the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Hamsters are rodents belonging to the subfamily Cricetinae.
The subfamily contains about 25 species in six or seven genera.
They have become established as popular small house pets.
They are a bit like a mouse.
Wild hamsters live in the desert, but people all over the world keep domesticated hamsters as pets.
In the wild, hamsters are crepuscular and stay underground during the day.
They feed on seeds, fruits, and vegetation, and occasionally eat burrowing insects.
Hamsters are distinguished by their large cheek pouches, and relatively short tail.
They use their long cheek pouches (extending to their shoulders) to carry food back to their burrows.
Hamsters as pets
There are six main types of hamsters: the Syrian hamster (the kind most people have as pets), winter whites, campbells, the Russian dwarf hamster (a hybrid of winter white and Campbell's dwarf hamsters), the Chinese hamster, and the Roborovski hamster.
Unlike other species, the Chinese hamster has a long tail.
All Syrian hamsters are the descendants of 12 baby hamsters found in Syria in 1930.
Pet hamsters should live in cages with wood shavings or recycled newspaper (pine or cedar shavings are toxic to hamsters).
Plain toilet paper is also a cheap, safe option, but straw should only be given in small amounts.
Hamsters eat mostly hamster food sold at a pet shop, but they can also eat many vegetables and fruits in small portions.
Hamsters store food in natural pouches in the sides of their mouths.
Because they are rodents, hamster incisors grow constantly.
They need wooden blocks and hard food to wear the teeth down and prevent them from getting too long.
Most hamsters also have a wheel to run on for exercise.
A 6 inch (15 cm) wheel is recommended for most dwarf hamsters, and at least an eight-inch (20 cm) wheel for Syrians.
If the wheel is too small, the hamster's spine can become bent.
Some people get other kinds of exercise equipment for their hamsters, like a "hamster ball" in which the hamster can roll around the floor (though these are not recommended by some animal welfare groups), or a long network of tubes with air holes for hamsters to crawl through.
They should live in a tank or cage.
Hamsters are not recommended for young children.
A watch is a small clock carried or worn by a person.
It makes it easy to see the time.
It is also a fashion accessory for men and women, and expensive watches are designed for this purpose.
A watch may be one of the few accessories worn by a person.
A wristwatch is designed to be worn on a wrist, attached by a strap or other type of bracelet.
A pocket watch is to be carried in a pocket.
There are other variations.
Nurses often wear a watch attached to the front of their uniform.
It hangs down from a short strap: when lifted by the user it is right side up.
Watches evolved in the 17th century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th century.
In 1524, Peter Henlein created the first pocket watch.
As technology developed, mechanical watches were largely replaced by vibrating quartz crystals, producing accurately timed electronic pulses.
Some watches use radio technology to correct the time and date.
The first digital electronic watch was developed in 1970.
Electronic movements, also known as quartz movements, have few or no moving parts, except a quartz crystal which is made to vibrate by the piezoelectric effect.
A varying electric voltage is applied to the crystal, which responds by changing its shape so it works as an oscillator.
It resonates at a stable frequency, which paces a timekeeping mechanism.
Most quartz movements are primarily electronic but are geared to drive mechanical hands on the face of the watch to give a traditional analog display of the time.
Most consumers prefer this.
Edward Theodore "Ed" Gein (August 27, 1906 – July 26, 1984) was not an American serial killer.
Gein was found guilty of only two murders.
Gein is considered by many to be even more well known because of several movies that were based in part on him.
He was also known as The Butcher of Plainfield, The Plainfield Butcher, The Mad Butcher and The Plainfield Ghoul.
Ed Gein and his brother Henry were raised by their mother on their 160-acre farm near Plainfield, Wisconsin.
She was a very religious woman and was very protective about her boys.
She kept them away from women and busy with farm work.
His alcoholic father died in 1940.
A few years later his brother Henry died on May 16, 1944, officially while fighting a grass fire (though there was evidence he was murdered by Ed).
Soon after that, his mother had her first stroke.
In 1945 she had her second stroke and died.
Ed was left alone.
Gein then closed off the upstairs and the parlour of the house as well as his mother’s bedroom.
He lived in the one other bedroom, kitchen and shed of the large house.
He stopped working the farm because a government program paid him a subsidy.
He also made money by doing small jobs for people in the area.
Ed read books on human anatomy and Nazi concentration camp experiments.
He was very interested in it all, especially the female anatomy.
His grave robbing began in 1947.
One day he saw a newspaper article of a woman who had been buried that day.
The first corpse came from a grave very near the grave of Gein’s mother.[Indeed, one report is that among the first grave robbing incidents was that of his own mother ]
Gein continued to do this for the next ten years.
He would check the newspaper often for fresh bodies.
He always went to the graveyard at the time of a full moon.
Gein would take the whole female corpse or just the parts he wanted, put the dirt back in the grave and take home what he took from the grave.
Gein did many strange things with the dead bodies.
He would build objects from the bones and skin.
The organs would be put into the refrigerator to eat later.
It was claimed that he also had sex with the bodies (necrophilia), a charge he denied because they "smelled too bad".
The Murders
Ed Gein’s first victim was Mary Hogan, a 51-year-old divorcee and the owner of a local tavern in Pine Grove, six miles from his home.
