the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
and is used by many Spanish-speakers when they answer the telephone.
Nahuatl words in English
cacao and cocoa
peyote
sapote
Languages of Mexico
Languages with ISO 639-2 code
Pre-Columbian cultures
Stephen William Hawking  (8 January 1942 – 14 March 2018) was a British theoretical physicist and mathematician.
He was born in Oxford.
In 1950, he moved to St Albans, Hertfordshire.
He was one of the world's leading theoretical physicists.
Hawking has written many science books for people who are not scientists.
Hawking was a professor of mathematics at the University of Cambridge (a position that Isaac Newton once had).
He retired on 1 October 2009.
Hawking had a motor neurone disease related to his dyslexia, and because of that he could not move or talk very well.
The illness worsened over the years and he was almost completely paralysed.
He used a wheelchair to move, and an Intel computer to talk for him.
He died on 14 March 2018.
Hawking went to St Albans School, a local public school in Hertfordshire.
At 17, he passed an exam to study at Oxford.
He studied physics and chemistry there.
Because he found it really easy at the beginning, he didn't study a lot for the final exams.
In October 1962 he started his graduate course at Trinity Hall.
It was at this time that his illness started to show up.
He had difficulties in rowing and then even simply in walking.
However, he finished his PhD and wrote about black holes in his thesis.
He then got a fellowship (a job as a university teacher) at Gonville and Caius College in 1965.
Hawking was a cosmologist—someone who studies the structure of the universe (stars and space).
He invented important theories about the Big Bang (the start of the universe), black holes and how they work.
Stephen Hawking predicted that black holes eject some radiation (energy), even though they normally swallow everything.
That kind of radiation is named "Hawking Radiation."
Hawking also worked on the problem of quantum gravity.
Quantum gravity tries to explain how gravity works with quantum mechanics (physics of tiny things.)
That is a hard problem that scientists have not solved yet.
Hawking also wrote popular books about science for non-scientists.
His first book, A Brief History of Time, sold over ten million copies.
Hawking had many other jobs as well.
He was an Actor, Mathematician, etc.
More info on the official site
Hawking died on 14 March 2018 in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire of complications from motor neuron disease at the age of 76.
His ashes are buried in Westminster Abbey in London near Charles Darwin and Isaac Newton.
Selected publications
Singularities in Collapsing Stars and Expanding Universes, with D.W. Sciama, 1969.
Comments on Astrophysics and Space Physics.
Information Loss in Black Holes, Cambridge University Press, 2005
On The Shoulders of Giants.
The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy, Running Press 2002.
George's Secret Key to the Universe, with Lucy Hawking.
Simon & Taylor Blevins Publishing.
George's Cosmic Treasure Hunt, with Lucy Hawking.
George and the Big Bang, with Lucy Hawking.
1942 births
2018 deaths
Deaths from motor neurone disease
Disease-related deaths in the United Kingdom
British astrophysicists
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Companions of Honour
People from Oxford
Writers from Hertfordshire
Writers from Oxfordshire
The Czech Republic (, ) is a country in Central Europe.
As of 2 May 2016, the official short name of the country is Czechia ().
The capital and the biggest city is Prague.
The currency is the Czech Crown (koruna česká - CZK).
€1 is about 25 CZK.
The president of Czechia is Miloš Zeman.
Czechia's population is about 10.5 million.
Its history dates from the 9th century AD, for a long time it was one of the most powerful countries in Central Europe.
Later on it was the biggest, most populated and richest country of the First Reich, where many Emperors started their career.
Under the conditions of the Treaty of Vienna 1515 parts of Czechia, then in the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, came under Habsburg rule after the death of Louis the Jagiellon in 1526.
They stayed a part of the Habsburg dynasty rule until 1918.
The area of the today's Czechia was a part of Czechoslovakia (current area of Czechia and Slovak republic) from 1918 to 1992.
Czechoslovakia became independent in 1918 from Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The first Czechoslovakian president was Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk.
In February 1948 the Communist party took over the country and for the next 41 years Czechoslovakia was a Socialist state with a rule of one (Communist) party.
In 1968 there was a reformation movement (Prague Spring) within the Communist party, but reforms were stopped by the invasion of Warsaw pact armies.
In November 1989 Czechoslovakia returned to democracy through the peaceful "Velvet Revolution".
Czechoslovakia peacefully split into two countries (Czechia and Slovakia) in 1993.
Czechia has been a member of the European Union since 1 May 2004, and a member of NATO since 12 March 1999.
There are four national parks in Czechia.
The oldest is Krkonoše National Park.
The others are Šumava National Park, Podyjí National Park, Bohemian Switzerland.
In 1949 the Communist government created 13 centralized regions instead of historical countries.
In 1960 the regions changed leaving only 8 regions.
In 2000 14 regions were formed with their own regional self-government.
Czechia has one of the least religious populations in the world.
According to the 2011 census, 34.2% of the population stated they had no religion, 10.3% were Roman Catholic, 0.8% were Protestant (0.5% Czech Brethren and 0.4% Hussite), and 9.4% followed other forms of religion both denominational or not (of which 863 people answered they are Pagan).
