the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
This "bubble sort" method will work, but it will take a very long time.
A better algorithm is: find the first card with the smallest suit and smallest number (2 of diamonds), and place it at the start.
After this, look for the second card, and so on.
This algorithm is much faster, and does not need much space.
This algorithm is a "selection sort".
Ada Lovelace wrote the first computer algorithm in 1843, for a computer that was never finished.
Computers began during World War II.
Computer science separated from the other sciences during the 1960s and 1970s.
Now, computer science has its own methods, and has its own technical terms.
It is related to electrical engineering, mathematics, and language science.
Computer science looks at the theoretical parts of computers.
Computer engineering looks at the physical parts of computers (hardware).
Software engineering looks at the use of computer programs and how to make them.
Parts of computer science
Central math
Boolean algebra (when something can only be true or false)
Computer numbering formats (how computers count)
Discrete mathematics (math with numbers a person can count)
Symbolic logic (clear ways of talking about math)
Order of operations (which math operations are performed first)
How an ideal computer works
Algorithmic information theory (how easily can a computer answer a question?)
Complexity theory (how much time and memory does a computer need to answer a question?)
Computability theory (can a computer do something?)
Information theory (math that looks at data and how to process data)
Theory of computation (how to answer questions on a computer using algorithms)
Graph theory (math that looks for directions from one point to another)
Type theory (what kinds of data should computers work with?)
Denotational semantics (math for computer languages)
Algorithms (looks at how to answer a question)
Compilers (turning words into computer programs)
Lexical analysis (how to turn words into data)
Microprogramming (how to control the most important part of a computer)
Operating systems (big computer programs, e.g. Linux, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS)  to control the computer hardware and software.
Cryptography (hiding data)
Parallel computing (many instructions are carried out simultaneously)
Theoretical computer science (how information can be processed)
Computer science at work
Artificial intelligence (making computers learn and talk, similar to people)
Computer architecture (building a computer)
Computer graphics (making pictures with computers)
Computer networks (joining computers to other computers)
Computer program (how to tell a computer to do something)
Computer programming (writing, or making, computer programs)
Computer security (making computers and their data safe)
Databases (a way to sort and keep data)
Data structure (how to build or group data)
Distributed computing (using more than one computer to solve a difficult problem)
Information retrieval (getting data back from a computer)
Programming languages (languages that a programmer uses to make computer programs)
Program specification (what a program is supposed to do)
Program verification (making sure a computer program does what it should do, see debugging)
Robots (using computers to control machines)
Software engineering (how programmers write programs)
What computer science does
Benchmark (testing a computer's power or speed)
Computer vision (how computers can see and understand images)
Collision detection (how computers help robots move without hitting something)
Data compression (making data smaller)
Data structures (how computers group and sort data)
Data acquisition (putting data into computers)
Design patterns (answers to common software engineering problems)
Digital signal processing (cleaning and "looking" at data)
File formats (how a file is arranged)
Human-computer interaction (how humans use computers)
Information security (keeping data safe from other people)
Internet (a large network that joins almost all computers)
Web applications (computer programs on the Internet)
Optimization (making computer programs work better)
Software metrics (ways to measure computer programs, such as counting lines of code or number of operations)
VLSI design (the making of a very large and complex computer system)
A computer is a machine that uses electronics to input, process, store, and output data.
Data is information such as numbers, words, and lists.
Input of data means to read information from a keyboard, a storage device like a hard drive, or a sensor.
The computer processes or changes the data by following the instructions in software programs.
A computer program is a list of instructions the computer has to perform.
Programs usually perform mathematical calculations, modify data, or move it around.
The data is then saved in a storage device, shown on a display, or sent to another computer.
Computers can be connected together to form a network such as the internet, allowing the computers to communicate with each other.
The processor of a computer is made from integrated circuits (chips) that contains many transistors.
Most computers are digital, which means that they represent information by using binary digits, or bits.
Computers come in different shapes and sizes, depending on the brand and model and purpose.
They range from small computers such as smartphones and laptops, to large computers such as supercomputers.
The two important parts of a computer are: It responds to a specific instruction set in a well-defined manner and it can execute a stored list of instructions called a program.
There are four main actions in a computer: inputting, storing, outputting and processing.
Modern computers can do billions of calculations in a second.
Being able to calculate many times per second allows modern computers to multi-task, which means they can do many different tasks at the same time.
Computers do many different jobs where automation is useful.
Some examples are controlling traffic lights, vehicles, security systems, washing machines and digital televisions.
Computers can be designed to do almost anything with information.