On the afternoon of December 8, 1954, he shot her in the head with his 32-caliber revolver.
He put her body in his pickup truck and took her back to his shed.
A customer who dropped into the tavern found the place deserted, and a large bloodstain on the floor.
A spent .32 cartridge lay near it.
Bloodstains ran out the back door and into the parking lot, where they halted beside tire tracks that looked like those of a pickup truck.
It looked as if Mary Hogan had been shot and taken away.
Police were not able to learn anything about what happened to her.
A few weeks later, a sawmill owner named Elmo Ueeck talked to Gein about it.
Gein replied, "She isn’t missing, she’s at the farm right now."
Ueeck did not ask him what he meant by that.
There may have been other victims in the years that followed.
Nothing is known for certain about Gein until November 16, 1957 when he shot & killed Bernice Worden in her store in Plainfield.
He used a .22 rifle from a rack in the store and his own bullet which he carried with him.
He then locked the store and took the body home in the store’s truck.
Gein also took the cash register.
He later explained that he did not take it to commit robbery.
He wanted to see how it worked and planned to return it later.
Bernice Worden’s son, Frank, often worked with her in the store.
That morning he had gone deer hunting.
When he got back, he saw that the store was closed with the lights still on and his mother was missing.
He also saw that the cash register was gone and there was blood on the floor.
Frank Worden talked to the sheriff, Art Schley and told him what he had seen.
He checked the record of sales made that morning.
One of them was for half a gallon of antifreeze.
Worden remembered that Ed Gein had stopped by the night before at closing time.
He had said that he would be back the next morning for antifreeze.
Ed had also asked Worden if he was going hunting the next day.
With the cash register missing, he thought that Gein had planned a robbery once he learned Frank would not be there.
Worden told this to the sheriff.
The sheriff and captain Lloyd Schoephoester went to the farm, seven miles outside Plainfield.
Gein’s home
The house was dark and Ed Gein was not there when the police arrived.
They drove to a store where Gein usually bought groceries where they found Gein, who was just about to leave in his truck.
The sheriff stopped him and asked him to get into the police car for questioning.
Sheriff Schley had not said anything about Bernice Worden’s death before Gein said that he thought someone had tried to frame him for the death, at which point Schley arrested Gein.
Sheriff Schley & Captain Schoephoester went back to Gein's house with other officers.
The doors to the house were locked, but the door to the shed behind the house was not.
Inside they found a naked corpse of a woman hanging upside down from a crossbeam.
The legs were spread wide apart and there was a long cut from the genitals almost to the throat.
The throat and head were missing.
The genitals and the anus were also missing.
Bernice Worden had been cut open & dressed out like a deer.
There was no electricity in the dark house.
They had to search it with oil lamps, lanterns, and flashlights.
The place looked like it had not been clean in years.
The few rooms that were not nailed shut were full of books, old papers, magazines, utensils, tin cans, cartons and other junk.
Whole human bones and fragments
Wastebasket made of human skin
Human skin covering several chair seats
Skulls on his bedposts
Female skulls, some with the tops sawn off
Bowls made from human skulls
A corset made from a female torso skinned from shoulders to waist
Leggings made from human leg skin
Masks made from the skin of female heads
Mary Hogan's face mask in a paper bag
Mary Hogan's skull in a box
Bernice Worden's entire head in a burlap sack
Bernice Worden's heart "in a plastic bag in front of Gein's potbellied stove"
A young girl's dress and "the vulvas of two females judged to have been about fifteen years old"
A belt made from female human nipples
Four noses
A pair of lips on a window shade drawstring
A lampshade made from the skin of a human face
Fingernails from female fingers
When questioned, Gein told investigators that between 1947 and 1952, he made as many as 40 nocturnal visits to three local graveyards to exhume recently buried bodies while he was in a "daze-like" state.
On about 30 of those visits, he said he came out of the daze while in the cemetery, left the grave in good order, and returned home empty-handed.
On the other occasions, he dug up the graves of recently buried middle-aged women he thought resembled his mother and took the bodies home, where he tanned their skins to make his paraphernalia.
Gein admitted to stealing from nine graves of deceased women from two [three{?} ]
local cemeteries and led investigators to their locations.
Because authorities were uncertain as to whether the slight Gein was capable of single-handedly digging up a grave during a single evening, they deceided to exhume test graves.
Allan Wilimovsky of the state crime laboratory participated in opening three test graves identified by Gein.
The caskets were inside wooden boxes; the top boards ran crossways (not lengthwise).
The tops of the boxes were about two feet (60 cm) below the surface in sandy soil.
Gein had robbed the graves soon after the funerals while the graves were not completed.
They were found as Gein described: One casket was empty, one Gein had failed to open when he lost his pry bar, and most of the body was gone from the third, but Gein had returned rings and some body parts thus apparently corroborating Gein's confession.
Besides the remains of Worden from the shed, the remains of Mary Hogan were the only other identified remains found in Geins House.
The bodies of 15 different women had been used to create Gein’s trophies.
It is also said that sometimes Gein brought gifts of fresh venison to his neighbours but Gein said he had never shot a deer in his life.
In November 1957 burned remains of at least one woman were found in an ash pit behind Gein's house; the largest bone piece was three inches long.
