the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
They spoke Kurdish there into the 20th century.)
Safi ad-Din Ardabili (1252–1334), a Kurdish mystic, started the Safavid order.
The Safavids were Sufis, and at first they were Sunni Muslims. (
Safi ad-Din Ardabili was the first of the Safavid dynasty, a family that later came to be the rulers of Iran.)
Kurdish emirates and tribes continued to have military power.
Both the Mongols' Ilkhanate in Iran and the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt tried to use Kurds as allies, because many Kurds lived in the mountains on the border between the Mongol Ilkhanate and the Mamluk Sultanate.
The Ilkhanate government gave authority to some Kurdish rulers among the tribes.
The Sultanate gave authority to an officer with the title Generalissimo of the Kurds ().
Kurdistan became part of the Timurid Empire in the time of Timur, but after Timur died in 1404, the Timurid dynasty started to lose control of the country.
The Qara Qoyunlu took control of the Kurdish emirates around Bitlis, Siirt, and Hasankeyf before 1450.
By that time, the Kurds around Diyarbakır were controlled by the Aq Qoyunlu.
In 1460 the Aq Qoyunlu attacked and took control of Siirt and Hasankeyf.
Then they took control of Cizre (the emirate of Bohtan), Bitlis, and Hakkari.
Kurds were common in the hills near Gaziantep and Kilis.
Near Antakya, the hills of the Jabal al-Akrad and the Kurd Dagh both had Kurdish populations.
Qusayr, by the Jabal al-Akrad was the same.
By the 11th century, Kurds had migrated to Jabal al-Ansariyya ("the Alawite mountains") and parts of Greater Lebanon (the lands of modern Lebanon).
Most of these Kurds joined the Arabs in these lands and became "Arabized", but others became warlords in the time of the Ottoman Empire.
Kurds that came from Diyarbakır in the early 16th century were the ancestors of the Druze Ma'an dynasty.
They controlled Mount Lebanon in the 17th century.
Some Arab families of the area have Kurdish ancestors.
Early Modern Period
At the end of the 15th century, the Safavids overcame the Aq Qoyunlu and started the Safavid Empire.
The leader of the Safavid order became shah as Shah Ismail I in 1501.
He controlled the lands from Kurdistan to Afghanistan.
By the 15th century, the Safavid order had become Shia Muslims, and they had military power with help from Turkmen tribes.
Shah Ismail made the Twelvers' Shia Islam the state religion.
Many of the Kurds, who were mostly Sunni Muslims, became enemies of the Safavid government.
Although some Kurdish emirs joined the Shiites, Shah Ismail took away the authority of many Kurdish emirs.
The shah gave the lands of these emirs to the Qizilbash, men who supported the shah's religious ideas.
The rulers of the Ottoman Empire were also Sunni Muslims, and they became the enemies of the Safavid Empire.
At that time, the Ottoman Empire gave better treatment to Sunni Muslim Kurds than did the Safavid Empire.
Kurdistan was part of the Safavid Empire.
The Ottoman sultan, Selim I, started an invasion of Kurdistan.
The armies of Sultan Selim overcame the armies of Shah Ismail at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514.
The Ottoman Empire took control of the western part of Kurdistan.
The majority of Kurdistan became part of the Ottoman Empire, but the eastern part continued to be a part of the Safavid Empire.
The Ottoman government gave Idris Bitlisi authority to get help from the Kurdish emirs.
The Kurdish emirs sent their soldiers to help the Ottomans.
In the first half of the 16th century, many important Kurdish soldiers fought against the Safavids' allies in Kurdistan.
The Ottoman government made variable allowances for the autonomy of Kurdish emirs and tribes in their own lands.
There was also an Ottoman governor in each province.
The emirs of Bitlis, Hakkari, and the emirate of Bohtan (Cizre) did not have to pay tax to the Ottoman government.
Other tribes did pay tax, but the Ottoman government gave their "Kurdish counties" () as fiefs () to Kurdish tribes' own leaders, who inherited their position.
For the Ottoman Empire at this time, the Kurds were useful as allies on the border with the Safavid Empire.
The Ottomans had success in getting Kurdish allies, and the Safavids gave the Kurds better treatment in order to get the same result.
Some parts of Iranian Kurdistan became parts of the provinces of the Safavid Empire, but others had Kurdish governors who inherited their positions.
The Ardalan clan of Sanandaj and the Mukriyani tribes of west Azerbaijan both had Kurdish governors of this kind.
The sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, took away the authority of the Kurdish emir of Bitlis, so he and his clan went to the Safavid Empire, where the shah gave them good treatment and gave the emir's grandson education at the royal court.
The Safavid government gave the emir's grandson, Sharaf Khan Bidlisi, authority for the Kurds at the royal court, and gave him a title: "the high emir of the Kurds" ().
However, Sharaf Khan Bidlisi later returned to his grandfather's emirate in Bitlis, defecting from the Safavid Empire to the Ottoman Empire.
Some Safavid shahs forced Kurdish tribes to migrate to Khorasan to the east of the Safavids' lands.
There they set up Kurdish emirates which defended the border against attacks from the Turkmen and Uzbek tribes.
The government moved many Kurds there in the 16th century, in order to make the Kurds fight against the Uzbek people who were then attacking Iran.
Abbas the Great, the shah, moved tens of thousands of Kurds from Iranian Kurdistan to the borders of Afghanistan and the land that is now Turkmenistan.
Shah Abbas's government did this between 1598 and 1610.
The Safavid government continued to threaten the Ottoman government's control in Kurdistan.