45.2% of the population did not answer the question about religion.
Czechia at the Olympics
Czechia's national football team
List of rivers of Czechia
Czechia pictures
Czechia map
Czechia map - Google Maps style
Czechia - Immigration
Czechia - Business
A National Flag is the symbol of a country (nation).
For example, the national flag of the United States is the Stars and Stripes; the flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag' or 'Union Jack; the national flag of Azerbaijan and  France is the Tricolore.
An Ensign is a special type of national flag for use on ships.
Different kinds of ships often use different kinds of ensigns.
For example, warships use a naval ensign which is usually different from the ensigns used by other ships.
A Rank Flag is used by the head of state, as well as by a senior officer of the navy, army or air force, to show where he or she is.
In the past, soldiers carried beautiful flags to war.
Today these ceremonial flags are used only at military parades.
Some states, provinces, cities and towns have their own flags.
For example, all 50 states within the United States have their own state flags.
A Signal Flag is a flag used by ships to send messages to other ships or to people on land.
Every ship keeps many different signal flags for use in different situations.
Signal flags are also used for racing.
Flags are sometimes also used to represent a business, a sports team, a school, a political party, or other organizations.
Karaite Judaism is a kind of Judaism that accepts only the Hebrew Bible as authoritative, and rejects any religious authority in Mishnah and Talmud, which are explanations of the Bible by rabbis in the first few centuries of the Common Era.
Karaite Jews believe that each person should be able to explain the Torah for themselves, instead of following the explanations of the rabbis.
Today the largest communities of Karaites are in Israel and San Francisco.
Declaration of faith
The list of main beliefs to Karaite Judaism are called the "Tuv Taam."
It is called this because those are the first two words in Hebrew of the beliefs.
These beliefs are:
There is one God who is YHWH the creator of the Heavens and Earth.
The Torah that Moses gave to the Israelites at Sinai is the truth
The Torah is the infallible word of YHWH God of Israel.
Those who follow the laws of the Torah their name will be written in the Book of Life .
The place of where the Temple in Jerusalem stood is holy, and prayers are said in the direction of where it stood
The first day of each Hebrew month is decided by the lunar (moon) cycle
The Tanakh, is a book of truth.
The beginning of the Jewish year according to the Torah is decided by the growth of the barley crops in the land of Israel
The holidays talked about in the Torah are respected and celebrated
YHWH is the ruler of the world and he is the only being that always has existed and always will exist
The Great Day of YHWH will come and everyone will know his name.
Karaite Korner
Karaite-USA
Karaite Beliefs in 5 Languages
Jewish denominations
A warship is a ship carrying weapons, which is used by the navy.
Some warships also carry naval aircraft.
Warships are made in many different sizes.
Here is a list of different kinds of warships, from the largest to the smallest of World War II:
Modern warships
It is a principle of modern navies that larger ships never travel alone.
They are too vulnerable to planes, submarines and missiles.
An aircraft carrier will have an AEW&C plane above to give wider radar warning, destroyers and submarines deployed around.
This is recognised by the term "Carrier Strike Group".
This is a U.S. term, but the principle applies to all the larger navies.
Modern warships come in the same "class" of ship as they did in World War II, but the sizes are different.
From largest to smallest:
Aircraft carriers are airports at sea.
They are often called "floating cities" because they can hold hundreds of planes, and thousands of sailors.
US Nimitz class carriers can weigh over 100,000 ton.
Escort carriers are smaller aircraft carriers.
They have fewer planes and sailors, but are usually faster.
Helicopter carriers are used by the United States Marine Corps and some navies.
Battleships are not used anymore.
This is because they are expensive to operate and cannot keep safe from enemy air attacks.
Smaller battleships may be called battle cruisers.
Battle cruisers have less armor and guns than a battleship, but are faster.
Cruisers and frigates are often now the same size.
They are mainly used to launch guided missiles or to shoot down enemy airplanes.
Cruisers are usually slower and larger and have longer range than frigates.
Most cruisers and frigates are large enough to hold helicopters on the back of the ship.
This part is called the fantail.
Cruisers can usually hold one or two.
Although they are smaller, some frigates are designed to hold two or three.
Battleships and battlecruisers have largely vanished from modern navies.
Destroyers are smaller and faster than cruisers and frigates.
They are usually used to hunt down enemy submarines.
Sometimes, they will also attack enemy airplanes.
They can also go closer to shore than larger ships.
This allows them to attack things on land.
Submarines can hide under the water.
Modern submarines are powered by atomic engines, and can go round the world underwater.
They provide what is sometimes called "the ultimate deterrent", namely, nuclear weapons.
Support warships are used to supply ammunition, food, and other supplies to the larger warships.
Some warships exist to carry powerful radio receivers and computers to detect and analyze transmissions from nearby ships.
Usually these kinds of ships are smaller, and do not have many guns or missiles themselves.
Ship types
A Coast Guard is an organization that protects people at sea.
The role of a coastguard varies greatly by country.
The coast guard is sometimes part of a military, or a semi-military organization, or else is a law enforcement (policing) agency.
