the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Classical composers have sometimes used pentatonic scales, especially Claude Debussy.
His piano piece La fille aux cheveux de lin has a tune which is pentatonic except for one note.
Maurice Ravel used it to write music which sounded Chinese, and in his Mother Goose suite (Ma Mère l'Oye) which sounds like a fairy tale.
The pentatonic scales used in Indonesian gamelan music are called slendro and pelog.
Folk music - Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival.
The term originated in the 19th century but is often applied to music that is older than that.
Some types of folk music are also called world music.
Semitones - A semitone, also called a half step or a half tone, is the smallest musical interval commonly used in Western tonal music, and it is considered the most dissonant when sounded harmonically.
It is defined as the interval between two adjacent notes in a 12-tone scale (e.g. from C to C♯).
This implies that its size is exactly or approximately equal to 100 cents, a twelfth of an octave.
Major scale - The major scale or Ionian scale is one of the most commonly used musical scales, especially in Western music.
It is one of the diatonic scales.
Like many musical scales it is made up of seven notes: the eighth duplicates the first at double its frequency so that it is called a higher octave of the same note (from Latin "octavus", the eighth).
In music theory, the major scale or Ionian scale is one of the diatonic scales.
It is made up of seven separate notes, plus an eighth which is the same as the first an octave higher.
In solfege these notes correspond to the syllables "Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti/Si, Do".
The simplest major scale to write or play on the piano is C major, the only major scale not to require sharps or flats, using only the white keys on the piano keyboard:
A major scale is a set of steps in the order "Whole:Whole:Half:Whole:Whole:Whole:Half" (tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, tone, semitone).
Western scales do not skip any line or space on the staff, and they do not repeat any note  with a different accidental.
This means that the key signature of the scale will feature just sharps or just flats.
Names of scale degrees
1st – Tonic- key note
2nd – Supertonic
3rd – Mediant
4th – Subdominant
5th – Dominant
6th – Submediant
7th – Leading Tone
8th – Tonic ( or Octave)
The circle of fifths
The Circle of Fifths was first described in 1728 by Johann David Heinichen in his book Der General-bass.
It has been used ever since as a way to show the relations between scales.
The numbers inside the circle show the number of sharps or flats in the key signature, with the sharp keys going clockwise, and the flat keys counterclockwise from C major (which has no sharps or flats.)
The circle depends on enharmonic relationships in the circle, which is six sharps or flats for the major keys of F = G and D = E for minor keys (Drabkin 2001).
Seven sharps or flats make major keys (C major and C major) that are more easy to spell with five flats or sharps (as D major or B  major).
Harmonic properties
The major scale is used more often than the minor scale in Western music because of its unique harmonic properties.
For example, the major third is much stronger in the harmonic series (it is the 5th, 10th and 20th harmonic – see below) than the minor third (the 19th harmonic).
Equal temperament
Just intonation
Major and minor
Bower, Michael.
2007. "
All about Key Signatures ".
Modesto, CA: Capistrano School (K–12) website. (
Accessed 17 March 2010)
Drabkin, William.
Circle of Fifths".
Jones, George Thaddeus.
Music Theory: The Fundamental Concepts of Tonal Music Including Notation, Terminology, and Harmony.
Barnes & Noble Outline Series 137.
New York, Hagerstown, San Francisco, London: Barnes & Noble.
1994. "
Key-Signature".
Oxford Dictionary of Music, second edition, associate editor, Joyce Bourne.
Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. .
Proper fingering of the major and minor scales on the piano
Listen to and download harmonised Major scale piano MP3s
The major and pentatonic scales on the guitar  in several positions
The major scale for guitar in one position, with derivation
A minor scale in music theory is any scale that has at least three scale degrees: the tonic, the minor third above the tonic, and the perfect fifth above the tonic.
Together they make the minor triad.
This includes many scales and modes such as Dorian mode and the Phrygian mode.
In simple terms, a minor scale is a series of notes with a sad, somber character (exaggerated when heard back-to-back with a major scale).
A minor scale begins on the sixth note of its relative major scale, and is built with the following pattern of half steps and whole steps:
(e -------- f#° ------ G ---------- a --------- b ------- C ---------- D ---------- e)
Natural Minor
The natural minor scale is the same as the 6th mode (or Aeolian mode) of the major scale.
