the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Only 350 lions (of the Asiatic lion subspecies) are left in Asia.
They live in the Gir Forest in the state of Gujarat, India.
Lions hunt many animals, such as gnus and antelopes.
Male lions usually weigh between .
Large lions have reached .
Females (lionesses) are usually .
Mature male lions are the only cats with a mane.
The lion has a long body, short legs, large claws, big head, and a yellowish-brown coat.
Lions live in groups that are called prides.
10 to 40 lions may live in a pride.
Each pride has a home area that is called its territory.
Lions do not allow other carnivores (meat-eating animals) to hunt in their territory.
A territory can be as large as .
The lions' roar is distinct to each individual.
It is used for territorial marking and warning off other lions in separate prides (or lone individuals).
This however, is usually carried out by competing males.
Other male lions will challenge the alpha of the pride to a fight in order to take their spot of dominance if they win.
Lions actually have prides in order to strengthen their species throughout the generations  (Boothalingam 2018).
Lions are not as built for extreme speed as cheetahs are, but hunt in packs.
This is unusual in cats.
The females usually do the hunting for the pride.
However the males can sometimes help if needed, to take down large animals.
After lions have brought down a prey, they suffocate it by biting the front of its face to prevent it breathing.
Lions prey are zebra and deer.
Lions also have long retractable claws which act like grappling hooks, to keep hold of the prey.
A lioness is ready to have young when she is 2–3 years old.
Young lions are called cubs.
Cubs are born after 3 1/2 months.
The cubs are born blind; their eyes do not open until they are about a week old, and cannot see well until they are about two weeks old.
Lions do not have a den (home) where they would live for a long time.
The lioness conceals the cubs in thick bush, gullies, or rocky outcrops.
If the hiding place has been seen by other predators, then the lioness will move the cubs to a new hiding place.
The cubs will be introduced to the pride at about 6 weeks old.
The cubs are very vulnerable when the lioness goes out to hunt and needs to leave the cubs behind.
Also, when a new male takes over a pride from another male, he usually kills all of the cubs.
The cubs' mothers will then mate with the new pride male, which means that the first batch of new cubs will be his offspring.
A litter of 2-6 cubs are born.
Usually, only 1-2 cubs survive until introduced to the pride, at which point they are protected by the whole pride.
In zoos, lions have been known to breed with tigers.
If the parents are a male lion and a female tiger, the offspring is called a liger.
If the parents are a male tiger and a female lion, the offspring is called a tigon.
Lions appear in heraldry more often than any other animal.
They traditionally symbolise courage, valour and royalty.
Mammals of Africa
Galatasaray is a sports club in Istanbul, Turkey.
They started in 1905.
Turkish people also call it "Cim Bom".
The Turk Telecom Stadium is their stadium, and is also known as Aslantepe; Lion Hill.
It is an all-seater stadium.
It can hold 52,652 people.
Galatasaray is one of the "big five" clubs in Turkey.
The other clubs are Fenerbahçe, Beşiktaş, Trabzonspor and Bursaspor.
They have won the Spor Toto Super League 22 times and Ziraat Turkish Cup 18 times.
As of January 2016, the Chairman is Mustafa Cengiz, and the coach is Domènec Torrent.
Official website of Galatasaray
Turkish football clubs
B is the 2nd letter of the English alphabet.
Its appearance depends on the writer's calligraphy.
It has an uppercase and lowercase version like any other letters.
The letter B was already part of the Phoenician alphabet more than 3000 years ago in 1000 BCE.
It's part of many alphabets today.
Meanings for B
In education, B is a passing grade.
In music, B is a note.
In medicine, B is one of the human blood types.
In the game of bingo, B is a column.
On the internet, B (or /b/) is any of a number of image boards that allow anonymous posts.
In transport, B is the vehicle registration plate of Belgium.
In chemistry, B is the chemical symbol for boron.
In the New York Stock Exchange, B is the symbol for the Barnes Group.
In particle physics, b is the symbol for the bottom quark.
If you typed C# and arrived at this page, then see C-sharp.
Meanings for C
In temperature, °C means "degrees Celsius".
In music, C is a note.
In chemistry, C is the atom of carbon, as in C40H56.
In physics, c is the speed of light, as in E=mc².
In Roman numerals, C means "one hundred" (100).
There is a programming language called C, see C programming language.
In electronics, C is a type of battery.
C can also mean the copyright symbol
The letter "C" is  pronounced as /k/.We can also say the letter "C" as /s/.
The letter "C"'s name ,in english, is "Cee"(said as  /ˈsiː/).
It is derived from the Greek Delta and the Phoenician Dalet
Meanings for D
In education, D is a barely passing grade.
In electronics, D is a standard size dry cell battery.
In music, D is a note.
In Roman numerals, D also means the number 500.
In computer programming, D is a programming language.
For the drug sometimes referred to E, see Ecstasy.
In English it has two main sounds when it is spoken.
Usually it is a short E (ĕ), but sometimes it is a long E (ē).
One more thing in English is the so-called magic E. That is when a silent e at the end of a word makes the previous e long.
Example: morpheme, which is pronounced as morphēm.