It was most common for the Ottomans to use the Turkoman people to control the population, but they also used Kurds.
Ali Janbulad was a Kurdish warlord from Kilis.
He fought in the Ottoman armies, and controlled the Ottoman army in Palestine.
The Ottomans tried to settle the nomadic people and tried to make them become farmers.
The Kurds, however, started to have firearms in the 1580s and 1590s.
Kurdish lords became more powerful and started to control the trade routes between Mosul, Baghdad, Aleppo, and Adana.
Kurdish lords controlled the mountain lands between the inland cities of Syria (Aleppo, Damascus, Hama and Homs) and the ports of the Mediterranean Sea (Payas, Iskenderun, Antioch, Latakia, Tripoli).
Kurdish traders carried the imports and exports, and Kurdish tribes sometimes attacked the trade routes.
Kurdish soldiers attacked the river trade route of the Tigris, and the Yazidis on the way between Mosul and Aleppo always gave resistance to the Ottoman government.
The mountain roads were sometimes impossible to pass through for months or years because of the Kurdish lords.
Travellers would bribe the Kurds, and take hostages.
The Ottoman government did not have success in trying to control the roads with the army and with fortifications.
The Ottoman government sometimes gave Kurdish warlords government authority, so that they might do as the government wanted.
After 1600, the power of the Ottoman governors in Aleppo and Mosul was weak, so each governor had an army.
The cavalry in these armies were mostly Kurds from the area of Kilis.
However, when governors went away after their term of office, their armies' veterans became unemployed and many became bandits in rural areas.
Banditry from Kurds and Bedouins was so common in the early 18th century that the population of farmers around Homs and Hama became smaller and there was not enough food in Damascus as a result.
The Safavid Empire started to become weak at the end of the 17th century.
The authority of the government became weak, and some Kurdish tribes were able to take power for themselves.
Attacks from Afghans started in 1709.
At the time of these attacks, Kurdish tribes were able to take control of some lands from the Safavid government.
In 1719, Kurds took control of Hamadan and the tribes were able to move almost to Isfahan.
The Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire both took control of lands in the north and west of Iran.
The Russian Empire's armies took control of Derbent and Baku in the years 1722 and 1723.
They were also able to move to Rasht.
The Safavid dynasty's downfall was in 1735.
Nader Shah, the first shah of the Afsharid dynasty, went to try to stop a rebellion among the Kurds in 1747. (
He was assassinated on his way.)
From the 1790s, Ardalan rulers (walis) were an important part of the political support for the Qajar dynasty.
The Qajar dynasty started to come to power in Iran in the 1790s.
The Qajar rulers took hostages from the tribes to keep the Kurdish rulers' loyalty.
The Qajar Empire continued to lose lands to the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire.
Both of these empires wanted to control Kurdistan and Azerbaijan.
The Qajar Empire lost most of the land to the north of the Aras () river before 1800.
During the 18th century, the Kurdish emirate of Baban came into power in the Shahrizor area.
Its capital city was Sulaymaniyah.
In 1821, the emir of Baban defected from the Ottoman Empire to the Qajar Empire.
The emir started to help Abbas Mirza, the crown prince of Iran and the Qajar governor of Azerbaijan.
The emir's defection caused a war to start between the Ottomans and the Qajars (the 1821–1823 Ottoman–Persian War).
During the early modern period, the importance of the Baban emirate in the later 18th century was one of the reasons for the growth of the Sorani Kurdish dialect.
From Amadiya's emirate came poetry in the Kurmanji Kurdish dialect.
The rulers of the Ardalan emirate were patrons of poetry in the Gorani Kurdish dialect.
Working with the Kurds in Anatolia, Kurds in Syria came to control most of the trade in livestock and in the galls of oak trees across the region. (
The oak galls traded at Aleppo and were exports to Europe for making into ink.
The livestock they sold for meat.)
In the cities of the region, Kurdish lords and landlords became powerful leaders with authority over the Kurdish people who lived in and came to the city.
In the past, people feared the Kurds.
In the Middle Ages, people thought of the Kurds as being bandits.
In the 18th century, people in Aleppo and Mosul would say that Kurds were as dangerous as rats and locusts.
People in Aleppo would also say the Kurds were like the Bedouin (a group of nomadic people).
They would say: "Four were born to do mischief: rats, locusts, Bedouin and Kurds".
Because of this, and because many Kurds were in military units, Kurds often lived outside the defensive walls of big cities like Aleppo and Damascus.
Many of the veterans of Ottoman governors' private armies who became bandits were Arabs and Turkomans as well as Kurds, but Kurds were the group most connected with the problem.
People in northern Syria and Mesopotamia thought of themselves as different from the Kurds, who did not have a good reputation.
These differences were in existence into the 21st century.
In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire and the Qajar Empire both started reforms.
The reforms' purpose was to modernize each empire, because both had started to have less power than the Great Powers of the Western world.
The reforms meant that the governments took away the autonomy of the Kurdish rulers and the existence of the Kurdish emirates ended.
Muslims, including Kurds, feared the successes of the Western powers, and feared the power that Christian empires had.
The Tanzimat reforms were part of a new, secular nationalism, in the Ottoman Empire, and this made many traditional Muslim Kurds unhappy.
Nationalism among the Ottoman Empire's Christian Armenian people also caused unhappiness to grow among the Kurds.
The power of Sufism grew among the Kurds.
As a result of the reforms, a social class of Kurdish intellectuals and professionals came into existence with the development of Western education.
Many of this new class were descendants of the families that had been the rulers of emirates.