However, the coast guard is always separate from the Navy.
For example, the United States Coast Guard (USCG) is a branch of the military.
Their duties include searching for people, ships and boats in danger at sea, rescuing those in danger and law enforcement to protect people from terrorism and crimes at sea.
It can also become part of the Navy in a time of war.
By contrast, Her Majesty's Coastguard in the United Kingdom is neither a military force nor a law enforcement agency.
Its only job is to lead searches and rescues for those in danger at sea, while the Royal National Lifeboat Institution launch most of the rescue boats.
USCG website
USCG boating office
When price is lower than the equilibrium price, quantity demanded will be greater than quantity supplied.
There will be a tendency for the price to increase.
When price is higher than the equilibrium price, quantity supplied will be greater than quantity demanded.
There will be a tendency for the price to decrease.
Equilibrium market price is attained when the quantity demanded equals quantity supplied.
It is sometimes called market clearing price.
Samba is a kind of music, dancing, and singing, originally from Brazil.
It began as a music/dance movement in the 1920s.
The dance of brazil.
Samba is a lively, rhythmical dance of Brazilian origin in 2/4 time.
In ballroom dance there are three steps to every bar, making the samba feel something like a 3/4 timed dance.
The timing is one, a-two, with the values about one beat, 1/4 beat, 3/4 beat.
There are two main types of samba that differ from each other: the modern ballroom samba, and the traditional samba of Brazil.
Traditional Brazilian samba includes the samba which is danced solo at Carnival.
In that case, the dancers take just one step on each beat.
The ballroom samba has its origins in Brazil at the beginning of the 20th century.
Many steps can be traced back to the Maxixe danced in 1910s.
A book published in France in 1928 already described how to perform the samba.
The modern ballroom dance was created in England, mostly with steps adapted from those seen in Brazil.
This version is now danced all over the world in international competitive dancing as regulated by the World Dance Council.
Ballroom samba, like other ballroom dances, is a form adapted for its suitability as a partner dance.
The dance movements, which do not change depending on the style of samba music being played, borrows some movements from Afro-Brazilian traditional dances such those used in candomblé rituals.
The ballroom samba is danced to music in 2/4 time.
The basic movements are counted either 1-2 or 1-a-2, and are danced with a slight bouncing action.
This action is created through the bending and straightening of the knees, with bending occurring on the beats of 1 and 2, and the straightening occurring on the "a".
Samba is notable for its constantly changing rhythms however, with cross-rhythms being a common feature.
Thus, common step values (in beats are):
Traditional Brazilian instruments
Other sections are when the apito blasts one rhythm, and all other instruments respond using another rhythm (that lasts the same amount of time as the first), named a call and response section; and a Samba piece can have instrument solos, when one instrument is playing an exciting rhythm.
The apito caller signals the end of one section and the beginning of the next by blasting a short call.
Pieces always have clear beginnings and ends.
Dance Resources Samba syllabus
Demonstration of basic figures by experts Allan Tornsberg and Serena Lecca
Latin dances
A nuclear weapon, also known as a nuclear bomb or a nuke, is a weapon that suddenly releases the energy in the nucleus of certain types of atoms.
When triggered, the device releases a huge amount of energy in the form of a nuclear explosion.
Nuclear explosions can destroy a city and kill most of its people.
They also make nuclear fallout, which may also make people very sick.
Nuclear weapons are the most damaging weapons to have been created.
The first nuclear weapons were built by the United States during World War II.
Two nuclear weapons were used to attack cities in Japan.
They were the only times nuclear weapons were used in war.
There are two ways to make nuclear weapons: fission weapons (also called atomic bombs or A-Bombs) and fusion weapons (also called hydrogen bombs, H-Bombs, or thermonuclear weapons).
They make energy for the nuclear explosion in different ways.
Fusion weapons make bigger explosions.
Fission weapons use a special isotope of uranium or plutonium.
Fusion weapons use a special isotope of hydrogen.
Nuclear weapons have been used twice in war, both by the United States in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated over 2,000 times for testing and demonstration.
Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them.
The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weapons and to acknowledge possessing them are (chronologically by date of first test) the United States, the Soviet Union (succeeded as a nuclear power by Russia), the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea.
Israel is believed to have nuclear weapons, but in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them.
Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands share nuclear weapons with other countries.
South Africa is the only country that has independently developed and later renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons.
The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons aims to reduce the spread of nuclear weapons, but its effectiveness has been questioned.
Modernisation of weapons has continued to this day.
In the years after 1895, people studying physics begin to understand how atoms are made.
Around 1915, people began to have the idea that breaking special atoms can release large quantities of energy and can be used to make a bomb.
In 1939, people studying physics began to understand the theory of nuclear fission weapons, but no country knew how to build one.
When World War II started, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States wanted to build nuclear weapons.
Germany did not finish building them, partly because many of the best people studying physics fled Germany after Nazi rule had started.
The United Kingdom started working in 1939 but found it so expensive that it gave up in 1942.
Later that year, the United States started a very large program to build nuclear weapons.
Building upon the work done in the United Kingdom, the program was called the "Manhattan Project".