Typographic variants of E
None of these variants is used in English, except occasionally É/é  for some French words.
Meanings for E
In computers, the letter e is often used to start other words to mean "electronic", like in e-mail or e-commerce.
In money, e is commonly used as a symbol for the euro when the symbol € is not available.
In music, E is a note.
In mathematics, e is a constant about 2.718; see e (mathematical constant)
In Wheel of Fortune, E is one of the six letters given to any contestant participating in the "Bonus Round."
is an American television network
Meanings for F
In calendars, F is often an abbreviation for Friday, or for the month February.
In chemistry, F is the symbol for fluorine.
In education, F is a failing grade
In music, F is a note.
In temperature, °F is degrees Fahrenheit.
In logic, F stands for False, as opposed to T for True
In slang, F stands for the curse word
The letter G was created in the third century BC by Spurius Carvilius Ruga.
At the time, the letter C sounded like the "c" in "cat" and the "g" in "girl".
To make the difference more clear, Ruga created the letter G.
Meanings for G
In movies, G is a rating given by the Motion Picture Association of America, meaning the movie is good to be viewed by all people ("general" audiences).
In music, G is a note.
In common speech, G is a slang word for 'gangsta' or 'gangster'.
In the SI, g is the symbol for the gram.
G is a unit of gravitational acceleration.
Alternative case form of G grand: means thousand.
Letter G stands for GPRS (General Packet Radio Service).
It indicates the slowest speed of Internet data transfer in your mobile phone.
When you see G near your signal strength indicator, it is certain that your net connection is working at the slowest speed.
2G, 3G and 4G indicates different speed of internet.
In particle physics, lowercase G stands for the gluon.
In particle physics, the uppercase G stands for the not yet discovered Graviton.
Meanings for H
In chemistry, H is the symbol for hydrogen.
In music, H is a note in the German system, meaning "B natural".
In particle physics, H is the symbol for the Higgs boson.
"I like you."
"You and I shall walk to the store."
"You and I are friends."
Meanings for I
In chemistry, I is the symbol for iodine.
In Roman numerals, I means the number one (1).
is the mathematical symbol for the square root of negative one, also called the imaginary unit.
In physics, I refers to the moment of inertia.
J is the tenth (number 10) letter in the English alphabet.
It comes before the letter K and after the letter I. The letter was not used in the Roman civilization until 16th Century.
Meanings for J
In calendars, J can sometimes mean these months - January, June, or July.
In a deck of playing cards, J is used to mark each of the jacks.
It can also be used as a middle initial for people with middle names such as Jack, James, John, Jesus, or Jason.
Meanings for K
Degrees Kelvin.
The kelvin (symbol: K) is the SI unit of temperature.
In chemistry, K is the symbol for potassium (from its German name kalium).
in chess, K is a notation symbol for the king piece
In a deck of playing cards, the letter K is used to mark each of the kings.
Meanings for L
For clothing, L sometimes means "large size".
In Roman numerals, L means the number fifty.
The city of Chicago, Illinois has an elevated train called the "Chicago 'L'".
A character from the manga and anime Death Note.
In Wheel of Fortune, L is one of the six letters given to any contestant participating in the "Bonus Round."
L is the symbol for litre, a unit of volume.
L can sometimes mean ‘lose’ as in “He took a big L.”
Meanings for M
In calendars, M sometimes means Monday or means one of the months "March" or "May".
In money, M means million, such as $25M (twenty-five million dollars).
In the SI, m is the symbol for the metre.
In Roman numerals, M means one thousand.
M is also the name of a 1930 German movie made by Fritz Lang and its 1951 remake.
Meanings for N
On calendars, N sometimes means the month November
In chemistry, N is the symbol for nitrogen
In chess, N is a symbol for the knight piece.
In physics, n is the symbol for a neutron
In Wheel of Fortune, N is one of the six letters given to any contestant participating in the "Bonus Round."
O is the fifteenth (number 15) letter in the English alphabet and it has a shape of a circle.
Meanings for O
On calendars, O sometimes means the month October.
In chemistry, O is the symbol for oxygen.
In medicine, O is one of the human blood types.
For technical reasons, :P redirects here.
For the emoticon, see emoticons.
Meanings for P
In chemistry, P is the symbol for the element phosphorus, or sometimes for phosphate.
In chess, P is sometimes used as a symbol for the pawn piece
In American football, P is used as a symbol for the punter
Pi (mathematical constant)
Some people say that the letter Q is not needed, because the sound it makes can be made with "K" and "W" instead.
The same sort of things are said about the letters "X" and "C".
Meanings for Q
In chess, Q is used to mean the queen piece.
In English, Q can be a short letter for 'question'.
In a deck of playing cards, Q is used to mark each of the queens.
In science fiction, Q is a character in several Star Trek television shows.
Q is also the name of a character in the James Bond film series, who was played by Desmond Llewelyn (and John Cleese after Desmond Llewelyn died).
In Internet slang, "q" is used for the Spanish word "que", which means "that", "which", or "what".
In physics, q is used to mean charge
Meanings for R
On calendars, R is sometimes used as an short letter for Thursday instead of T, to avoid mistakes with Tuesday.