Computers are used to control large and small machines which in the past were controlled by humans.
Most people have used a personal computer in their home or at work.
They are used for things such as calculation, listening to music, reading an article, writing, playing games etc
Modern computers are electronic computer hardware.
They do mathematical arithmetic very quickly but computers do not really "think".
They only follow the instructions in their software programs.
The software uses the hardware when the user gives it instructions, and gives useful outputs.
Computers are controlled with user interfaces.
Input devices which include keyboards, computer mice, buttons, and touch screens, etc.
Computer programs are designed or written by computer programmers.
A few programmers write programs in the computer's own language called machine code.
Most programs are written using a programming language like C, C++, Java.
These programming languages are more like the language with which one talks and writes every day.
The compiler converts the user's instructions into binary code (machine code) that the computer will understand and do what is needed.
History of computers
Most people have a problem with math.
To show this, try doing 584 x 3,220 in your mind.
It is hard to remember all the steps!
People made tools to help them remember where they were in a math problem.
The other problem people have is that they have to do the same problem over and over and over again.
A cashier had to make change every day in his/her head or with a piece of paper.
That took a lot of time and they made mistakes.
So, people made calculators that did those same things over and over.
This part of computer history is called the "history of automated calculation," which is a fancy phrase for "the history of machines that make it easy for me to do this same math problem over and over without making mistakes."
People do not want a machine that would do the same thing over and over again.
For example, a music box is a machine that plays the same music over and over again.
Some people wanted to be able to tell their machine to do different things.
For example, they wanted to tell the music box to play different music every time.
They wanted to be able to program the music box- to order the music box to play different music.
This part of computer history is called the "history of programmable machines" which is a fancy phrase for "The history of machines that I can order to do different things if I know how to speak their language."
One of the first examples of this was built by Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD).
He built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums.
These ropes and drums were the language of the machine- they told what the machine did and when.
Some people argue that this is the first programmable machine.
Some people disagree on which early computer is programmable.
Many say the "castle clock", an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, is the first known programmable analog computer.
The length of day and night could be adjusted every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year.
Some count this daily adjustment as computer programming.
Others say the first computer was made by Charles Babbage.
Ada Lovelace is considered to be the first programmer.
The computing era
At the end of the Middle Ages, people started thinking math and engineering were more important.
In 1623, Wilhelm Schickard made a mechanical calculator.
Other Europeans made more calculators after him.
They were not modern computers because they could only add, subtract, and multiply- you could not change what they did to make them do something like play Tetris.
Because of this, we say they were not programmable.
Now engineers use computers to design and plan.
In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard used punched paper cards to tell his textile loom what kind of pattern to weave.
He could use punch cards to tell the loom what to do, and he could change the punch cards, which means he could program the loom to weave the pattern he wanted.
This means the loom was programmable.
At the end of the 1800s Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine, developing punched card data processing technology for the 1890 U.S. census.
His tabulating machines read and summarized data stored on punched cards and they began use for government and commercial data processing.
Charles Babbage wanted to make a similar machine that could calculate.
He called it "The Analytical Engine".
Because Babbage did not have enough money and always changed his design when he had a better idea, he never built his Analytical Engine.
As time went on, computers were used more.
People get bored easily doing the same thing over and over.
Imagine spending your life writing things down on index cards, storing them, and then having to go find them again.
The U.S. Census Bureau in 1890 had hundreds of people doing just that.
It was expensive, and reports took a long time.
Then an engineer worked out how to make machines do a lot of the work.
Herman Hollerith invented a tabulating machine that would automatically add up information that the Census bureau collected.
The Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation (which later became IBM) made his machines.
They leased the machines instead of selling them.
Makers of machines had long helped their users understand and repair them, and CTR's tech support was especially good.
Analog and digital computers
In the first half of the 20th century, scientists started using computers, mostly because scientists had a lot of math to figure out and wanted to spend more of their time thinking about science questions instead of spending hours adding numbers together.
For example, if they had to launch a rocket ship, they needed to do a lot of math to make sure the rocket worked right.
So they put together computers.
These analog computers used analog circuits, which made them very hard to program.
In the 1930s, they invented digital computers, and soon made them easier to program.
However this is not the case as many consecutive attempts have been made to bring arithmetic logic to l3.Analog computers are mechanical or electronic devices which solve problems.
Some are used to control machines as well.
High-scale computers
Scientists figured out how to make and use digital computers in the 1930s to 1940s.
Scientists made a lot of digital computers, and as they did, they figured out how to ask them the right sorts of questions to get the most out of them.
Here are a few of the computers they built:
Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines".