Many of these Kurds joined the new institutions of the Ottoman state, including the army.
For these Kurds, there was some cultural assimilation with the other people who formed the empire's government social class.
Among these Kurds too was also the start of Kurdish political nationalism.
In the Qajar Empire, this reform process was not as fast as it was in the Ottoman Empire.
The Qajar Empire got help from Europe to make military reforms in the Qajar army.
In 1812, the Qajar Empire tried to take back lands from the Russian Empire when the armies of Napoleon's First French Empire were attacking Russia.
The British Empire helped the Qajar Empire with its reforms in the early the 19th century because the Russian Empire's growth was a threat to the British Empire's control of India.
In 1828 (after the Russo-Persian War), the Russian Empire took control of all the lands and all the Kurdish tribes to the north of the Aras river.
This was the agreement of the Treaty of Turkmenchay.
The influence of the Russian Empire was growing in the north of Kurdistan, and the influence of the British Empire was growing in the south of Kurdistan.
Many of the Kurdish rulers on the border between the Ottoman Empire and the Qajar Empire chose to work with the Ottoman Empire.
This was because the most of the Kurds in the north of Kurdistan were part of Sunni Islam, like the Ottoman dynasty's sultan (and caliph) in Constantinople. (
Other Kurds in the south of Kurdistan were part of Shia Islam, like the shah in Tehran.)
The Kurdish rulers thought that the Ottoman government would not be as able to tax or conscript their tribes, because the Qajar government in Tehran was nearer than the Ottoman government in Constantinople.
Both governments helped rebels who had fought against the other government.
For the governments of both empires, controlling the Kurdish lands on the border with their armies was not possible.
The provinces and government of the Ottoman Empire started to have a different organization because of the reforms that Sultan Mahmud II started.
His government named new governors for the provinces, and took away the authority of the Kurdish emirs and governors.
There was a lot of fighting against this and the Ottoman army started to attack the Kurdish emirs.
In the Qajar Empire, the existence of the Kurdish emirates in Khorasan ended in the first half of the 19th century.
The Ardalan clan continued to control Sanandaj until the 1860s.
At that time, the Qajar government ended the clan's inherited position as governor.
During the 19th century, farmers started to grow new crops that had greater profits.
Farmers started to grow Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco), and farming became more common.
At the middle of the 19th century, about a third of the population of Iranian Kurdistan were nomadic people.
Many of the crops from Iranian Kurdistan (grains, fruits, and nuts) went out of the Qajar Empire as exports along the trade route between Tabriz and the Black Sea at Trabzon.
Carriage of the exports from Kurdistan to the sea was by draught animals.
The peasant farmers grew the crops, and the nomads of the tribes supplied the domestic animals for the crops' transport. (
The peasant farmers also had to pay taxes and extortion to the tribes.)
In 1870, 40% of Iran's international trade went through Iranian Kurdistan on the Tabriz–Trabzon trade route.
However, from that time the trade route became less important.
The Russian Empire completed a new railway from Baku (on the Caspian Sea) to Tbilisi and then to Poti (on the Black Sea).
The British and French empires completed the Suez Canal in 1869, and because of this, many exports started to go to the Persian Gulf at Bushehr or through Baghdad at Basra.
These two new trade routes meant that Kurds did not profit from the exports and the Kurdish tribes became more weak.
Bedir Khan Bey was the emir of Cizre (the emirate of Bohtan).
Bedir Khan Bey, the emir of Hakkari, and the emir of Mûkûs all took part in a rebellion against the Ottoman government.
Bedir Khan Bey started the rebellion in 1842, but in 1846 the Ottomans took him prisoner and he went into exile.
In 1849, the government took away the authority of Hakkari's emir, Nurullah Bey.
The Ottoman government also took away the power of the Baban emirate, and they took control of Sulaymaniyah themselves.
In the towns and cities, the Ottoman and Qajar governments of Kurdistan started new schools, newspapers, law courts, and government councils.
In the countryside however, where most Kurds lived, modernization brought new taxes and conscription into the army.
Sufi religious leaders – sheikhs – started to have more power in Kurdistan.
Some Kurdish sheikhs helped the Ottoman army fight the army of the Russian Empire during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878).
However, Kurdish sheikhs also worked against the government.
One sheikh who had fought for the Ottoman side in the war, Sheikh Ubeydullah, started a rebellion against the Ottoman government.
During the Russo-Turkish War, the government in both parts of Kurdistan (Ottoman Kurdistan and Iranian Kurdistan) lost control of the land.
After the war there was a famine.
There was also a rumour that the Ottoman Empire was going to recognize a new state for the Armenians.
Armenians were the largest minority in parts of Kurdistan.
At that time, Sheikh Ubeydullah started his rebellion.
He hoped to start new Kurdish state whose lands would be both Ottoman Kurdistan and Iranian Kurdistan.
The rebellion ended without having this success.
The Shi'ite Qajar government punished the Sunni Kurds in Iranian Kurdistan when they took control again.
In Ottoman Kurdistan, Sultan Abdul Hamid II started to get support from Muslims by using Islamism, going against the secularization of the modernization reforms.
The sultan's government tried to get friends among the Kurdish tribes.
In 1891, the sultan started a new Ottoman military unit in the cavalry: the Hamidiye.
Many Kurdish men from the tribes started to work for the government in the Hamidiye.
Abdul Hamid II gave the Hamidiye his own name.
The Ottoman government gave the Hamidiye and the Kurdish tribes' rulers power because the government feared the growth of Armenian nationalism.
