the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The order has more than 180,000 species in 128 families and 47 superfamilies.
They are 10% of all the described species of living organisms.
The Coleoptera (the beetles) is the only order that has more species.
The name, Lepidoptera, comes from the Ancient Greek words λεπίδος (scale) and πτερόν (wing).
The earliest discovered fossils date to 200 mya or earlier.
This early origin was long before flowering plants evolved.
Earlier butterflies must have been adapted to a habitat of cycads and conifers, something which had not previously been suspected.
Characteristics of Lepidoptera
Lepidopterans go through complete metamorphosis.
This means that they have a four parts to their lives.
The second part is the caterpillar or larva.
The third part is the pupa.
The last part is the adult or imago.
The larvae have a tough head and a soft body.
They have mouths that are made to chew.
Some larvae are covered with hairs, or other body extensions.
The larvae have three pairs of small legs on the thorax.
There are up to five pairs of bigger legs on the abdomen.
These legs are called prolegs.
Lepidopteran larvae can be confused with the larvae of sawflies.
The difference between Lepidopteran larvae and sawfly larvae is that Lepidopteran larvae have tiny hooks on their prolegs.
These hooks are called crochets.
Most larvae are herbivores, but a few are carnivores and detritivores.
Adults have two pairs of wings.
They are covered by small scales.
In some species, the adults have very small wings or no wings at all.
This is more common in females.
Adults have antennae.
Some moths have antennae that look like feathers.
These feather-like antennae are larger in males than females.
Adults have a mouthpart called a proboscis.
It  sucks nectar from flowers.
Some adults do not have mouths and cannot feed.
Others have different mouths that are made to pierce and suck blood or fruit juices.
Forum Lepidoptera
Lepidopterology.com
Lepidoptera  in online insect museum
Historic Moth illustrations
Animals that are active during the day are called diurnal.
They hunt or feed during the day and sleep during the night.
Nocturnal animals do it the other way round.
Scientists sometimes use the word crepuscular to describe nocturnal  animals that are not active when it is very dark at night; they are mostly active near dawn, dusk, and sometimes when the moon makes a lot of light.
The skippers are a family of butterflies, the Hesperiidae.
They are named after their quick, darting flight.
Skippers used to be classified in their own superfamily, Hesperioidea, because they have their antennae clubs hooked backward like a crochet while the other butterflies have club-like tips to their antennae.
Skippers also have generally stockier bodies than regular butterflies, with stronger wing muscles.
There are about 3500 species of skippers.
They are usually classified in the following subfamilies:
Coeliadinae: awls, awlets and policeman (butterfly) (about 75 species)
Hesperiinae: grass skippers (over 2000 species)
Heteropterinae: skipperlings (about 150 species)
Megathyminae: giant skippers (about 100 species)
Pyrginae: spread-winged skippers (about 1000 species)
Pyrrhopyginae: firetips (about 150 species)
Trapezitinae: Australian skippers (about 60 species)
For example, some species in the genera Erynnis, Hesperia, and Amblyscirtes cannot currently be distinguished in the field even by experts.
The only reliable method of telling them apart involving dissection and examination of the genitalia.
Aaron's skipper - Poanes aaroni
Chequered skipper - Carterocephalus palaemon
Small skipper - Thymelicus sylvestris
Essex skipper - Thymelicus lineola
Lulworth skipper - Thymelicus acteon
Silver-spotted skipper - Hesperia comma
Large skipper - Ochlodes venata
Dingy skipper - Erynnis tages
Grizzled skipper - Pyrgus malvae
Dakota skipper - Hesperia dacotae
Skippers of North America: Large format diagnostic photographs Cirrus Digital Imaging
Tree of Life Hesperiidae
Energy conservation is reducing the amount of energy used for different purposes.
This may result in an increase of financial capital, environmental value, national and personal security, and human comfort.
Individuals and organizations that consume energy may conserve energy to reduce costs and promote economic, political and environmental sustainability.
Industrial and commercial users may want to increase efficiency and thus maximize profit.
On a larger scale, energy conservation is an energy policy.
In general, energy conservation  reduces the energy consumption and energy demand per capita.
This reduces the rise in energy costs, and can reduce the need for new power plants, and energy imports.
The reduced energy demand can provide more flexibility in choosing the methods of energy production.
By reducing emissions, energy conservation helps to prevent climate change.
Energy conservation makes it easier to replace non-renewable resources with renewable energy.
Energy conservation is often the most economical solution to energy shortages.
Energy efficiency trends in the United States
The U.S. is the largest consumer of energy, although at current levels of growth, China may become the leading energy consumer.
The U.S. Department of Energy categorizes national energy use in four broad sectors: transportation, residential, commercial, and industrial.
Energy usage in the transportation and residential sectors (about half of U.S. energy consumption) is largely controlled by individual domestic consumers.
Commercial and industrial energy usage are controlled by businesses.
National energy policy has a significant effect on energy usage across all four sectors.
Transportation sector
The transportation sector includes all vehicles used for personal or freight transportation.
Of the energy used in this sector, about 65% is used by gasoline-powered vehicles, mostly personally owned.