By August 1945, the Manhattan Project had built three nuclear fission weapons.
Two of the bombs were used by the United States to attack the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan.
People from the Manhattan Project believe that around 105,000 people were killed and 94,000 were hurt when the bombs were used.
Medical professionals later came to believe that more than 225,000 people died when everyone who was affected after long periods of time has been counted.
Japan announced its surrender after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
How they work
One way that nuclear weapons release energy is by breaking atoms apart.
Called nuclear fission, that the basis for atomic bombs.
Specific isotopes of uranium or plutonium are typically used in the weapons.
Those elements can be made to undergo nuclear fission and have a nuclear chain reaction.
Another process can be used to create nuclear weapons with even bigger explosions and then releasing much more energy by fusing atoms together.
That process is called nuclear fusion, and weapons based on the process are called hydrogen bombs or thermonuclear weapons.
Specialized isotopes of hydrogen are typically used in the weapons.
Nuclear weapons produce a very large amount of energy and radiation, which can kill people or animals within several kilometers.
Most of the radiation is X-rays, which heats the air to produce a huge nuclear fireball.
The rapid expansion of the fireball creates a dangerous shock wave that can destroy houses or buildings several kilometers away.
The radiation can cause radiation poisoning and also has the potential to cause mutations in the DNA, which can cause cancer.
Nuclear bombs also release fallout, which is nuclear material and dust that has been irradiated and become radioactive.
Over time, the radioactive fallout can potentially kill people farther away, depending on how much was released.
Fallout from a nuclear explosion can be blown by the wind over large distances from the explosion and can remain dangerous for long periods of time.
A hydrogen bomb, also known as a fusion bomb, uses hydrogen isotopes (deuterium and tritium) in addition to uranium or plutonium.
Hydrogen bombs have the potential to be much more powerful than fission bombs.
Despite the name, a typical hydrogen bomb has only enough hydrogen to produce additional neutrons to detonate a casing made of natural uranium.
The fuel in hydrogen bombs is thus mostly unrefined uranium.
Building nuclear weapons
Nuclear weapons are difficult to build because they need special isotopes of uranium or plutonium, as well as specialized technology.
Tht is why so few countries have them.
When countries without nuclear weapons create their own, that is commonly referred to as nuclear proliferation.
Getting nuclear weapons to target
Getting a nuclear weapon to its target can be as hard as making one.
The explosive material can be placed in a bomb or artillery shell or into a missile.
When a nuclear device is placed on a missile it is commonly called a nuclear missile and can be carried by airplanes, submarines, or trucks or placed into underground missile silos.
Some kinds of airplanes like the B-29 Superfortress, B-36 Peacemaker, B-52 Stratofortress, and B-2 Spirit have carried nuclear weapons.
They are also carried by missiles, such as intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) or submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).
Some missiles travel to the border of space and then launch a number of separate nuclear weapons back toward the ground, with each weapon travelling to a different target.
That is called a MIRV Warhead, or Multiple Independent Reentry Vehicles.
Very large nuclear bombs have been produced, but in practice a weapon with multiple warheads can produce much more damage by attacking more targets.
Nuclear weapons take many resources to make because the materials they are made of are very rare, and it takes many scientists to make them.
However, several countries have managed to create nuclear weapons and many have them today.
The countries that have nuclear weapons are listed here in the order that they were invented: United States (1945), Russia (1949), United Kingdom (1952), France (1960), China (1964), India (1974), and Pakistan (1998).
Other countries are believed to secretly have nuclear weapons or develop them.
Some countries used to have nuclear weapons but have since then said that they have gotten rid of them.
Some countries have lost nuclear weapons while transporting them.
There are 92 known instances of atom bombs being lost at sea by all of the countries known to posses them.
Bombs have been lost in 15 different cases.
However, there could be more lost bombs.
Nuclear explosions to date
This is a list is of the main nuclear explosions which have happened.
As well as the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the first nuclear test of a given weapon type for a country is included, and tests which were otherwise notable (such as the largest test ever).
All yields (explosive power) are given in their estimated energy equivalents in kilotons of TNT.
Compensation for victims
Over 500 atmospheric nuclear weapons tests were done at various sites around the world from 1945 to 1980.
As public awareness and concern grew over the possible health hazards associated with exposure to nuclear fallout, various studies were done.
A Centers for Disease Control and Prevention study says that nuclear fallout might have led to 11,000 excess deaths, most caused by thyroid cancer linked to exposure to iodine-131.
People associated with nuclear weapons
Hermann Joseph Muller
WW2DB: Operation Trinity and the Manhattan Project
The natural voice of A-bomb victims.
VOSHN.com
Nuclear weapon Citizendium
Chojnów is small city in Poland.
As of the year 2000, 14,900 people live in the city.
The city is on  the river Skora.
The city belongs to the county Legnica.
It is in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship.
The average height of the city is 170 meters above sea level.
Chojnów is first mentioned in a note dated 1272 as a Haynow settlement.
In 1288 it's called city (civitas) in documents of Prince of Legnica Henryk V Gruby.
In 1333 in gained the status of a city (civitas).