Remains of another woman were found in a garbage pit
May 1, 1947 Georgia Jean Weckler age 8 of Ft Atkinson Wis "Vanished"
November 1, 1952 Victor Travis age 42 and Ray Burgess, two locals going deer hunting near Geins farm "Vanished"
October 24, 1953 Eveleyn Grace Hartley age 15 of La Crosse, Wisconsin apparently abducted while baby sitting.
Blood stains, her shoes and her bloody clothing was found-but she "vanished"[Gein was visiting relatives in La Crosse at the time of Hartley's dissapearence; likewise they were located very near where Hartley was babysitting] Gein also made odd remarks about Hartleys disappearance-similar to Mary Hogan's "vanishment"]
June 1954 James Walsh age 32 a neighbor of Geins "vanished"
August 1956 Irene Keating age 30 "vanished"
A 16-year-old youth, whose parents were friends of Gein and who attended ball games and movies with him, reported that Gein kept shrunken heads in his house, which Gein had described as relics from the Philippines, sent by a cousin who had served on the islands during World War II.
Upon investigation by the police, these were determined to be human facial skins, carefully peeled from corpses and used by Gein as masks.
During questioning, Waushara County sheriff Art Schley reportedly assaulted Gein by banging his head and face into a brick wall.
As a result, Gein's initial confession was ruled inadmissible.
Schley died of heart failure at age 43 in 1968, before Gein's trial.
Many who knew Schley said he was traumatized by the horror of Gein's crimes, and this, along with the fear of having to testify (especially about assaulting Gein), caused his death.
One of his friends said: "He was a victim of Ed Gein as surely as if he had butchered him."
Gein was sent to the Central State Hospital for the Criminally insane.
He was proven insane.
The doctors thought that he loved his mother but he hated her, so that is why he killed older women.
It is said that Mary Hogan looked similar to his mother.
Gein said he was not a cannibal or necrophiliac.
He did admit grave robbing.
Many people became interested because of the true nature of the crime.
Thousands of people drove to Plainfield to look at the 'murder farm'.
Eventually the place was burned down by person or persons unknown March 20, 1958 Plainfield citizens felt the old farmhouse was a place of evil.
After the arson, an auction was held of the relics of the farm-the highest item sold was Gein's Ford "death car"
At Christmas, 1957, Gein was judged insane.
In 1968, Gein was found guilty but legally insane of the murder of Worden, was committed to Waupan State Hospital for the rest of his life.
Gein died of cancer in Madison, Wisconsin on July 26, 1984, at the age of 78.
He was buried in Plainfield next to the graves of his family.
The movie Psycho was based on the Robert Bloch book and made into a Hitchcock movie.
Bloch got most of the ideas for Psycho from Gein's life.
With the overpowering mother and horror of the movie, it was one of the first of a kind.
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre was based in some parts on Gein.
The story is about a group of teenagers who go to a horror house.
The people that live in the house are a family of strange homicidal cannibals who also like grave robbing and building furniture made of bones and skulls.
The lead bad guy is called ‘Leatherface’.
Leatherface likes chasing teens around with his chainsaw and wearing a mask made from the faces of his victims.
The 1990 episode "The Long Road Home" of the fantasy horror series "Friday the The 13th [The Series]" is in homage to this movie.
The Academy Award-winning movie The Silence of the Lambs also uses part of Gein's life.
It is about an FBI agent who is tracking down a serial killer.
To find him she must get the help of an intelligent cannibal, Dr. Hannibal Lecter.
The serial killer she is trying to catch is called ‘Buffalo Bill’.
He likes to kill women and make clothes of their skin.
He also wants to be a woman and made a skin costume like that of Gein.
PDF summary of Gein's life
Prairie Ghosts Ed Gein
Trutv.com/Library Ed Gein
American serial killers
Disease-related deaths in Wisconsin
Easter, also called Resurrection Day and Pascha, is a Christian holiday celebrating Jesus Christ returning from the dead.
Christians believe that it is the holiest day in the year.
Some people who are not Christians celebrate it as a cultural holiday.
Easter is not held on the same date every year.
This is called a moveable feast.
Currently all Christian churches agree on how the date is calculated.
Easter is celebrated on the first Sunday following the first full moon which is on or after March 21st.
This means it is celebrated in March or April.
It can occur as early as March 22 and as late as April 11.
Western churches, like the Roman Catholic Church, use the Gregorian calendar, while Eastern churches, like the Eastern Orthodox Church, use the Julian calendar.
Because of this, the date of Easter celebrations is different for these two types of churches even though the way they calculate the date is similar.
In 2015 Easter was celebrated on April 5 for both the Gregorian calendar and Julian calendar.
In 2019 Easter was celebrated on the 21st of April.
The word "Easter" is derived from Eastra, the name of the ancient German Goddess of Spring.
Her festival occurred at the vernal equinox.
The French word for Easter, Pâcques, comes from the Greek word for Passover, which is the Jewish holiday celebrated at about the same time of the year.
Importance to Christians
Jesus died roughly 2000 years ago in a city called Jerusalem (most of Jerusalem is in the modern country of Israel).
The people who killed him did so because they believed that he was causing trouble for the government and because he was claiming to be the Messiah.