The Hamidiye became famous across the world when they took part in pogroms, attacking the Armenian people in the east of Anatolia between 1894 and 1896.
The government gave many tribes' rulers good treatment.
Sheikh Said Berzinci became the ruler of Sulaymaniyah, and had a good relationship with the Ottoman government in Mosul.
Said Berzinci became the most important of the government's friends in the Mosul Vilayet.
Milli Ibrahim Pasha was ruler from the tribes; he was an important military officer in the Hamidiye and a friend of the sultan.
The power, tyranny, and violence of the Hamidiye and some of the Kurdish tribes' rulers made some other Kurds unhappy.
Many of the Kurdish professionals and intellectuals were part of the constitutionalist political groups.
They were against the Islamism of Sultan Abdul Hamid and the autocracy of his government.
Two Kurds, Abdullah Cevdet and İshak Sükuti were part of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) from its start.
The CUP was the most important organization in the Ottoman Empire to want a revolution.
The first Kurdish newspaper was Kurdistan which started in 1898.
The writings in the newspaper supported constitutionalism and the CUP, and the CUP gave money and other help to the newspaper's publishers.
However, writings in the newspaper also spoke of Kurdish culture and Kurdish politics for the Kurdish intelligentsia.
The publishers of Kurdistan were two sons of the old emir of Cizre, Bedir Khan Bey.
His sons were Mikdad Midhat Bedir Khan and Abdurrahman Bedir Khan, and both had worked in the Ottoman government.
Their newspaper made the argument that constitutionalism was the answer to the Kurds' problems.
In Iranian Kurdistan, chiefs and men from the tribes started to become farmers and landlords.
By 1900, most of the men of the tribes had become peasants on lands a landlord owned.
Some of the tribes' chiefs went to live in cities: some worked with the local government.
In the second half of the 19th century, the Tabriz–Trabzon trade route through Iranian Kurdistan became less important because of the Suez Canal and the new railways in the Russian Empire.
In 1900, the Tabriz–Trabzon trade route was responsible for only 10% of Iran's international trade.
During the second half of the 20th century's first decade, the political power of constitutionalism in Qajar Iran and Ottoman Turkey became very strong.
In Ottoman Kurdistan, some Kurds took part in tax resistance revolts that did not have success.
In Iran, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah made a constitution in December 1906 after there were many protests in the country during 1905.
However, Mohammad Ali Shah became Iran's ruler when Mozaffar ad-Din Shah died, and the new shah ended the constitution and the new parliament in 1908.
The Russian Empire and the British Empire helped Mohammad Ali Shah take power.
By that time, the Qajar government's power was weak, and it had lost control in Iranian Kurdistan.
Many Kurdish rebels came there from Ottoman Kurdistan, where the control of the government was more complete.
In June 1908, a constitutionalist rebellion in the Ottoman military started.
There were connections between this rebellion and the CUP.
The rebellion forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to set up a parliament and a constitutionalist government.
The end of Abdul Hamid's autocracy was important for many Kurds living in the capital city, Constantinople.
Many of them supported the CUP and the new constitution.
A number of Kurdish organizations then started in Constantinople.
The Society for Kurdish Mutual-Aid and Progress (SKMP) was in existence from September 1908 until 1909.
The Society for the Propagation of Kurdish Education (SPKE) was in existence from 1910 to 1911.
The Kurdish Students' Hope Society, however, was in existence from 1912 until the start of World War I.
In Constantinople, the political Kurds supported the Ottoman Empire and the constitutional government.
In Ottoman Kurdistan, other Kurds were not as happy with the revolution.
The CUP wanted to take away the power of the Hamidiye.
The government planned to end the existence of the Hamidiye itself.
Many rulers from the tribes feared that they would lose their power.
Many Kurds from the tribes joined local Kurdish organizations in 1908 and 1909.
Although these "clubs" were part of the constitutionalist SKMP organization, they started to work against the constitutional government.
The club at Bitlis started a rebellion against the CUP.
After that, the government forced the clubs' existence to end.
The existence of the Hamidiye continued, although the government took away more of its power.
The government also planned to give lands to Armenian farmers, whose lands Kurdish tribes took in the past.
Many Kurds started to think that constitutionalism was helping the Armenians but not helping the Kurds.
Many Muslim Kurds thought the CUP was irreligious, and thought the empire was becoming weak.
Italy overcame the Ottomans in the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912).
The Balkan League (Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro) overcame the Ottomans in the First Balkan War (1912–1913).
In these wars, the Ottoman Empire lost many lands in Africa and Europe.
Starting in 1911, Abdürrezzak Bedir Khan (another descendant of Bedir Khan Bey) was moving through Kurdistan and the Ottoman–Qajar border.
He set up a network of important men from the tribes, which worked for an independent Kurdistan.
Abdürrezzak Bedir Khan hoped to get help for this plan from the Russian Empire.
Simko Shikak, Sheikh Taha of Nehri, and Sheikh Abdüsselam Barzani all joined Abdürrezzak Bedir Khan in having this plan.
They did not start a rebellion, but they were an important danger to the government.
However, the position of the Kurds in Ottoman Kurdistan and in Iranian Kurdistan changed with the start of World War I.
During World War I, Kurdistan became a battlefield.
The armies of the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire fought in Ottoman Kurdistan and in Iranian Kurdistan.
After the Battle of Sarikamish (January 1915), the Russian army took control of many Ottoman lands.
Kurds fought in the Ottoman army across the empire.
Many Kurds fought as conscripts in the Ottoman army against the Russian armies.
