the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Rather they are nonsense.
The question (and therefore the perceived paradox) is meaningless.
Nonsense does not suddenly acquire sense and meaning with the addition of the two words, "God can" before it.
God can
Some people think, "Yes, God is able to do things that make Him not able."
They think God is able to do things that are funny to think, "Because", they say, "there is nothing God is not able to do." (
See Gospel of Matthew 19:26) However other Bible verses mention things that God cannot do.
Hebrews 6:16 says that God cannot lie.
Malachi 3:6 says that God cannot change.
James 1:3 says that God cannot be tempted by sin.
Some have suggested that God can do things that defy conventional logic.
If He lives in other dimensions a different logic may apply.
Some say that God cannot make a square circle.
This is true in a two dimensional world.
However, a cylinder can be a square viewed from the side and a circle viewed from the top.
Likewise, a triangle can have three angles that add to more that 180 degrees.
This is possible  only on a three dimensional surface like a sphere.
It can't be done on a two dimensional plane. (
Plane geometry).
Addition of an additional dimension changes the logic.
God is infinite
God is beyond limitation.
His strength is infinite.
If He chooses to create a mountain that is too heavy for Him to lift he would simultaneously become strong enough to lift it (which actually means he's not omnipotent, because if he can gradually become stronger, then he can't be all powerful).
To ask if the creation of such a mountain is possible is to attempt putting a limitation on the limitless.
'Who is this that darkens council by words without knowledge?..where were you when I laid the foundations of the Earth?' (
Job chapter 38, 1-4)
Hoffman, Joshua, Rosenkrantz, Gary. "
Omnipotence" The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2002 Edition).
Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
Accessed 19 April 2006.
Mackie, J.L. "Evil and Omnipotence."
Mind LXIV, No, 254 (1955).
Wierenga, Edward.
"Omnipotence" The Nature of God: An Inquiry into Divine Attributes.
Cornell University Press, 1989.
Libertarianism is a view in politics and philosophy that focuses on liberty.
Libertarianism says that it is usually better to give people more free choice.
It also says that the government should have less control over people.
There are different kinds of libertarianism in both left-wing and right-wing politics.
Libertarianism grew out of liberalism as a movement in the 1800s.
Many of the beliefs of libertarianism are similar to the beliefs in classical liberalism.
It also has roots in anarchism and the Austrian School of economics.
Individual rights
Libertarians believe that no person can justly own or control the body of another person, what they call ‘self-ownership’ or ’individual sovereignty.’
In simple words, every person has a right to control her or his own body.
In the 19th century, United States libertarians like William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, and Lysander Spooner were all abolitionists.
Abolitionists were people who wanted to end slavery right away.
Garrison based his opposition to slavery on the idea of self-ownership.
Since you have a natural right to control your own body, no one else has any right to steal that control from you.
Garrison and Douglass both called slave masters ‘man stealers.’
Stopping violence
Some libertarians believe that all violence is unjust.
These libertarians are often called "anarcho-pacifists".
Robert LeFevre was a libertarian who rejected all violence.
However, most libertarians believe that there are some ways violence can be justified.
One thing that justifies violence is self defense.
If someone is violent towards you, you have a right to defend yourself with equal force.
The libertarian Murray N. Rothbard said that it would be wrong to kill someone for stealing a pack of gum.
If you steal gum, this is an act of violence against the property owner.
The owner has a right to use defensive violence to get the gum back, but killing the thief goes too far.
That is too much force because it is not equal to the force used by the thief.
Punishment must be equal to the crime.
A student and colleague of his, Walter Block, said that a punishment should not be equal to the crime, but rather enough to make up for the damage the crime caused plus how much it cost to catch the criminal.
Some libertarians believe that it is your moral duty to defend yourself and your property if you can.
This belief is usually held by Objectivists.
These people believe that pacifism is immoral.
Most libertarians disagree with this view.
All libertarians believe that it is wrong to start violence against any person or against what he or she owns.
They call this the "non-aggression principle."
Ownership is the right to control something.
Property is the thing that you control.
Libertarians believe that property rights come from self-ownership.
This means that because you have a right to control your own body, you also have a right to control what you make with it.
The English philosopher John Locke said that a person comes to own something by using it.
So, if you turn an area that no-one else owns into a farm and use it, that area becomes your property.
This is called the "homestead principle."
Libertarians also say that you can become a legitimate owner by receiving something as a gift or by trading it with someone for something they own.
You do not become a legitimate owner by stealing.
You also do not become a legitimate owner by simply saying you own something.
If you have not "homesteaded" the thing or received it through trade or gift, you do not own it.
Libertarians are opposed to states (or governments) creating any "laws" that tell people what they can and cannot do with their own bodies.
The only legitimate laws are laws that say a person may not start violence against other people or their legitimate property.
All "laws" stopping people from doing nonviolent things should be repealed, according to libertarians. (
These "laws" are usually called "victimless crimes" because there is no victim if there is no harm.)
In most countries, the state (or government) takes tax money from the people.
All libertarians support cutting taxes back, and some libertarians believe the state should not take tax money at all.
Libertarians think people can take care of the poor without the government.
