the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
About  22,000 Shell employees are based in the United States The head office in the United States is in Houston, Texas.
Shell Oil Company, including its related companies, is one of the US’s largest oil and natural gas producers, natural gas marketers, gasoline marketers and petrochemical manufacturers.
Shell has approximately 25,000 Shell-branded gas stations in the US.
They are Shell's most visible public presence.
Shell also owns the Jiffy Lube chain of auto oil change stores.
Since 1998, Shell Oil Company is a 50/50 partner with the Saudi Arabian government-owned oil company Saudi Aramco in Motiva Enterprises.
Motiva is refining and marketing joint venture which owns and operates three oil refineries on the Gulf Coast of the United States.
Motiva also operates 8,000 Shell-branded gas stations in the eastern and southern United States.
Shell also used to hold 80% of an exploration firm called Pecten that explores and drills in various offshore locations including the oil basin near Douala, Cameroon.
It sold the 80% to Addax Petroleum on 31 October 2011.
Shell in the United States website
Royal Dutch Shell  website
Motiva website
Saudi Aramco  website
Shell Invests in Hydrogen from Biomass Production
Controversy Over Shell's Oil Exploration in Arctic Continues  September 17, 2013 PBS NewsHour
Companies based in Houston
In South America, the company operates in Argentina and Ecuador.
In Africa, Noble Energy operates in Equatorial Guinea.
And in Eurasia, it operates in the Mediterranean Sea, the North Sea and China.
Partido Comunista del Peru, also known as Shining Path
Partido Comunista Paraguayo, Paraguayan Communist Party
Partido Comunista Peruano, Peruvian Communist Party
Partido Comunista Português, Portuguese Communist Party
Partido Comunista Puertorriqueño, Puerto Rican Communist Party
Partit Català Proletari, Proletarian Catalan Party
Phencyclidine, a recreational drug known by a number of street names including angel dust, supergrass, killer weed, sherm, embalming fluid, and rocket fuel.
PCP theorem, an important proof in computational complexity theory
Probabilistically checkable proof, a notion in the theory of computational complexity
Pentachlorophenol, timber preservative
Pneumocystis pneumonia, (formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia)
Post correspondence problem, an important problem in computability theory
Priority ceiling protocol, a computer science concept
Post-coital pill, a form of emergency contraception
Primary care paramedic
Primary care physician, a doctor who acts as first point of consultation for patients
A song by Manic Street Preachers, from their 1994 album The Holy Bible
Purple City Productions, a Harlem-based rap group
Put-call parity
Pre-charged Pneumatic, an air-gun technology
Pharmaceuticals & Consumer Products
Plumbing Code of Practice
WikiProject Pokémon, formally known as the Pokémon Collaborative Project
The Pakenham Railway Line is a Railway in Melbourne, Victoria.
It has 25 stations.
It was run by M-Train until April 17, 2004, where Connex took over all Melbourne rail services.
Bold stations are places where trains end their journeys, italic stations have staff there to help people.
Zone 1 & City Saver
Flinders Street (FSS)
Richmond (RMD)
Zone 1
South Yarra (SYR) – Sandringham line branches
Hawksburn (HKN)
Toorak (TOR)
Armadale (ARM)
Malvern (MAL)
Caulfield (CFD)  – Frankston line branches
Carnegie (CNE)
Murrumbeena (MRB)
Zones 1 & 2 overlap
Hughesdale (HUG)
Oakleigh (OAK)
Huntingdale (HUN)
Clayton (CLA)
Westall (WTL)
Springvale (SPG)
Sandown Park (SNP)
Noble Park (NPK)
Yarraman (YMN)
Dandenong (DNG) – Cranbourne line branches, express services to Pakenham, Cranbourne
(General Motors, closed)
Hallam (HLM)
Narre Warren (NWA)
Berwick (BEW)
Beaconsfield (BFD)
Officer (OFC)
Pakenham (PKM)
Australian railways
The Austrian Empire was an empire that lasted in Europe from 1804 to 1867.
The empire was centered on present-day Austria and was a remnant of the Holy Roman Empire which collapsed on 1806.
The last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II, became Francis I of Austria.
It was succeeded by Austria-Hungary.
19th century in Austria
1804 establishments in Europe
1867 disestablishments
19th-century disestablishments in Europe
1860s disestablishments in Europe
The pilot fish (Naucrates ductor) is a fish that lives in many places of the world.
They live in warm water.
They eat parasites on larger fish.
Pilot fish usually gather around sharks (also rays and sea turtles).
They eat parasites on their host, and small pieces of food that their host does not eat (leftovers).
When pilot fish are young, they gather around jellyfish and drifting seaweeds.
Pilot fish follow sharks because other animals which might eat them will not come near a shark.
In return, sharks do not eat pilot fish because pilot fish eat their parasites.
This is called a "mutualist" relationship.
Small pilot fish are often seen swimming into the mouth of a shark to eat small pieces of food from the shark's teeth.
Sailors even said that sharks and pilot fish act like close friends.
When a ship captured "their" shark, the pilot fish followed the ship.
Some people reported that the pilot fish would follow the ship for up to six weeks.
And they do show signs of distress in the absence of their shark.
They will follow ships in other circumstances, sometimes for very long distances.
Many pilot fish have been seen on the shores of England, which is a long way from where they usually live.
The pilot fish has a dark blue to blackish-silver colour, and are slightly lighter in colour underneath.
They have between five and seven dark stripes going from top to bottom.
When the fish is excited, these stripes disappear, and three large blue patches appear on its back.
The pilot fish is usually about 30 cm long, but sometimes they can be as big as 70cm.
The pilot fish will not hurt people, and they are said to be good to eat.
They are difficult to catch, though.
NOAA Library Image: http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/historic/nmfs/figb0368.htm
Naucrates ductor at FishBase
Bălţi is the third-largest city in the country of Moldova.