Diesel-powered transport (trains, merchant ships, heavy trucks, etc.)
consumes about 20%, and air traffic consumes most of the remaining 15%.
The oil supply crises of the 1970s spurred the creation, in 1975, of the federal Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) program, which required auto manufacturers to meet progressively higher fleet fuel economy targets.
The next decade saw dramatic improvements in fuel economy, mostly the result of reductions in vehicle size and weight.
These gains eroded somewhat after 1990 due to the growing popularity of sport utility vehicles, pickup trucks and minivans, which fall under the more lenient "light truck" CAFE standard.
In addition to the CAFE program, the U.S. government has tried to encourage better vehicle efficiency through tax policy.
Since 2002, taxpayers have been eligible for income tax credits for gas/electric hybrid vehicles.
A "gas-guzzler" tax has been assessed on manufacturers since 1978 for cars with exceptionally poor fuel economy.
While this tax remains in effect, it currently generates very little revenue as overall fuel economy has improved.
Another focus in gasoline conservation is reducing the number of miles driven.
An estimated 40% of American automobile use is associated with daily commuting.
Many urban areas offer subsidized public transportation to reduce commuting traffic, and encourage carpooling by providing designated high-occupancy vehicle lanes and lower tolls for cars with multiple riders.
In recent years telecommuting has also become a viable alternative to commuting for some jobs.
A vehicle's gas mileage normally decreases rapidly at speeds above 55 miles per hour.
A car or truck moving at 55 miles an hour can get about 15 percent better fuel economy than the same car going 65 mph.
According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), as a rule of thumb, each 5 mph you drive over 60 mph is similar to paying an additional $1.20 per gallon for gas (at $3.10 per gallon).
Residential sector
The residential sector refers to all private residences, including single-family homes, apartments, manufactured homes and dormitories.
Energy use in this sector varies significantly across the country, due to regional climate differences and different regulation.
On average, about half of the energy used in the U.S. homes is expended on space conditioning (i.e. heating and cooling).
The efficiency of furnaces and air conditioners has increased steadily since the energy crises of the 1970s.
The 1987 National Appliance Energy Conservation Act authorized the Department of Energy to set minimum efficiency standards for space conditioning equipment and other appliances each year, based on what is "technologically feasible and economically justified".
Despite technological improvements, many American lifestyle changes have put higher demands on heating and cooling resources.
The average size of homes built in the United States has increased significantly, from 1500 ft² in 1970 to 2300 ft² in 2005.
The single-person household has become more common, as has central air conditioning: 23% of households had central air conditioning in 1978, that figure rose to 55% by 2001.
As a cheaper alternative to the purchase of a new furnace or air conditioner, most public utilities encourage smaller changes the consumer can make.
Consumers have also been asked to adopt a wider indoor temperature range (e.g. 65 °F in the winter, 80 °F in the summer).
Home energy consumption averages:
space conditioning (includes both heating and air conditioning) 44%
water heating, 13%
lighting, 12%
refrigeration, 8%
home electronics, 6%
laundry appliances, 5%
kitchen appliances, 4%
other uses, 8%
Energy usage in some homes may vary widely from these averages.
In most residences no single appliance dominates, and any conservation efforts must be directed to numerous areas in order to achieve substantial energy savings.
However, ground source heat pump systems are the more energy efficient, environmentally clean, and cost-effective space conditioning systems available (Environmental Protection Agency).
They can achieve reductions in energy consumptions of up to 70%.
Best building practices
Current best practices in building design and construction result in homes that are much more energy conserving than average new homes.
See Passive house, Superinsulation, Self-sufficient homes, Zero energy building, Earthship, Straw-bale construction, MIT Design Advisor, Energy Conservation Code for Indian Commercial Buildings.
Commercial sector
The commercial sector consists of retail stores, offices (business and government), restaurants, schools and other workplaces.
Energy in this sector has the same basic end uses as the residential sector, in slightly different proportions.
Space conditioning is again the single biggest consumption area, but it represents only about 30% of the energy use of commercial buildings.
Lighting, at 25%, plays a much larger role than it does in the residential sector.
Lighting is also generally the most wasteful component of commercial use.
A number of case studies indicate that more efficient lighting and elimination of over-illumination can reduce lighting energy by approximately fifty percent in many commercial buildings.
Commercial buildings can greatly increase energy efficiency by thoughtful design, with today's building stock being very poor examples of the potential of systematic (not expensive) energy efficient design (Steffy, 1997).
Commercial buildings often have professional management, allowing centralized control and coordination of energy conservation efforts.
Solar heat loading through standard window designs usually leads to high demand for air conditioning in summer months.
An example of building design overcoming this excessive heat loading is the Dakin Building in Brisbane, California, where fenestration was designed to achieve an angle with respect to sun incidence to allow maximum reflection of solar heat; this design also assisted in reducing interior over-illumination to enhance worker efficiency and comfort.
Industrial sector
The industrial sector represents all production and processing of goods, including manufacturing, construction, farming, water management and mining.