They believe that people should pay for the things that they want to use, but not have to pay for other things that they do not want.
Tax evasion (refusal to pay taxes to the state) is a victimless crime.
Libertarians would prefer to see taxation replaced with lotteries, user fees, and endowments.
Libertarians think everyone should be allowed to decide what is good or bad for her/his own body.
Libertarians think if people want to drive cars without wearing seat belts, it is their own choice.
They should not be forcibly stopped from doing that, not even by the state.
If a person wants to donate all of her/his money to a charity, or waste it all gambling, that is also something she/he should decide for herself/himself.
No one should be forcibly stopped from doing that, not even by the state.
Libertarians even say that if adults want to use harmful drugs, they should be allowed to do that, even if it spoils their lives.
It is the drug user's own choice because it is the drug user's own body.
As long as the drug user does not start using violence against other people or their legitimate property, no one should use violence against the drug user or the drug user's legitimate property, not even the government.
Many libertarians also believe that families and friends should look after people so that they will not use drugs, drive without seat belts, or do other things that are dangerous for them.
But no one can force others to do things that they do not want to do, or to stop them from doing nonviolent things that they want to do.
Types of Libertarians
Minarchism
Minarchists are libertarians who believe that society should have a state with very limited power.
They believe that free markets are the most moral and efficient way of providing goods and services.
They typically believe that the only things the state should provide are police and judges to make sure that people obey the laws, and a military to make sure that no one attacks the country.
Some minarchists believe in having a small amount of taxation and limited provision of public goods such as international diplomacy and public parks.
Two famous minarchist libertarians are Robert Nozick and Ayn Rand.
Nozick believed that the only legitimate thing a state can do is have a police force.
He called his legitimate state a "night-watchman state."
Ayn Rand believed that the state should have a police force and a court system.
Libertarian anarchists do not believe the state is needed.
They believe that people can organise their own lives and businesses.
They want to replace the state with voluntary organisations, including charities, private companies, voluntary unions, and mutual aid societies.
They also want to end all forced taxation.
They say that state police can be replaced with "DROs" (Dispute Resolution Organisations) or "private protection agencies."
They also say that state judges can be replaced with "private arbitration."
A famous libertarian anarchist thinker was Murray N. Rothbard.
Others include Lysander Spooner, Benjamin R. Tucker, and Linda & Morris Tannehill.
Other types
Most libertarians fall under one of the two types of libertarians listed above.
But there are other types, too.
Libertarian constitutionalists are libertarians who believe that the only legitimate things a state can do are those things that have been approved in a constitution.
Libertarian constitutionalists include Ron Paul.
Agorists are revolutionary libertarian anarchists who believe that we should fight the state through what they call "counter-economics."
Agorists include Samuel Edward Konkin, III and Brad Spangler.
Objectivists are libertarians who believe in atheism.
They believe that humans are able to know things, as opposed to skepticism, which is the idea that people cannot know things with certainty.
They believe reason is the only path to truth, and that a system of free capitalism is the only ethical system of government.
Objectivists include Ayn Rand. (
There are also some "anarcho-Objectivists," such as Linda & Morris Tannehill and Roy A. Childs, Jr..)
Left-libertarians are libertarian anarchists who believe that a free market capitalistic system will not lead to more equality.
They are often very open to ideas such as "worker self-management" and feminism.
These beliefs often work well with anrarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism.
Left-libertarians include Benjamin R. Tucker and Roderick T. Long.
Anarcho-pacifists are libertarians who believe that no force is ever legitimate, not even in self-defence.
Although Robert LeFevre did not call himself an "anarcho-pacifist" (or even an "anarchist"), he was one.
Autarchism is a form of libertarian anarchism which supports individual freedom, self-reliance, and individualism.
To put it simply, autarchists believe in the philosophy: "Control yourself".
Robert LeFevre is a self-described autarchist.
Geolibertarians believe that the only legitimate tax is a tax on land.
This is often called the "single tax" or "land value tax".
Voluntaryism is another term for libertarian anarchism.
Voluntaryists believe that only voluntary actions are legitimate.
This means that all government force is illegitimate.
The first libertarian to call himself a voluntaryist was Auberon Herbert.
Civil libertarians are people who believe in the preservation of civil liberties, such as free speech.
But not all civil libertarians believe you should be allowed to do what you want with the money you earn.
All libertarians are civil libertarians, but not all civil libertarians are libertarians.
An auction is a method of goods or services can be sold and bought.
In an auction, the price of an item is not fixed in advance.
People wanting to buy the item say how much they are willing to pay for it.
This is called bid.
In each round, the bids are evaluated: If certain criteria are met, the auction is stopped and one bidder will buy the item at the specified price.
Alternatively there will be another round.
If certain conditions are met, the auction will stop, and the item will not be sold.
There are different kinds of auctions, with different rules.
There are companies that specialize in doing auctions.
These companies will charge fees for doing the auction; they may also get a commission that depends on the price the item is sold at.
Auctions can be done online, or they can be done offline.
Sometimes, bids are placed by telephone, or over the internet.
Most common kinds of auction
English auction: the highest bidder wins.