It is the major city in the northern part of the country.
During the Russian Empire (1812-1917), and later the Soviet era (1940-1990) the name was also spelled Beltsy, from its form in Russian.
The city is 135 km north of the capital Chişinău, on the small river Răut, a branch of the Dniester (Nistru).
It is located on a hilly landscape that, in the Middle Ages, was covered with forest.
This forest has since been almost entirely cut down.
Floyd Landis (born October 14, 1975) is an American road racing cyclist, now best remembered because of the Tour de France 2006 doping scandal.
He is a time-trial specialist and a strong climber.
Landis turned professional in 1999 with the Mercury Cycling Team.
He joined the US Postal Service team in 2002, and moved to the Phonak Hearing Systems team in 2005.
Landis was fired from the Phonak team on 5 August 2006.
The doping test after stage 17 of the 2006 Tour de France showed he had a very high testosterone/epitestosterone ratio.
The rules say that for every one unit of one chemical he should have four unites of the other (a 4 to one (4:1) ratio).
Landis's test showed a ratio of 11:1.
Landis appealed to the USA Cycling and saying the tests were not done properly.
USA Cycling asked three people from the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) to study Landis's claims.
On 20 September 2007 that group voted 2 to 1 against him.
Landis was stripped of his title as winner of the 2006 Tour de France by the UCI, and banned from professional racing for two years.
Floyd Landis was born in  Farmersville, Lancaster County,   Pennsylvania.
Landis was brought up a Mennonite, and rode his first races wearing sweatpants because his religion forbade wearing shorts; he won anyway.
Landis' father, is a devout Mennonite, and tried to stop him from racing his bike by giving him extra chores.
He had no time to train during the day, so he would sneak out of the house at night to train, sometimes at 1 or 2 a.m. and often in the freezing cold.
His father, found that Floyd had been going out at night and often followed him at a distance to make sure he was not getting into trouble.
Today, Floyd Landis's father is a supporter of his son and says he is one of Floyd's biggest fans.
Before the 2006 Tour de Francemost people thought the winner would be either Ivan Basso or Jan Ullrich, who finished second and third respectively in the 2005 tour.
Days before the race, the Operación Puerto doping case forced Basso and Ullrich to withdraw, and Landis became one of the  favourites to win
Hip ailment
Landis performance up to Stage 16 of the Tour de France and his comeback in Stage 17 is surprising because of his hip ailment, called osteonecrosis, which was revealed in an article in The New York Times during the 2006 Tour de France.
This means he was in constant pain.
Doping investigation
On July 27, 2006 the Phonak Cycling Team said Floyd Landis had a urine test come back positive, having an unusually high ratio of the hormone testosterone to the hormone epitestosterone (T/E ratio) after Stage 17.
Landis denied having doped.
Phonak stated that he would be dismissed should the backup sample also test positive.
It did, and Landis was suspended from professional cycling and dismissed from his team.
Landis's personal physician later disclosed that the test had found a T/E ratio of 11:1 in Landis, far above the maximum allowable ratio of 4:1.
The tests were done by French government's anti-doping clinical laboratory, the National Laboratory for Doping Detection (LNDD)which is part of the Ministry of Youth, Sport, and Social Life, and is  and is accredited by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).)
On May 14, 2007 a meeting began between the USADA and Landis about the doping allegations.
On September 20, 2007, the arbitrators found Landis guilty of doping.
As Landis forfeited his Tour title, the second place rider, Óscar Pereiro, became the race's official winner.
Landis has also been banned from the sport for two years, dated retroactively to January 2007.
The USADA had more B samples taken during the Tour de France 2006 examined.
After Landis's attempts to prevent these tests had failed, traces of exogenous testosterone were found in several samples in a test of seven samples.
These confirmation tests were done at the same French lab Landis's team was trying to discredit for the first positive results.
Landis did race in France in 2007 so that the appeal could be decided in the United States first.
If the raced in France  they may start their own investigation because doping is illegal in France.
Among Landis's lawyers are José Maria Buxeda of Spain and Howard L. Jacobs of the United States.
Buxeda represented Spanish cyclist Roberto Heras when he was suspended for two years after testing positive for doping.
Jacobs has also defended athletes accused of doping, such as cyclist Tyler Hamilton and sprinter Tim Montgomery.
They are also representing Kazakh cyclist Alexandre Vinokourov who was accused of blood doping, kicked out of the 2007 Tour de France, and fired from his cycling team.
On September 20, 2007 Landis was found guilty of doping by a 2-1 vote of the hearing committee.
The committee said that there were mistakes testing the sample so they will not say that there was a high amount of the natural chemical testosterone.
But the committee did say was proof of artificial testosterone  and that
1999 - Mercury Pro Cycling Team
2nd overall and 1 stage win – Cascade Classic
2000 - Mercury Pro Cycling Team
Overall – Tour du Poitou-Charentes
2001 - Mercury Pro Cycling Team
Boulevard Road Race
2002 - U.S. Postal Service
2nd overall – Dauphiné Libéré
3rd stage, Tirreno-Adriatico
61st overall – Tour de France
2003 - U.S. Postal Service
77th overall – Tour de France
2004 - U.S. Postal Service
Overall – Volta ao Algarve
Stage 5 – Volta ao Algarve
Team time trial – Tour de France
Team time trial – Vuelta a España
23rd overall – Tour de France
2005 - Phonak Hearing Systems
3rd overall and Stage 3 win – Tour de Georgia
9th overall – Tour de France
2006 - Phonak Hearing Systems
1st, Profronde van Stiphout
Disqualified - Tour de France
Yellow jersey, General Classification leader during Stages 12, 13, 16 and 20.