The Z3 (1941) was the first working machine that used binary arithmetic.
Binary arithmetic means using "Yes" and "No."
to add numbers together.
You could also program it.
In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be Turing complete.
Turing complete means that it is possible to tell this particular computer anything that it is mathematically possible to tell a computer.
It is the world's first modern computer.
The non-programmable Atanasoff–Berry Computer (1941) which used vacuum tubes to store "yes" and "no" answers, and regenerative capacitor memory.
The Harvard Mark I (1944), A big computer that you could kind of program.
The U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946), which could add numbers the way people do (using the numbers 0 through 9) and is sometimes called the first general purpose electronic computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of 1941 used electromagnets instead of electronics).
At first, however, the only way to reprogram ENIAC was by rewiring it.
Several developers of ENIAC saw its problems.
They invented a way to for a computer to remember what they had told it, and a way to change what it remembered.
This is known as "stored program architecture" or von Neumann architecture.
John von Neumann talked about this design in the paper First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, distributed in 1945.
A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture started around this time.
The first of these was completed in Great Britain.
The first to be demonstrated working was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby"), while the EDSAC, completed a year after SSEM, was the first really useful computer that used the stored program design.
Shortly afterwards, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper—EDVAC—was completed but was not ready for two years.
Nearly all modern computers use the stored-program architecture.
It has become the main concept which defines a modern computer.
The technologies used to build computers have changed since the 1940s, but many current computers still use the von-Neumann architecture.
In the 1950s computers were built out of mostly vacuum tubes.
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the 1960s because they were smaller and cheaper.
They also need less power and do not break down as much as vacuum tubes.
In the 1970s, technologies were based on integrated circuits.
Microprocessors, such as the Intel 4004 made computers smaller, cheaper, faster and more reliable.
By the 1980s, microcontrollers became small and cheap enough to replace mechanical controls in things like washing machines.
The 1980s also saw home computers and personal computers.
In 2005 Nokia started to call some of its mobile phones (the N-series) "multimedia computers" and after the launch of the Apple iPhone in 2007, many are now starting to add the smartphone category among "real" computers.
In 2008, if smartphones are included in the numbers of computers in the world, the biggest computer maker by units sold, was no longer Hewlett-Packard, but rather Nokia.
Kinds of computers
There are many types of computers.
Some include:
personal computer
embedded system
tablet computer
A "desktop computer" is a small machine that has a screen (which is not part of the computer).
Most people keep them on top of a desk, which is why they are called "desktop computers." "
Laptop computers" are computers small enough to fit on your lap.
This makes them easy to carry around.
Both laptops and desktops are called personal computers, because one person at a time uses them for things like playing music, surfing the web, or playing video games.
There are bigger computers that many people at a time can use.
These are called "Mainframes," and these computers do all the things that make things like the internet work.
You can think of a personal computer like this: the personal computer is like your skin: you can see it, other people can see it, and through your skin you feel wind, water, air, and the rest of the world.
A mainframe is more like your internal organs: you never see them, and you barely even think about them, but if they suddenly went missing, you would have some very big problems.
An embedded computer, also called embedded system is a computer that does one thing and one thing only, and usually does it very well.
For example, an alarm clock is an embedded computer: it tells the time.
Unlike your personal computer, you cannot use your clock to play Tetris.
Because of this, we say that embedded computers cannot be programmed, because you cannot install more programs on your clock.
Some mobile phones, automatic teller machines, microwave ovens, CD players and cars are operated by embedded computers.
All-in-one PC
All-in-one computers are desktop computers that have all of the computer's inner mechanisms in the same case as the monitor.
Apple has made several popular examples of all-in-one computers, such as the original Macintosh of the mid-1980s and the iMac of the late 1990s and 2000s.
Uses of computers
Playing computer games
Solving math problems
Watching videos
Listening to music and audio
Audio, Video and photo editing
Creating sound or video
Communicating with other people
Using The Internet
Online bill payments
Photo Editing
Video editing/rendering/encoding
Audio recording
System Management
Computers store data and the instructions as numbers, because computers can do things with numbers very quickly.
These data are stored as binary symbols (1s and 0s).
A 1 or a 0 symbol stored by a computer is called a bit, which comes from the words binary digit.
Computers can use many bits together to represent instructions and the data that these instructions use.
A list of instructions is called a program and is stored on the computer's hard disk.
Computers work through the program by using a central processing unit, and they use fast memory called RAM (also known as Random Access Memory) as a space to store the instructions and data while they are doing this.
