabon in Africa.
These are eukaryotic cells which live colonially.
The fossils are visible to the naked eye, and hence much larger than bacteria.
The authors comment that one advantage of  multicellularity is larger size, and that an adequate level of oxygen is required to support this kind of life.
Consequences of multicellularity
Metazoa
A hexahedron (plural: hexahedra) is any polyhedron with six faces.
A cube, for example, is a regular hexahedron with all its faces square, and three squares around each vertex.
There are seven topologically distinct convex hexahedra, one of which exists in two mirror image forms. (
Two polyhedra are "topologically distinct" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.)
There are three further topologically distinct hexahedra that can only be realised as concave figures:
Prismatoid
Polyhedra with 4-7 Faces  by Steven Dutch
Kazan (Volga region) Federal University (, Kazanskiy (Privolzhskiy) federalnyy universitet; ) is a university in Kazan, Tatarstan, Russia.
It was founded in 1804.
The famous Russian mathematician Lobachevsky was its headmaster from 1827 till 1846.
The post is now being held by Myakzyum Salakhov (Mäğzüm Säläxev).
Notable graduates
Aleksandr Arbuzov
Aleksandr Butlerov
Vladimir Lenin (expelled)
Nikolay Lobachevski
Nikolay Beketov
Afanasy Shchapov
Vladimir Galkin
Michael Minsky (Spirin)
List of Kazan State University's rectors
Kazan State University Official Site
Colleges and universities in Russia
The New World is a name used for the Western Hemisphere.
It specifically refers to the Americas.
It can also refer to certain Atlantic and Pacific islands (like Bermuda) and sometimes Oceania, (Australasia).
The name started in the early 16th century, shortly after America was colonized.
The people of the European Middle Ages thought the world was only Europe, Asia, and Africa.
These continents are called the Old World.
The Americas were also referred to as the "fourth part of the world".
Oceania, which was colonized some centuries later, is referred to as "The Newest World".
History of South America
Rabbits are mammals of the order Lagomorpha.
There are about fifty different species of rabbits and hares.
The order Lagomorpha is made of rabbits, pikas and hares.
Rabbits can be found in many parts of the world.
They live in families and eat vegetables and hay.
In the wild, rabbits live in burrows, that they dig themselves.
A group of rabbits living together in a burrow is called a warren.
Rabbits are famous for hopping and eating carrots.
A male rabbit is called a buck, and a female is called a doe.
A baby rabbit is called a kit, which is short for kitten.
Rabbits have a gestation period of around 31 days.
The female can have up to 12-13 kits, very rarely litters as big as 18 and as small as one.
When the doe gives birth her babies are collectively referred to as a litter.
Some people have rabbits as pets.
Rabbits are also raised for their meat.
Rabbits are of a different biological classification than hares.
Since rabbits are prey animals, they are careful in open spaces.
If they sense danger, they freeze and watch.
Rabbit vision has a very wide field, including overhead scanning.
Their enemies are foxes and dogs; also bears, raccoons, minks, weasels and snakes.
Birds of prey sometimes take rabbits.
People are also known to shoot rabbits, because they eat crops.
Their escape method is to run for their burrow, where they are usually safe.
Rabbits have a complex social structure and, like dogs, they have a hierarchy.
Rabbit ears probably have several functions.
The main function is to give warning of predators, but they may be used for signalling, and temperature regulation.
Rabbits as pets
In the wild, rabbits have plenty to keep them occupied, from foraging to reproduction to territorial defense.
Captive rabbits, on the other hand, often lack stimulation.
This can lead to behavioral problems and poor health.
The expected lifespan of a rabbit in the wild is about three years.
Lagomorphs
He made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry (different shapes) of crystals.
He is also well known for his way of keeping milk and wine from going sour for longer periods of time.
That process is called pasteurization.
It is when the milk and or wine is put under about 161 Fahrenheit (72 Celsius) for fifteen seconds.