The auction starts at the lowest price the seller is willing to sell at, and goes up with the price as long as someone is willing to pay a higher price.
Dutch auction goes the other way round: The auction starts with the highest price, and goes down until a price is found, at which someone is willing to buy.
The auction is stopped, when a predefined lowest price is reached, below which the auction cannot take place.
Sealed first-bid auction: All the bids are submitted at the same time, in a sealed envelope, the bidder with the highest bid wins
Vicrey auction (or sealed-bid second-price auction) : Works the same as the Sealed first-bid auction, but the bidder only plays the second-highest price.
This kind of auction is very important in economic theory, and to model certain economic contexts
The mechanisms why auctions work
Auctions work because of information asymmetry: The seller wants to sell at the highest possible price, and the buyers want to pay as little as possible.
But the seller does not know the prices the buyers are willing to pay: Setting a price that is too hight means that there will be no sale, setting a price that is too low means that there will be less profit.
Each buyer knows how much he is willing to pay, but does not know the price the other buyers are willing to pay.
So buyers influence each other.
The theory that models these phenomena is called auction theory.
It is based on game theory and microeconomics.
Hong Kong (; ,  , literally "Fragrant Port"), officially The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of The People's Republic of China, is one of two Special Administrative Regions (SARs) of the People's Republic of China (the other is Macau).
It is one of the richest and most highly developed parts of China.
Hong Kong grew quickly in the decades after World War II.
It is now a famous world class financial center.
Hong Kong was one of the last territories of the British Empire before China obtained it and granted it special status in 1997.
The population of Hong Kong is more than seven million.
The economy has rapidly grown from a trading port to a very rich city.
Hong Kong also has the world's largest number of skyscrapers.
New Territories (including 235 outlying islands)
Hong Kong was a British colony from 1842 to 1997 because China lost the Second Opium War.
After the handover, Hong Kong became under Chinese control  but with a lot of autonomy.
Hong Kong is in a tropical area, and has monsoon winds.
It is cool and wet in winter (Jan-Mar), hot and rainy from spring through summer (Apr-Sep), and warm, sunny and dry in the autumn (Oct-Dec).
The rainy season is from May until September.
In summer and early autumn, there is a frequent threat of typhoons.
Population and language
The population of Hong Kong reached 7 million (7,496,98) in 2020.
Most of the people in Hong Kong are Chinese.
Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated countries in the world.
It has an overall density of 6,300 people per square kilometre.
Hong Kong has one of the world’s lowest birth rates—1.11 per woman at an age of being capable to give birth as of 2012.
This is far below the rate needed to replace each person, 2.1.
People from Hong Kong mainly speak Cantonese.
Students are required to learn English at school.
Ever since Hong Kong became a part of China, the number of people who speak Mandarin has increased because Mandarin is the official language of the PRC.
In Hong Kong, 17 days of the year are public holidays:
1 January - New Year's Day, the beginning of the year
the Chinese New Year - 15 days of celebrations, of which 3 are public holidays
Ching Ming Festival, also known as "Tomb Sweeping Day"
Easter (3 public holidays)
1 May - Labour Day
The Buddha's birthday
1 July (HKSAR Day)
the day after Mid-Autumn Festival
1 Oct - Chinese National Day
Chung Yeung Festival - a day when people honor their ancestors, similar to "Tomb Sweeping Day"
25 December - Christmas
26 December - Boxing Day
31 December - New Year's Eve, or the last day of the year
There are coins from 10 cents to 10 Hong Kong Dollars and bank-notes (paper money bills) from $10 to $1000.
One American dollar is equal to about $7.79 in Hong Kong Dollars, at the official bank exchange rate.
Mass Transit Railway (MTR) which was established in 1979, owns seven lines (10 lines after KCR merger),
Kwun Tong Line (running between Whampoa/Ho Man Tin and Tiu Keng Leng)
Tsuen Wan Line (running between Tsuen Wan and Central)
Island Line (running between Kennedy Town and Chai Wan)
South Island Line (running between Admiralty and South Horizons)
Tseung Kwan O Line (running between Po Lam/LOHAS Park and North Point)
Tung Chung Line (running between Tung Chung/Tsing Yi and Hong Kong)
Airport Express (running between AsiaWorld-Expo and Hong Kong)
Disneyland Resort Line (running between Sunny Bay and Disneyland Resort)
East Rail Line (running between Hung Hom and Lo Wu/Lok Ma Chau)
Tuen Ma Line (running between Wu Kai Sha and Tuen Mun)
Bus: there are four major bus companies in Hong Kong, such as KMB which mainly services Kowloon, the rest are New Lantau Bus, who mainly services Lantau Island, Citybus, which mainly serves airport routes and New World First Bus, which mainly services Hong Kong Island.
Public Light Bus: in the 1960s, it was an illegal transportation, but later on, the government noticed that if there were only buses in Hong Kong, then some villages in N.T. will not have a public transport.
Therefore, the Legislative Council made it legal and under government control.
Tram (running between Kennedy Town, Happy Valley, and Shau Kei Wan)
Peak Tram (running between Garden Road and Victoria Peak)
Taxi [Red (Kowloon and Hong Kong Island), Green (New Territories), and Blue (Lantau Island)]
Ferry (Lots of different companies, including the Star Ferry, First Ferry and Fortune Ferry companies)
Hong Kong International Airport is the main airport of the territory.