When the computer wants to store the results of the program for later, it uses the hard disk because things stored on a hard disk can still be remembered after the computer is turned off.
An operating system tells the computer how to understand what jobs it has to do, how to do these jobs, and how to tell people the results.
Millions of computers may be using the same operating system, while each computer can have its own application programs to do what its user needs.
Using the same operating systems makes it easy to learn how to use computers for new things.
A user who needs to use a computer for something different, can learn how to use a new application program.
Some operating systems can have simple command lines or a fully user-friendly GUI.
One of the most important jobs that computers do for people is helping with communication.
Communication is how people share information.
Computers have helped people move forward in science, medicine, business, and learning, because they let experts from anywhere in the world work with each other and share information.
They also let other people communicate with each other, do their jobs almost anywhere, learn about almost anything, or share their opinions with each other.
The Internet is the thing that lets people communicate between their computers.
Computers and waste
A computer is now almost always an electronic device.
It usually contains materials that will become electronic waste when discarded.
When a new computer is bought in some places, laws require that the cost of its waste management must also be paid for.
This is called product stewardship.
Computers can become obsolete quickly, depending on what programs the user runs.
Very often, they are thrown away within two or three years, because some newer programs require a more powerful computer.
This makes the problem worse, so computer recycling happens a lot.
Many projects try to send working computers to developing nations so they can be re-used and will not become waste as quickly, as most people do not need to run new programs.
Some computer parts, such as hard drives, can break easily.
When these parts end up in the landfill, they can put poisonous chemicals like lead into the ground-water.
Hard drives can also contain secret information like credit card numbers.
If the hard drive is not erased before being thrown away, an identity thief can get the information from the hard drive, even if the drive doesn't work, and use it to steal money from the previous owner's bank account.
Main hardware
All computers have a CPU.
All computers have some kind of data bus which lets them get inputs or output things to the environment.
All computers have some form of memory.
These are usually chips (integrated circuits) which can hold information.
Many computers have some kind of sensors, which lets them get input from their environment.
Many computers have some kind of display device, which lets them show output.
They may also have other peripheral devices connected.
A computer has several main parts.
When comparing a computer to a human body, the CPU is like a brain.
It does most of the thinking and tells the rest of the computer how to work.
The CPU is on the Motherboard, which is like the skeleton.
It provides the basis for where the other parts go, and carries the nerves that connect them to each other and the CPU.
The motherboard is connected to a power supply, which provides electricity to the entire computer.
The various drives (CD drive, floppy drive, and on many newer computers, USB flash drive) act like eyes, ears, and fingers, and allow the computer to read different types of storage, in the same way that a human can read different types of books.
The hard drive is like a human's memory, and keeps track of all the data stored on the computer.
Most computers have a sound card or another method of making sound, which is like vocal cords, or a voice box.
Connected to the sound card are speakers, which are like a mouth, and are where the sound comes out.
Computers might also have a graphics card, which helps the computer to create visual effects, such as 3D environments, or more realistic colors, and more powerful graphics cards can make more realistic or more advanced images, in the same way a well trained artist can.
Largest computer companies
Anything related to the country of China
Chinese people, the people of China
Chinese characters, the symbols used to write the Chinese and Japanese languages
A continent is a large area of the land on Earth that is joined together.
There are no strict rules for what land is considered a continent, but in general it is agreed there are six or seven continents in the world, including Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Europe, North America, Oceania(or Australasia), and South America.
The most populous continent by population is Asia, followed by Africa.
The third most populous continent is Europe.
The fourth most populous is North America, and then South America.
In sub-Saharan Africa, the largest age group are denarians (in their teens).
In north Africa, the largest age group are vicenarian (in their twenties).
In Europe, most people are tricenarian (in their thirties) or quadragenarian (in their forties).
Geologists use the term continent to mean continental crust, a platform of metamorphic and igneous rock, largely of granitic composition.
Continental crust is less dense and much thicker than oceanic crust, which is why it "floats" higher than oceanic crust on the underlying mantle.
This explains why the continents form high platforms surrounded by deep ocean basins.
Some sources say that Australia is one of the seven continents.
Others say that Australia is part of a larger continent, such as Australasia, or Oceania.
Oceania is a region which includes Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands.
Australasia includes at least all countries on the Australian continental plate.
This includes the islands of New Guinea, Tasmania, New Zealand and a number of smaller islands.
It is on the south-eastern side of the Wallace Line, with distinct differences in its biology from the Asian side of the line.
"It includes all the islands of the Malay Archipelago... as well as the various groups of islands in the Pacific.
The term has been used in very different senses".