Activities and events
Every year in first days of June, Days of Chojnów (Dni Chojnowa) are celebrated.
The Whole-Poland bike race Masters has been organized in Chojnów once a year for the past few years.
Chojnów is an industrial and agricultural city.
Among products produced in Chojnów are: paperware, agricultural machinery, chains, metal furniture for hospitals, equipment for the meat industry, beer, wine, leather clothing, clothing for infants, children and adults.
Cities in Poland
In comics, stories or information are given using pictures, or pictures and words together.
In comics, a story is told with many pictures, mostly in panels.
The first panel is supposed to be read first, and takes place earlier in time than the panels that follow it.
There are many kinds of comics.
Comic strips are short comics which are often found in newspapers.
Comic books are thin comics magazines.
Graphic novels are books of comics.
In Japan, comics are very popular, and Japanese comics are popular around the world.
The Japanese word for comics is manga, and people use this word for Japanese comics in English and other languages.
The first comic strips in the United States were funny.
"Comic" is another word for "funny", so they were called "comic strips".
The first comic books were collections of comic strips.
Today, many comics are serious, but they are still called "comics".
In comics, speech is usually shown through word balloons.
There are many different kinds of word balloons, such as the "speech balloon", the "thought balloon" and the "scream balloon".
Diamonds have the highest hardness of any bulk (all one type) material.
Because of this, many important industries use diamonds as tools for cutting and polishing things.
Many of them are clear, but some of them have colors, like yellow, red, blue, green and pink.
Diamonds of a different color are called "fancies".
Big diamonds are very rare, and are worth a lot of money.
Only 20% of diamonds are fit for jewellery.
The other 80% are of lower quality.
Those lower quality diamonds are called industrial diamonds, and are used to make things like drill bits and diamond saws.
Even if a diamond is not of gem quality, it still has a value because It is very hard.
Cut and faceted diamonds can be attractive hence their use in jewellery.
Diamonds are very effective electrical insulators, but also very good conductors of heat.
On Mohs scale of mineral hardness, diamonds are scored as 10 (the highest score possible).
Formation of diamonds
There are natural and synthetic diamonds.
The Earth makes natural diamonds, and people make synthetic diamonds.
Diamonds are the hardest natural substance known to man.
Diamonds are made of pure carbon, the same chemical element as graphite, fullerene, and coal.
But diamonds are very hard and in crystalline form.
It is commonly believed that diamonds are formed from coal, but this is not true.
Diamonds are made deep in the Earth where there is an intense amount of pressure and heat.
The formation of natural diamonds needs specific conditions.
These are exposure of carbon-bearing materials to high pressure, between 45 and 60 kilobars (4.5 and 6 GPa), but at a comparatively low temperature, between about .
These conditions are found in two places on Earth: in the lithospheric mantle below relatively stable continental plates, and at the site of a meteorite strike.
People find diamonds where volcanoes were a long time ago.
They sometimes find tiny ones at the site of a meteorite strike.
Sometimes people find diamonds on the top of the ground.
But in places like South Africa, they must dig deep down into a diamond mine to get diamonds.
Diamonds were first found in India.
Small synthetic diamonds are made for abrasives.
Large synthetic ones are even more expensive to make than to find and dig up, so people don't make large synthetic diamonds.
Trading in diamonds
For many decades the trading of diamonds was controlled by the De Beers group of companies, who controlled most of Africa's rich diamond mines.
However, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, new diamond mines opened in Canada and Australia that De Beers wasn't able to control.
When the USSR collapsed in 1991, many cheap Russian diamonds entered the market, overwhelming De Beers and their efforts to control it.
De Beers still runs most of Africa's diamond mines, but their mines now only produce about one third of the world's diamonds.
Diamond -Citizendium
Epstein, Edward Jay (1982).
The diamond invention (Complete book, includes "Chapter 20: Have you ever tried to sell a diamond?")
Tyson, Peter (November 2000). "
Diamonds in the Sky".
Retrieved March 10, 2005.
Birthstones
Thanksgiving is a holiday in the United States and Canada when people give thanks.
In the United States, it is on the fourth Thursday of November.
In Canada, it is on the second Monday of October.
In 1863, Abraham Lincoln said the last Thursday of November would be a national Day of Thanksgiving for the United States.
American immigrants brought the customs and practices of the American Thanksgiving to Canada, beginning on April 5, 1872.
The United States Congress permanently made the fourth Thursday of each November as a national holiday in the year 1941.
In 1957, Canada made the second Monday of each October a national holiday.
Thanksgiving was first celebrated to give thanks for the harvest.
The event that Americans commonly call the "First Thanksgiving" was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first feast in the New World in October 1621.
This feast lasted three days.
Edward Winslow, who was there, said that 90 Native Americans and 53 Pilgrims were there.
More people in the United States celebrate Thanksgiving than Christmas and New Year.
Americans eat 46 million turkeys or more each Thanksgiving.
Every year, the Nobel Prizes () are given to people and institutions around the world.
These prizes are for the study of science and for world peace.
The science prizes include Literature, Science, and Medicine.
The Nobel Prize was started by Alfred Nobel.