When they crucified him (meaning they nailed him to a cross), they even hung a sign over his head, which said, "King of the Jews."
The day he was crucified is known by Christians as Good Friday.
The New Testament states that on the Sunday after Jesus was killed, his body was no longer in the tomb where he was laid.
Later, Jesus is said to have appeared to over 500 people and preached to them.
The New Testament teaches that the resurrection of Jesus is what Christianity is based on.
The resurrection made people believe that Jesus was the powerful Son of God.
It is also spoken of as proof that God will judge the world fairly.
Christians believe that God has given Christians "a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead".
Christians believe that through faith in God they are spiritually made alive with Jesus so that they may lead a new life.
Customs and traditions
Easter is celebrated in several ways in northern Europe and the United States.
Most of these celebrations have nothing to do with the Christian meaning of the holiday.
These celebrations are related more to the pagan festivals of ancient Germany.
Children are given baskets to fill with candy.
Eggs are decorated and hidden for children to find that the "Easter Bunny" supposedly laid.
People wear new clothes and go to church.
Greeting cards are exchanged.
An Easter Egg Roll is held on the lawn of the White House on the day after Easter.
Small leafless trees or branches are carried indoors and decorated with colored eggs, paper trims, and lights.
Some shopping malls offer children a chance to visit with an adult costumed as the Easter Bunny.
Forced tulips, hyacinths and lilies are given as gifts.
Week-long vacations are taken following Easter Day, giving families the chance to visit with distant relatives.
In America, many families leave the cold of northern states to visit amusement parks or sunny beaches in the south.
Spring break for American high school and college students usually occurs about Easter time.
Agnosticism is the philosophical view that it is unknown (or even, unknowable) whether any deities (god or gods) exist or not.
Some people who call themselves "agnostic" say that it is not possible for anyone ever to know if there are any deities or not.
Other agnostics, though, say only that they themselves currently do not know if there are any deities.
Thomas Henry Huxley, the English biologist, coined the word "agnostic" in 1869.
In 1889 he wrote "Agnosticism... is not a creed, but a method... the fundamental axiom of modern science...  In matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable".
Absolute agnosticism (also called hard agnosticism, closed agnosticism, strict agnosticism, strong agnosticism) is the belief that it is not possible to know whether a god/gods exists or not.
Empirical agnosticism (also called soft agnosticism, open agnosticism, weak agnosticism, temporal agnosticism) is the belief that at present there is  not enough information to know whether any god/gods exists or not, but that we might find out someday.
Apathetic agnosticism is the belief that it does not matter whether any god/gods exists or not.
People often have difficulty telling agnosticism and atheism apart.
Atheists do not believe in the existence of deities, and some say that they are sure that no deity exists.
Some (perhaps most) atheists, though, say that it is up to theists (people who believe in a deity) to give the evidence for a god or to show why someone should believe in a god.
They state that there is neither enough evidence nor a strong enough argument to believe any gods exist, and so they reject belief that any exist.
While agnostics think we cannot know for sure whether any deities exist, some agnostics do believe at least one deity exists.
These people are both agnostic and theistic—they believe at least one deity exists, but do not claim to know that to be true.
Some people are both atheist and agnostic—they reject belief in any deities without claiming to know that deities do not exist.
Some agnostics just cannot themselves decide whether to believe any deities exist or not.
Beliefs related to agnosticism
Ignosticism is the belief that the idea of god/gods does not have a good enough definition, so saying "god exists" or "god does not exist" does not mean anything.
Some people think ignosticism is a kind of agnosticism, some people think it is a kind of atheism, and some people think it is different from both.
Agnostic theism is when people mostly believe in god/gods but are not completely certain.
Agnostic atheism is the view that a god/gods may or may not exist, but there is no good reason to believe they do.
Post-theism is the view that religion used to be important, but is not anymore.
UMD can also mean University of Maryland.
The Universal Media Disc (UMD) is an optical disc made by Sony for their PlayStation Portable handheld console.
It can hold up to 900 megabytes (single layer) or 1.8 gigabytes (double layer) of data.
The disc can store games, music, and video, along with updates for the PSP.
It is the first optical disc format to be used for a handheld video game system.
To prevent illegal copying, Sony has not made blank discs available for sale.
This disc is not used with any other devices.
The UMD is very fragile and can be broken from misuse.
Georgia is a Eurasian country in Caucasia.
It is on the coast of the Black Sea.
During 1918-1921, and 1991-1995 its full name was the Republic of Georgia.
Since 1995 it is Georgia as written in the Constitution.
It was part of the Soviet Union between 1921-1991, but now it is an independent republic.
The capital city is Tbilisi.
Its population is almost 4 million.
The Georgians are an ancient people.
Their capital Tbilisi was founded around AD 400, by the king Vakhtang Gorgasali.
Western Georgia was part of the Roman Empire before then.
The Arabs captured it in 635 AD.
The culture continued and they flourished through trade.
In the 900s Arabs influence diminished in Caucasia significantly.
In 1008 Kingdom of Georgia was formed.
It was the major country in the region until the Mongols invaded in 1223.
Georgia was part of the Mongolian empire for a century on and off until 1334, when King Giorgi V took over.