It is the busiest airport in the world in cargo traffic terms.
Hong Kong's education system is mostly based on the English system.
Children are required to be in school from age 6 until completing secondary school (high school) at age 18.
Chinese University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Education University of Hong Kong
Hang Seng University of Hong Kong
Housing in Hong Kong
According to the International Housing Affordability survey, Hong Kong has the most unaffordable housing market in the world.
It has been ranked as most unaffordable since 2010.
Timeline of Hong Kong
Sea levels rose above 100 meters
Ceramic forms decorated with a wide range of patterns
Bronze weapons, knives, arrowheads & tools.
Metal worked locally
Ancient Chinese writing developed
People from Mainland China came to Hong Kong
Coins from the Chinese Han period were used in Hong Kong
A Portuguese named Jorge Álvares was the first European to reach Hong Kong
China banned the drug trade in Hong Kong
Opium became a huge business
Lin Zexu was appointed Special Commissioner
The First Opium war began
Hong Kong was given to the British and became a dependent territory of United Kingdom
Lord Palmerston wrote that Hong Kong was a barren island with only a few houses on it
The British flag was raised at Possession Point, on Hong Kong Island
Sir Henry Pottinger became Hong Kong's first governor
The Treaty of Nanjing was signed, ending the First Opium War
China was defeated in the Second Opium War.
Boundary Street and Stonecutter's Island were leased to Britain
The Peak Tram started operating on Hong Kong Island
Lantau Island and the New Territories were leased to the British for 99 years
Hong Kong became a refuge for exiles from China
Western dress began to come in fashion for the locals
Father Daniel Finn began excavations on Lamma Island
Refugees fleeing the Chinese Communist Party came to Hong Kong
The Empire of Japan invaded Hong Kong
The British authorities surrendered Hong Kong to the Japanese Army
Britain reclaimed its territory after Japan's surrender
Double-decker buses were introduced to Hong Kong
Hong Kong became a free port
The Shek Kip Mei Estate was built, establishing the program of public housing
A Han period tomb was discovered near Lei Cheng Uk
The Hong Kong dollar was tied to the US dollar
China and Britain signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration
The Hong Kong Basic Law was confirmed
Asia's financial crisis
Archaeologists discovered 20 graves on the island of Ma Wa
Tung Chee Wa elected as the first Chief Executive of Hong Kong.
Voting was conducted by 400 committees of an electoral college whose members are appointed by the Chinese Government.
Hong Kong became a Special Administrative Region of China for 50 years
Hong Kong International Airport opened, replacing Kai Tak Airport in Kowloon
Tung Chee Hwa was elected as Chief Executive for a second term.
Citizens wanted a more democratic and republican system
The SARS epidemic began
Tung Chee Hwa retired as chief executive because of health problems.
Donald Tsang Yam-kuen was elected unopposed as Chief Executive.
Leung Chun Ying was elected as Chief Executive.
People occupied the Central region to demand universal suffrage for the next chief executive election, to take place in 2017.
The government voted against the universal suffrage demanded by the people.
There were more protests in Mong Kok because the government voted against suffrage.
Police had to use pepper spray and Tear gas on the people to get them to leave.
Protestors in Hong Kong demonstrated against a new extradition law proposed by the government of mainland China.
It was the largest protest in Hong Kong's history.
According to Wikinews this law would allow Mainland China to extradite people living or visiting Hong Kong who may be fugitives.
The people did not want this because the reputation of China had been damaged by allegations of torture, forced confessions and arbitrary detentions before, and it would just bring Hong Kong closer under China's control, even though Hong Kong have their own judicial system.
The Hong Kong National Security Law is created.
This law will give Beijing, more power to make the laws for Hong Kong.
Beijing, also put a security office in Hong Kong.
The law was created at 11 P.M. on 30 June 2020, Hong Kong Time.
Hong Kong has a few media companies, notably Television Broadcasts Limited (TVB), HK Television Entertainment (HKTVE),  and Fantastic Television.
Access to television is not affected by Chinese regulations, such as the Great Firewall, which filters and blocks certain programs.
Places in Hong Kong
Man Mo Temple
Lo House Museum
Hong Kong Park
Yuen Po Street Bird Garden
Hong Kong Museum of History
Hong Kong Space Museum
Hong Kong Museum of Science & Technology
Lantau Link Visitors' Viewing Centre
Fung Ying Sin Koon
Sham Tung Uk
Po Lin Monastery and the Big Buddha on Lantau Island (currently the largest bronze Buddha in world)
Cheung Chau (Long Island)
Chek Lap Kok
Blitzkrieg is a German word which means lightning war, referring to the high velocity of a lightning bolt.
In a blitzkrieg the attacking motorized infantry armies move quickly, and are helped by tanks and aircraft.
Slower moving enemy units are overrun or surrounded.
They are often captured with little fighting.
Often the slower units become disorganized and are not yet ready to fight when they are captured.
The strategy of blitzkrieg  was developed in the 1930s.