In chess, R is a notation symbol for the rook piece.
In geometry, R is most times a variable for the radius of a circle
In navigation, R means the direction "right."
In movies, R means "restricted."
In Wheel of Fortune, R is one of the six letters given to any contestant participating in the "Bonus Round."
Meanings for S
On calendars, S is most times the short letter for Saturday or Sunday, or the month September.
In chemistry, S is the symbol for sulphur.
In Wheel of Fortune, S is one of the six letters given to any contestant participating in the "Bonus Round."
S is the letter onomotopeiacally used to characterize the hissing noise known to be made by snakes, e.g. "sssssss..."
Meanings for T
T- is used as a prefix for an object that is shaped like the capital letter T, such as:
T-shirt,
T-bone,
T-joint,
T-intersection and
T-square.
On calendars, T is most times a short letter for Tuesday or Thursday.
In science,
t is most times used as a variable for time.
T is most times used as a variable for temperature.
In logic
T is for True, as where F is for False.
Mr. T was a member of the A-Team.
Meanings for U
On calendars, U is most times a short letter for Sunday, for use when S is being used for Saturday.
In chemistry, U is the symbol for uranium.
It is pronounced "you".
Meanings for V
In electronics and electricity, V is the symbol for volts, the unit of voltage.
In chemistry, V is the symbol for vanadium.
In communication, V is the name of a hand gesture.
Most of the time, it means "victory".
In Roman numerals, V means the number five.
V is a science fiction television show.
V is Maroon 5's fifth studio album, released in 2014.
V (singer) is a Korean singer and member of BTS.
W is the twenty-third (number 23) letter in the Latin alphabet.
It is sometimes considered a vowel.
In words like away, what, write and women, the W is a consonant.
In words like draw, few, and low, the W is a vowel
Meanings for W
On calendars, W is most times a short letter for Wednesday.
In chemistry, W is the symbol for tungsten, after its German name, Wolfram.
In news story writing, the "five W's" are who, what, when, where and why.
In Electricity, W stands for watts
It is pronounced as "double u".
In particle physics, W stands for the W boson.
X is the twenty-fourth (number 24) letter in the English alphabet.
It sometimes makes a sound like ks (for example: exit, next, fox), or if it is at the beginning of a word, it makes a sound like zzz (for example: xylophone).
The language of origin is from the greek and latin language
Meanings for X
In a general sense, X means something is unknown or secret, as in project X.
X is also used often to show kisses, usually at the end of a letter or text message.
In clothing X is used as a short letter for extra, such as XXL for extra-extra-large.
In Roman numerals, X means ten.
In internet terms, XXX indicates adult material, as in an XXX site.
In x-ray, X stands for xero, which is short for xerographic.
Y is the twenty-fifth (number 25) letter in the English alphabet.
In words like year, yell, and yes, the Y is a consonant.
In words like cry, fly, and sky, the Y is considered a vowel.
Semitic, Phoenician, Greek and Latin
"Y" has appeared as the Semitic letter "waw".
This was the first time it appeared in an alphabet.
F, U, V, and W also come from the Semitic alphabet.
The Greek and Latin alphabets used the Phoenician form of this early alphabet.
There are similarities to the old English letter yogh (Ȝȝ).
The table shows where the letter "y" came from.
Meanings for Y
In chemistry, Y is the symbol for yttrium.
In Mathematics, y is another unknown variable, used as a second unknown variable ("x" is used as the first unknown variable)
Z is the twenty-sixth (number 26) and last letter in the English alphabet.
The small letter, z, is used as a lowercase consonant.
Z is not used much.
It is the most rarely used letter in the English language.
The same letter of the Greek alphabet is named zeta.
How it is said
The letter is said as either zed  or zee.
The first way of saying it comes from the Greek zeta.
In American English, its name is zee , because it comes from a late 17th century English speech.
The name of the Semitic symbol was zayin and was the seventh letter.
It might have meant "weapon".
It could have helped form English and French's z.
The Greek form of Z was a close copy of the Phoenician symbol I. It stayed like this for a long time.
The Greeks called it zeta, a new name made from the Greek letters eta (η) and theta (θ).
In Etruscan, Z may have been .
In Old Latin,  (written s) became  and the symbol for  became useless.
It was taken away from the alphabet by Appius Claudius Caecus, and a new letter, G, was put in.
In the 1st century BC, Z was put in the alphabet again at the end of the Latin alphabet.
This was done to accurately represent the sound of the Greek zeta.
The letter Z appeared only in Greek words, and is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took from Greek.
Meanings for Z
In cartoons, Z means the sound of sleeping or snoring, like in "ZZZzzzz...".
In particle physics, Z stands for the Z boson.
In chemistry, Z stands for the atomic number.
Fuck is a common English language swear word.
It can be used to either mean the act of sex or as an expression.
However, the word fucking is used as an intensifier before a word (e.g I fucking hate this game).
English profanity
A virus is a tiny parasite.
Virology is the study of viruses.
Viruses can only be seen under a scanning electron microscpe.
Some can infect living organisms and cause disease.