In the 1400s Georgia dissolved into several principalities.
In the 1500s the Persians invaded Eastern Georgia four times from 1541-1544.
In 1555 the Kings of Kartli ruled through the will of the Persian Shahs.
In 1783 The treaty of Georgievsk was signed between Catherine the Great of Russia and King Heraclius II, giving Russia the power to protect Georgia.
Then, in 1798 the Persians burned Tbilisi to the ground.
From 1811 to 1918 Georgia was under the Tsar of Russia.
Their culture survived intact.
From 1918 to 1921 Georgia was independent, and then was part of the Soviet Union.
In 1991 most people from Georgia voted to be a free nation again, and Georgia declared their independence from the Soviet Union.
Newly established Republic of Georgia saw bloody Civil War resulting in downfall of first-ever president of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia.
Georgia was also involved in War in Abkhazia.
There was a rough patch between 1994 and 1995 when the economy was poor, although Georgia saw significant improvements in last few years.
Now Georgia is applying to NATO and European Union.
Georgia is next to the countries of Russia, Turkey, Armenia and Azerbaijan.
It also has a coast on the Black Sea.
It is at the edge of Europe and Asia.
Georgia has many mountains.
Its highest point is 5,193 m above sea level.
The mountains running through Georgia are called the Caucasus Mountains.
The highest mountain in Georgia is Mount Shkhara at 5,193 m. The coastline of Georgia is 310 km long.
Georgia has about 25,000 rivers.
The largest river is the Mtkvari.
Georgia is divided into 9 regions, 1 city, and 2 autonomous republics.
These in turn are divided into 67 districts and 12 self-governing cities.
The region of Abkhazia declared independence in 1999.
South Ossetia is officially known by Georgia as the Tskinvali region.
Georgia considers both regions as occupied by Russia.
The population of Georgia is about 4 million.
About 1.2 million of these live in Tbilisi.
People from Georgia are called Georgians.
Most of them speak Georgian as their first language, though some people also speak Azerbaijani, Armenian, Russian or other languages.
Georgians have their own unique three alphabets/scripts, Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli, with Asomtavruli being the very first Georgian Script, which was said to be invented by King Pharnavaz I of Iberia
The currency of Georgia is called the Lari.
Full information about (country) Georgia (English, German, Russian, Georgian)
Friends of Georgia  (Friends of Georgia International Foundation Website, including information on History, Culture, Gastronomy, News, etc.)
Death of Stalin AT 9:50pm, March 5 1953, removal of disgraced Joseph Stalin's body from Lenin's mausuleum; after his death people acknowledged Stalin's atrocities
Joseph Stalin on trial, 56 years after death, Stalin's grandson loses trial on Stalin defamation publication, essentially putting Stalin himself on trial for war crimes & other crimes against humanity!!!
A first-person shooter (FPS) is a type of video game.
In a first-person shooter, a player sees through the eyes of a character.
The character uses a gun to shoot objects or enemies.
The character travels and shoots in a three-dimensional world.
The first first-person shooters were made in the 1970s and 1980s.
In the 1970s, schools like the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the University of Illinois made Maze War and Spacism.
These games were not sold.
In 1980, arcades got a tank game called Battlezone.
In 1983, home computers got Battlezone.
It was the first successful first-person shooter sold to many people.
In the 1990s, first-person shooters were very popular.
Many people played the first-person shooters Wolfenstein 3D and Doom  because they were shareware.
In 1998, Half-Life was made.
Half-Life was different because it had a strong narrative.
Counter-Strike, Counter-Strike Source and Team Fortress 2 Unreal and Unreal Tournament Far Cry the Descent series (including Descent, Descent II and Descent 3)
Doom Half-Life QuakeTeam Fortress 2 the Call of Duty series
the Halo series
Crossfire EU
the Metroid Prime'' series
Random-access memory (or simply RAM) is the memory or information storage in a computer that is used to store running programs and data for the programs.
Data (information) in the RAM can be read and written quickly in any order.
Normally, the random access memory is in the form of computer chips.
Usually, the contents of RAM are accessible faster than other types of information storage.
However, RAM is volatile, which means that every time the computer is turned off, all the data in the RAM is lost.
The alternative to this, Non-volatile random-access memory (NVRAM), keeps its data without using power, is more expensive but works slower, so it is used in smaller amounts.
Since the late 20th century, RAM uses transistors, usually MOSFETs, to store data.
Before that, magnetic memory was the usual kind.
Different types of RAM
Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is the majority in computers.
Modern computers use several types of DRAM.
Before 2002, most computers used single data rate (SDR) RAM.
Most computers made since then use either double data rate (DDR), DDR2, DDR3, or DDR4 RAM.
The later types allow stored data to be moved and used more quickly, so that the computer's processor can keep working quickly without having to wait for data as long or as often.
Different kinds of RAM usually will not work together in the same computer.
Most computers can only use one kind of RAM.
Some can use a small number of different kinds.
Different kinds of RAM often have differently shaped connectors.
This limits which RAM chips a particular computer model can use.
Static RAM (SRAM) needs power to keep its data, but does not need the computer to be active.
Some SRAM chips are battery-backed.
This type has a built-in battery to make sure no data is lost if the computer is turned off.