North and South America
North America and South America together are often described as one continent, "the Americas", or simply "America".
This has the advantage of including Central America and the Caribbean islands.
Otherwise, Central America is counted as part of North America.
Eurasia is not really an alternative, rather it is a recognition that the landmasses of Europe and Asia are continuous, and some of its largest countries are in both regions.
Russia extends from eastern Europe to the far east of Asia without a break.
The Ural Mountains, which run roughly north–south, are the traditional dividing-line between Europe and Asia.
For many purposes it is convenient to consider the great landmass as a single continent, Eurasia.
When British people talk about "the Continent" (or "Continental" things) they mean the European mainland.
This meaning is not used as much as it used to be, but is still seen in phrases like "Continental breakfast" (rolls with cheese, jam etc.
as distinct from an "English breakfast" which is a cooked breakfast).
Continents not only move but also sometimes move against each other.
The Indian subcontinent has been colliding with the Eurasian continent for a while now.
As these continents push against each other, they buckle and bend.
Because of this, the Himalaya Mountains, where Mount Everest is, are still being made today.
Antarctica is Earth's fifth largest continent.
Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth, covers Earth's South Pole.
The continent only have two seasons, summer and winter.
Antarctica is a desert, it does not rain or snow a lot there.
Ever since its discovery in 1812, Antarctica with a surface area of ~13.6 –14 million km2 about 1.4 times the size of Europe, proved to be a great challenge for explorers.
Despite being nearly completely covered by a thick layer of ice, Antarctica harbors a wide range of aquatic and terrestrial environement.
Zealandia is an almost entirely submerged land mass, and 93% of it still remains under water.
Zealandia may have broken off the Australian plate between 85 and 130 million years ago.
The Greek classical elements are fire, air, water, and earth.
In Greek philosophy, science and medicine, these make up a whole.
Fire is both hot and dry.
Air is both hot and wet.
Water is both cold and wet.
Earth is both cold and dry.
The image below has two squares on top of each other.
The corners of one are the classical elements.
The corners of the other are the properties.
Galen said these elements were used by Hippocrates to describe the human body.
The elements are linked to the four humours: phlegm (water), yellow bile (fire), black bile (earth), and blood (air).
The official name is People's Republic of China.
The Republic of China (ROC) (since 1911),  commonly known as China since 1 January, 1911 to 25 October, 1971.
Now commonly known as Taiwan, has controlled over the islands of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu.
The People's Republic of China (PRC) (since 1949), commonly known as China, has control over mainland China and the largely self-governing territories of Hong Kong (since 1997) and Macau (since 1999).
China is one of the world's oldest civilizations: it has the oldest continuous civilization near Yellow River region There is archaeological evidence over 5,000 years old.
China also has one of the world's oldest writing systems (and the oldest in use today).
China has been the source of many major inventions.
Geographically, China’s longest river is the Yangtze River which runs through mega cities and is home to many species.
It is the world’s third longest river.
The first recorded use of the word "China" is dated 1555.
It is derived from chīnī, a Persian adjective meaning 'Chinese' which was popularized in Europe by Marco Polo.
Ancient (2100 B.C.  1500 A.D.)
Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing, with the others being Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley civilization, the Maya civilization, the Minoan civilization of ancient Greece, and Ancient Egypt.
It reached its golden age during the Tang Dynasty (c. A.D. 10th century).
Home of  Confucianism and Daoism, it had great influence on nearby countries including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam in the areas of political system, philosophy, religion, art, writing and literature.
China is home to some of the oldest artwork in the world.
Statues and pottery, as well as decorations made of jade, are some classic examples.
Before the Qin Dynasty united China, there were many small feudal states, nominally loyal to the Zhou King, that fought each other for hundreds of years in a war to control China.
The majority of these states were ruled by relatives and clansmen of the Zhou royal house and carried the surname Ji (姬) and so were tied by family bonds to the Zhou king, to whom they were ritually subordinate, as members of collateral or lesser lineages.
A minority of these states, such as the Qin and Chu, were ruled by non-Zhou clansmen, and were awarded their fiefs on account of some merit.
Over time, these feudal states attained to power and wealth, that exceeded that of their Zhou nominal overlord, whose direct authority became confined to a very small territory near present day Zhengzhou.
These states also began to acquire some distinctive characteristics and identities of their own during the long centuries of loose control by the Zhou.
Eventually, the Zhou kings were eclipsed in power by two especially problematic vassals - the Qin and Chu, and the functional independence of the Qin later led to its gradual conquest of all other vassal states and the formal supplantation of the Zhou to form a heavily centralised Empire.