Increasing costs have forced energy-intensive industries to make substantial efficiency improvements in the past 30 years.
For example, the energy used to produce steel and paper products has been cut 40% in that time frame, while petroleum/aluminum refining and cement production have reduced their usage by about 25%.
These reductions are largely the result of recycling waste material and the use of cogeneration equipment for electricity and heating.
The energy required for delivery and treatment of fresh water often constitutes a significant percentage of a region's electricity and natural gas usage (an estimated 20% of California's total energy use is water-related.)
In light of this, some local governments have worked toward a more integrated approach to energy and water conservation efforts.
Unlike the other sectors, total energy use in the industrial sector has declined in the last decade.
While this is partly due to conservation efforts, it's also a reflection of the growing trend for U.S. companies to move manufacturing operations offshore.
Bain, A.,  “The Hindenburg Disaster: A Compelling Theory of Probable Cause and Effect,” Procs.
NatL Hydr.
Assn.
8th Ann.
Hydrogen Meeting, Alexandria, Va., March 11-13, pp 125–128 (1997)
Gary Steffy, Architectural Lighting Design,  John Wiley and Sons (2001)
Lumina Technologies, Analysis of energy consumption in a San Francisco Bay Area research office complex, for (confidential) owner, Santa Rosa, Ca.
May 17, 1996
GSA paves way for IT-based buildings
Resources for homes
Conserving energy with plants
Energy Savings Tips for Your Home
Energy conservation tips for apartments
Energy Saving Resources for the Home
Government and international websites
U.S. Energy Information Administration
Buildings Energy Data Book  - commercial/residential building consumption patterns
UNEP- Energy Branch.
IEA Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems Programme.
Conventional power plants emit the heat created as a byproduct of electricity generation into the environment through cooling towers, as flue gas, or by other means.
Combined heat and power captures the byproduct heat for domestic or industrial heating purposes, either very close to the plant, or - especially in Scandinavia and eastern Europe - for distribution through pipes to heat local housing.
Byproduct heat at moderate temperatures (100 to 180°C) can also be used in absorption chillers for cooling.
A plant producing electricity, heat and cold is sometimes called regeneration or more generally: polygene ration plant.
Cogeneration is a thermodynamically efficient use of fuel.
In separate production of electricity some energy is lost as waste heat, but in cogeneration this energy performs useful work (see energy).
Thermal power plants (including those that use fissile elements or burn coal, petroleum, or natural gas), and heat engines in general, do not convert all of their available energy into electricity.
In most heat engines, a bit more than half is wasted as excess heat (see: Second law of thermodynamics).
By capturing the excess heat, CHP uses heat that would be wasted in a conventional power plant, potentially reaching an efficiency of up to 70%, compared with at most 40% for the conventional plants.
This means that less fuel needs to be consumed to produce the same amount of useful energy.
Also, less pollution is produced for a given economic benefit.
An exact match between the heat and electricity needs rarely exists.
A CHP plant can either meet the need for heat (heat driven operation) or be run as a power plant with some use of its waste heat.
CHP is most efficient when the heat can be used on site or very close to it.
Overall efficiency is reduced when the heat must be transported over longer distances.
This requires heavily insulated pipes, which are expensive and inefficient; whereas electricity can be transmitted along a comparatively simple wire, and over much longer distances for the same energy loss.
A car motor becomes a CHP plant in winter, when the reject heat is useful for warming the interior of the vehicle.
This example scores the point that deployment of CHP depends on heat uses in the neighbourhood of the heat engine.
Energy Policy Act of 2005 - sec.
1817 "Study of Cogeneration"
www.mccree.com  - Air Products and Chemicals Cogeneration Plant (Orlando, Florida)
www.co-generationsystems.com - Industrial Co-generation Equipment Provider
Sequoien - Non-profit CHP
CHP in Finland:
High cogeneration performance by innovative steam turbine for biomass-fired CHP plant in Iisalmi, Finland  (URL accessed on 30 March 2006)
UK micro CHP schemes:
www.defra.gov.uk, CHP
BBC News: Power from the people
Powergen WhisperGen
M.I.T. algae reactor
Stirling/ Oven
Associations:
U.S. Combined Heat and Power Association
CHP Association
COGEN Europe The European Association for the Promotion of Cogeneration
The World Alliance for Decentralized Energy
Quakenbrück is a small town in Lower Saxony.
It has about 13,000 inhabitants.
All air holds different amounts of water vapor.
The dew point shows the amount of moisture in the air.
The higher the dew point is, the higher the level of moisture in the air at a given temperature.
The dew point of humid air will be higher than the dew point of dry air.
Condensation of water vapor starts when the temperature of air is lowered to its dew point and beyond.
The dew point, like other measures of humidity, can be found from measurement taken by a hygrometer.
What is the dew point?
NOAA Dew point
dew point formula
Windows program for Heat Index, Dew Point, etc
Dew point evaporates on KPRC newscast ("The dew point is absolutely worthless information")
Often Needed Answers about Temp, Humidity & Dew Point from the sci.geo.meteorology Usenet newsgroup
Podgorica () is the capital of Montenegro.