1st, Stage 17 (voted most combatative rider of the day)
1st, USA Cycling National Racing Calendar series
1st overall – Tour de Georgia
1st, Stage 3 (ITT) – Tour de Georgia
1st overall – Paris-Nice
1st overall – Tour of California
1st, Stage 3 (ITT) – Tour of California
Floyd Landis' Website
Sex, drugs and sports: Prostaglandins, epitestosterone and sexual development
Floyd Landis profile
Trust But Verify: News, Research and Commentary about the Floyd Landis doping allegations.
Óscar Pereiro is a cyclist from Spain.
He was born on 3 August 1977.
He came second in the 2006 Tour de France.
On 20 September 2007 he was declared the winner because Floyd Landis was found guilty of doping.
Spanish cyclists
The hawksbill sea turtle or hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) is an endangered species of turtle.
It is mostly seen in shallow lagoons and coral reefs where its food is.
It is smaller than the Australian flatback turtle: it is usually a little more than two feet long.
It usually weighs about 150 pounds.
It has the most pointed beak among sea turtles, which is how it gets its name.
The hawksbill gets food from inside coral reefs, eating sponges, shrimp, squid, and other invertebrates.
The hawksbill pointy beak helps the turtle get food out of the tiny cracks and holes in which it searches.
Though they are sometimes seen in American waters, hawksbill turtles almost always nest in the warmer climates that run along the equator.
Because people use the shell to make jewelry and other things, the hawksbill turtle is endangered.
The games were thought to be successful, but costly.
The events were well attended.
Paris 1924 at Olympic.org
These games are not awarded the title of Olympiad because they were held between the III and IV Olympiads.
Medals were given to the participants during these games, but the medals are not officially recognised by the International Olympic Committee.
Participants nations
Summer Olympic 1906
20th century in Greece
The bidding process
By the bid submission deadline of 15 July 2003, nine cities had submitted bids to host the 2012 Olympics.
These cities were Havana, Istanbul, Leipzig, London, Madrid, Moscow, New York, Paris, and Rio de Janeiro.
On 6 June 2005, the International Olympic Committee released its evaluation reports for the five candidate cities.
Although these reports did not contain any scores or rankings, the evaluation report for Paris was seen as the most positive, followed closely by London.
During the process, many thought Paris was most likely to win the nomination, largely because this was its third bid in recent years.
In late August 2004, reports came out predicting a London and Paris tie in the 2012 bid.
Athletes from 204 National Olympic Countries took part.
In addition, four individual athletes competed under the Olympic flag—one from South Sudan and three from the region of the former Netherlands Antilles
Listed below are NOCs who have qualified at least one athlete.
As of 7 June 2011, 101 nations have qualified at least one athlete.
Great Britain (Host)
The International Olympic Committee executive board met on 13 August 2009 and approved the addition of women's boxing.
The International Boxing Federation proposed that 40 athletes compete in five different weight classes.
Sprint (12)
Slalom (4)
BMX (2)
Mountain biking (2)
Road (4)
Track (10)
Dressage (2)
Eventing (2)
Jumping (2)
Artistic (14)
Rhythmic (2)
Trampoline (2)
Volleyball (2)
Beach volleyball (2)
Freestyle (11)
Greco-Roman (7)
The official motto for the 2012 Summer Olympics is "Inspire a generation".
It was chosen to highlight the organiser's commitment to inspire the world to get involved in sporting events through the olympic games' legacy.
The official mascots for the Olympics and Paralympic Games were revealed in May 2010.
They were called Wenlock and Mandeville.
The 2012 Olympics had many sponsors.
Some of the most popular ones are McDonald's, Acer, Samsung, Coca-Cola, Adidas, and Panasonic.
Official London 2012 Website
London Olympics  All news and info about the Games
Helsinki was chosen as the host city over Amsterdam, Athens, Lausanne, and Stockholm and five American cities: Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles, Minneapolis and Philadelphia.
Helsinki had been given the 1940 Summer Olympics, but they were cancelled because of World War II.
Taking part in the games for the first time were The Bahamas, Gold Coast (now Ghana), Guatemala, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Israel, Netherlands Antilles, Nigeria, Saar, the Soviet Union (USSR), Thailand, and Vietnam.
Helsinki 1952 at Olympic.org
In part, the games were thought to be a success because the Organizing Committee did not go into debt.
The final financial report showed a ₤29,000 profit.
London 1948 at Olympic.org
1948 in sports
1940s in England
20th century in London
They would have been held in London, England, which won the bid in the June 1939 International Olympic Committee election, over Rome, Detroit, Lausanne, Athens, Budapest, Helsinki and Montreal.
In spite of the war, the IOC had many events at its headquarters in Lausanne, Switzerland to celebrate its 50th anniversary.
These events happened on 17 June to 19 June 1944 and were called "The Jubilee Celebrations of IOC" by Carl Diem, the man who began the modern tradition of the Olympic torch relay.
Polish POWs in the Woldenberg (Dobiegniew) Oflag II-C POW camp were granted permission by their Nazi captors to have an unofficial POW Olympics in 1944, showing that the Olympic spirit can survive even during war.
The Olympic Idea  Chris Matthew Sciabarra
1944 in Europe
The games were a financial strain for the host country and the participants.
The events were not well attended.
Antwerp 1920 at Olympic.org
20th century in Belgium
Summer Olympic 1920
In 1912, workers began building the sports facilities for the games.
The Deutsches Stadion ("German Stadium") began in 1912.
In June 1913, the stadium was officially opened with 60,000 people at the ceremonies.
Vignettes of 1916 at Olympic-museum.de
1910s in Germany
Morphology is part of linguistics.
It looks at the way words are put together using small pieces called morphemes.
A morpheme is the smallest part of a word that has meaning.
Different languages have different morphemes and have different rules for how morphemes are combined.
Free and bound morphemes
Words are the smallest pieces of a sentence.
Some words only have one morpheme.
For example the English words thank, dog, and slow are all words made up of only one morpheme.
A morpheme that can stand alone as a word is called a free morpheme.