The long decline of the Zhou, incidentally the longest ruling dynastic house of China, is known as the Warring States Period.
Despite the bloodiness and strife of the period, this was the time when many great philosophies emerged - including Confucianism and Daoism as a response to disintegrating central authority of the Zhou kings and fluctuating power of the vassal states, and the general uncertainty of that era.
Confucianism and Daoism have been the foundation of many social values seen in modern east Asian cultures today.
Other notable dynasties include the Han (from which is derived the ethnonym the Han Chinese, which is synonymous with the older self-referential term  - the Huaxia) as well as dynasties such as the Tang, Song, and Ming, which were characterised by periods of affluence, wealth, population growth, and the proliferation of literature.
During the later years, China was often raided or invaded by northern nomadic people such as the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Jurchens and the Mongols (the latter led by Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan).
One  effect of regular nomadic invasion and the collapse of native dynasties was the massive migration of Han Chinese - especially the aristocratic elite and the literati, to sparsely populated frontier regions south of the Yangzi river such as Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian.
Several notable waves of Han Chinese immigration to Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian took place during the collapse of the Jin, the Tang, and the Song.
Some nomadic groups succeeded in conquering the whole territory of China, establishing dynasties such as the Yuan (Mongol) and Qing (Manchu).
Each time, they also brought new elements into Chinese culture - for instance, military uniform, the qipao and the pigtail, the latter of which was deeply resented by the Han Chinese.
A new age
By the time of the Renaissance, European powers started to take over other countries in Asia.
While China was never actually taken over, many European countries, such as Britain and France built spheres of influence in China.
Since China had cut itself off from the world over the previous few centuries, by the Qing Dynasty, it had fallen behind other countries in technology, and was helpless to stop this from happening.
This had become clear when it lost the Opium Wars to Britain in the 19th century.
Still influenced by Western sources, China faced internal strife.
The Taiping Rebellion or Taiping War occurred in China from 1851 through 1864.
The Taiping Rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan from Guangdon.
Hong Xiuquan was influenced by Christian missionaries and declared himself the brother of Jesus.
Hong made his mission to bring down the Qing Dynasty.
Gaining influence on the southern Chinese population, the Taiping Rebellion attracted tens of thousands of supporters.
The Taiping regime successfully created a state within the Qing Empire with the capital at Nanjing.
Hong called his new state the Taiping Tianguo or "The Heavenly State of Great Peace".
Local armies eventually suppressed the rebellion at the final battle of Nanjing.
In 1911, the Republic of China was founded by Sun Yat-sen, but its government was very weak.
Warlords controlled many areas.
Chiang Kai-shek led wars against them, and he became President and dictator.
In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, a place in the northeastern part of China.
On July 7, 1937, the Japanese attacked the rest of the country, starting what was called the Second Sino-Japanese War.
The war later became part of World War II.
The war was fought for eight years and millions of Chinese people were killed.
However, the Chinese Civil War later started between the Kuomintang (Nationalists) of the Republic of China (ROC) and the Communists of the People's Republic of China (PRC).
The Communists wanted to make China like the Soviet Union, whereas the other side wanted to keep China in its current state at the time.
The Communists were led by Mao Zedong, Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai and others.
The Communists eventually won the war by uniting all the people from different positions.
The Nationalists (led by Chiang Kai-shek) fled to the island of Taiwan and set up their new capital city in Taipei.
After the Chinese Civil War, the Communist leader Mao Zedong declared a new country, the People's Republic of China (PRC), in Beijing on October 1, 1949.
Under Mao the country stayed poor while Taiwan became richer.
His attempt at industrialization and collectivization with the Great Leap Forward led to the deaths of many people from famine.
The Cultural Revolution caused great social upheaval.
After 1976, China underwent market economy reforms under Deng Xiaoping, and experienced rapid economic growth, which made the former progress made by Taiwan became overshadowed.
China is now one of the largest economies in the world, relying mainly on exports.
In recent history, China has had problems with protests, blocking of information on the Internet, and censorship of news.
1989 was notable for the controversial Tiananmen Square protests.
Since the 2008 Olympics, China has hosted many major international events, and the 2022 Winter Olympics will be held in Beijing, China.
China's landscape is vast and diverse.
It ranges from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the north to subtropical forests in the south.
The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia.
The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern coast.
The Yangtze River is the third-longest river in the world while the Yellow River is the sixth-longest.
China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers (9,000 mi) long.
It is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas.
China connects through the Kazakh border to the Eurasian Steppe.
The Eurasian Steppe has been an artery of communication between East and West since the Neolithic through the Steppe route.