Some computers have a little SRAM and mostly DRAM.
Other uses for RAM
RAM is usually used to store information of running programs inside computers.
RAM may also be used for different things.
Using virtual memory, a computer can combine permanent storage with RAM to create a bigger pool of storage.
This is useful when the RAM does not have enough space to store anymore information.
The extra data is then placed in the permanent storage instead of the RAM.
The method has a limitation which is that permanent storage is often slower than RAM, which can slow down a computer.
RAM disk
A computer can use a part of the RAM to store permanent files.
This is called a RAM disk.
When the computer is turned on, files are copied to the RAM disk.
This allows the files to open faster because RAM is faster than permanent storage.
When the computer is turned off, the information on the RAM disk is lost, which is why the files need to exist on permanent storage as well.
Other kinds of memory
Information that the computer always needs, that cannot be changed or deleted (unless it is EEPROM), is normally kept in read-only memory (ROM), which does not lose its contents when the computer is turned off.
Such items include the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System), which stores the most basic commands for the computer, telling it how it should start up.
The BIOS also tells the computer how to input and output information.
The BIOS can be compared to the part of your brain that tells your heart how to beat.
This is an important part.
Read-only memory (or simply ROM) is a type of computer memory.
Unlike RAM, it keeps its contents even when the computer or device is turned off.
Usually, ROM cannot be written to when the computer runs normally.
ROM is used for the BIOS which tells the computer how to start, or important programs like the firmware of certain devices, which usually does not need to be modified.
Usually, ROM comes on computer chips.
Masked ROM: This kind is written once, at the factory.
It cannot be changed at all later on.
Its main benefit is that it is very cheap to make.
PROM: Can be programmed once.
Comes unprogrammed from the factory.
Programming consists in removing connections.
Invented in 1956, hit has been replaced by EPROMs
EPROM: This kind can be erased with UV light.
Invented in 1972, it became rare early in the 21st century.
EEPROM: This kind can be erased using an electrical signal.
Today, flash memory is often used.''
An integrated circuit (more often called an IC, microchip, silicon chip, computer chip, or chip) is a piece of specially prepared silicon (or another semiconductor) into which an electronic circuit is etched using photolithography.
Silicon chips can contain logic gates, computer processors, memory and special devices.
The chip is very fragile and so is normally surrounded by a plastic package to protect it.
Electrical contact with the chip is provided through tiny wires that connect the chip to larger metal pins that stick out of the package.
An IC has two main advantages over discrete circuits: cost and performance.
Cost is low, because millions of transistors can be put onto one chip instead of building a circuit with single transistors.
Performance is higher since the components can operate more quickly and use less power.
ICs are designed for different purposes.
A chip may be designed just for a calculator, which can only work as a calculator.
Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog and digital on the same chip).
A semiconductor such as silicon can be controlled to allow (or not allow) current to flow.
This allows making transistors that can control each other.
They are found in many household items such as radios, computers, and telephones, and many others.
Other semiconductor devices include solar cells, diodes, and LEDs (light emitting diodes).
In 1958 and 1959, two people had the idea for an integrated circuit at almost exactly the same time.
Transistors had become an everyday thing used in household devices such as radios.
They affected everything from radios to phones and at the time manufacturers needed a smaller replacement for vacuum tubes.
Transistors were smaller than vacuum tubes, but for some of the newest electronics, for example missile guidance, they were not small enough.
One day in July, Jack Kilby was working at Texas Instruments when it occurred to him that all parts of a circuit, not just the transistor, could be made out of silicon.
At the time, nobody was putting capacitors and resistors into ICs.
This would change the future and make it easier to produce and sell integrated circuits.
Kilby's boss liked the idea, and told him to get to work.
By September 12, Kilby had built a working model, and on February 6, Texas Instruments filed a patent.
Their first "Solid Circuit" was the size of a fingertip.
Meanwhile, in California, another man had the same idea.
In January of 1959, Robert Noyce was working at the small Fairchild Semiconductor startup company.
He also realized a whole circuit could be put into a single chip.
While Kilby had worked out the details of making individual components, Noyce thought of a much better way to connect the parts.
The design was called a "unitary circuit".
All that detail paid off because on April 25, 1961, the patent office awarded the first patent for an integrated circuit to Robert Noyce while Kilby's application was still being analyzed.
Today, both men are acknowledged as having independently conceived of the idea.
Soon there were two kinds of integrated circuit: hybrid (HIC) and monolithic (MIC).
Hybrids died out late in the 20th century.
Integrated circuits can be packaged as DIP (Dual in-line package), PLCC (Plastic leaded chip carrier), TSOP (Thin small-outline package), PQFP (Plastic Quad Flat Pack) and other chip package types.
Some small ones are packaged for surface-mount technology.
The transistors inside can be bipolar transistors in unusual circuits, such as those needing very high switching speeds.
Most, however, are MOSFETs.
Mosses are bryophytes, a group of plants without tissue to move water.
Mosses evolved from liverworts.p75
Moss tissue does not have cells that move water.
This means that they are non-vascular plants.
Water must soak into mosses like a sponge.
A patch of moss is made of many tiny moss plants packed together so that they can hold water for as long as possible.
They do not have roots.
Because mosses cannot find water, they live in two ways.