His 1895 testament gave money for the Prizes.
The Nobel Foundation now controls the money.
The Foundation asks different committees or academies to decide who receives the prizes.
For many people, a Nobel Prize is a very great honor.
People who receive a Nobel Prize are called "Nobel laureates".
Each prize winner gets a medal, a diploma and a sum of money.
In 1901, the winners of the first Nobel Prizes were given 150,782 SEK.
This is same as 7,731,004 SEK in December 2007.
In 2008, the winners were awarded a prize of 10,000,000 SEK.
The awards are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, in a ceremony on December 10.
This day is the anniversary of Nobel's death...
Prize categories and winners
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for the Nobel Prize in Physics and the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
The Karolinska Institutet for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
The Swedish Academy Nobel Prize in Literature
The Norwegian Nobel Committee, appointed by the Norwegian Parliament (Stortinget), for Nobel Peace Prize
The Nobel Prize in Economics was not a part of Nobel's will.
It was started in 1969 by Sveriges Riksbank, the Bank of Sweden.
The bank donated money to the Nobel Foundation for the Economics Prize in 1968.
The Economics Studies Prize is in the memory of Alfred Nobel.
It is awarded each year with the other Nobel prizes.
Notable Nobel laureates
Some people have received more than one Nobel Prize.
Marie Curie – in Physics 1903, for the discovery of radioactivity; and in Chemistry 1911, for the isolation of pure radium
Linus Pauling – in Chemistry 1954, for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances; and for Peace 1962, for nuclear test-ban treaty activism.
Pauling is the only person to receive two unshared Nobel Prizes.
John Bardeen – in Physics 1956, for the invention of the transistor; and Physics 1972, for the theory of superconductivity.
Frederick Sanger – in Chemistry 1958, for structure of the insulin molecule; and in Chemistry 1980, for virus nucleotide sequencing.
As a group, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) has received the Nobel Peace Prize three times: in 1917, 1944, and 1963.
The first two prizes were given the group's work during the world wars.
The third was awarded at the year of its 100-Year Anniversary.
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) received the Peace Prize in 1954 and 1981.
The Curie family received 5 Nobel Prizes.
Marie Curie – for Physics in 1903 and for Chemistry in 1911
Her husband Pierre Curie – for Physics in 1903
Their daughter Irène Joliot-Curie – for Chemistry in 1935
Their son-in-law Frederic Joliot-Curie – for Chemistry in 1935
Also, Henry Labouisse, the husband of the Curies' second daughter Ève, was the director of UNICEF when it won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965.
Gunnar Myrdal – for Economics in 1974 and his wife Alva Myrdal –for Peace in 1982
J. J. Thomson – for Physics in 1906.
He was the father of George Paget Thomson who received the prize for Physics in 1937.
William Henry Bragg shared the Prize for Physics in 1915 with his son, William Lawrence Bragg.
Niels Bohr received the Prize for Physics in 1922.
His son Aage Bohr received the Prize for Physics in 1975.
Manne Siegbahn received the Prize for Physics in 1924.
He was the father of Kai Siegbahn who shared the Prize for Physics in 1981.
Hans von Euler-Chelpin shared the Prize in Chemistry in 1929 with Arthur Harden.
Euler-Chelpin's son, Ulf von Euler, received the Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1970.
C.V. Raman received the Prize for Physics in 1930.
He was the uncle of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar who received the Prize for Physics in 1983.
Arthur Kornberg shared the Prize with Severo Ochoa for Physiology or Medicine in 1959.
Kornberg's son, Roger, received the Prize for Chemistry in 2006.
Jan Tinbergen received the Prize for Economics in 1969.
He was the brother of Nikolaas Tinbergen, who shared the Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1973 with Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch.
Nelson Mandela and F. W. de Klerk received the Nobel Peace Prize for their works during the civil rights revolution in South Africa in 1993.
The youngest person to ever receive the Nobel Peace Prize, or any Nobel prize, is the Pakistani girl activist Malala Yousafzai, who was 17 years old when she received this in October 2014.
References and notes
A graph is a picture designed to express words, particularly the connection between two or more quantities.
You can see a graph on the right.
A simple graph usually shows the relationship between two numbers or measurements in the form of a grid.
If this is a rectangular graph using Cartesian coordinate system, the two measurements will be arranged into two different lines at right angle to one another.
One of these lines will be going up (the vertical axis).
The other one will be going right (the horizontal axis).
These lines (or axes, the plural of axis) meet at their ends in the lower left corner of the graph.
Both of these axes have tick marks along their lengths.
You can think of each axis as a ruler drawn on paper.
So each measurement is indicated by the length of the associated tick mark along the particular axis.
A graph is a kind of chart or diagram.
However, a chart or a diagram may not relate one quantity to other quantities.
Flowcharts and tree diagrams are charts or diagrams that are not graphs.
How to draw a simple graph
Let's say you wanted to make a graph showing your height as you were growing up.
You might show your height in centimeters on the vertical axis and your age in years on the horizontal axis.
For example, say you were 60 centimeters tall at age 1, 85 centimeters tall at age 2 and 95 centimeters tall at age 3.