The virus can make copies of itself inside another organism's cells.
Viruses consist of nucleic acid and a protein coat.
Usually the nucleic acid is RNA; sometimes it is DNA.
Viruses are able to cause many types of diseases, such as polio, ebola and hepatitis.
Viruses reproduce by getting their nucleic acid strand into a prokaryote or eukaryote (cell).
The RNA or DNA strand then takes over the cell machinery to reproduce copies of itself and the protein coat.
The cell then bursts open, spreading the newly created viruses.
All viruses reproduce this way, and there are no free-living viruses.
Viruses are everywhere in the environment, and all organisms can be infected by them.
Viruses are so much smaller than bacteria.
They were not visible until the invention of the electron microscope.
A virus has a simple structure.
It has just a protein coat which holds a string of nucleic acid.
Viruses live and reproduce inside the cells of other living organisms.
With eukaryotic cells, the virus protein coat is able to enter the target cells via certain cell membrane receptors.
With prokaryote bacteria cells, the bacteriophage physically injects the nucleic acid strand into the host cell.
They outnumber all other forms of life on the planet by a long way.
They are infectious particles, causing many types of disease;
They contain a nucleic acid core of RNA or DNA;
They are surrounded by a protective protein coat;
When the host cell has finished making more viruses, it undergoes lysis, or breaks apart.
The viruses are released and are then able to infect other cells.
Viruses can remain "silent" (inactive) for a long time, and will infect cells when the time and conditions are right.
Some special viruses are worth noting.
Bacteriophages have evolved to enter bacterial cells, which have a different type of cell wall from eukaryote cell membranes.
Envelope viruses, when they reproduce, cover themselves with a modified form of the host cell membrane, thus gaining an outer lipid layer that helps entry.
Some of our most difficult-to-combat viruses, like influenza and HIV, use this method.
Viral infections in animals trigger an immune response which usually kills the infecting virus.
Vaccines can also produce immune responses.
They give an artificially acquired immunity to the specific viral infection.
However, some viruses (including those causing AIDS and viral hepatitis) escape from these immune responses and cause chronic infections.
Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but there are some other drugs against viruses.
There are many genomic structures in viruses.
As a group they are more diverse than plants, animals, archaea, or bacteria.
There are millions of different types of viruses, but only about 5,000 of them have been described in detail.49
A virus has either RNA or DNA genes and so is called an RNA virus or a DNA virus.
The vast majority of viruses have RNA genomes.
Plant viruses usually have single-stranded RNA genomes and bacteriophages usually have double-stranded DNA genomes.96/99
Replication cycle
Viral populations do not grow through cell division, because they do not have cells.
Instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce many copies of themselves, and they assemble (put together) in the cell.
The life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species but there are six basic stages in the life cycle of viruses:75/91
Attachment is a specific binding between viral capsid proteins and specific receptors on the host cellular surface.
Penetration follows attachment: Virions (single virus particles) enter the host cell through receptor-mediated endocytosis or fusion with the lipid bilayer.
This is called viral entry.
The infection of plant and fungal cells is different from that of animal cells.
Plants have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, and fungi one of chitin.
This means most viruses can only get inside these cells by force.70 An example would be: a virus travels on an insect vector which feeds on plant sap.
The damage done to cell walls would let the virus get in.
Bacteria, like plants, have strong cell walls that a virus must get through to infect the cell.
However, bacterial cell walls are much thinner than plant cell walls, and some viruses have mechanisms that inject their genome into the bacterial cell across the cell wall, while the viral capsid remains outside.71
Uncoating is how the viral capsid is removed: This may be by degradation by viral enzymes or host enzymes or by simple dissociation; the end-result is the releasing of the viral nucleic acid.
Replication of viruses involves multiplication of the genome.
This usually requires production of viral messenger RNA (mRNA) from "early" genes.
This may be followed, for complex viruses with larger genomes, by one or more further rounds of mRNA synthesis: "late" gene expression is of structural or virion proteins.
Following the structure-mediated self-assembly of the virus particles, some modification of the proteins often occurs.
In viruses such as HIV, this modification (sometimes called maturation) occurs after the virus has been released from the host cell.
Viruses can be released from the host cell by lysis, a process that kills the cell by bursting its membrane and cell wall.
This is a feature of many bacterial and some animal viruses.
In some viruses  the viral genome is put by genetic recombination into a specific place in the host's chromosome.
The viral genome is then known as a "provirus" or, in the case of bacteriophages a "prophage".60 Whenever the host divides, the viral genome is also replicated.
The viral genome is mostly silent within the host; however, at some point, the provirus or prophage may give rise to active virus, which may lyse the host cells.chapter 15 Enveloped viruses (e.g. HIV) typically are released from the host cell after the virus acquires its envelope.
The envelope is a modified piece of the host's plasma membrane.185/7
Genetic material and replication
RNA viruses Replication usually takes place in the cytoplasm.
RNA viruses can be placed into four different groups depending on their modes of replication.
All RNA viruses use their own RNA replicase enzymes to create copies of their genomes.79
DNA viruses The genome replication of most DNA viruses takes place in the cell's nucleus.