In 2011, the population was 185,937.
Cities in Montenegro
Municipalities of Montenegro
The Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur is an independent part of Nicaragua.
It is often simply known as RAAS.
Its capital is Bluefields.
It was made when new regions were formed in Nicaragua in 1989.
The old region was turned into Atlántico Sur and Atlántico Norte.
The capital of Atlántico Norte is Puerto Cabezas.
There is also a popular tourist place called Corn Island, which is about 45 km from the capital Bluefields
Geography of Nicaragua
Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte is an autonomous region of Nicaragua.
It was created in 1989.
Its capital is Puerto Cabezas.
Often the name is shotened to RAAN.
Gas compressor, a mechanical device that compresses a gas e.g. air
Compressor (software), a video and audio compression and encoding application made for use with Final Cut
A device used to apply audio level compression to an audio signal
KOMPRESSOR, an electronic musician
A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume.
Compression of a gas naturally increases its temperature.
When the gas is air, the machine is called an air compressor.
Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe.
As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas.
Liquids are relatively incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to transport liquids.
Types of compressors
There are many different types of gas compressors.
The two primary categories are:
Positive displacement compressors with two sub-categories:
Reciprocating
Dynamic compressors also with two sub-categories:
Centrifugal
Centrifugal compressors
Centrifugal compressors use a vaned rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas.
A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy.
They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas processing plants.
Their application can be from 100 hp (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower.
With multiple staging, they can achieve extremely high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).
Many large snow-making operations (like a ski resort) use this type of compressor.
They are also used in internal combustion engines as superchargers and turbochargers.
Centrifugal compressors are used in small gas turbine engines or as the final compression stage of medium-sized gas turbines.
Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors
Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors are similar to centrifugal compressors, but have a radial and axial velocity component at the exit from the rotor.
The diffuser is often used to turn diagonal flow to the axial direction.
The diagonal compressor has a lower diameter diffuser than the equivalent centrifugal compressor.
Axial-flow compressors
Axial-flow compressors use a series of fan-like rotating rotor blades to progressively compress the gasflow.
Stationary stator vanes, located downstream of each rotor, redirect the flow onto the next set of rotor blades.
The area of the gas passage diminishes through the compressor to maintain a roughly constant axial Mach number.
Axial-flow compressors are normally used in high flow applications, such as medium to large gas turbine engines.
They are almost always multi-staged.
Beyond about 4:1 design pressure ratio, variable geometry is often used to improve operation.
Reciprocating compressors
Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft.
They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines.
Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications and are typically for intermittent duty.
Larger reciprocating compressors up to 1000 hp are still commonly found in large industrial applications, but their numbers are declining as they are replaced by various other types of compressors.
Discharge pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure (>5000 psi or 35 MPa).
In certain applications, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting compressors are said to be the most efficient compressors available, and are typically larger, noisier, and more costly than comparable rotary units.
Rotary screw compressors
Rotary screw compressors use two meshed rotating positive-displacement helical screws to force the gas into a smaller space.
These are usually used for continuous operation in commercial and industrial applications and may be either stationary or portable.
Their application can be from 3 hp (2.24 kW) to over 500 hp (375 kW) and from low pressure to very high pressure (>1200 psi or 8.3 MPa).
They are commonly seen with roadside repair crews powering air-tools.
This type is also used for many automobile engine superchargers because it is easily matched to the induction capacity of a piston engine.
Scroll compressors
A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and scroll vacuum pump, uses two interleaved spiral-like vanes to pump or compress fluids such as liquids and gases.
They operate more smoothly, quietly, and reliably than other types of compressors.
Diaphragm compressors
A diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane compressor) is a variant of the conventional reciprocating compressor.
The compression of gas occurs by the movement of a flexible membrane, instead of an intake element.
The back and forth movement of the membrane is driven by a rod and a crankshaft mechanism.
Only the membrane and the compressor box come in touch with the gas being compressed.
Air compressors sold to and used by the general public are often attached on top of a tank for holding the pressurized air.
Oil-lubricated and oil-free compressors are available.
Oil-free compressors are desirable because without a properly designed separator, oil can make its way into the air stream.
For some purposes, for example as a diving air compressor, even a little oil in the air stream may be unacceptable.
Charles's law says "when a gas is compressed, temperature is raised".
There are three possible relationships between temperature and pressure in a volume of gas undergoing compression:
Isothermal - gas remains at constant temperature throughout the process.
In this cycle, internal energy is removed from the system as heat at the same rate that it is added by the mechanical work of compression.
Isothermal compression or expansion is favored by a large heat exchanging surface, a small gas volume, or a long time scale (i.e., a small power level).
With practical devices, isothermal compression is usually not attainable.
For example, even a bicycle tire-pump gets hot during use.
Adiabatic - In this process there is no heat transfer to or from the system, and all supplied work is added to the internal energy of the gas, resulting in increases of temperature and pressure.
Theoretical temperature rise is T2 = T1·Rc((k-1)/k)), with T1 and T2 in degrees Rankine or kelvins, and k = ratio of specific heats (approximately 1.4 for air).