The Wehrmacht seldom called it by that name.
This method worked well, early in World War II during the invasions of Poland and France.
It was mostly successful in Operation Barbarossa.
Later in the war, the Allies learned to defeat German blitzkrieg attacks by defence in depth and by attacking the flanks of the attackers with reserve forces.
The Blitz refers to the German bombing of Britain, particularly London, during World War II, which destroyed over a million homes and killed over 40,000 people.
The bombing was supposed to quickly destroy industry and morale (happiness).
The Blitz was in response to the bombing of German cities by the British Royal Air Force (RAF).
The Blitz began in September 1940 and continued until May 1941.
Military of Germany
A tank is covered in thick armour to protect it from enemy weapons.
Tanks have tracks that wrap around its wheels to spread out its weight and let it cross rough ground.
Most tanks have a powerful gun and one or more machine guns.
A tank's crew is normally 3-5.
A driver, commander and gunner are always present.
There may also be a loader, who handles the ammunition for the main gun (so the gunner doesn't have to take eyes off the target).
Some WWII tanks also had a separate soldier responsible for the radio.
The first tanks were made by the British Royal Navy and French car manufacturers during World War I as a way of attacking enemy trenches.
They were called tanks to trick the Germans into thinking they were water carriers for the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. Their use in a surprise attack in the Battle of the Somme caused fear among the German soldiers but their small numbers and poor reliability prevented them from making much difference.
Tanks became a main weapon during World War II, where battles between great numbers of tanks were fought, especially between the Germans and the Soviet Union.
The Battle of Kursk was the biggest.
Well-known World War II tanks were the German Panzer IV, Panther and Tiger I, Soviet T-34 (produced in the largest numbers of any tank of the war and second most ever), British Matilda, Churchill and Cromwell, and American M4 Sherman (second most produced tank of the war) and Stuart tanks.
There had also been plans for much larger and more heavily armoured tanks such as the Maus but these were determined to be of little use due to their huge weight, which would have made moving them very difficult, and the huge size, which would have made them easy targets for heavy artillery.
Old tanks are often modified for other uses like carrying soldiers or equipment.
Combat engineers use special tank-based vehicles, for example minesweeper tanks or bridge-layer tanks.
The tank is a major part of all large armies today.
Tanks have replaced the cavalry everywhere and do the things that soldiers on horseback did in the past.
Most modern tanks are of the heavy or Main Battle Tank type, able to fight other tanks.
Compared to older types MBTs are very heavy (Russian MBTS being about 40 tons and Western around 60 tons) with a 120 mm (Western) and 125 mm (Russian) calibre cannon and 2-3 machine guns.
Marines and other specialized forces also use some light tanks.
Edinburgh (Scottish Gaelic: Dùn Èideann) is the capital city and second largest city in Scotland.
Edinburgh lies on the east coast, where the River Forth flows into the sea.
The central part is Edinburgh Castle, at the top of a steep hill.
The castle has a military display every year, called a tattoo, where soldiers show their skills at marching and competitions, and there are brass bands and bands of bagpipes.
Edinburgh has a very large festival every year, where thousands of performers come to put on shows.
The Edinburgh International Festival takes place in August and September.
At the same time there is the Edinburgh Fringe.
The shows are of all kinds, and range from large ones with famous people, to very small ones by new or unknown actors.
Old and New towns
The Old Town of Edinburgh is the oldest part of the city, and with the 18th-century New Town, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
It has preserved its mediaeval plan and many Reformation-era buildings.
The city's main football teams are Heart of Midlothian F.C. and Hibernian F.C. Murrayfield stadium in the city is the home of the Scottish national rugby team and Edinburgh Rugby.
The nearby Murrayfield Ice Rink is home to the city's ice hockey team, the Edinburgh Capitals.
See also Leith Athletic F.C.
Twin Towns
Edinburgh has lots of important buildings.
The Balmoral Hotel was opened in 1902 and designed by W. Hamilton Beattie.
Saint Giles' Cathedral was built in Mediaeval times.
There was a big fire there in 1385.
The Royal Museum was designed by architect Francis Fowke and built between 1861 and 1888.
Its sister museum, the Museum of Scotland, was designed by Benson and Forsyth in 1998.
Holyrood Palace was once the home of the Scottish kings, and is open to the public.
Famous people from Edinburgh
Robert Louis Stevenson who wrote Kidnapped, Treasure Island, Doctor Jekyll and Mr Hyde and many other stories.
Muriel Spark who wrote The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie and many other stories.
Sean Connery who acted as James Bond in films.
Map of Edinburgh
Port cities and towns of the North Sea
Port cities and towns of Scotland
The head of state is the figurehead of a state, who represents the unity of the state.
However, the head of state may not have very much real power.
In a modern republic, the head of state is a president, usually elected by the people or by a parliament.
In a monarchy, the head of state is the king or queen.
Some countries have different systems - for example Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey is both the Head of State and Head of Government which is known as an executive system.
In a modern monarchy, the head of state usually has little real power.
Instead, the most powerful person is the head of government.
This is usually the leader of the political party that wins the most seats in an election.