You would draw an imaginary straight line passing through the 50 centimeters height mark on the vertical axis.
Then you would draw a second imaginary line passing through the age of 1 year on the horizontal axis.
At the place where the two imaginary lines meet (called their intersection), you would then draw a dot.
Really, the imaginary lines are usually replaced by graph paper (see below).
The drawing of this intersection is called "plotting the point 50 centimeters for year 1".
You would then plot 85 centimeters for year 2 and 95 centimeters for year 3.
If you had more heights for more years, you would plot years 4, 5 and so forth.
When you had enough points on your graph, you could draw a line through each of the plotted points, making your graph a line graph.
For example, the line graph at the upper right shows the unemployment rate (as a percent) on the vertical axis and the year (from 1950 to 2005) on the horizontal axis.
Let's say you wanted a single graph showing both your height and your brother's height.
This could be expressed as two sets of plotted points: one for you and one for your brother.
You could use different colors to tell your plot from your brother's.
Or you might plot the Gross Domestic Product (in billions of dollars) as a second line against the same years on the unemployment graph above.
This would show you the relationship between GDP and unemployment.
Uses of graphs
Graphs make information easier to see.
This is especially true when two or more sets of numbers are related in some way.
For example, the unemployment rates graph at the beginning of this article could be expressed in the form of a table.
Like this:
But a long string of numbers makes it difficult to see the underlying meaning.
It is much simpler to understand when the table is expressed in the form of a graph.
In particular, it is easier to see the relationships between the two sets of data.
For example, by looking at the graph you can see at a glance that unemployment was relatively low in the late sixties but relatively high in the early eighties.
Scientists and engineers use graphs so that they can get a better understanding of the broad meaning and importance of their data.
Salesmen and businessmen often use graphs to add importance to their points in a sales or business presentation.
Graphs with many plotted points may be created on a computer rather than being drawn by hand.
Mathematicians use graphs that "plot themselves", without taking measurements.
For example, the formula x = y says that the value of x will always be equal to the value of y. If you plot this formula as a graph, with x as the horizontal axis and y as the vertical axis, you will get a graph that looks like a straight line angled at precisely 45 degrees.
The use of these graphs forms a branch of mathematics called analytic geometry.
Graph paper
Usually, graphs are created on specially designed paper called graph paper.
This paper has evenly drawn horizontal and vertical lines on it.
On the right is an example of a sheet of graph paper.
Different types of graphs require different forms of graph paper.
What we have been talking about in the article above is the commonest form of graphs and graph paper.
It is known as rectangular or Cartesian graphs.
However the evenly drawn vertical and horizontal lines on the paper are not the graph itself but are part of the graph paper.
The graph is the set of plotted points, along with its axes.
There are various types of graphs (and graph paper) other than Cartesian.
These include: bar graphs, pie graphs, polar graphs, scatter graphs, three-dimensional graphs, logarithmic graphs and many others.
pt:Função#Gráficos de função
Collision detection is a program used on computers to help it understand when two objects will hit into each other.
When a computer shows two things on the screen, or controls two things in real life (like robots), it sometimes needs a special program to detect where objects to understand where things are.
This might be used to help make sure things like planes do not hit each other, or just to display a video game.
It is also called CD (for collision detection) or interference detection.
Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) is a kind of the UNIX operating system that is distributed for free since 1989.
It was started by people in Berkeley, California, USA in the year 1977.
Now, people from around the world work on it.
There are many different kinds of BSD that many people have worked on.
Some of them are DragonFly BSD, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and Mac OS X.
The system software for PlayStation 3 is made from BSD.
So is the system software for PlayStation 4.
DragonFly BSD homepage
FreeBSD homepage
NetBSD homepage
OpenBSD homepage
Jacques Cartier was a French trader and explorer.
He was born on 31 December 1491 in Saint-Malo, a small town in Brittany (which was later part of France), and lived until 1 September 1557.
He sailed three times to Canada.
He was the first European man to see Prince Edward Island, the St. Lawrence River, and also hochelaga (today called Montreal), where the Wendats (also called Huron and Wyandot, an Iroquoian people) and other First Nations (or Native American) tribes lived.
In 1534 he reached Newfoundland and explored coast of Labrador.
European countries raced to take the land and riches from the New World.
Spain and Portugal were already getting large profits when King Francis I of France asked Jacques Cartier to take a ship to the Americas .
Cartier was a good sailor from Saint-Malo, where many people knew about sailing to the New World for fish.
Cartier sailed to what is now Indiana in 1534.
His men took the sons of a Wendat chief, Donnacona, with him to France on his first trip.
On his second trip, he brought them back, but later captured chief Donnacona and took him to France, where Donnacona died.
Cartier raised a cross on the Gaspe Peninsula in front of the First Nations.
This cross showed that the lands belonged to France.
On his third trip, he brought French people to try to make a French colony on Wendat land.
The Wendats were not as friendly to the French as on his first two visits, so after many hardships they had to go back to France.
Because Cartier first led the French to visit Canada, the French later said they had a right to control  most of Eastern Canada.