The rise in air and temperature ratio means compression does not follow a simple pressure to volume ratio.
This is less efficient, but quick.
Adiabatic compression or expansion is favored by good insulation, a large gas volume, or a short time scale (i.e., a high power level).
In practice there will always be a certain amount of heat flow, as to make a perfect adiabatic system would require perfect heat insulation of all parts of a machine.
Polytropic - This assumes that heat may enter or leave the system, and that input shaft work can appear as both increased pressure (usually useful work) and increased temperature above adiabatic (usually losses due to cycle efficiency).
Cycle efficiency is then the ratio of temperature rise at theoretical 100 percent (adiabatic) vs. actual (polytropic).
Staged compression
Since compression generates heat, the compressed gas is to be cooled between stages making the compression less adiabatic and more isothermal.
The inter-stage coolers cause condensation meaning water separators with drain valves are present.
The compressor flywheel may drive a cooling fan.
For instance in a typical diving compressor, the air is compressed in three stages.
If each stage has a compression ratio of 7 to 1, the compressor can output 343 times atmospheric pressure (7 x 7 x 7 = 343 Atmospheres).
in pipeline transport of purified natural gas to move the gas from the production site to the consumer.
in petroleum refineries, natural gas processing plants, petrochemical and chemical plants, and similar large industrial plants for compressing intermediate and end product gases.
in refrigeration and air conditioner equipment to move heat from one place to another in refrigerant cycles: see Vapor-compression refrigeration.
in gas turbine systems to compress the intake combustion air
in storing purified or manufactured gases in a small volume, high pressure cylinders for medical, welding and other uses.
in many various industrial, manufacturing and building processes to power all types of pneumatic tools.
as a medium for transferring energy, such as to power pneumatic equipment.
in pressurised aircraft to provide a breathable atmosphere of higher than ambient pressure.
in some types of jet engines (such as turbojets and turbofans) to provide the air required for combustion of the engine fuel.
The power to drive the combustion air compressor comes from the jet's own turbines.
in SCUBA diving, hyperbaric oxygen therapy and other life support devices to store breathing gas in a small volume such as in diving cylinders .
in submarines to store air for later use as buoyancy.
in turbochargers and superchargers to increase the performance of internal combustion engines by concentrating oxygen.
in rail and heavy road transport to provide compressed air for operation of brakes and various other systems (doors, windscreen wipers, engine/gearbox control, etc.).
in miscellaneous uses such as providing compressed air for filling pneumatic tires.
Cash is a form of currency, such as banknotes or coins.
There is usually different sorts in every country.
Bookkeeping and finance
In bookkeeping and finance, cash can also refer to checks, money orders, cashier's checks, bank drafts, or traveler's checks.
In all these forms, the term indicates the most liquid form of assets, which have a fixed value and can be easily converted to currency: "ready money".
For example, wages or salaries paid as "cash" (as opposed to, e.g., stock options) would in most countries normally be paid with checks or direct bank deposits, which are trivially convertible to currency.
Hemer is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.
About 35,000 people live there.
Heating is making something warm.
It could mean:
HVAC: Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning.
Block heater, or headbolt heater, an electric heater that heats the engine of a car to ease starting in cold weather
Cathode heater, a coil or filament used to heat the cathode in a vacuum tube or cathode ray tube
Central heating, method of providing warmth from one point to multiple rooms or apartments of a building
Convector heater, a heater which operates by air convection currents circulating through the body of the appliance
Dielectric heating, the phenomenon in which radiowave or microwave electromagnetic radiation heats a dielectric material
District heating, a system for distributing heat generated in a centralized location for residential and commercial heating requirements
Fan heater, a heater that works by using a fan to pass air over a heating element
Feedwater heater, a power plant component used to pre-heat water delivered to the boiler
Fireplace, an architectural element consisting of a space designed to contain a fire for heating or cooking
Gas heater, a heater that burns natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas
Geothermal heat pump, a heat pump that uses the thermal mass of the Earth to regulate indoor temperatures
Geothermal heating a method of heating using geothermal heat
Heating pad, a pad used for warming of parts of the body
Hydronics, the use of water as the heat-transfer medium in heating and cooling systems
Induction heating, the process of heating a metal object by electromagnetic induction
Radiant heating, a heating system which heats a building through radiant heat rather than convection or forced-air heating
Radiator, a heat exchanger designed to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for the purpose of cooling and heating
Radioisotope heater unit, small heaters that provide heat through radioactive decay
Salamander heater, a portable forced-air or convection heater, often kerosene-fueled, used in ventilated areas for worksite comfort
Solar furnace a structure used to harness the sun's rays to produce very high temperatures
Solar heating, the usage of solar energy to provide process, space or water heating
Storage heater, an electrical appliance which stores heat at a time when base load electricity is available at a low price
Water heating, the heating of water for residential, commercial or industrial use
In engineering and thermodynamics, a heat engine converts heat energy to mechanical work by using the temperature difference between a hot "source" and a cold "sink".