The Steppe Route is the ancestor of the terrestrial Silk Road(s).
China's constitution states that The People's Republic of China "is a socialist state under the people's democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants".
It also states the state organs "apply the principle of democratic centralism."
The PRC is one of the world's only socialist states openly being communist.
With 2.3 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest standing military force in the world.
The PLA is commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC).
China has the second-biggest military reserve force, only behind North Korea.
The PLA consists of the Ground Force (PLAGF), the Navy (PLAN), the Air Force (PLAAF), and the People's Liberation Army Rocket Force (PLARF).
According to the Chinese government, China's military budget for 2017 was US$151,5 billion.
China has the world's second-largest military budget.
China was once a world leader in science and technology up until the Ming dynasty.
There are many Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions.
For example, papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder  are known as the Four Great Inventions.
They became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later to Europe.
Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers.
By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world became better than China in science and technology.
The national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People's Republic of China to be about 1,370,536,875.
About 16.60% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 70.14% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 13.26% were over 60 years old.
The population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0.46%.
China is the origin of Eastern martial arts, called Kung Fu or its first name Wushu.
China is also the home of the well-respected Spa Monastery and Wudang Mountains.
Martial art started more for the purpose of survival, defense, and warfare than art.
Over time some art forms have branched off, while others have retained their distinct Chinese flavor.
China has had renowned artists including Wong Fei Hung (Huang Fei Hung or Hwang Fei Hung) and many others.
Art has also co-existed with a variety of paints including the more standard 18 colors.
Legendary and controversial moves like Big Mak are also praised and talked about within the culture.
China has many traditional festivals, such as Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-autumn Festival and so on.
The most important is Chinese New Year.
People in China will have holidays to celebrate these festivals.
Dragon Boat Festival is celebrated to commemorate the death of Qu Yuan, a patriotic poet of the State of Chu during the Warring States period.
He persuaded his emperor not to accept Qin's diplomats' offers several times but his emperor did not listen to him.
He was very sad and ended up jumping into the river to end his life.
The people loved him so much that they did not want the fish to eat his corpse.
They made and threw rice dumplings into the river.
They hope the fish eat these dumplings instead of the poet's corpse.
They also rowed dragon boats in the river to get rid of the fish.
Such practices, eating rice dumplings and holding dragon boat races, become what Chinese do in this festival nowadays.
Held on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, Mid-Autumn Festival is a festival for families.
Now when the festival sets in, people would sit together to eat moon cakes, appreciate the bright full moon cakes, appreciate the bright full moon, celebrate the bumper harvest and enjoy the family love and happiness.
To the Chinese people, the full moon symbolizes family reunion, as does the "moon cakes."
Hence the Mid-Autumn Festival is also called the Family Reunion Festival.
City Photo Gallery of China
China | Geography | People | Economy
China -Citizendium
A country is a territory with distinct political boundaries and borders that claims sovereignty over a specific geographic area with a permanent population, controlled by its own government that enters relations with other states, or a piece of land that's under the control of its own government.
There is no universally accepted answer as to how many countries in the world there actually are, however the minimum answer is 193 for the 193 United Nations members.
This number can become bigger in other ways.
For example, there are two United Nations observer states.
The Vatican City State and the State of Palestine.
This would add two to the list of United Nations member states, there for the number of countries the would be 195.
Taiwan is also sometimes classified as a country.
However, there is an ongoing disputes over Taiwan's sovereignty with the People's Republic of China.
There are a number of disputed areas that have declared independence from their parent state and receive limited recognition.
For example, Kosovo, Artsakh, Transnistria and Abkhazia, Northern Cyprus.
These are just some of the many examples of territories with limited to no recognition that are sometimes classed as countries.
There is a lot of controversy surrounding the above examples and quite often any one of these territories may be counted as countries purely based on opinion.
If all of the above were added the list of U.N members there could be anything up to 211 countries based on the previous examples given.
Depending on how loosely the dictionary definition for the word country is used there could be anything from 193 countries in the world or more.
The matter is purely subjective depending on varying opinions and there has never been any consideration as to what the maximum number of countries in the world could be.
Constituent country is a term sometimes used, usually by official institutions, in contexts in which a number of countries compose a long entity or grouping.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has used the term referring to the former Yugoslavia, and the European institutions like the Council of Europe often use it in reference to the European Union.
Territorial dispute
A disputed territory is that territory whose sovereignty is jealously desired by two or more countries.
Usually the administration of the territory is carried out by one of the countries that claims sovereignty, while the other country does not recognize the sovereignty over the territory of the other country.