Words can also be made up of more than one morpheme.
English speakers know that one can add the plural(more than one) morpheme, -s, to the end of dog, and create the word dogs.
The new word combines the meanings of the two morphemes, so the meaning of the new word, dogs is more than one dog.
Dog is a free morpheme, but the plural morpheme -s is not.
It must attach to a word (no native English speaker would use -s as a stand alone word).
Morphemes which must be attached to a word are called bound morphemes.
Morphemes attached to the front of a word are called prefixes.
Those attached to the end are called suffixes.
Some morphemes can attach in the middle of a word and are called infixes. (
example?)
Inflectional and derivational morphemes
There are two types of bound morphemes: derivational and inflectional.
Inflectional morphemes give a listener or reader information about how the word is used in a sentence.
English does not have a lot of inflectional morphemes.
An example of an inflectional morpheme in English is the -ed suffix for verbs.
This morpheme at the end of a verb lets the speaker know that the action happened in the past.
Another example is the -s suffix for nouns to show that there is more than one of the noun.
Derivational morphemes change the part of speech or somehow change the basic meaning of the word they attach to.
Most bound morphemes in English are derivational.
English Word: "unthankful"
English Word: "songwriter"
English Word: "modernized"
The term syntax can also be used to refer to these rules themselves, as in “the syntax of a language”.
Modern research in syntax attempts to describe languages in terms of such rules, and, for many practitioners, to find general rules that apply to all languages.
Syntactic terms
The syntax of natural language (Beatrice Santorini & Anthony Kroch, University of Pennsylvania)
Learn Programming Language Syntax
Various syntactic constructs used in computer programming languages
For the first time, athletes in the Games came from all five continents symbolised in the Olympic rings.
A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the Stockholm games.
Stockholm 1912 at Olympic.org
1910s in Europe
20th century in Sweden
Summer Olympic 1912
Syntax, set of rules governing how words combine to form grammatical meanings.
Syntax (journal), a Blackwell Publishing journal devoted to natural language syntax.
Syntax (logic)
Syntax of programming languages
Syntax (band)
Syntax (television manufacturer)
Syntax Records (a San Diego-based record label)
Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich Ivanov (21 August 1929 – 7 October 2017) was a Soviet/Russian historical linguist.
His main topic of study is Indo-European languages.
He is best known for his glottalic theory of how consonants are spoken in Indo-European languages and for placing point of origin for these languages in the area of the Armenian Highlands and Lake Urmia.
Vyacheslav Ivanov's father was Vsevolod Ivanov, one of the most famous Soviet writers.
His mother was an actress.
She worked in the theatre of Vsevolod Meyerhold.
His childhood was filled by disease and war, which he spent in Tashkent.
Vyacheslav V. Ivanov and Thomas Gamkrelidze, The Early History of Indo-­European Languages, Scientific American, vol.
262, N3, 110­-116, March, 1990.
Gamkrelidze, Tamaz V.; Vjacheslav V. Ivanov (1995).
Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans.
Mouton de Gruyter. .
Russian linguists
Gamkrelidze was born in Kutaisi.
His brother Revaz Gamkrelidze, was also an academician and a famous mathematician.
Some of the main works of Tamaz Gamkrelidze
The Akkado-Hittite syllabary and the problem of the origin of the Hittite script, "Archiv Orientalni" (vol.
Anatolian languages and the problem of Indo-European migration to Asia Minor, Studies in General and Oriental Linguistics.
Tokyo, 1970
Alphabetic writing and the old Georgian script.
New York, Caravan Books, 1994
with V. Vs.
Ivanov: "Indo-European language and Indoeuropeans" (vols.
I-II).
Berlin / New York, 1994-1995
List of Asian scientists by country
Home Page of Tamaz Gamkrelidze
Georgian Academy of Sciences (GAS)
Scientists from Georgia (country)
The Georgian alphabet is used to write in the Georgian language and other Kartvelian languages.
The alphabet is called Khutsuri, first said around in the 11th century.
Georgian Website / Portal with info on Georgian culture and language
Direct transliteration Latin ↔ Georgian
Georgian fonts, compliant with Unicode 4.0, also available for MAC OS 9 or X
In DNA and RNA, cytosine is paired with guanine.
However, it is unstable, and can change into uracil (spontaneous deamination).
This can lead to a point mutation if not repaired by the DNA repair enzymes such as uracil glycosylase, which cleaves a uracil in DNA.
Cytosine is the centre of modern genetic research into epigenetics.
Methyl groups added to cytosine change the action of genes during lifetime.
These changes are not inherited.
The Olympics were originally scheduled to be held in Rome; however, Mount Vesuvius erupted on 7 April 1906.
The natural disaster caused a financial strain on the Italian government.
Then the venue was changed to London.
The costs of the games were covered by donations.
A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the London games.
London 1908 at Olympic.org
The others are adenine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil.
With the formula C5H5N5O, guanine is a derivative of purine.
Basic principles
Miyakawa, S., Murasawa, K., Kobayashi, K., Sawaoka, AB. "
Abiotic synthesis of guanine with high-temperature plasma."
Orig Life Evol Biosph.
30(6): 557-66, Dec. 2000.
Horton, H.R., Moran, L.A., Ochs, R.S., Rawn, J.D., Scrimgeour, K.G. "Principles of Biochemistry."
Prentice Hall (New Jersey).
3rd Edition, 2002.
Lister, J.H. "Part II Purines."
The Chemistry of Heterocyclic Compounds.
Wiley-Interscience (New York).
Good Guanine reference
The glottalic theory was made in the United States by Paul Hopper and in the Soviet Union by Thomas V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav V. Ivanov.
The earliest theory was made by the Danish linguist Holger Pedersen that did not have glottalized sounds.
Earlier linguists, such as André Martinet and Morris Swadesh, saw the potential of replacing glottalic sounds for the supposed plain voiced stops of Proto-Indo-European.