Most DNA viruses are entirely dependent on the host cell's DNA and RNA synthesising machinery, and RNA processing machinery.
Viruses with larger genomes may encode much of this machinery themselves.
In eukaryotes the viral genome must cross the cell's nuclear membrane to access this machinery, while in bacteria it need only enter the cell.5478
Reverse transcribing viruses Reverse transcribing viruses with RNA genomes (retroviruses) use a DNA intermediate to replicate.
Those with DNA genomes (pararetroviruses) use an RNA intermediate during genome replication.
They are susceptible to antiviral drugs that inhibit the reverse transcriptase enzyme.
An example of the first type is HIV, which is a retrovirus.
Examples of the second type are the Hepadnaviridae, which includes Hepatitis B virus.88/9
Host defence mechanisms
The body's first line of defence against viruses is the innate immune system.
This has cells and other mechanisms which defend the host from any infection.
The cells of the innate system recognise, and respond to, pathogens in a general way.
RNA interference is an important innate defence against viruses.
Many viruses have a replication strategy that involves double-stranded RNA (dsRNA).
When such a virus infects a cell, it releases its RNA molecule.
A protein complex called dicer sticks to it and chops the RNA into pieces.
Then a biochemical pathway, called the RISC complex, starts up.
This attacks the viral mRNA, and the cell survives the infection.
Rotaviruses avoid this by not uncoating fully inside the cell and by releasing newly produced mRNA through pores in the particle's inner capsid.
The genomic dsRNA remains protected inside the core of the virion.
The production of interferon is an important host defence mechanism.
This is a hormone produced by the body when viruses are present.
Its role in immunity is complex; it eventually stops the viruses from reproducing by killing the infected cell and its close neighbours.
Vertebrates have a second, more specific, immune system.
It is called the adaptive immune system.
When it meets a virus, it produces specific antibodies that bind to the virus and render it non-infectious.
Two types of antibodies are important.
The first, called IgM, is highly effective at neutralizing viruses but is produced by the cells of the immune system only for a few weeks.
The second, called IgG, is produced indefinitely.
The presence of IgM in the blood of the host is used to test for acute infection, whereas IgG indicates an infection sometime in the past.
IgG antibody is measured when tests for immunity are carried out.
Another vertebrate defence against viruses involves immune cells known as T cells.
The body's cells constantly display short fragments of their proteins on the cell's surface, and, if a T cell recognises a suspicious viral fragment there, the host cell is destroyed by killer T cells and the virus-specific T-cells proliferate.
Cells such as macrophages are specialists at this antigen presentation.
Evading the immune system
Not all virus infections produce a protective immune response.
These persistent viruses evade immune control by sequestration (hiding away); cytokine resistance; evading natural killer cell activity; escape from apoptosis (cell death), and antigenic shift (changing surface proteins).
HIV evades the immune system by constantly changing the amino acid sequence of the proteins on the surface of the virion.
Other viruses move along nerves to places the immune system cannot reach.
Viruses do not belong to any of the six kingdoms.
They do not meet all the requirements for being classified as a living organism because they are not active until the point of infection.
However, that is just a verbal point.
Obviously, their structure and mode of operation means they have evolved from other living things, and the loss of normal structure occurs in many endoparasites.
The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids – pieces of DNA that can move between cells – while others may have evolved from bacteria.
In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which increases genetic diversity.
Recent discoveries
A recent project discovered nearly 1500 new RNA viruses by sampling over 200 invertebrate species. "
The research team... extracted their RNA and, using next-generation sequencing, deciphered the sequence of a staggering 6 trillion letters present in the invertebrate RNA libraries".
The research showed that viruses changed bits and pieces of their RNA by a variety of genetic mechanisms. "
The invertebrate virome [shows] remarkable genomic flexibility that includes frequent recombination, lateral gene transfer among viruses and hosts, gene gain and loss, and complex genomic rearrangements".
How bacteria and archaea deal with viruses
Viruses have been on this planet a long time.
We now know that bacteria and archaea had to deal with them first, before our type of cellular life evolved.
Details of the defence mechanisms used by archaea and bacteria are discussed on the page CRISPR, which briefly introduces the topic of early defences against viruses.
Largest virus
A group of large viruses infect amoebae.
The largest is Pithovirus.
Others in order of size are Pandoravirus, then Megavirus, then Mimivirus.
They are bigger than some bacteria, and visible under a light microscope.
Viruses are used widely in cell biology.
Geneticists often use viruses as vectors to introduce genes into cells that they are studying.
This is useful for making the cell produce a foreign substance, or to study the effect of introducing a new gene into the genome.
Eastern European scientists have used phage therapy as an alternative to antibiotics for some time, and interest in this approach is increasing, because of the high level of antibiotic resistance now found in some pathogenic bacteria.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work.
It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together.
Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips.
Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web.
Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second.
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems.
The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances.
Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when opened.
A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
Microprocessor operation
Like other central processing units, microprocessors use three steps commonly called Fetch, Decode, and Execute.
In the Fetch step, an instruction is copied from the computer memory into the microprocessor.
In the Decode step, the microprocessor figures out what operation the instruction is meant to do.