Others fought in the Ottoman army in Mesopotamia.
When the Ottoman Empire asked for their help, other Kurds in the tribes of Iranian Kurdistan fought against the Russian Empire there.
Kurdish tribes fought for the Ottomans in the Battle of Dilman (April 1915).
Other Kurds helped the Russian armies.
Abdürrezzak Bedir Khan was one of those who helped the Russians.
The Russian Empire made Abdürrezzak Bedir Khan governor of Erzurum when the Russians took military control of that city.
Many people in the Kurdish population were persecuted by the Russian army and by Armenian partisans fighting with the Russians.
Other Kurds were persecuted by the CUP Ottoman government.
The government wanted to Turkify the Kurds, and in 1916, the CUP wanted the Kurdish refugees from the war to separate from one another to make Turkification more easy.
Many Kurds themselves took part in the Armenian Genocide, a genocide planned by the government.
Armenians were the largest minority in parts of Kurdistan before the Armenian Genocide.
After the Russian Revolutions in 1917, the Ottomans again took control over some lands Russians controlled.
The Ottomans executed Abdürrezzak Bedir Khan.
However, in Mesopotamia the British Empire took control of Baghdad.
The British military was on its way to Mosul when the Ottoman government surrendered, and made an armistice (the Armistice of Mudros) with the Allies of World War I in October 1918.
Simko Shikak took control of lands in Iranian Kurdistan near Lake Urmia. (
Simko Shikak kept control of these lands until 1920.)
In December 1918, Kurds in Constantinople started the Society for the Betterment of Kurdistan (SBK).
The power in this organization was in two parts: a Kurdish nationalist political faction and another faction which supported the Ottoman Empire's existence.
The son of Sheikh Ubeydullah, Sheikh Abdülkadir, was the leader of the Ottoman faction of the SBK.
Bedir Khan Beg's son, Emin Ali Bedir Khan, was the leader of the SBK's nationalist faction.
In the north of Ottoman Kurdistan, in Anatolia, the power of Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) was growing.
Mustafa Kemal's Kemalist (Turkish nationalist) armies fought against the First Republic of Armenia.
In this fight, the help of Kurds was important for the Kemalists' success.
The Kemalists got help from the Kurds by saying that the Armenians wanted their land, and by saying that the Great Powers (the Allies of World War I) wanted Kurdistan to become part of the new Armenian state.
In August 1919 Kurdish leaders were at the Erzurum Congress, and in September 1919 they were at the Sivas Congress.
At the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), the SBK's representative was Şerif Pasha.
With the representatives of the Armenians, Şerif Pasha made an agreement about the lands of a new Kurdish state and the lands of a new Armenian state.
A possible Kurdish state in Ottoman Kurdistan was one of the agreements in the Treaty of Sèvres (August 1920).
However, other Kurds did not support the Treaty of Sèvres.
They were unhappy that lands of a Muslim empire were going to have a Christian government when they became parts of Armenia.
Some Kurdish leaders sent telegrams to Paris to say that they were not in agreement with the Treaty of Sèvres.
In both the south and the north of Ottoman Kurdistan, new powers were in development.
In the north, the Kemalists were taking control.
In the south, the British Empire was in control.
The son of Said Berzinci, Sheikh Mahmud Barzanji was the leader of the Kurdish nationalists in Sulaymaniyah.
The British Empire overcame the rebellion of Mahmud Barzanji, and the south of Kurdistan became part (Iraqi Kurdistan) of the new Kingdom of Iraq.
In 1921, the Kemalists overcame a Kurdish rebellion (the Koçgiri rebellion) in the area of Koçgiri (near Sivas).
By 1923, the Kemalist government was in control of all Anatolia.
After the Kemalist armies overcame the Kingdom of Greece in the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922), the Allies ended their Occupation of Constantinople in 1923.
Then the Kemalists took control of the capital city.
The new government in Constantinople ended the existence of many Kurdish organizations.
Many Kurds went into exile.
As a result of the Kemalists' military success, the Treaty of Lausanne (July 1923) took the place of the Treaty of Sèvres.
The Treaty of Lausanne did not set up an independent Kurdistan or give autonomy to the Kurds.
The Berlin–Baghdad railway became the border between the new Turkish Republic and the French Empire.
The Kurdish lands between Aleppo and Antep became part (Syrian Kurdistan) of the French Empire.
The parts of Kurdistan to the north of the railway became part (Turkish Kurdistan) of the new Turkish state.
The Kemalist government ended the Ottoman caliphate March 1924.
The division of the Ottoman Empire's Kurds and of Ottoman Kurdistan was complete when the League of Nations gave Mosul and its Kurdish lands to the Kingdom of Iraq in 1926.
The division of Kurdistan and the Kurdish population into four (Turkish Kurdistan, Iranian Kurdistan, Iraqi Kurdistan and Syrian Kurdistan) continues to exist.
In Classical Antiquity, the most important deities of the Kurds' lands were Ahura Mazda and Mithra.
The most common religion was Zoroastrianism.
Zoroastrianism was probably the state religion of the Achaemenid Empire.
There are connections between the writings of Zoroastrianism and the Vedas, the Hindu writings of ancient India.
In Late Antiquity before the 7th century, Kurds had many different religious beliefs.
There were Christians and Zoroastrians.
There were also Kurdish Jews.
Some sects among the Kurdish Christians and Jews had religious beliefs from Zoroastrianism and Mithraism in their religion.
There may have been Kurds among the Companions of the Prophet (the people who knew Muhammad).