This does not usually happen in land or sea areas on which none possesses effective control, such as Antarctica, or only partially.
It can also be considered as a disputed territory to those areas that are given by two different governments, and therefore are divided.
Geography Trainer 1.3.5 - Educational game aimed at school children to teach world capitals
Geography Trainer US States 1.1 game
Geography Site Country Profiles - Based on the CIA World Factbook
Colchester is a town in the northern part of the English county of Essex.
It has a population of 104,000 people.
People believe that Colchester is the oldest Roman town in England.
Before Roman times, Colchester was Camulodunon.
This is a Celtic name that came from Camulos.
Camulos was the Celtic god of war.
The Romans called Colchester Camulodunum (written "CAMVLODVNVM") and made it the capital of Roman Britain.
Colchester was attacked and burnt by Boudicca in 61 AD.
The Romans moved their capital of Britannia to Londinium (now London), but Camulodunum remained an important city until the fifth century, when the Saxons conquered the region.
The Roman town of Camulodunum, officially known as Colonia Victricensis, reached its peak in the Second and Third centuries AD.
It may have reached a population of 30,000 in those centuries, but when the Romans withdrew from Britannia in 410 AD it probably had fewer than 5,000 inhabitants.
The church at the Benedictine abbey of Saint John the Baptist was destroyed in 1539.
This action was part of the dissolution of the monasteries by King Henry VIII.
Only a gate remains, that people still go to visit.
Twin cities
Imola, Italy
Wetzlar, Germany
Avignon, France
B D'Ambrosio. "
Roman Camulodunum".
Universita' Statale di Genova (Genova University).
Genova, 2007
Towns in Essex
Cartography is making maps.
It is part of geography.
How people make maps is always changing.
In the past, maps were drawn by hand, but today most printed maps are made using computers and people usually see maps on computer screens.
Someone who makes maps is called a cartographer.
Making a map can be as simple as drawing a direction on a napkin, or as complicated as showing a whole country or world.
Anyone can make a map, but cartographers spend their lives learning how to make better maps.
For many centuries maps were usually carefully drawn onto paper or parchment.
Now they are made on a computer which makes them look neater with accurate images.
General maps with a variety of features.
Thematic maps with particular themes for specific audiences.
General maps are produced in a series.
Governments produce them in larger-scale and smaller-scale maps of great detail.
Thematic maps are now very common.
They are necessary to show spatial, cultural and social data.
In some religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) God (or Allah meaning the God in Arabic) is the most important and original creator of the whole universe - including Man who is made "in his image" (see Genesis) to observe it and control it like God.
The idea that anything that a person is creating, like an idea, can be owned as property comes from the ethical traditions and legal codes that came from these religions.
In other traditions (Buddhism, Native American mythology) anyone has this potential for creating, and can become part of the greater creating of the universe.
Stewardship of home, land and all of Earth is a test for participating in this, or just good sense.
Creative network
Chorizo is a pork (pig-meat) sausage which people first made in the Iberian Peninsula.
It is made with large pieces of fatty pork, chili pepper and paprika.
The special taste of this sausage comes from the mild Spanish paprika in it.
In the western hemisphere, the Mexican and Caribbean types are better known.
These types of chorizo are made with smaller pieces of pork and different seasonings and peppers are used.
Cured smoked chorizo is edible and can be eaten without cooking.
Fresh chorizo must be cooked before eating.
It can be eaten by its self, or as part of meal.
It can also be used in place of ground beef or pork.
Creativity is the ability of a person or group to make something new and useful or valuable, or the process of making something new and useful or valuable.
It happens in all areas of life - science, art, literature and music.
As a personal ability it is very difficult to measure.
The reason is that we don't understand the mental processes that help some people be more creative than others.
Judging what is creative is also controversial.
Some people say only things which are historically new are creative, while other people say that if it is new for the creator and the people around them, then it is also creativity.
Some think that creativity is an important thing that makes humans different from apes.
Others recognize that even apes, other primates, other mammals and some birds adapt to survive by being creative (for example - primates using tools).
Liane Gabora believes that all culture comes from creativity, not imitation.
Therefore, these people say, human science should focus on it (pay special attention to it): Ethics for example would focus on finding creative solutions to ethical dilemmas.
Politics would focus on the political virtues that need some creativity.
Imitation would not be the focus of education.
Linguistics might be more interested in how new words are created by culture, rather than in how existing ones are used in grammar.
Intellectual interests (recognized as intellectual rights or intellectual property in the law) are a way to reward creativity in law, but they do not always work very well.