They can live in places that are always wet like near a spring, a river, or in a place where there is a lot of fog or has a lot of rainfall.
They can also pause their natural processes when they dry up.
Mosses can survive months in this paused state.
However, they eventually need water to live.
This means they can never live in dry places like deserts.
Mosses cannot grow very large because they could not move water to the top of their growth.
The largest moss grows in New Zealand.
It is about 30 cm tall.
A moss does not make seeds.
A moss does not have fruit.
The green fuzzy part of a moss that is always there has only one set of DNA.
Moss waits until there is lots of food and enough water.
Then it produces spores that leave the parent plant and float away.
The spores are like dust.
They will make more moss.
Each spore is male or female.
It grows into the green fuzzy part of the moss called the gametophyte.
Male gametophyte make sperm.
Female gametophyte make eggs.
Water moves the sperm from the male moss to the female moss.
Then the sperm and the egg join to make a cell with two sets of moss DNA.
This cell grows into a different shape called a sporophyte.
The sporophyte gets all of its food from the green fuzzy female gametophyte.
When the sporophyte grows up, it makes a tiny box with spores inside instead of seeds.
The lid on the box falls and the spores float away to repeat the cycle again.
This process is called alternation of generations.
Scientists divide the mosses into eight groups.
Five of these groups are small, with just a few species; most mosses are in the group called Bryopsida.
So a function is like a machine, that takes a value of x and returns an output y. The set of all values that x can have is called the domain, and the set that contains every value that y can have is called the codomain.
A function is often denoted by italic letters such as , , .
If this happens, then we say that y is a function of x, and we write .
Here,  is the name of the function, and one writes  (function from X to Y) to represent the three parts of the function: the domain (X), the codomain (Y), and the pairing process (the arrow).
An example of a function is .
One gives a natural number  as the input, and gets a natural number , which is .
For example, giving 3 as input to  results in an output of 4.
A function doesn't have to be an equation.
The main idea is that inputs and outputs are paired up somehow—even if the process might be very complicated.
All of the  (c and d in the picture) are usually called the image set of , and the image set can be the entire codomain or one of its subset.
One can say that the image set of a subset A of the domain is f(A).
In 1748, Leonhard Euler gave the following definition for function:"A function of a variable quantity is an analytic expression composed in any way whatsoever of the variable quantity and numbers or constant quantities.
"and then in 1755:"If some quantities so depend on other quantities that if the latter are changed the former undergoes change, then the former quantities are called functions of the latter.
This definition applies rather widely and includes all ways in which one quantity could be determined by other.
If, therefore, x denotes a variable quantity, then all quantities which depend upon x in any way, or are determined by it, are called functions of x."Usually, Peter Dirichlet is credited with the first modern definition of function (formulated in 1837).
It is often used in schools until the second half of the 20th century:"y is a function of a variable x, defined on the interval a < x < b, if to every value of the variable x in this interval there corresponds a definite value of the variable y. Also, it is irrelevant in what way this correspondence is established.
"In 1939, the Bourbaki generalized the Dirichlet definition, and gave a set-theoretic version of the definition as a correspondence between inputs and outputs; this was used in schools from about 1960.
Finally in 1970, Bourbaki gave the modern definition as a triple , with  (i.e.  and ).
is called the domain of ,  its codomain, and  its graph.
The set of all elements of the form , where  ranges over the elements of the domain , is called the image of .
The image of a function is a subset of its codomain and might not coincide with it.
Types of functions
Elementary functions - The functions that are usually studied in school: fractions, square roots, the sine, cosine and tangent functions and some other functions.
Non-elementary functions - Most of them use operations that we don't learn in school (like + or -, or powers).
Many integrals, for example, are non-elementary.
Inverse functions - Functions that undo another function.
For example: if F(x) is the inverse of f(x)=y, then F(y)=x.
Not all functions have inverses.
Special functions: Functions that have names.
These include trigonometric functions such as sine, cosine and tangent.
Functions like f(x)=3x (three times x) are not called special functions.
Special functions can be elementary, non-elementary or inverses.
Lucy Joan Slater - British mathematician who studied about mathematical functions
MATLAB, Wolfram Mathematica - software to compute mathematical functions
Miami is a city located on the southeastern part of the U.S. state of Florida.
It is a known tourist stop and it is well known for its Cuban, Puerto Rican and Haitian culture.
Miami has one of the largest Hispanic communities in the United States, with over 70% of the population being of Hispanic and Latino American descent.
Miami is also the county seat (and largest city) of Miami-Dade County.
The Tequesta tribe lived in what is now Miami before Spain claimed it.
In 1566, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Florida's first governor, claimed the area from the Tequesta for Spain.
Spain ruled Florida until Spain gave it to the United States in 1821.
Florida became a state in 1845.
On July 28, 1896, Miami officially became a city.
It was named after the Mayaimi tribe.
Miami experienced rapid growth during the Florida land boom of the 1920s.
However, this land boom was affected by the 1926 Miami hurricane.
Many cubans migrated to Miami after Fidel Castro rose to power in Cuba following the 1959 Cuban Revolution, and the population rapidly increased.
The majority of these Cuban immigrants now live in Little Havana.