The Muslim conquests by Arab armies in the 7th century meant that most Kurds became Muslims in the 7th and 8th centuries.
Kurds who were not Muslim had to pay the jizya, a tax.
Most of these were part of the Shafi'ite system of Islamic jurisprudence.
However, although most Kurds are Muslims and part of Sunni Islam, there are also Kurds of many other religions and sects.
A guerrilla is a civilian who attacks a regular army.
Guerrilla warfare is a war tactic in which people () fight against an organized army.
Guerrilla warfare is sometimes practiced in places in which a regular army would have difficulty, such as forests and mountains.
Usually, the army is invading a territory.
In open fields, the organized army, which is better armed and larger, has the advantage.
However, in forests and mountains, the guerillas can gain an advantage over larger and better-armed armies.
In some wars such as the American Revolutionary War or the Vietnam War, guerilla warfare tactics have been successful and were one of the main reasons (but not the only one) for their victory.
Guerrilla, a word of Spanish origin, and means "little war".
It was first used in 1808, when Spain was invaded by Napoleon, resulting in the Peninsular War with Spanish guerilla forces resisting the French Army.
This war tactic was used on the British by the Native Americans.
The natives had an advantage because they used guerrilla warfare against the British Army.
During the American Revolutionary War, the Americans used guerilla warfare against the larger and better armed British Army.
Guerilla warfare was common in the Border States during the American Civil War and was used also during the Vietnam War by the North Vietnamese against the French, Americans and South Vietnamese.
Sometimes Sacrament can stand for Eucharist
In Christianity, a sacrament is a special rite.
It is a visible token of the reality of God.
Sacraments in the Catholic Church
The Roman Catholic Church knows seven such sacraments.
Baptism - usually given shortly after birth, it is meant to forgive original sin.
Confirmation - done when reaching maturity
Holy Eucharist - The body and blood of Jesus Christ is eaten to remember the Last Supper.
Holy orders - the deacon, the priest and bishop.
Penance and remission of sins
Anointing of the Sick - used to be known as Last Rites, given shortly before death
Protestant views
Following Martin Luther's tradition, many Protestant churches see only Baptism and Lord's Supper as Sacraments.
They also have most of the other rites, but do not consider them to be sacraments.
Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox views
Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches basically have the same views as the Roman Catholic Church.
They say however, that many things the church does (as church), can be seen as sacraments, in some way.
For the city in Russia, see Saint Petersburg
St. Petersburg (shortened to St. Pete by the area residents) is a city in the U.S. state of Florida.
It is in Pinellas County.
It is home to the MLB team Tampa Bay Rays.
The prime factors of twenty are 2 and 5. (
2 * 2 * 5 = 20)
Its factors are: 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, and 20.
As the sum of its factors is more than itself (i.e. 22), it can be referred to as an abundant number.
20 can been used as a number base.
Remnants of this system remain in some European languages, for example in the English “score” (20) and the French “quatre-vingts” (80, literally four groups of twenty).
The old (pre-decimal) English monetary system had twenty shillings in a pound.
The ancient Mayan numerical system – counting on fingers and toes – was a base 20 or "vigesimal" system.
A polyhedron of 20 faces is an icosahedron, one of the five Platonic solids.
It is a convex regular polyhedron composed of twenty triangular faces, with five meeting at each of the twelve vertices.
It has 30 edges and 12 vertices.
Its dual polyhedron is the dodecahedron.
In Japanese tradition, adulthood is established at the age of 20.
See seijin not hi (the celebration of adulthood in Japan).
The prime factors of forty are 2 and 5. (
2 * 2 * 2 * 5 = 40)
In the Judeo-Christian Bible, the number forty has special meaning.
The Jews wandered in a desert for forty years, there was a forty-day and forty-night rainstorm, and other instances.
The prime factors of seventy are 2, 5, and 7. (
2 * 5 * 7 = 70)
A gas giant is a large planet that has a solid core, but a very thick atmosphere.
This means that most of the planet is made up of gas.
These planets are very large.
In our outer Solar System, there are four gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
However, Uranus and Neptune are also called ice giants.
Jupiter and Saturn are similar because they are made up of mostly hydrogen and helium.
They both contain massive rocky cores that are bigger than Earth.
Neptune and Uranus are similar because they are mainly made up of water and rock (a mixture of one or several minerals).
Gas giants have also been found around other stars than the sun.
Most of those giant extrasolar planets are "hot giants" orbiting close to their star.
Types of planet
The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN) (Vietnamese: Việt Nam Dân Chủ Cộng Hòa), also known as North Vietnam, was a country that existed from 1945 until 1976.
It took control in northern Vietnam and eventually took over its southern opponent.
It lay north of the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone, and South Vietnam lay to the south of it.
It was proclaimed by President Hồ Chí Minh in Hà Nội on September 2, 1945.
The country was supported by China and the Soviet Union during the Vietnam War, eventually defeating South Vietnam 20 years later in the Vietnam War.
Former countries in Asia
Set theory is the study of sets in mathematics.
Sets are collections of objects.
We refer to these objects as "elements" or "members" of the set.
To write a set, one wraps the numbers in {curly brackets}, and separates them with commas.
the set  holds 1, 2, and 3.
Sets are also often referred to using capital roman letters such as , , .
Set theory was created around 1874 by Georg Cantor.
It had to be made better because collections of objects can cause problems if we work with them without explaining them better.
Russell's paradox was one of the problems.
Think about the set of all sets that are not members of themselves.
If it were inside itself, then the rule which defines it would mean that it is not inside itself.