The idea stayed hypothetical until more evidence for it was published in 1973 by Hopper in the journal Glossa and by Gamkrelidze and Ivanov in the journal Phonetica.
Paul J. Hopper, "Glottalized and murmured occlusives in Indo-European."
Glossa 7:2:1973, 141-166.
Thomas V. Gamkrelidze and Vjacheslav V. Ivanov, Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans, translated by Johanna Nichols, 2 volumes.
Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1995.
Robert S.P. Beekes, Comparative Indo-European Linguistics.
John Benjamins, 1995.
Anthony Fox, Linguistic Reconstruction.
Oxford, 1995.
The Proto-Indo-Europeans were a group of people after the last Ice age.
Their existence, from 4000 BC or earlier, is implied by their language.
They were the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE), an unwritten but now partly reconstructed prehistoric language.
Knowledge of them comes not only from language, but also from archaeology and archaeo-genetics.
They were a group of loosely related peoples ancestral to the Bronze Age Indo-Europeans.
The Proto-Indo-Europeans likely lived during the Copper Age, or roughly the 5th to 4th millennia BC.
Mainstream scholarship places them in the  general region of the steppes in Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
Some scholars would extend the time of PIE much further back.
More recent studies support an origin in today's northern Iran and the Armenian Highland.
By the mid-2nd millennium BC offshoots of the Proto-Indo-Europeans had reached Anatolia, the Aegean, Indus Valley, Ganges Plain, and likely Western Europe.
stockbreeding and animal husbandry, including domesticated cattle, horses, and dogs
agriculture and cereal cultivation, including technology commonly ascribed to early farming communities
a climate with winter snow
transportation by or across water
the solid wheel, used for carts, but not yet chariots with spoked wheelsp249
worship of a sky god, *dyeus ph2tēr (literally 'sky father': Ancient Greek Ζευς (πατηρ) / Zeus (patēr); dieu-ph2tēr Latin Jupiter.)
oral epic poetry or song lyrics that used stock phrases such as imperishable fame
a patrilineal kinship system based on relationships between men
The Proto-Indo-Europeans were a patrilineal society, probably half-nomadic, relying on animal husbandry, notably of cattle and sheep.
They domesticated the horse – ekwos (cf.
Latin equus).
The cow (gwous) played a central role, in religion and mythology as well as in daily life.
A man's wealth would have been measured by the number of his animals (small livestock), peḱus (cf.
English fee, Latin pecunia).
They practiced a polytheistic religion centered on sacrificial rites, probably administered by a priestly caste.
Burials in barrows or tomb chambers (see Kurgan hypothesis).
Important leaders would have been buried with their belongings, and possibly also with members of their households or wives (human sacrifice, suttee).
Many Indo-European societies know a threefold division of priests, a warrior class, and a class of peasants or husbandmen.
If there was a separate class of warriors, it probably consisted of single young men.
They would have followed a separate warrior code unacceptable in the society outside their peer-group.
Traces of initiation rites in several Indo-European societies suggest that this group identified itself with wolves or dogs (see also Berserker, werewolf).
As for technology, reconstruction suggests a culture of the early Bronze Age, with bronze tools and weapons.
Silver and gold were known.
Sheep were kept for wool, and textiles were woven.
The wheel was known, certainly for ox-drawn carts, and late Proto-Indo European warfare may also have made use of horse-drawn chariots.
The native name of this people cannot be reconstructed with certainty.
Aryo- (interpreted by some as meaning "those who plow"), sometimes upheld as a self-identification of the Proto-Indo-Europeans (see Aryan), is shown only in the Indo-Iranian subfamily, since it appears on written inscriptions; however, the Proto-Indo-Europeans themselves had not yet adopted writing, so there is no way to verify that Aryo- was their self-identification.
Comparative linguistics
List of Indo-European roots
Archaeogenetics
Kurgan
C. Renfrew 1987.
Archaeology and language, the puzzle of Indo-European origins.
London, Penguin.
Brian Sykes 2001.
The seven daughters of Eve.
Corgi Books.
Indo-European Roots Index, from The American Heritage® Dictionary
Kurgan culture
Indo-European Origins in Southeast Europe
Urheimat (German: ur- original, ancient; Heimat home, homeland) is a linguistic term meaning the original homeland of the speakers of a proto-language.
Since many peoples tend to wander and spread, there is no exact Urheimat, but there is an Indo-European Urheimat different from the Germanic or Romance Urheimat.
Recent studies say the original home of Indo-Europeans was near the Armenian Highlands.
Out of India theory
Linguistics and Ideology in the Study of Language by E. F. K. Koerner, University of Ottawa On linguistics and the  search for the original Indo-European homeland
The Anatolian hypothesis of Proto-Indo-European origin is that the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language lived in Anatolia during the Neolithic era.
When the Neolithic Revolution took place in the seventh and sixth millennia BC, the speakers spread over Europe.
Those who advocate this hypothesis think that the Indo-European languages originated in Anatolia.
They believe that the Proto-Indo-Europeans then migrated north to the location north of the Caucasus Mountains.
There is an another hypothesis, called the Kurgan hypothesis.
The people who support it say the Indo-European languages came from the Caucasus.
One of the best-known advocates of the Anatolian hypothesis is Colin Renfrew.
Indo-Hittite
Neolithic Europe
Russell D. Gray and Quentin D. Atkinson, Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin, Nature 426 (27 November 2003) 435-439
Rafayel Avetisi Ishkhanyan (, 9 March 1922 – 6 February 1995) was an Armenian philologist and historian.
He was a professor of the Yerevan State University.
In 1939, Ishkhanyan entered the department of Armenian language and literature of Yerevan State University.
He fought in World War II.
After the war, he continued his studies and graduated from Yerevan University in 1949.
His works are generally dedicated to the earliest history of the Armenian people, to the comparative linguistic analysis of ancient languages, and to printing.