In these cases, the king is considered to be the leader of the country, but must always take the decisions that the head of government advises them to make.
The king or queen carries out national ceremonies.
The United Kingdom works like this, with the Prime Minister heading the government.
A president may be the most powerful person in the country.
However, sometimes there is a head of government, as well as a president.
The president then acts very much like a king or queen, leaving the real decisions to the head of government.
The Republic of Ireland works like this.
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known as  (22 April 1870 – 21 January 1924) was a Russian lawyer, revolutionary, the leader of the Bolshevik party and of the October Revolution.
He was the first leader of the USSR and the government that took over Russia in 1917.
Lenin's ideas became known as Leninism.
Vladimir Ulyanov was born on 22 April 1870 in the town of Simbirsk in the Russian Empire.
His mother was a schoolteacher and his father was an education official (technically, his father's job made him and his family noblemen).
Lenin began studying politics in high school.
Lenin was good in school and learned the Latin and Greek languages.
In 1887, he was thrown out of Kazan State University because he protested against the Tsar who was the king of the Russian Empire.
He continued to read books and study ideas by himself, and in 1891 he got a license to become a lawyer.
In the same year that Lenin was expelled from University, his brother Alexander was hanged for his part in a bomb plot to kill Tsar Alexander III, and their sister Anna was sent to Tatarstan.
This made Lenin furious, and he promised to get revenge for his brother's death.
Before the revolution
While he studied law in St. Petersburg he learned about the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who were both philosophers from Germany.
Karl Marx's thoughts were called Marxism.
To talk or write about Marxism positively was illegal in Russia, and Lenin was arrested for that and sent to prison in Siberia.
This punishment was harsh because Siberia is very cold and isolated, and almost impossible to escape.
In July 1898, still in Siberia, Lenin married Nadezhda Krupskaya.
In 1899 he wrote a book he called The Development of Capitalism in Russia.
In 1900, Lenin was set free from prison and allowed to go back home.
He then traveled around Europe.
He began to publish a Marxist newspaper called Iskra, the Russian word for "spark" or "lightning".
He also became an important member of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, or RSDLP.
In 1901 he began calling himself "Lenin".
In 1903, Lenin had a major argument with another leader of the party, Julius Martov, which divided the party in two.
Lenin wanted to establish socialism right away, rather than establishing capitalism first and then making the transition to socialism.
Martov disagreed, he wanted to cling to the Classical Marxist idea that in order to achieve socialism, you must go through capitalism first.
People who agreed with Martov were called Mensheviks (meaning "the minority").
The people who agreed with Lenin were called Bolsheviks ("the majority").
In 1907 he traveled around Europe again, and visited many socialist meetings and events.
During World War I he lived in big European cities like London, Paris and Geneva.
At the beginning of the war, a big left-wing meeting called the Second International included the Bolsheviks.
The meeting shut down when a lot of the groups argued whether or not to support the war.
Lenin and the Bolsheviks were one of only a few groups who were against the war because of their Marxist ideas.
After Tsar Nicholas II gave up his throne during the February Revolution, Lenin went back to Russia where he was still a very important Bolshevik leader.
He wrote that he wanted a revolution by ordinary workers to overthrow the government that had replaced Nicholas II.
In 1917, The Kadets, a right-wing party, and elements of the Okhrana (secret police) started rumors that Lenin had got money from the Germans, because they had sent him through Germany in a special train to reach Russia.
That may have made him look bad because a lot of Russians had died fighting Germany in the war.
After the July Days, a popular uprising in Petrograd which was crushed by the Russian Provisional Government, he left Russia and went to Finland, where he could hide and carry on with his work on Communism.
In November 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, headed the Petrograd Soviet and other Soviets all over Russia in a revolution against Kerensky's government, which was known as the October Revolution.
They won, and announced that Russia was a socialist country.
In November, Lenin was chosen as its leader.
In power
Because Lenin wanted an end to World War I in Russia, he signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in February 1918.
While the treaty ended the attack by Germany, Russia lost a large amount of land that it used for farming.
The treaty also made Germany's other enemies angry, and together with Russian people who supported the Tsar or Kerensky's government, they attacked Russia.
Lenin made rules that as much food as possible was to be given to Bolshevik soldiers in Russia's new Red Army.
This meant that they won the war, but ordinary people were starving, and many died of hunger or disease.
After the war, Lenin brought in the New Economic Policy to try and make things better for the country and move from capitalism towards socialism.
Some private enterprise was still allowed, but not much.
Businessmen, known as nepmen, could only own small industries, not factories.
Factories and large industry became public property to be owned by the workers.
A woman named Fanny Kaplan shot Lenin whilst he was making an official visit.
She missed his head and instead the bullet was lodged into his neck.
Fearing that he would be killed by political dissenters, he refused to have the bullet removed until a guaranteed Communist doctor could be found.
As a result of his direct refusal to be treated, the bullet was never removed, and is often cited as the reason he started having strokes in May and December 1922 (both of which he recovered from).
In March 1923 a stroke paralyzed him and left him unable to speak, and he died on January 24, 1924 of a stroke.
Just before he died, Lenin had wanted to get rid of Stalin because he thought he was dangerous to the country and the government.