In the Execute step, this operation is performed.
Different computers can have different instruction sets.
Facts and figures
Transistors in a microprocessor can be less than one micrometer wide—one millionth of a meter.
By comparison, a single hair can be over 100 micrometers wide.
The transistors are mostly MOSFETs
Microprocessors are made from silicon, quartz, metals, and other chemicals.
From start to finish, it takes about 2 months to make a microprocessor.
Microprocessors are classified by the size of their data bus or address bus.
They are also grouped into CISC and RISC types.
1823	Baron Jöns Jacob Berzelius discovers silicon (Si), which today is the basic component of electronics.
1903	Nikola Tesla patents electrical logic circuits called "gates" or "switches".
1947	John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley invent the first transistor at the Bell Laboratories on December 23, 1947.
1956	John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley are awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for their work on the transistor.
1958	The first integrated circuits are developed by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby.
1960	IBM develops the first automatic mass-production facility for transistors in New York.
1971  Intel 4004, first commercially available microprocessor.
Microprocessor design
Heat, or thermal energy is the sum of the kinetic energy of atoms or molecules.
In thermodynamics, heat means energy which is moved between two things, when one of them has a higher temperature than the other thing.
Adding heat to something increases its temperature, but heat is not the same as temperature.
The temperature of an object is the measure of the average speed of the moving particles in it.
The energy of the particles is called the internal energy.
When an object is heated, its internal energy can increase to make the object hotter.
The first law of thermodynamics says that the increase in internal energy is equal to the heat added minus the work done on the surroundings.
Heat can also be defined as the amount of thermal energy in a system.
Thermal energy is the type of energy that a thing has because of its temperature.
In thermodynamics, thermal energy is the internal energy present in a system in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium because of its temperature.
That is, heat is defined as a spontaneous flow of energy (energy in transit) from one object to another, caused by a difference in temperature between two objects; therefore, objects do not possess heat.
Properties of Heat
Heat is a form of energy and not a physical substance.
Heat has no mass.
The measure of how much heat is needed to cause a change in temperature for a material is the specific heat capacity of the material.
If the particles in the material are hard to move, then more energy is needed to make them move quickly, so a lot of heat will cause a small change in temperature.
A different particle that is easier to move will need less heat for the same change in temperature.
Measuring heat
Heat can be measured.
That is, the amount of heat given out or taken in can be given a value.
The calorie is one of the units of measurement for heat but the joule is also used for all kinds of energy including heat.
Heat is usually measured with a calorimeter, where the energy in a material is allowed to flow into nearby water, which has a known specific heat capacity.
The temperature of the water is then measured before and after, and heat can be found using a formula.
Plasma heat at 2 gigakelvins - Article about extremely high temperature generated by scientists (Foxnews.com)
Heat and Thermodynamics - Georgia State University
Correlations for Convective Heat Transfer - ChE Online Resources
An Introduction to the Quantitative Definition and Analysis of Heat written for High School Students
is a military title in pre-Meiji period Japan.
Shogun means general in the Japanese language.
The full name was Seii Taishogun (Great General who fights against the Eastern savages and will win).
In the earlier times, Shogun were simply generals for emperors.
The emperor had power over the shogun, choosing each shogun.
Later however, the Shogun held much of the actual power.
In 1192 a samurai, military leader Minamoto no Yoritomo got the title of Shogun from the last Emperor Go-Shirakawa.
Excluding the later middle of the 16th century, Shogun was the real ruler of Japan.
The office of the Shogun is called the shogunate (bakufu, meaning office in a tent).-  This is because Shogun had originally been military leaders and he had his office in a tent on a battle field.
Kamakura shogunate, 1192–1333, founded by Minamoto no Yoritomo
Muromachi shogunate (also known as the Ashikaga shogunate), 1338–1573, founded by Ashikaga Takauji
Edo shogunate (also known as the Tokugawa shogunate), 1602–1868, founded by Tokugawa Ieyasu
In 1868 the 15th Shogun of Tokugawa Shogunate, Tokugawa Yosinobu gave up his office.
Then the time of Shogun rule ended.
It was the end of the feudal time of Japan.
Bratislava is the capital city of Slovakia.
About 450,000 people live there.
It used to be called Pressburg (German) or Pozsony (Hungarian) and by some other names.
Bratislava is the seat of national government, the presidency, and the parliament.
It has several museums, galleries and of other educational, cultural and economic institutions.
There is a small Old Town, and a castle called Bratislavský Hrad.
The Danube river goes through Bratislava.
Bratislava had many names through its history.
Here are some of them:
German: Preßburg (now spelled Pressburg)
Slovak: Prešporok, from German name
Hungarian: Pozsony (still used today by Hungarians)
Greek (medieval): Istropolis (meaning the Danube City)
Latin: Posonium
English: Pressburg(h)/Pressborough
Bratislava is in the extreme southwest of Slovakia, on the borders with Austria and Hungary, and not far from the Czech Republic border.
It is on the Morava and Danube rivers.
People have lived here since the Neolithic age.
The Celts inhabited this area from 400 BC-50 BC.