For example, the white notes of a keyboard from one C to the next C up makes a C major scale.
If the white notes are played starting from the sixth step of that C scale, (from any A to the next A), then an A natural minor scale (the "relative minor" of C) is produced.
Harmonic and melodic minor
Harmonic Minor Scale: 1  2  3  4  5  6 7  8
A  B  C  D  E  F  G  A
One way the harmonic minor is different to the natural minor is that it has two chords which have the same structure when inverted, so they do not belong to any key.
These are the diminished seventh chord (2nd, 4th, 6th and 7th degrees) and the augmented chord (the 3rd, 5th and 7th degrees).
The harmonic minor is also sometimes called the Mohammedan scale because its upper tetrachord is the same as the Hijaz jins, often found in Middle Eastern music.
The harmonic minor scale as a whole is sometimes called Nahawand-Hijaz in Arabic, or as Bûselik Hicaz  in Turkish.
The interval between the sixth and seventh degrees of this scale (in this case F and G) is an augmented second.
While some composers, like Mozart, have used this interval in melodic composition, other composers found it awkward.
They thought that a whole step between these two scale degrees was better for smooth melody writing, so they used the subtonic seventh, or raised the sixth scale degree.
These two options are called the ascending melodic minor scale and descending melodic minor scale.
The ascending has the same upper tetrachord to the major scale, and the descending is the same as the natural minor:
A  B  C  D  E  F  G  A' and then
A' G  F  E  D  C  B  A respectively.
Many composers do not stick to the notes of only one of these scales when writing music.
Using the triad of the relative major is very common, but because this is based on the third degree of the minor scale, the raised seventh degree of the harmonic scale would cause an augmented triad.
In this case, composers usually use the natural minor.
In jazz, usually only the ascending minor is used.
Finding key signatures
Major and minor keys that share the same key signature are called relative; so C major is the relative major of A minor, and C minor is the relative minor of E major.
The relative major is a minor third above the tonic of the minor.
For example, since the key signature of G major has one sharp (see major scales for how to find this), its relative minor, E minor, also has one sharp in its key signature.
Music may be written in an enharmonic scale (e.g. A major, which only has four flats in its key signature, compared to the eight sharps required for G major).
The following are enharmonic equivalents:
Diatonic functionality
Kirwani
Gjerdingen, Robert O. (1990). "
A Guide to the Terminology of German Harmony", Studies in the Origin of Harmonic Tonality by Dahlhaus, Carl, trans.
Gjerdingen (1990).
3 note per string Harmonic Minor scale shapes for guitar in PDF format for easy printing
Listen to and download harmonised minor scale piano MP3s
Guitar: Harmonic minor scale explored
The harmonic minor scale on the guitar
Yeast are microorganisms.
They are single-celled  fungi.
There are about 1,500 different species of yeast.
Most reproduce asexually, by budding.
Some use binary fission to reproduce asexually.
A particular species of yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has been used for thousands of years.
It is used for baking bread because the yeast makes carbon dioxide as a by-product of it eating sugar, which helps the bread rise (leaven).
Yeast is also used for making beer and other alcoholic drinks by a process known as fermentation.
This process produces both ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Ethanol is also used as fuel, and to make other organic chemicals.
Yeast can be used to make electricity.
Yeast is also a model organism for studying cell biology.
Some yeasts can cause infections in humans (they are  pathogens).
Slime_mould
Budding is a method of asexual reproduction.
With budding, a new organism grows on another one.
It stays attached, while it grows.
Only when it is fully grown does it detach from the parent organism.
Since the reproduction is asexual, the newly created organism is a clone and is genetically identical to the parent organism.
This method (asexual reproduction) is done in favourable conditions
Budding is very common in plants and fungi.
Sometimes it can also be found with animals, for example with hydras or sponges.
Binary fission ("division in half") is a kind of asexual reproduction.
It is the most common form of reproduction in prokaryotes such as bacteria.
It occurs in some single-celled Eukaryotes like the Amoeba and the Paramoecium.
In binary fission DNA replication and segregation occur simultaneously.
In binary fission, the fully grown parent cell splits into two halves, producing two pools.