Pasteur's later work on diseases included work on chicken cholera.
During this work, Pasteur noticed how a culture of the responsible bacteria had spoiled, and it failed to induce the disease in some chickens, which he was infecting, with the disease.
Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822 in Dole in the Jura region of France, into the family of a poor tanner.
Louis grew up in the town of Arbois.
He gained degrees in Letters and in Mathematical Sciences before entering the École Normale Supérieure, an elite college.
Louis Pasteur and Marie were married on May 29, 1849, and together had five children.
Only two survived to adulthood; his other three children had died of typhoid fever.
These personal tragedies inspired Pasteur to try to find cures for diseases, such as typhoid.
French chemists
French microbiologists
Vaccinologists
Akrotiri and Dhekelia are two British overseas territories that borders the  Republic of Cyprus and Northern Cyprus.
They are used as military bases by the United Kingdom.
The bases were kept by the UK after Cyprus changed from being a colony in the British Empire, to being an independent republic.
The United Kingdom kept them because of the important location of Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea.
British overseas territories
A transcontinental country is a nation that is in more than one continent.
Most of the other examples are contentious, based on the possession of small islands in another region.
For example, Spain controlling the Canary Islands which is geologically located in Africa.
A few are undoubtedly intercontinental:
Indonesia, controlling large islands in Oceania.
United States, because Hawaii is a state located in Oceania.
Chile, because Easter Island is a province in Oceania and Chilean Antarctic is a territory in Antarctica.
Australia,  Australian Antarctic Territory is a territory in Antarctica.
New Zealand,  Ross Dependency is a territory in Antarctica.
For the place of similar name in New Zealand see: Kurow
Kurów is a village in south-eastern Poland, near Puławy and Lublin, on the Kurówka River.
It is the main village of a gmina within the Lublin Voivodship and has 2826 people living there (as of 2010).
The village was built before 1185 and made bigger between 1431 and 1442 with city rights based on the Magdeburg Law.
The former President of Poland, Wojciech Jaruzelski was born in Kurów in 1923.
Wiki about Kurów
Villages in Poland
Scorpions are eight legged venomous arachnids.
They have a long body with an extended tail with a sting.
The average adult scorpion is about 3 inches in length.
The longest scorpion is the African scorpion, which can be 9 inches long.
There are about 1,750 species of scorpions worldwide.
The evolutionary history of scorpions goes back to the Silurian, 430 million years ago.
They have adapted to a wide range of environments, and live on all continents except Antarctica.
There are 13 living families.
Only about 25 species have venom which can kill a human being.
They have eight legs and a pair of grasping pedipalps (like claws).
The tail is narrow, with segments.
It usually has a forward curve over the back, ending with a venomous stinger.
Their body is in three parts.
The front section is the cephalothorax; the abdomen is called the mesosoma, and the tail is the metasoma.
The body is covered by an exoskeleton which gives them good protection.
Survival in the desert
Scorpions have many ways to survive in the desert.
They can slow down their metabolism.
This allows them to survive on as little as one insect per year.
This ability also allows them to shelter from the sun and heat for extended periods of time, using only little amounts of oxygen.
Many people also believe that their claws, or pincers, were once front legs that have turned into what they now are by going through evolution.
Nevertheless, the scorpions' claws play a crucial part in their hunting and mating rituals.
Scorpions also possess a special, feather-like pair of organs, called pectines that they use to sense even the smallest of movements around them.
This allows them to effectively track down and hunt their prey, either above or below the surface.
This also warns them of possible dangers, such as other bigger hunters.
The scorpion’s most feared and recognized feature is its sting.
The sting contains a neurotoxin, which the scorpion uses to paralyze the victim, so it would be easier to kill and eat.
They also stay hidden under rocks and that makes their body temperature cool.
Breeding cycle
The mating ritual of scorpions begins when the male and female connect claws.
After this they verify that the other scorpion is of the same species, and is the opposite gender.