Heat is transferred from the source, through the "working body" of the engine, to the "sink", and in this process some of the heat changes into work by using the qualities of the gas or liquid inside the engine.
There are many kinds of heat engines.
Each has a thermodynamic cycle.
Heat engines are often named after the thermodynamic cycle they use, like the Carnot cycle.
They often pick up everyday names, such as gasoline/petrol, turbine, or steam engines.
Internal combustion engines generate heat inside the engine itself.
Other heat engines may absorb heat from an external source.
Heat engines can be open to the air or sealed and closed off to the outside (This is called an Open or Closed cycle).
When scientists study heat engines they come up with ideas for engines that cannot actually be built .
These are called ideal engines or cycles.
Real heat engines are often confused with the ideal engines or cycles they attempt to mimic.
Typically when describing the physical device the term 'engine' is used.
When describing the ideal the term 'cycle' is used.
One could say that the thermodynamic cycle is an ideal case of the mechanical engine.
One could equally say that the model does not quite perfectly match the mechanical engine.
However, much benefit is gained from the simplified models, and ideal cases they may represent.
In general terms, the larger the difference in temperature between the hot source and the cold sink, the more efficient the cycle or engine.
On Earth, the cold side of any heat engine is limited to the air temperature of the place where the engine is.
The efficiency of various heat engines proposed or used today ranges from 3 percent (97 percent waste heat) for the OTEC ocean power proposal through 25 percent for most automotive engines, to 45 percent for a supercritical coal plant, to about 60 percent for a steam-cooled combined cycle gas turbine.
All of these processes gain their efficiency (or lack thereof) due to the temperature drop across them.
Everyday examples
A bimetallic strip is a device that converts temperature into mechanical movement and is used in thermostats to control temperature.
It is a heat engine that does not use a liquid or gas.
Heat Engine -Taftan Data
Webarchive backup: Refrigeration Cycle Citat: "...The refrigeration cycle is basically the Rankine cycle run in reverse..."
Red Rock Energy Solar Heliostats: Heat Engine Projects Citat: "...Choosing a Heat Engine..."
Overview of heat engine types
The rotary piston array machine
The gyroscope combustion motor
The external combustion air engine
A thermodynamic cycle is a series of thermodynamic processes which returns a system to its initial state.
Properties depend only on the thermodynamic state and thus do not change over a cycle.
Variables such as heat and work are not zero over a cycle, but rather depend on the process.
The first law of thermodynamics dictates that the net heat input is equal to the net work output over any cycle.
The repeating nature of the process path allows for continuous operation, making the cycle an important concept in thermodynamics.
If the cyclic process moves clockwise around the loop, then it represents a heat engine, and W will be positive.
If it moves counterclockwise then it represents a heat pump, and W will be negative.
Two primary classes of thermodynamic cycles are power cycles and heat pump cycles.
Power cycles are cycles which convert some heat input into a mechanical work output, while heat pump cycles transfer heat from low to high temperatures using mechanical work input.
Thermodynamic power cycles
Thermodynamic power cycles are the basis for the operation of heat engines, which supply most of the world's electric power and run almost all motor vehicles.
Power cycles can be divided according to the type of heat engine they seek to model.
The most common cycles that model internal combustion engines are the Otto cycle, which models gasoline engines and the Diesel cycle, which models diesel engines.
Cycles that model external combustion engines include the Brayton cycle, which models gas turbines, and the Rankine cycle, which models steam turbines.
Halliday, Resnick & Walker.
Fundamentals of Physics, 5th edition.
John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
Chapter 21, Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
Thermodynamic Cycle Simulation Software
Christoph Metzelder (born 5 November 1980 in Haltern, Germany) is a German football player.
He plays for Real Madrid In the Germany national team he has played in 47 matches and scored no goal.
|1999/00||Preußen Münster||Regionalliga||32||4||||||||||32||4
|2000/01||rowspan="7"|Borussia Dortmund||rowspan="7"|Bundesliga||19||0||2||0||colspan="2"|-||21||0
|2001/02||25||0||1||0||11||0||37||0
|2002/03||24||0||1||0||10||0||35||0
|2003/04||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||0||0
|2004/05||16||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||16||0
|2005/06||23||2||1||0||colspan="2"|-||24||2
|2006/07||19||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||19||0
|2007/08||rowspan="3"|Real Madrid||rowspan="3"|La Liga||9||0||1||0||3||0||13||0
|2008/09||12||0||2||0||1||0||15||0
|2002||14||0
|2007||11||0
Total||47||0
FootballDatabase provides Christoph Metzelder's profile and stats
In thermodynamics, a thermodynamic system, originally called a working substance, is defined as that part of the universe that is under consideration.
A real or imaginary boundary separates the system from the rest of the universe, which is referred to as the environment or surroundings (sometimes called a reservoir.)
A useful classification of thermodynamic systems is based on the nature of the boundary and the quantities flowing through it, such as matter, energy, work, heat, and entropy.
A system can be anything, for example a cylinder, a solution in a test tube, a living organism, or a planet, etc.