The Roman Empire set up border military camps near Bratislava from the 1st century until the 5th century, for example "Gerulata".
The Slavs started moving here from the 6th century.
Bratislava was part of the Slavic empire called Great Moravia in the 9th century.
From the second half of the 10th century until 1918, it was part of the Kingdom of Hungary, with some exceptions.
It was even capital of the Kingdom between 1524 and 1830/1848.
After the World War I ended in 1918, it was part of newly founded Czechoslovakia until 1939, when it became capital of World War II Slovak Republic until 1945.
After 1945, it was part of Czechoslovakia again, becoming capital of Slovak Socialist Republic (which was still part of Czechoslovakia) in 1968.
After the event called Velvet Divorce, when the Czechoslovakia broke up, Bratislava became capital of Slovakia.
Bratislava Castle
St. Martin's Cathedral
Primate's Palace
Bratislava town hall
Michael's Gate
Grassalkovich Palace
Nový Most (New Bridge)
Kamzík TV Tower
Economy of Bratislava is prosperous and based on automobile industry, chemical industry and services.
The unemployment (people without work) is lowest in Slovakia (around 2%, compared to the national average 7%).
Approximately 250,000 people from all over the Slovakia travel to Bratislava for work.
Position of Bratislava made it a natural crossroads for international traffic.
It is a motorway junction, rail junction, has its own international airport.
The international river traffic passes along the Danube through Bratislava, with its own river port.
Territorial division
District I: Staré mesto (Old Town)
District II: Ružinov, Vrakuňa, Podunajské Biskupice
District III: Rača, Nové mesto (New Town), Vajnory
District IV: Karlova Ves, Dúbravka, Devín, Devínska Nová Ves, Záhorská
District V: Petržalka, Jarovce, Rusovce, Čunovo''
Nové mesto = Nové mesto + Vinohrady
Ružinov = Ružinov + Nivy + Trnávka
Larnaka, Cyprus
Bremen, Germany
Ulm, Germany
İzmir, Turkey
Cleveland, USA
Bratislava City Guide prepared by locals
It has been the capital since 1865.
Before then Auckland was the capital.
Wellington is the second largest city in New Zealand.
It had about 448,000 people in 2006.
Wellington is the southernmost capital city in the world.
Wellington is in the middle of New Zealand, at the south end of the North Island.
South of Wellington is Cook Strait, the sea between the North Island and the South Island.
The city has a lot of hills and a deep harbour.
The middle of the city is busier than most small cities and is easy for people to walk around.
It was named for Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington.
Wellington recently became famous because The Lord of the Rings movie trilogy was made there.
The city averages 2,068 hours of sunshine per year.
The climate is a temperate marine one, (Köppen: Cfb ) is generally moderate all year round, and rarely sees temperatures above  or below .
The hottest recorded temperature is , while  is the coldest.
The city is notorious for its southerly blasts in winter, which may make the temperature feel much colder.
It is generally very windy all year round with high rainfall; average annual rainfall is , June and July being the wettest months.
Frosts are quite common in the hill suburbs and the Hutt Valley between May and September.
Snow is very rare at low altitudes, although snow fell on the city and many other parts of the Wellington region during separate events in July and August 2011.
Capital cities in Oceania
1865 establishments
1860s establishments in New Zealand
Biochemistry is the study of chemical reactions in living beings, and of biological molecules in general.
It is important to cell biology and physiology.
The study of biochemistry involves enzymes, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, sugars, proteins, and lipids.
In the body, most of the molecules are polymers built of long chains of smaller molecules.
Biochemistry studies the chemical transformations which produce these small building-block molecules, and which produce energy from food.
A person who studied biochemistry is called biochemist.
The biologic polymers can have between tens of thousands to tens of millions of atoms, or more.
These polymers are composed of many small molecules, each of which has no more than fifty atoms.
These small molecules are made almost exclusively from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
They also contain sulfur, phosphorus, and few other atoms, which are critical to the biological functioning of these polymers.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are long-chain molecules which are of two kinds: DNA and RNA.
Their building blocks are called nucleotides.
DNA is found in every cell.
It contains the information needed to make all of the nucleic acids, and all of the proteins.
It is found joined up in a double helix.
It is the substance of heredity, and holds the information which life passes from generation to generation.
RNA acts to make the information from DNA work inside the cells of the body.
To make a particular protein the information in the DNA is transferred to an RNA molecule.
Another RNA molecule uses this as a set of instructions for making the protein.
The RNA which makes protein is called a ribosome and it acts as a ribozyme vastly increasing the speed with which the individual amino acids connect together to form the protein.
Proteins are polymers of amino acids.
There are twenty different common types of amino acid.
Broadly speaking, proteins have two kinds of function.
The first is structural: they make up many of the key structures in cells and tissues.
Muscle, hair, and skin are all mainly made of protein.
The second is functional: as enzymes they greatly speed up the chemical reactions in a living cell.
All cellular life consists of a thousand, or more, chemical reactions, called metabolism, which transform the molecules eaten into energy, or into other molecules the cell needs to survive.
The function of proteins is to speed up these reactions, often by over a million times faster.
In addition they cause chemical reactions to occur which would not without the action of the protein.