After this, the male leads the female around until it finds a suitable spot to deposit its spermatophore.
Once the male has found a suitable spot, he guides the female over it, where it enters her and fertilizes her.
The mating ritual can take anywhere between 1 and 26 hours, depending on the male’s ability to find a suitable spot.
Only a scorpion that has reached maturity may go through the mating ritual.
A scorpion reaches maturity after it has gone through 5 to 7 moults.
Scorpion Tattoo
April 10 – Eric X of Sweden dies.
He is succeeded by Johan Sverkersson.
April – Prince Louis of France, the future King Louis VIII, invades England in the First Barons' War
July 24 – Ascension of Pope Honorius III; in the same year, he officially recognises the Order of Preachers (the Dominican Order)
October 19 – Henry III becomes King of England, after the death of King John of England.
Dresden, Germany becomes a city
Ballintubber Abbey is founded by King Cathal Crovdearg O'Connor of Connaught in Ireland.
Eric IV of Denmark (d. 1250)
September 17 – Robert I, Count of Artois (d. 1250)
Shota Rustaveli, Georgian poet (b. 1172)
April 10 – King Eric X of Sweden (b. 1180)
June 11 – Henry of Flanders, Emperor of the Latin Empire (b. 1174)
July 16 – Pope Innocent III (b. 1161)
October 19 – King John of England (b. 1167)
John Richard Schlesinger, CBE (16 February 1926 – 25 July 2003) was a British movie director.
He was born into a Jewish family in London.
He died of a stroke in Palm Springs, California, United States.
Schlesinger's acting career began in the 1950s.
He started to direct in 1956.
By the 1960s he was not acting so he could just direct.
His documentary Terminus (1961), got a Venice Film Festival Gold Lion and a British Academy Award.
A Kind of Loving won the Golden Bear award at the 12th Berlin International Film Festival in 1962.
Schlesinger's movie, Midnight Cowboy (1969), made in the United States, was internationally successful.
A story of two hustlers living on the fringe in the bad side of New York City, it was Schlesinger's first movie shot in the U.S. It won Oscars for Best Director and Best Picture.
In 1996 he received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, a lifetime achievement award.
Feature and television movies (as Director)
A Kind of Loving (1962)
Billy Liar (1963)
Darling (1965)
Far From the Madding Crowd (1967)
Sunday Bloody Sunday (1971)
Visions of Eight (1973)
The Day of the Locust (1975)
Marathon Man (1976)
Yanks (1979)
Honky Tonk Freeway (1981)
Privileged  (1982)
Separate Tables (1983) (TV)
An Englishman Abroad (1983)  (TV)
The Falcon and the Snowman (1985)
The Believers (1987)
Madame Sousatzka (1988)
Pacific Heights (1990)
A Question of Attribution (1991) (TV)
The Innocent (1993)
Cold Comfort Farm (1995) (TV)
Eye for an Eye (1996)
The Tale of Sweeney Todd (1998) (TV)
The Next Best Thing (2000)
British television directors
LGBT directors
Gay Jews
Movie directors from London
Landjäger (or Landjaeger) is a type of German sausage.
The name stands for "hunter's sausage".
It is smoked, so it does not need refrigeration.
Usually, some of the water has also been taken out (they are dehydrated).
The Gilbert and Ellice Islands were a British protectorate from 1892 and colony from 1916.
They are formed from two groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean.
On 1 January 1976 the islands were split into two different colonies that became independent states.
The Gilbert Islands have been the biggest part of the nation of Kiribati since 1979, and the Ellice Islands became Tuvalu in 1978.
1892 establishments in the United Kingdom
19th-century establishments in Oceania
Official web site of Casablanca
Flatulence or farting is when intestinal gas leaves the anus.
This often happens with a sound that can be embarrassing to some people, but in some cultures it is treated like humor.
The word flatuence comes from the Latin word flatus, which means blowing or breath, but people today usually call it farting.