He is one of the authors of Armenian Soviet encyclopedia.
Ishkhanyan claims that Armenians "were the aborigines of the Armenian plateau who have been living there continuously since the fourth millennium B.C.E at the latest".
Similar claims were promoted in nationalist novels such as those of Sero Khanzatian, published in the 1970s.
Errord Uzhi Batsarman Orenke: Hodvatsner, Azat khosk,  (5-8079-0250-5)
Girke Khorhrdayin Hayastanum: Matenagitakan Tsank, Hayastani azgayin grapalat,  (99930-50-03-2)
Mer Inknutyan Glkhavor Nshane: (Grakanagitakan Hetazotutyunner), Nairi,  (5-550-00429-1)
Patkerazard Patmutyun Hayots, Book 1, 1989, Arevik,  (5-8077-0057-0)
Rafael Ishkhanian, Hayeri tzagume yev hnaguin patmutiune (The Origins and Most Ancient.
History of the Armenians) (Beirut: Altapress 1984))
Questions of origin and earliest history of Armenian people, Yerevan 1988
On the Origin and Earliest History of the Armenian People
Ksiazka Ormianska W Latach 1512 - 1920, Ossolineum
Books of Ishkhanyan
A Cross-country race is any running race that takes place on different types of terrain.
Different levels of competition include middle school , high school , collegiate men  and , women 5km (3.1 mi) and , amateur, and professional.
The scoring in these events gives one point to the winner, two points to the person who finished second, and so on.
In an invitational or meet where teams of runners count up the points of their top five finishers.
This is their score.
The team with the lowest score wins.
If there is a tie, the team with the fastest sixth man wins.
Times in races depend on the terrain, weather, and the other runners.
This means that two athletes competing in different places in the world who are running the same time might not be at the same ability level.
U. S. Cross-Country Championships
2008 USATF Competition Rules / Article IV Rules of Competition / Section VIII Cross Country
A long distance race is any running event on the track that is longer than 3000m. This includes such events as the 3000m run, the 3000m steeplechase, the 3200m run, the two mile run,  the three mile run, 5000m run, five mile run, six mile run, and 10000m run, and so on.
The original marathon race, created in 1896, paid tribute to the legendary run completed by Greek messenger Pheidippides in 490 BC.
Pheidippides gives word of the Greek victory over Persia at the Battle of Marathon to the people of Athens.
That’s when, according to legend, Pheidippides (530-490 BC) ran 26 miles from Marathon to Athens to deliver news of a military victory against the Persians in the Battle of Marathon.
distinguish the Warsaw Pact, which was a defence treaty between Eastern European nations
The Warsaw Convention is an international convention which regulates  for international carriage of persons, luggage or goods performed by aircraft for reward.
carriers issue passenger tickets;
carriers issue baggage checks for checked luggage;
there is a limitation period of 2 years within which a claim must be brought (Article 29); and
a carrier's liability is at least:
250,000 Francs or 16,600 Special Drawing Rights (SDR) for personal injury;
17 SDR per kilogram for checked luggage and cargo,
5,000 Francs or 332 SDR for the hand luggage of a traveller.
Beginner's guide to the Warsaw Convention
1929 in Europe
1950s in the Netherlands
1970s in Canada
20th century in Montreal
1920s treaties
1970s treaties
pl:Prawo transportowe#Pierwsze konwencje
Coroner was a thrash metal band from Switzerland.
The band was formed in 1985.
The band is with Noise record label.
The band's most successful albums are No More Color, Mental Vortex and Grin.
Coroner at Encyclopaedia Metallum
1985 establishments in Europe
1996 disestablishments in Europe
2010 establishments in Switzerland
Disestablishments in Switzerland
Ritchies is the largest independent supermarket group in the IGA network of Australia.
It was started in 1870 by Thomas Ritchie who opened a food store in the tiny country village of Frankston, Victoria.
Dame Margaret Natalie Smith  (born 28 December 1934) is a British actress.
She is better known as Maggie Smith.
She made her stage debut in 1952 and is still performing after 60 years.
She has won many awards for acting, both for the stage and for movies, including seven BAFTA Awards (five competitive awards and two special awards including the Bafta Fellowship in 1996), two Academy Awards, two Golden Globes, two Emmy Awards, a Laurence Olivier Award, two SAG Awards and a Tony Award.
Her award winning movies include Othello (1965), The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1969), Travels with My Aunt (1972), California Suite (1978), Clash of the Titans (1981), A Room with a View (1985) and Gosford Park (2001).
She has also been in a number of widely-popular movies, including Hook (1991), Sister Act (1992) and as Professor Minerva McGonagall in the Harry Potter movie series.
She currently stars in the drama Downton Abbey as Violet Crawley, the Dowager Countess of Grantham, for which she has won an Emmy.
Smith was born in Ilford, Essex.
She moved to Oxford at age four and went to Oxford High School.
Smith has been married twice.
She married actor Robert Stephens on 29 June 1967 at Greenwich.
The couple had two sons: actors Chris Larkin (born in 1967) and Toby Stephens (born in 1969).
They divorced on 6 May 1974.
She married playwright Beverley Cross on 23 August 1975 at Guildford.
He died on 20 March 1998.
In 2007, the Sunday Telegraph''' reported that she had breast cancer.
She has made a full recovery.