Treat (band), a Swedish band
Treats, a 1975 play by Christopher Hampton
Special Treat
Taco Treat
Chicken Treat
Trick-or-treating
Round of drinks, treating others to a drink.
Roger Treat
Robert Treat
Lawrence Treat
Spencer Treat Clark
Treat Baldwin Johnson
In general, a piston is a lubricated sliding shaft that fits tightly inside the opening of a cylinder.
Its purpose is to change the volume enclosed by the cylinder, to exert a force on a fluid inside the cylinder, to cover and uncover ports, or some combination of these.
A rubber seal is sometimes used to keep the lubricate within the shaft.
Due to the constant motion of the machine this seal wears quickly and should be replaced with every servicing.
If the seal should break during usage there can be disastrous long lasting consequences for the machine.
Creating force
There are two ways that a piston engine can transform combustion into motive power.
These are two-stroke and four-stroke.
A single cylinder two-stroke engine produces power every crankshaft revolution, while a single cylinder four-stroke engine produces power once every two revolutions.
Older designs of small two-stroke engines produced more pollution than four stroke engines.
However, modern two-stroke designs, like the Vespa ET2 Injection use fuel-injection and are as clean as four-strokes.
Large diesel two-stroke engines, as used in ships and locomotives, have always used fuel injection and produce low emissions.
One of the biggest internal combustion engines in the world, the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C is a two-stroke; it is bigger than most two-story houses, has pistons nearly 1 metre in diameter and is one of the most efficient mobile engines in existence.
In theory, a four stroke engine has to be larger than a two stroke engine to produce an equivalent amount of power.
Two stroke engines are becoming less common in developed countries these days, mainly due to manufacturer reluctance to invest in reducing two-stroke emissions.
Traditionally, two stroke engines were reputed to need more maintenance.
Even though the simplest two stroke engines have fewer moving parts, they could wear out faster than four stroke engines.
However fuel-injected two-strokes achieve better engine lubrication, and cooling and reliability should improve considerably.
A steam engine is another type of piston engine.
In most steam engines, the pistons are double acting: steam is alternately admitted to either end of the cylinder, so that every piston stroke produces power.
Wankel engine (an internal combustion engine with a rotary 'piston')
Pinyin is the Mandarin word for "spelling", writing letters showing the sound of a word in place of a Chinese character.
Today, it almost always has the sense of Hanyu Pinyin, the way of writing Mandarin sounds which has been used by the People's Republic of China from the 1950s.
Other countries like the United States and Taiwan used other ways of spelling Chinese (such as the Wade-Giles way) for a long time, but in the late 20th century started to use Hanyu Pinyin as well.
It is the standard of China as well as the United Nations.
It is the most common romanization system for Chinese.
Pinyin uses Roman letters in a special way for certain Chinese sounds.
For example, the pinyin letter C is pronounced as /ts/ as in the English word "cats" or the Japanese word "tsunami", and does not sound at all like /k/ or /s/ by itself.
Pinyin uses special marks to show the four Chinese tones, which are very important to using Mandarin clearly.
Basic combinations of vowel and consonant
Syllable-dividing mark (geyin fuhao)
Geyin fuhao is used after the syllables starting with vowels "a, o, e", for example: pi'ao.
Pinyin reading matters
Pinyin reading matters from Wikibooks
Pinyin reading matters from Wikimedia
New Edition Hanyu Pinyin Syllable Table￼￼
Rules for Hanyu Pinyin
Convert Chinese to Pinyin
Little Pinyin App 1.0 online
Susianna "Susi" Kentikian (born September 11, 1987) is a woman boxer from Germany.
She was born in Yerevan, Armenian SSR, but she left the country together with her family when she was five years old, because of the Nagorno-Karabakh War.
Kentikian has lived in Hamburg since 1996 and has signed a contract with the Hamburg boxing promoter Spotlight Boxing.
Kentikian is the current world champion with the boxing organizations WBA and WIBF in the flyweight weight class.
Kentikian.de, official homepage
Susianna Kentikian , Spotlight Boxing homepage
Professional boxing record for Susianna Kentikian from Boxrec.com
Susianna Kentikian Biography  at WomenBoxing.com
A banknote (more commonly known as a bill in the United States and Canada) is a paper by which a bank promises to pay to the bearer on demand.
Together with coins, banknotes make up the cash forms of all modern money.
Originally, the value of money was determined by the value of the material the money was made of, such as silver or gold.
However, carrying around a lot of precious metal was cumbersome and often dangerous.
As an alternative, banknotes would be issued.
In financial terms, a note is a promise to pay someone money.
Banknotes were originally a promise to give an amount of precious metal to anyone who presented the paper.
People could pay for things by giving the banknote, and thus the stored value (usually in gold or silver coins kept in the bank's vault) that the banknote promised.
Banknotes in Europe
In Europe the first paper money consisted of paper 'coins' issued in Protestant Leyden (today, Leiden) in the Netherlands during the Spanish siege of 1574.
Over 5000 of the estimated 14,000 residents of Leyden died, mostly due to starvation.
Even leather (often used to create emergency currency) was boiled and used to feed the people.