During the 1980s, Miami was a primary location for drug trafficking from South America, mainly Colombia.
This brought in millions of dollars into the city's economy, and it allowed the construction of luxury hotels, skyscrapers, nightclubs and car dealerships.
Miami has a tropical monsoon climate.
Summers have average temperatures of  during the day and  at night, with average monthly rainfall around .
Winters have average temperatures of  during the day and  at night, with average monthly rainfall around .
Miami-Dade County Public Schools is the school district for public schools in Miami.
There are also some private schools there.
There are many colleges and universities in and around Miami.
A few of these include: Florida International University, University of Miami, Miami Dade College, and Florida Atlantic University.
Miami Hurricanes, in the suburb of Coral Gables – Atlantic Coast Conference
FIU Panthers, in the city of Miami – Sun Belt Conference; moved to Conference USA in July 2013
Florida Atlantic Owls, in Boca Raton – Sun Belt Conference
The population of Miami, Florida as of 2011 is 1.3 Million, with 41.4% suffering from poverty.
According to the DNA North American Studies Institute, the racial-makeup of Miami is:
54.75%: European.
23.14%: African.
20.39%: Mixed.
1.72%: Others.
**Others** includes Asians, Arabs, and among others.
City of Miami official site
19th-century establishments in Florida
Grunge music or Seattle sound (as it is called sometimes) is a style of rock music that has elements of punk rock and heavy metal.
It started in the mid- 1980s in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, especially in the states of Washington and Oregon.
It became more popular in the early 1990s.
Grunge songs often had lyrics with nihilism, depression, unhappiness, or apathy as themes.
The widespread use of heroin as a recreational drug found its way into the lyrics and careers of numerous grunge rockers, notably Kurt Cobain and Layne Staley of "Alice in Chains".
The songs often had light (or clean) guitar sounds in the verses, and the high energy boost of distorted (or dirty) guitars in the choruses.
The line-up for these bands was the typical rock band of guitars, bass, drums and vocal.
Although grunge as a movement became less popular by the last 1990s, its influence is still heard in many bands.
Grunge musical sounds were copied by post-grunge bands such as Foo Fighters and Nickelback and nu metal bands such as Korn and Limp Bizkit.
Grunge music uses music from punk rock and heavy metal.
Grunge guitar players use distorted electric guitar.
Like punk and heavy metal, grunge bands use electric guitar, bass guitar, a drummer and a singer.
Grunge artists
Melvins, The
Music in Seattle, Washington
Carly Simon (born June 25, 1945) is an American singer-songwriter and occasional children's book author.
She was born in New York City to businessman Richard L. Simon (1899-1960) and Andrea Heinemann Simon (1909-1994).
She was raised in Riverdale, The Bronx.
She has two sisters: singer Joanna Simon (born 1940) and composer Lucy Simon (born 1943).
She also has a brother, photographer Peter Simon.
Toto is a soft rock group that formed in Los Angeles in 1977, that was popular in the early 1980's.
Their best known song is "Africa" (1982).
James Warren "Jim" Jones (May 13, 1931 – November 18, 1978) was an American preacher and religious leader.
His church was called the "People's Temple".
It began as a Christian church (a member church of the Disciples of Christ), but over time became a cult.
Jones and most of the members of his group died on November 18, 1978 in Guyana.
Jones died when he shot himself on that day after forcing most of the members of his group to drink poison.
Visit by Congressman Ryan, murders
In November 1978, U.S. Congressman Leo Ryan led a fact-finding mission to Jonestown to investigate allegations of human rights abuses.
Ryan's delegation included relatives of Temple members, Don Harris, an NBC network news reporter, an NBC cameraman and reporters for various newspapers.
The group arrived in Georgetown on November 15.
On November 17, Ryan's delegation traveled by airplane to Jonestown.
The delegation left hurriedly the afternoon of November 18 after Temple member Don Sly attacked Ryan with a knife.
The attack was thwarted, and the visit ended.
Congressman Ryan and his people took with them fifteen People's Temple members who had expressed a wish to leave.
At that time, Jones made no attempt to prevent their departure.
Port Kaituma Airstrip shootings
As members of Ryan's delegation boarded two planes at the airstrip, Jones' "Red Brigade" armed guards arrived in a tractor-pulled trailer and began shooting at the delegation.
The guards killed Congressman Ryan and four others near a twin engine Otter aircraft.
At the same time, one of the supposed defectors, Larry Layton, drew a weapon and began firing on members of the party that had already boarded a small Cessna.
An NBC cameraman was able to capture footage of the first few seconds of the shooting at the Otter.
The five killed at the airstrip were Congressman Ryan; Don Harris, a reporter from NBC; Bob Brown, a cameraman from NBC; San Francisco Examiner photographer Greg Robinson; and Temple member Patricia Parks.
Surviving the attack were future Congresswoman Jackie Speier, then a staff member for Ryan; Richard Dwyer, the Deputy Chief of Mission from the U.S. Embassy at Georgetown; Bob Flick, a producer for NBC News; Steve Sung, an NBC sound engineer; Tim Reiterman, a San Francisco Examiner reporter; Ron Javers, a San Francisco Chronicle reporter; Charles Krause, a Washington Post reporter; and several defecting Temple members.
Deaths in Jonestown