Television and cinema
Theatre roles
Twelfth Night, Oxford Playhouse, 1952
He Who Gets Slapped, Clarendon Press Institute, 1952
Cinderella, Oxford Playhouse, 1952
Rookery Nook, Oxford Playhouse, 1953
The Housemaster, Oxford Playhouse, 1953
Cakes and Ale (revue), Edinburgh Festival, 1953
The Love of Four Colonels, Oxford Playhouse, 1953
The Ortolan, Maxton Hall, 1954
Don’t Listen Ladies, Oxford Playhouse, 1954
The Government Inspector, Oxford Playhouse, 1954
The Letter, Oxford Playhouse, 1954
A Man About The House, Oxford Playhouse, 1954
On the Mile (revue), Edinburgh Festival, 1954
Oxford Accents, New Watergate Theatre, London, 1954
Theatre 1900, Oxford Playhouse, 1954
Listen to the Wind, Oxford Playhouse, 1954
The Magistrate, Oxford Playhouse, 1955
The School For Scandal, Oxford Playhouse, 1955
New Faces (revue), Ethel Barrymore Theatre, New York, 1956
Share My Lettuce (revue), Lyric Hammersmith and Comedy Theatre, 1957
The Stepmother, St. Martin's Theatre, 1958
The Double Dealer, Old Vic, 1959
As You Like It, Old Vic, 1959
Richard II, Old Vic, 1959
The Merry Wives of Windsor, Old Vic, 1959
What Every Woman Knows, Old Vic, 1960
Rhinoceros, Strand Theatre, 1960
Strip the Willow, UK Tour, 1960
The Rehearsal, Bristol Old Vic and Globe Theatre, 1961
The Private Ear and The Public Eye, Globe Theatre, 1962
Mary, Mary, Queen's Theatre, 1963
The Recruiting Officer, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1963
Othello, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1964
The Master Builder, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1964
Hay Fever, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1964
Much Ado About Nothing, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1965
Trelawney of the Wells, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1965
Miss Julie, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1966
Black Comedy, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1966
A Bond Honoured, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1966
The Country Wife, Chichester Festival Theatre, 1969
The Beaux Stratagem, National Theatre/Old Vic and Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, 1970
Hedda Gabler, National Theatre/Cambridge Theatre, 1970
Design For Living, Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, 1971
Private Lives, Queen's Theatre, 1972
Peter Pan, London Coliseum, 1973
Snap, Vaudeville Theatre, 1974
Private Lives, US tour and 46th Street Theatre, New York, 1975 [Tony nomination]
The Way of the World, Stratford, Canada, 1976
Antony and Cleopatra, Stratford, Canada, 1976
Three Sisters, Stratford, Canada, 1976
The Guardsman, Stratford, Canada and Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, 1976
A Midsummer Night's Dream, Stratford, Canada and Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, 1977
Richard III, Stratford, Canada, 1977
As You Like It, Stratford, Canada, 1977
Hay Fever, Stratford, Canada, 1977
Macbeth, Stratford, Canada, 1978
Private Lives, Stratford, Canada, 1978
Night and Day, Phoenix Theatre, Washington D.C. and ANTA Playhouse, New York, 1979 [Tony nomination]
Much Ado About Nothing, Stratford, Canada, 1980
The Seagull, Stratford, Canada, 1980
Virginia, Stratford, Canada, 1980 and Theatre Royal Haymarket, 1981
The Way of the World, Chichester Festival Theatre and Theatre Royal Haymarket, 1984
The Interpreters, Queen's Theatre, 1985
The Infernal Machine, Lyric Hammersmith, 1986
Coming Into Land, National Theatre/Lyttelton, 1987
Lettice and Lovage, Globe Theatre, 1987
Lettice and Lovage, Ethel Barrymore Theatre, New York, 1990 [Tony win]
The Importance of Being Earnest, Aldwych Theatre, 1993
Three Tall Women, Wyndham's Theatre, 1994 and 1995
Talking Heads, Chichester Festival Theatre and Comedy Theatre, 1996
A Delicate Balance, Theatre Royal Haymarket, 1997
The Lady in the Van, Queen's Theatre, 1999
The Breath of Life, Theatre Royal Haymarket, 2002
Talking Heads, Australian tour, 2004
The Lady From Dubuque'', Theatre Royal Haymarket, 2007
Blood Tsunami is a thrash metal band from Oslo, Norway.
The band was formed in 2004.
Blood Tsunami at Encyclopaedia Metallum
2004 establishments in Europe
Bates College is an American liberal arts college in Lewiston, Maine, in the United States.
Bates College was founded in 1855.
1,800 students attend Bates.
Economics, English, Psychology, Biology, and History are popular majors at Bates College.
1855 establishments in the United States
Suffolk University is an American university in Boston, Massachusetts.
Suffolk was founded in 1906 by Gleason Archer.
The University has three main schools: Suffolk University Law School, Suffolk University College of Arts and Sciences, and Suffolk University's Sawyer Business School.
The University remains best known for its law school.
It is featured annually in U.S. News and Annual Report and the Princeton Review.
1906 establishments in the United States
French literature is the literature of France.
It also includes literature that is written in French, even if the writer is not from France.
There are countries besides France where French is also spoken.
These countries include Belgium, Switzerland, Canada, Senegal, Algeria, and Morocco.
Works that are written in French but not from France are called Francophone literature.
History of French literature
The French language grew out of Latin.
French is a Romance language, related to other languages like Spanish and Italian.
French was also influenced by the Celtic and Frankish languages.