The city of St. Petersburg had been renamed Petrograd by the Tsar in 1914, but was renamed Leningrad in memory of Lenin in 1924.
When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, Leningrad was again named St. Petersburg.
Before Lenin died, he said he wished to be buried beside his mother.
When he died, Stalin let the people in Russia look at his body.
Because people kept coming they decided not to bury him, and preserved his body instead.
A building was built in Red Square, Moscow over the body so that people could see it.
It is called the Lenin Mausoleum.
Many Russians and tourists still go there to see his body today.
After Lenin died, Stalin used him to justify his own rule, by making it look like he was Lenin's chosen successor.
Russian atheists
Russian communists
Deaths from stroke
Disease-related deaths in the Soviet Union
Russian lawyers
1870 births
1924 deaths
Russian philosophers
Heads of government of the Soviet Union
Saint Petersburg State University alumni
A disease or medical condition is an unhealthy state where something bad happens to the body or mind.
Diseases can cause pain, parts of the body to stop working the right way, or death.
The word disease is sometimes used to include:
parts of the body being hurt,
not having the usual abilities,
medical problems or syndromes,
infections by microorganisms,
feeling unhealthy, such as having pain or feeling hot (called 'symptoms'),
unusual shapes of body parts.
A disease can be caused by many things.
Sometimes germs enter our body through food, water or air.
A person can be infected by infectious agents like bacteria, viruses or fungus.
Disease can also be caused by eating bad or old foods.
There are small germs in old foods that can cause diseases.
Sometimes the germs produce chemicals or toxins which causes the disease.
One of the most common causes of disease is poor sanitation and lack of clean water.
Some deadly diseases like malaria in tropical parts of the world are spread by a mosquito.
Animals that spread disease are called vectors.
There are many vectors, including snails, ticks, and fleas.
Some people are born with 'genetic diseases'.
These are diseases because of an error or mutation in a person's DNA.
An example of a mutation is cancer.
Living or working in an unhealthy environment can also be a cause for diseases.
Diseases are more common in older people.
Some diseases can be helped with medicine.
Infections can often be cured by antibiotics, though resistance to antibiotics is a problem.
Some disease may be helped by surgery.
Not every disease can be helped with medicine or surgery, though.
Some diseases must be treated during the whole life; they are chronic (long-lasting) diseases.
An example of a chronic disease is diabetes mellitus.
Diabetes can be treated (made better) but it can not yet be cured (made to totally go away).
People who usually treat diseases are called doctors or physicians.
Some diseases that are common or very bad are tested for even in people who do not show any symptoms.
If these diseases are found early they can be treated before they cause problems.
An example would be checking a woman for cervical cancer with a test called a pap smear.
If cervical cancer is found early it can be cured.
If it is found later it usually causes death.
Another example is immunization.
The basic idea is to make the body ready for a disease.
The body has its own defense against disease called the immune system.
One special characteristic of the immune system is its ability to remember some diseases.
If a person is sick and recovers, the immune system will produce a substance called antibodies which fight the disease if it comes back to the person.
The antibody is specific to a particular disease or antigen.
An example of this is measles which is a virus.
A person usually a child who had never been sick with measles is given a milder form of the virus, this causes the immune system to produce antibodies against the virus.
If this person is exposed to the same virus in the future, the person's immune system will remember and will fight the virus.
The disease must be found and stopped in early stage.
The disease should be common or be easy to recognize.
The test for the disease should be easy, work all the time, and not hurt people.
The society is well-trained and can recognize most common symptoms on some diseases.
The treatment for the disease should be safe and be easy for people to get.
Epidemiology is the study of the cause of disease.
Some diseases are more popular for people with common characteristics, like similar origins, sociological background, food or nationality.
Without good epidemiological research some diseases can be hard to track and to name.
Some diseases can be taken for something else.
This is why epidemiology takes a huge part in understanding how to protect ourselves against viruses, toxins and bacteria.
Carbon is a very important chemical element, with a chemical symbol of C. All known life on Earth needs it.
Carbon has atomic mass 12 and atomic number 6.
It is a nonmetal, meaning that it is not a metal.
When iron is alloyed with carbon, hard steel is formed.
Carbon in the form of coal is an important fuel.
Chemistry of carbon
A whole type of chemistry, called organic chemistry, is about carbon and its compounds.
Carbon makes many types of compounds.
Hydrocarbons are molecules with carbon and hydrogen.
Methane, Propane, and many other fuels are hydrocarbons.
Many of the substances that people use daily are organic compounds.
Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and some other elements like sulfur and phosphorus together form most life on earth (see List of biologically important elements).
Carbon forms a very large number of organic compounds because it can form strong bonds with itself and with other elements.
Because of the amounts of carbon living things have, all organic things are considered "carbon-based".
Each carbon atom usually forms four chemical bonds, which are strong connections to other atoms to form molecules.
The kind of bond that carbon makes is called a covalent bond.
These bonds allow carbon to form many kinds of small and large molecules.
A molecule of methane is the smallest; it has four hydrogen atoms bonded to carbon.
The bonds can be double bonds, meaning that two bonds form between carbon and another atom to make a stronger connection.