But, if it were not inside itself, then the rule which defines it would mean that it is inside itself.
This was a serious problem, and it meant that the old set theory was broken.
Set theory begins by giving some examples of things that are sets.
Then it gives rules in which you can make other sets from the already known sets.
Collections of objects that are not sets are called (proper) classes.
It is possible to do mathematics using only sets, rather than classes, so that the problems that classes cause in mathematics do not occur.
Example: An object  and a set .
If  is a member (or element) of , we write .
Since sets are objects, the membership relation can relate sets as well.
A binary relation between two sets is the subset relation, also called set inclusion.
If all the members of set  are also members of set , then  is a subset of , marking .
For example,  is a subset of , but  is not.
From this example, it is clear that a set is a subset of itself.
In cases where one wishes to not to have this, the term proper subset is meant not to have this possibility.
Chechulin V. L., Theory of sets with self-considering (foundations and some applications), Publishing by Perm State University (Russia), Perm, 2010, 100 p.  (In this non-predicative theory overcoming the limitations of  predicative formal systems, i.e. Godel's theorems, the text is accessible from the page http://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=15267103 )
Bangor, New South Wales
Bangor, South Australia
Bangor, Tasmania
Bangor, Nova Scotia
Bangor, Ontario
Bangor, Prince Edward Island
Bangor (city), Saskatchewan
Bangor (town), Saskatchewan
Bangor Lodge, Saskatchewan
Bangor Road, Prince Edward Island
Bangor, Morbihan
Bangor, Gwynedd (Wales)
Bangor-on-Dee, in Wales; also known as Bangor Is-Coed or Bangor-Is-y-Coed
Bangor, Alabama
Bangor, Michigan (see also Bangor Township, Michigan, below)
Bangor, Pennsylvania
Bangor, Washington
Bangor, Wisconsin (village)
Bangor (town), Wisconsin
Bangor Township, Iowa
Bangor Township, Minnesota
Bangor Township, Bay County, Michigan (see also Bangor, Michigan, above)
Bangor Township, South Dakota
East Bangor, Pennsylvania
Musical terminology
it:Demo#In musica
Breton (, in Breton) is a Celtic language spoken in Brittany, in the north-west of France.
Breton is closely related to the Cornish language of Cornwall spoken in south-west Great Britain.
It is less closely related to Welsh, and the Goidelic languages of Scotland, Ireland and the Isle of Man.
The Breton language has about 240,000 speakers,111 but this number is falling very quickly due to the French government's policy of using French.
As such, Breton is considered to be an endangered language.
The Celtic languages are a language family inside of Indo-European languages.
There are six Celtic languages still spoken in the world today, spoken in north-west Europe.
They are divided into two groups,  Goidelic (or Gaelic) and the Brythonic (or British).
The three Goidelic languages still spoken are Irish, Scottish, and Manx.
Scottish is the main language spoken in parts of north-west Scotland and Irish is the main language spoken in the Gaeltacht in Ireland.
Manx is spoken mainly by people interested in the language.
The three Brythonic languages are Welsh, Cornish, and Breton.
Of these Cornish became extinct in the 18th century but people have started speaking it again now.
Welsh is spoken everywhere throughout Wales, but is mainly  first language for people in the western part of Wales, in the area some people call the Bro Gymraeg.
Breton is spoken mainly in west Brittany, and is the only Celtic language not mainly spoken on the islands of Great Britain and Ireland.
Because Brittany is part of France, the language is in danger of becoming extinct, just like Cornish, and there are ongoing efforts to prevent this from happening.
List of Celtic languages
Salem is a district capital and major city in Tamil Nadu, in India.
It is known for its steel plants, factories which make steel.
A hunger strike is a way that people protest by not eating.
Many people have done this to get people's attention, especially the attention of leaders.
Sometimes, hunger strikes are done by people who are in prison.
In this case, the hunger strikes are sometimes ended by force feeding, when the prisoners are fed against their will through a feeding tube.
Deaths from starvation
The Hermitage Museum (Эрмитаж) in St. Petersburg, Russia is one of the largest and oldest art galleries and museums of human history and culture in the world.
The vast Hermitage collections are displayed in six buildings, founded by Catherine II of Russia in 1764 and opened in public since 1852.
The main building is the Winter Palace.
This was the official residence of the Russian Tsars.
Strong points of the Hermitage collection of Western art include Michelangelo, Giambattista Pittoni, Leonardo da Vinci, Rubens, Van Dyck, Rembrandt, Poussin, Claude Lorraine, Watteau, Tiepolo, Canaletto, Canova, Rodin, Monet, Pissarro, Renoir, Cézanne, Van Gogh, Gauguin, Picasso, and Matisse.
There are several more collections.
Among the collections are the Russian imperial regalia, an assortment of Faberge jewellery, and the largest existing collection of ancient gold from Eastern Europe and Western Asia.
A population of cats lives on the museum grounds.
They are named the Hermitage cats.
They are an added attraction for tourists.
Buildings and structures in Saint Petersburg
Education in Russia
1764 establishments
18th-century establishments in Russia
Soil, on the ground (usually used in North America)
Waste material, an unwanted mixture of dust, soil, and other solids.
The Boeing 747 is a jet airliner developed by Boeing in 1969.
It is made by Boeing Commercial Airplanes.
The Boeing 747 has more than one aisle, which means it is a wide-body aircraft.
It is often called the Jumbo Jet or Queen of the Skies.
The Boeing 747 is one of the easiest planes in the world to recognise.
It was the first wide-body aircraft ever made.
The first type of 747 was two and a half times the size of the Boeing 707.