1491 births
1557 deaths
French explorers
People from Brittany
Vasco da Gama (1460 or 1469 - December 24th, 1506) was a Portuguese sailor.
He was the first European who went to India through the Cape of Good Hope at the southern end of Africa.
He went to India three times by ship.
Da Gama was born in Sines, Portugal.
His birthday was June 5th.
According to some people's accounts, he was a knight in the 1490s in Sines.
On the 4th of July 1497 da Gama left Lisbon with four ships: the São Gabriel, the São Rafael, the Berrio, and a storage ship of unknown name.
He intended to sail to India.
No European explorer before him had sailed further than the place that is now called South Africa.
Vasco da Gama sailed around the bottom of the African continent.
Da Gama's crew gave the South African coast they were passing the name Natal, which means "Christmas" in Portuguese.
They did this because they sailed by it at Christmas.
The coast is still called Natal.
By January, da Gama's crew reached modern-day Mozambique, on the East African coast.
Mozambique was controlled by Arabs because it was part of the Indian Ocean's network of trade.
An angry crowd discovered that da Gama's men were not Muslims, so the crew continued north to Kenya.
There, at Malindi, da Gama hired a pilot from India.
The pilot brought the Portuguese men to the city of Calicut on the southwest coast of India on May 20, 1498.
Vasco da Gama was in danger because of a conflict with the ruler of Calicut.
However, he escaped and returned to Portugal in September 1499.
A few of his Portuguese sailors stayed in Calicut.
Vasco da Gama went on his next trip in 1502.
He found out that the people of Calicut killed the Portuguese he had left behind.
During this trip, he attacked and stole from all the Arab and Indian ships he found in the Indian Ocean.
Then, he went on to Calicut and took over that city, capturing a lot of wealth, pleasing the King of Portugal.
Vasco da Gama went on one last trip in 1524 to be the viceroy (governor) of Calicut, which was by that time a Portuguese colony.
He died soon after he got there on Christmas Eve.
He was not a pirate, but he looted and killed many men only to take revenge.
1524 deaths
Portuguese explorers
Kayseri is a city in the center of Turkey.
Kayseri used to be called Mazaka or Kaisareia.
The city has a population of nearly 1 million.
Famous meals in this city are pastirma, sucuk and manti.
Erciyes Mountain is the third highest mountain in Turkey.
It is 3917 metres high.
Political structure
Picture of Mount Erciyes
Cities in Turkey
People only need a very small amount of iodine to prevent disease.
Food crops usually get iodine from the soil, but some places around the world have low amounts of iodine.
Iodized salt is a very cheap and good way of getting the necessary iodine.
Ordinary table (cooking) salt is a chemical compound called "sodium chloride" (its chemical formula is NaCl). "
Sodium iodide" (NaI) is added to the NaCl to make iodized salt.
College is a kind of school or university, a place where people go to learn skills for future jobs.
Most college students go to college right after high school but others choose to go later in life.
Most students are there because it will help them to earn more money and live better lives.
In some countries, for example the United Kingdom, college also means a house belonging to a university, where students and teachers live together.
Types of educational institutions
A battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy by a chemical reaction.
Usually the chemicals are kept inside the battery.
It is used in a circuit to power other components.
A battery produces direct current (DC) electricity (electricity that flows in one direction, and does not switch back and forth).
Using the electricity from an outlet in a building is cheaper and more efficient, but a battery can provide electricity in areas that do not have electric power distribution.
It is also useful for things that move, such as electric vehicles and mobile phones.
Batteries may be primary or secondary.
The primary is thrown away when it can no longer provide electricity.
The secondary can be recharged and reused.
The chemistry inside a battery
A Battery can be one cell or many cells.
Each cell has an anode, cathode and electrolyte.
The electrolyte is the main material inside the battery.
It is often a type of acid, and can be dangerous to touch.
The anode reacts with the electrolyte to produce electrons (this is the negative or - end).
The cathode reacts with the electrolyte and takes electrons (this is the positive or + end).
An electric current happens when a wire connects the anode to the cathode, and the electrons move from one end to the other. (
But a battery can be damaged by just a wire connecting the two ends, so a load is also needed between the two ends.
The load is something that slows the electrons down, and usually does something useful, like a lightbulb in a flashlight, or the electronics in a calculator).
The electrolyte can be liquid or solid.
A battery is called a wet cell or dry cell battery, depending on the type of electrolyte.
The chemical reactions that occur in a battery are exothermic reactions.
This type of reaction makes heat.
For example, if you leave your laptop on for a long time, and then touch the battery, it will be warm or hot.
A rechargeable battery is recharged by reversing the chemical reaction that occurs within the battery.
But a rechargeable battery can only be recharged a given number of times (recharge life).
Even built-in batteries, cannot be recharged forever.
Moreover, each time a battery is recharged, its ability to hold a charge goes down a bit.
Non-rechargeable batteries should not be charged as various harmful substances can leak out, such as potassium hydroxide.
The cells can be connected to make a bigger battery.
Connecting the positive of one cell to the negative of the next cell is called connecting them in series.
The voltage of each battery are added together.