Sugars are the simplest carbohydrates.
The monosaccharides are "single sugars", such as glucose and fructose.
The disaccharides are two monosaccharides joined together.
Table sugar (cane sugar) is a disaccharide of glucose and fructose.
The polysaccharides are  made from many monosaccharids joined together.
The vast majority of polysaccharides are polymers of glucose, and are of two types: starch and cellulose.
Starch is the white stuff of grain, potatoes, apples, and bread, and is a readily available source of energy for the body.
Cellulose is the structural material that holds up all plants.
Half of the material that makes wood is cellulose.
Carbohydrates have a number of functions in the body, but the most important is to act as a ready source of energy for the cell's metabolism.
By breaking the chemical bonds in carbohydrates, energy is released and can be used by the body.
Lipids are fats, and waxes.
Saturated lipids contain single bonds, and are found in butter and lard.
Unsaturated lipids have one or more double bonds, and are often found in oils.
The human body stores lipids as an energy source.
When the body needs a large amount of energy, lipid molecules are broken down to release that energy.
It is the opposite of happiness.
People feel sad when something bad has happened, for example, if their mother or father has died.
In big letters, SAD, or S.A.D. is short for "Seasonal Affective Disorder".
SAD is a sickness that some people have in the winter.
They feel depressed as the nights become longer and there is less daylight.
Microeconomics is the science of how people make decisions at the small scale.
It is different from macroeconomics which looks at how the economy works as a whole ("on aggregate").
In microeconomics, we might look at how a person chooses what to buy at the store, or how many things a company will make.
Some parts of microeconomics include Consumer Theory and Theory of the Firm, which study how people and businesses make decisions.
Game theory looks at how people make decisions when the outcome (how something ends) depends on what decision another person makes; when agents are said to act "strategically".
Port wine, a special kind of wine made in Oporto in Portugal
A part of a piece of electronic equipment where other things can be connected to it.
For example, a USB port
Cryptography, or cryptology,  is the practice and study of hiding information.
It is sometimes called code, but this is not really a correct name.
It is the science used to try to keep information secret and safe.
Modern cryptography is a mix of mathematics, computer science, and electrical engineering.
Cryptography is used in ATM (bank) cards, computer passwords, and shopping on the internet.
When a message is sent using cryptography, it is changed (or encrypted) before it is sent.
The method of changing text is called a "code" or, more precisely, a "cipher".
The changed text is called "ciphertext".
The change makes the message hard to read.
Someone who wants to read it must change it back (or decrypt it).
How to change it back is a secret.
Both the person that sends the message and the one that gets it should know the secret way to change it, but other people should not be able to.
Studying the cyphertext to discover the secret is called "cryptanalysis" or "cracking" or sometimes "code breaking".
Different types of cryptography can be easier or harder to use and can hide the secret message better or worse.
Ciphers use a "key" which is a secret that hides the secret messages.
The cryptographic method needn't be secret.
Various people can use the same method but different keys, so they cannot read each other's messages.
Since the Caesar cipher has only as many keys as the number of letters in the alphabet, it is easily cracked by trying all the keys.
Ciphers that allow billions of keys are cracked by more complex methods.
Since the time of Caesar, many improved cyphers have been made.
Some involved clever mathematics to resist clever cryptanalysis.
During the 20th century computers became the principle tool of cryptography.
In a symmetric-key algorithm, both the sender and receiver share the key.
The sender uses the key to hide the message.
Then, the receiver will use the same key in the opposite way to reveal the message.
For centuries, most cryptography has been symmetric.
Advanced Encryption Standard is a widely used one.
However this is not to be confused with symmetry.
Asymmetric
Asymmetric cryptography is harder to use.
Each person who wants to use asymmetric cryptography uses a secret number (a "private key") that is not shared, and a different number (a "public key") that they can tell everyone.
If someone else wants to send this person a message, they'll use the number they've been told to hide the message.
Now the message cannot be revealed, even by the sender, but the receiver can easily reveal the message with his secret or "private key".
This way, nobody else needs to know the secret key.
Asymmetric cryptography generally takes more time and requires more computer power, therefore it is not used most of the time.
Instead, it is often used for computer signatures, when a computer must know that some data (like a file or a website) was sent from a certain sender.
For example, computer software companies that release updates for their software can sign those updates to prove that the update was made by them, so that hackers cannot make their own updates that would cause harm.
Websites that use HTTPS use an popular algorithm named RSA to create certificates, that show they own the website and that it is secure.
Computers can also use asymmetric ciphers to give each other the keys for symmetric ciphers.
Computers can calculate quickly.
They can do very strong encryption, and most 21st century cryptography uses them.
Examples are computer algorithms like RSA, AES, and there are many others.
Using good algorithms like these can make it very hard to read the information that is sent.
Importance of cryptography
What is symmetric cryptography
Cryptography -Citizendium
Tuesday is the day of the week between Monday and Wednesday.
In some countries, for example the United States of America, Tuesday is the third day of the week.
In other parts of the world, Tuesday is the second day of the week.
History of the name
The name Tuesday comes from a Middle English word, Tiwesday.