The Boeing 747 made its first flight for an airline in 1970.
The 747 could carry more people than any other aircraft for 37 years, until the Airbus A380 was made.
The 747 is a double deck plane.
It can carry people, cargo and many other things.
Boeing designed the 747's upper deck to be a first class lounge or just extra seats.
They also designed the upper deck so that the aircraft could be changed into a cargo plane easily.
This was done by removing seats and putting in a cargo door at the front of the plane.
Boeing did this because they thought that supersonic airliners would become much more popular than the 747 and other subsonic airliners.
However, they thought that subsonic cargo planes would always be popular.
It was thought that the 747 would become unpopular after 400 were sold.
However, 1,000 planes had been made by 1993, so it stayed popular.
By September 2012, 1,448 aircraft had been built.
81 747-8s were still waiting to be built.
The 747-400 is one of the fastest airliners being used today.
It usually flies at Mach 0.85–0.855 (up to ).
It can fly for 7,260 nautical miles (8,350 mi or 13,450 km).
The newest version of the 747, the 747–8, is now being made.
In 1963, the United States Air Force began to look for a very big plane to transport things.
At that time, they were using the Lockheed C-141 Starlifter.
However, the Air Force thought that a much bigger plane which could carry more cargo was needed.
The Air Force called the big plane the CX-Heavy Logistics System (CX-HLS).
It needed to be able to carry  of cargo and travel at Mach 0.75 ().
It also had to be able to fly for  while carrying  of cargo.
The cargo bay had to be  wide,  high and  long.
There had to be doors for the bay at the front and the back of the plane.
The Air Force also wanted the plane to have only four engines.
This meant that new engines had to be made.
On May 18, 1964, Boeing, Douglas, General Dynamics, Lockheed and Martin Marietta designed a plane.
General Electric, Curtiss-Wright and Pratt & Whitney designed the engines.
The Air Force liked Boeing, Douglas and Lockheed's designs.
They also liked General Electric and Pratt & Whitney's engine designs.
In 1965, Lockheed's plane and General Electric's engines were used for the C-5 Galaxy.
At that time, it was the biggest military cargo plane in the world.
The idea for the 747 was thought of in the 1960s.
Jets like the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 had made it easy to travel long distances.
Juan Trippe from Pan American World Airways (Pan Am), asked Boeing to build a plane which was more than two times bigger than the Boeing 707.
At this time, airports were very busy.
Trippe thought that a big plane could help make them quieter.
In 1965, Joe Sutter was told to design this new plane.
It was called the 747.
Sutter asked Pan Am and other airlines what they would like from the plane.
At the time, it was thought that supersonic aircraft would replace the 747.
Because of this, Boeing made the 747 so that it could easily be turned into a cargo plane if the passenger version became less popular.
In April 1966, Pan Am bought 25 747-100 planes.
The order cost US$525 million.
Since Pan Am was the launch customer, Pan Am had a big say in the design and making of the 747.
No other airline before then or since then has been able to have so much influence over a plane.
The design that Boeing made for the Air Force in 1963 was not used for the 747.
However, Boeing made some new things for the Air Force which were used in the 747.
The first design had two full decks.
However, in 1966, this was changed to only one deck.
The cockpit was put above the deck, which made a "bulge".
There was a small space behind the cockpit which people could sit in.
At first, it was a "lounge" area with no seats.
Planes as big as the 747 needed high-bypass turbofan engines.
High-bypass turbofans can produce twice the power of turbojets, and also use a lot less fuel.
General Electric made the first of these engines.
However, it was making the engines for the C-5 Galaxy.
It did not make engines for airliners until later.
Pratt & Whitney was also working on this type of engine.
In 1966, Boeing, Pan Am and Pratt & Whitney designed a new engine, the JT9D, for the 747.
Boeing used some special devices to make the plane make more lift.
This was done so that the 747 could take off from shorter runways.
The 747 has a lot of flaps on the wing.
The flaps make the wings bigger by 21 percent.
They also make 90 percent more lift when they are used.
Boeing tried to give the 747 to Pan Am by the end of 1969.
This meant that Boeing only had 28 months to design the aircraft.
The people who worked on the 747 had the nickname "The Incredibles".
Boeing did not have a factory big enough to make the new plane.
Boeing thought about putting their factory in 50 different cities.
They eventually decided to build their factory in Seattle, near Everett, Washington.
Boeing bought the factory in June 1966.
Designing the 747 was very difficult.
Building its factory was also not easy.
Boeing's president, William M. Allen, asked Malcolm T. Stamper to be in charge of the building of the Everett factory.
He was also asked to begin building the 747.
The factory is the biggest building ever built (by volume).
It has been made bigger many times so that Boeing can build even bigger planes.
Before the first 747 was put together, parts and systems were being tested.
In one important test, 560 volunteers evacuated a replica of a 747 cabin using the emergency chutes.
The first evacuation took two and a half minutes.
However, the FAA says that the maximum time for an evacuation is 90 seconds.
Many of the volunteers were hurt.
More evacuations happened, and they eventually reached the 90 seconds.
However, they also caused a lot of injuries.
Evacuating from the top deck of the plane was difficult.
Instead of using the usual slides, the volunteers had to leave the plane using a harness.
The plane's taxiing also had to be tested.
Boeing made "Waddell's Wagon" (named after a 747 test pilot, Jack Waddell) to train the pilots. "
Waddell's Wagon" was a replica of a 747 cockpit which was put on the roof of a truck.
This helped pilots to learn how to taxi the plane.