For example, carbon dioxide has two oxygen atoms, and each one is double bonded to carbon.
Carbon can even form three bonds with another atom, called a triple bond.
For example, in the gas acetylene carbon forms a triple bond with another carbon atom.
By bonding to other carbon atoms, carbon can form long chain-shaped molecules, called polymers, such as plastics and proteins.
Atoms of other elements can be part of the long polymer chains, often nitrogen or oxygen.
Pure carbon forms diamond by bonding to four other carbon atoms in a three dimensional crystal.
It forms graphite by bonding to three other carbon atoms to form thin flat layers.
The name of carbon comes from Latin carbo, meaning charcoal.
In many foreign languages the words for carbon, coal and charcoal are synonyms.
Types of carbon
Carbon in nature is found in three forms called allotropes: diamond, graphite, and fullerenes.
Graphite, with clay, is in pencils.
The carbon atoms in it make rings, which are on top of each other and slide very easily.
Diamonds are the hardest natural mineral.
Fullerenes are a "soccer ball" shape of carbon.
They are mostly of interest to science.
A special, man-made, tube-shaped allotrope of carbon is the carbon nanotube.
Carbon nanotubes are very hard, so they might be used in armor.
Nanotubes might be useful in nanotechnology.
A radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon-14, can be used to figure out how old some objects are or when something died.
As long as something is on the surface of the earth and taking in carbon, the amount of carbon-14 stays the same.
When an object stops taking in carbon, the carbon-14 amount goes down.
Because the half-life (how long it takes for half of a radioactive isotope to go away) of carbon-14 is 5730 years, scientists can see how old the object is by how much carbon-14 is left.
Where carbon is
Carbon is in many places in the universe.
It was first made in old stars.
Carbon is the fourth most common element in the sun.
The atmospheres of Venus and Mars are mostly carbon dioxide.
Carbon is important to the human body and other living things, and it is the second most common element in the human body, at 23% of all body weight.
It is also a key part of many biological molecules (molecules used in life).
Most of the carbon on Earth is coal.
Graphite is in many (typically desert) areas, including Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and Russia.
Diamonds are rare and are found largely in Africa.
Carbon is also in some meteorites.
Carbon at Webelements
Zaza language, also called Zazaki, Kirmanjki and Dimli, is an Indo-European language spoken in eastern Anatolia above the rivers Euphrates and Tigris.
It belongs to the northwest-Iranian group of Iranian language.
The Zaza language is related to Sangsarī, Māzandarānī, Tātī (Herzendī), Semnānī, Tāleshī, Kurdish, Persian and Balōchi.
The number of Zaza speakers is not known exactly.
Zaza-Gorani | Ethnologue Ethnologue on Zazaki (language)
(Weblinks of Zaza people)
Zazaki.de zazaki dimili zaza  Academic Research Center of Zazaki
Only Zazaki news
Zazaki Institute
Iranian languages
A chemical reaction happens when one or more chemicals are changed into one or more other chemicals.
iron and oxygen combining to make rust
vinegar and baking soda combining to make sodium acetate, carbon dioxide and water
things burning or exploding
many reactions that happen inside living things, such as photosynthesis
electrochemical reactions when discharging or recharging batteries
Some reactions are fast, and others are slow.
Some happen at different speeds, depending on temperature or other things.
For example, wood does not react with air when it is cold, but if it is made hot enough, it will start to burn.
Some reactions give out energy.
These are exothermic reactions.
In other reactions, energy is taken in.
These are endothermic reactions.
Chemical reactions involve only the electrons of atoms; nuclear reactions involve the protons and neutrons in the atomic nuclei.
Four basic types
"Two or more reactants giving one product" is another way to identify a synthesis reaction.
One example of a synthesis reaction is the combination of iron and sulfur to form iron(II) sulfide:
A decomposition reaction is when a more complex substance breaks down into its more simple parts.
It is thus the opposite of a synthesis reaction, and can be written as:
CaCO3 —> CaO + CO2
Single replacement
Double replacement
In a double replacement reaction, the anions and cations of two compounds switch places and form two entirely different compounds.
These reactions are in the general form:
For example, when barium chloride (BaCl2) and magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) react, the SO42− anion switches places with the 2Cl− anion, giving the compounds BaSO4 and MgCl2.
Here, A and B react to C and D in a chemical reaction.
This is an example of a combustion reaction.
carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
Rates of reaction
Online chemical equation balancer Balances equation of any chemical reaction (full or half-cell) in one click.
In geometry, a rectangle is a shape with four sides and four corners.
The corners are all right angles.
It follows that the pairs of sides opposite each other must be parallel and of the same length.
People make many rectangular things, including most tables, boxes, books, and papers.
The word comes from Latin words meaning "right" and angle".
If a rectangle has length  and width w, then:
It has area .
it has perimeter .
Each diagonal has length .
it has an aspect ratio of  : w.
When , the rectangle is a square.
When  is equal to the golden ratio, the rectangle is called a golden rectangle.
Trafalgar Square is in the heart of London.
It is a large pedestrian square, bounded on three sides by roads.
It serves as a refuge, and a major traffic intersection.