So to create currency, the residents took covers and paper from hymnals and church missives and created paper planchets, which were struck using the same dies that were previously used to mint coins.
Banknotes in the Americas
In the early 1690s, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was the first of the colonies to issue the permanently circulating banknotes.
The use of fixed denominations and printed banknotes came into use in the 18th century.
In the United States, public acceptance of banknotes in replacement of precious metals was hastened in part by Executive Order 6102.
This order carried the threat of a maximum $10,000 fine and a maximum of ten years in prison for anyone who kept more than $100 of gold in preference to bank notes.
Similar measures were taken worldwide, with similar results.
World Banknote Galleries
Ron Wise's Banknote World
worldpapermoney.org Online World Paper Money Museum
Bank Note Wiki - A collectors wiki that any user can edit
Numismondo - World Paper Money Picture Catalog
Gallery describing who/what is featured on modern world banknotes
World Banknotes issued since 1961 illustrated catalogue
Polymer Plastic Banknote Collections
Polymer Bank Notes in German by Thomas Krause
Banknote Collector Organisations
Banknotebank.com
Atlantic Provinces Numismatic Association
Country Specific Banknote Collections
First Ukrainian Banknotes
Russian Banknotes 1898 - 1917
Geldschein.at - Austrian Banknotes, including huge gallery, collectors information and history of Austrian banknotes
Haiti Paper Money
Philippine Money(Banknotes and Coins)
Banknote Printers
US Bureau of Engraving and Printing
Note Printing Australia
American Bank Note Company
Canadian Bank Note Company Ltd
Thomas de la Rue
François-Charles Oberthur
The common cold is caused by viruses.
It spreads easily, so it is very infectious.
The symptoms are mostly in the upper respiratory system.
Its damage is mostly felt in the nose and throat.
The symptoms include coughs, painful throat, runny nose and fever.
These symptoms usually last seven to ten days, but sometimes up to three weeks.
Over two hundred different viruses can cause the common cold: that is why the details vary so much.
Rhinoviruses are the most common cause.
The common cold mostly hurts the nose, pharynx, throat, and the sinuses (sinusitis).
The symptoms come from the immune system's response to the infection, not from direct destruction by the viruses themselves.
Hand washing is good, but the viruses also spread through moist air.
Close contact with infected people is common in many cities.
Wearing face masks might help, especially on any mass transit system (railways, underground, buses...).
There is no cure for the common cold, but the symptoms can be treated.
It is the most frequent infectious disease in humans.
The average person gets two to three colds every year.
The average child gets between 6 and 12 colds every year.
These colds have been with humans for as long as we have a history.
The most common symptoms of a cold are a cough, runny nose, a stuffy nose, and a sore throat.
Other issues are sore muscles, feeling tired, headache, and not wanting to eat.
Around 40% of people with colds have a sore throat, while around 50% have a cough.
Muscle ache happens in about half of the cases.
A fever is an uncommon symptom in adults, but it is common in infants and young children.
The cough caused by a cold is usually mild compared to a cough caused by influenza (the flu).
A cough and a fever indicate a higher likelihood of the flu in adults.
A number of the viruses that cause the common cold may also result in no symptoms.
The color of the mucus that is coughed up from the lungs (sputum) may vary in color from clear to yellow to green.
This color does not indicate if an infection is caused by viruses or bacteria.
A cold usually begins with feeling tired, a feeling of being chilled, sneezing, and a headache.
Additional symptoms such as runny nose and cough follow within two or more days.
Symptoms typically reach their worst two to three days after the infection begins.
Symptoms usually end after seven to ten days, but can last up to three weeks.
The cough lasts for more than ten days in 35% to 40% of cases involving children.
It lasts for more than 25 days in 10% of cases involving children.
The common cold is an easily spread infection of the upper respiratory tract.
Rhinoviruses cause 30% to 80% of all cases.
A rhinovirus is an RNA-containing virus.
There are 99 known types of this kind of virus.
Other viruses can also cause the common cold.
Coronavirus causes 10% to 15% of cases.
The flu causes 5% to 15% of cases.
Often, more than one virus is present and causing the infection.
In total, over two hundred different viruses are associated with colds.
The common cold virus is usually spread in one of two main ways.
By breathing or swallowing droplets in the air containing the virus; or by contacting infected nasal mucus or contaminated objects.
The most common method of transmitting the cold virus has not been determined.
The viruses may survive for a long time in the environment.
Viruses may then be transmitted from the hands to the eyes or nose where infection occurs.
People sitting close together appear at greater risk of becoming infected.
Transmission is common in day cares and at schools, due to the closeness of many children with little immunity and frequently poor hygiene.
These infections are then brought home to other members of the family.
There is no evidence that the air on commercial flights transmits cold viruses.
Rhinoviruses are most infectious in the first three days of cold symptoms.
They are much less infectious afterwards.
The traditional theory was that the disease spread to someone staying too long in cold weather, rain, or winter conditions.
This is how the disease got its name.
The role of body cooling as a risk factor for the common cold is controversial.
Some common cold viruses are seasonal, found more often in cold or wet weather.