French Nobel Prize in Literature winners
1901 - Sully Prudhomme (The first Nobel Prize in literature)
1904 - Frédéric Mistral (wrote in Occitan)
1911 - Maurice Maeterlinck (Belgian)
1915 - Romain Rolland
1921 - Anatole France
1927 - Henri Bergson
1937 - Roger Martin du Gard
1947 - André Gide
1952 - François Mauriac
1957 - Albert Camus
1960 - Saint-John Perse
1964 - Jean-Paul Sartre (declined the prize)
1969 - Samuel Beckett (Irish, wrote in English and French)
1985 - Claude Simon
2000 - Gao Xingjian (writes in Chinese)
Selected list of French literary classics
anonymous - La Chanson de Roland (The Song of Roland)
Chrétien de Troyes - Yvain ou le Chevalier au Lion (Yvain, the Knight of the Lion), Lancelot, ou le Chevalier à la charrette (Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart)
various - Tristan et Iseult (Tristan and Iseult)
anonymous - Lancelot-Graal (Lancelot-Grail), also known as the prose Lancelot or the Vulgate Cycle
Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meung - Roman de la Rose ("Romance of the Rose")
François Rabelais - Pantagruel, Gargantua
Madame de Lafayette - La Princesse de Clèves
Voltaire - Candide
Jean-Jacques Rousseau - Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse
Denis Diderot - Jacques le fataliste (Jacques the Fatalist)
Stendhal - Le Rouge et le Noir (The Red and the Black), La Chartreuse de Parme (The Charterhouse of Parma)
Honoré de Balzac - La Comédie humaine ("The Human Comedy", a novel cycle which includes Père Goriot and Eugénie Grandet)
Gustave Flaubert - Madame Bovary, Salammbô, L'Éducation sentimentale (Sentimental Education)
Edmond and Jules de Goncourt - Germinie Lacerteux
Guy de Maupassant - Bel Ami, La Parure (The Necklace), other short stories
Émile Zola - Les Rougon-Macquart (a novel cycle which includes L'Assommoir, Nana and Germinal)
André Gide - Les Faux-monnayeurs (The Counterfeiters), The Immoralist
Marcel Proust - À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time)
André Breton - Nadja
Louis-Ferdinand Céline - Voyage au bout de la nuit (Journey to the End of the Night)
Colette - Gigi
Jean Genet - Notre-Dame-des-Fleurs
Albert Camus - L'Étranger  (The Stranger)
Michel Butor - La Modification
Marguerite Yourcenar - Mémoires d'Hadrien
Alain Robbe-Grillet - Dans le labyrinthe
Georges Perec - La vie mode d'emploi
Robert Pinget - Passacaille
François Villon - Les Testaments
Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay and other poets of "La Pléiade" - poems
La Fontaine - The Fables
Victor Hugo - Les Contemplations
Alphonse de Lamartine - Méditations poétiques
Charles Baudelaire - Les Fleurs du mal
Paul Verlaine - Jadis et naguère
Arthur Rimbaud - Une Saison en Enfer
Stéphane Mallarmé - Un coup de dés jamais n'abolira le hasard ("A Throw of the Dice Will Never Abolish Chance")
Guillaume Apollinaire - Alcools
Francis Ponge
Raymond Queneau
Pierre Corneille - Le Cid
Molière - Tartuffe, The Misanthrope, Dom Juan
Jean Racine - Phèdre, Andromaque
Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de Marivaux
Edmond Rostand - Cyrano de Bergerac
Jean Giraudoux - The Trojan War Will Not Take Place
Jean Anouilh - Becket, Antigone
Jean-Paul Sartre - No Exit
Samuel Beckett - Waiting for Godot, Endgame
Eugène Ionesco - The Bald Soprano, Rhinoceros
Jean Genet - The Maids, The Blacks
Michel de Montaigne - The Essays
Blaise Pascal - Les Pensées
François de La Rochefoucauld - The Maxims
Jean-Jacques Rousseau - Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, The Social Contract
François-René de Chateaubriand - Genius of Christianity
Alexis de Tocqueville - Democracy in America
Adolphe Theirs - History of the French Revolution, History of the Consulate and Empire
Jules Michelet - Histoire de France, La Sorcière
Albert Camus - The Myth of Sisyphus
Jean-Paul Sartre - Existentialism is a Humanism, Being and Nothingness
Literary criticism
Paul Bénichou
Jean-François Lyotard
Parnassian
Symbolism (arts)
French art
List of French language authors
List of French language poets
French science fiction
French Language & Literature Resources at Yale University
Littérature francophone virtuelle (ClicNet) online texts
Athena Textes Français online texts
ABU online texts
French Literature at Digital Librarian
Jean-Michel Maulpoix & Co.: Modern and contemporary french literature site maintained by prominent French poet Jean-Michel Maulpoix
Full text of Roland Barthes' "Death of the Author"
The Treaty of Warsaw () is a treaty between West Germany and the People's Republic of Poland.
It was signed on December 7, 1970 and ratified by the German Bundestag on May 17, 1972.
In the treaty, both sides committed themselves to nonviolence and accepted the existing border - the Oder-Neisse line.
This was a very sensitive topic at the time as Poland was concerned that one day a German government would lay claim to some of the territory Germany lost after World War II.
Poland took over this territory to replace eastern Poland, which the Soviet Union had conquered in 1939.
A lot of that land was east of the Curzon Line, and Poland kept it after the Polish-Soviet War (1919-1921).
Chancellor Willy Brandt was heavily criticized by the conservative CDU/CSU opposition, which indeed were in favour of such a claim, accusing him of abandoning German interests.
The Oder-Neisse line was reaffirmed by a reunited Germany in the German-Polish Border Treaty, signed on 14 November 1990.
Text of the treaty (PDF file, )
Warsaw 1970
The History of Poland is the history of rather different territories during the past millennium.
At one time, in the 16th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the second largest state in Europe, after Russia.
At other times there was no separate Polish state at all.
Poland got back its independence in 1918, after more than a century of rule by nearby empires, but its borders shifted again after the Second World War.
Formation and early history
Poland began to form into a country around the middle of the 10th century in the Piast dynasty.
In 966, Prince Mieszko I got himself and the whole Polish nation christened.
In the 12th century Poland broke into some smaller states, which were later attacked by Mongol armies in 1241.
In 1320 Władysław I became the King of the repaired Poland.
His son Casimir III repaired the Polish economy, built new castles and won the war against the Ruthenian dukedom.
Beginning with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jogaila, the Jagiellon dynasty (1385–1569) formed the Polish-Lithuanian Union.
The partnership proved beneficial for the Poles and Lithuanians, who played a dominant role in one of the most powerful empires in Europe for the next three centuries.