After replicating its genetic material, the parent cell divides into two equal sized daughter cells.
The genetic material is replicated, then equally split.
The daughter cells are genetically identical (unless a mutation occurs during replication).
During binary fission, the DNA molecule divides and forms two DNA molecules.
The cell then grows to create room for each molecule to move towards the opposite side of the bacterium.
At the same time, the cell membrane divides to form 2 daughter cells.
After division, the new cells grow and the process repeats itself.
Charisma Lee Carpenter (born July 23, 1970) is an American actress.
She is best known for playing the character Cordelia Chase in the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer and its spin-off Angel.
Carpenter was born in Las Vegas, Nevada.
At 15, her family moved to Rosarito B.C., Mexico.
Later, they moved to Chula Vista (a suburb of San Diego).
After graduating high school, she was a San Diego Chargers cheerleader in 1991 before beginning her Hollywood career.
She had also sky-dived.
She married Damian Hardy on October 5, 2002.
She gave birth to their son Donavan Charles Hardy on March 24, 2003.
Josh Kirby... Time Warrior (TV series) (1995)
Malibu Shores (1996) (TV series)
Buffy the Vampire Slayer (TV series) (1997-1999)
Angel (TV series) (1999-2003)
The Groomsmen (2001)
See Jane Date (TVM) (2003)
Miss Match (TV series) (2003)
Charmed (TV series) (2004)
Voodoo Moon (2005)
Veronica Mars (TV series) (2005-2006)
Flirting with Danger (TVM) (2006)
Cheaters Club (TVM) (2006)
Relative Chaos (TVM) (2006)
Desperate Housewives 2009 : "Allison"
Paul Watzlawick PhD (July 25, 1921 – March 31, 2007) was a theoretician in communication theory.
He also commented in the fields of family therapy and general psychotherapy.
He lived and worked in California until his death in 2007 in Palo Alto.
He formulated five axioms.
It is not possible to not communicate.
Every behavior is some kind of non-verbal communication.
Every communication has a content.
In addition, there is 'metainformation', which says how the communicator wants to be understood.
All parters involved in a communication process also interpret their own behaviour during communication.
Human communication involves both verbal and non-verbal communication.
In addition to the spoken words, there are is also a non-spoken part (gestures, behavior, intonation..) which is part of the communication.
Communication between humans is either symmetric or complementary.
This is based on whether the relationship of those communicating is based on differences or parity.
Watzlawick is author of 18 books (in 85 foreign language editions) and more than 150 book articles and book chapters.
Books he has written or on which he has collaborated include:
Invented Reality: How do we know what we believe we know? (
Contributions to constructivism)
Pragmatics of human communication
The situation is hopeless, but not serious
Ultra-solutions: how to fail most successfully
How real is real?
The language of change
http://www.colorado.edu/communication/meta-discourses/Theory/watzlawick/
American psychologists
Austrian people
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers.
They send information between neurons by crossing a synapse.
Electrical signals are not able to cross the gap between most neurons.
They are changed into chemical signals to cross the gap.
Neurotransmitters act mostly on chemical synapses.
Once they reach the next neuron they are absorbed.
The neuron then changes this chemical signal back into an electrical signal called an action potential.
The action potential passes across the next neuron and to the next synapse.
Many neurotransmitters are made from amino acids, which are part of your diet and it takes only a few steps to convert them.
Neurotransmitters play a major role in shaping everyday life and functions.
Scientists do not yet know exactly how many neurotransmitters exist, but more than 100 chemical messengers have been identified.
Each neurotransmitter has a different function.
For example: dopamine is used in reward and pleasure and noradrenaline is used in an animal's "fight or flight" response.
Neurotransmitters also regulate the passing of messages.
This is because an action potential must be a certain strength before the neurotransmitters are released.
The strength required to release the neurotransmitter is called a threshold.
The most common transmitter is glutamate, which is excitatory at well over 90% of the synapses in the human brain.
The next most prevalent is called GABA, which inhibits at more than 90% of the synapses that do not use glutamate.
Neurotransmitters are transported within neurons by small "sacks" called vesicles.
When these vesciles come into contact with the neuron's cell membrane, it opens.
This releases the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
Until the early 20th century, scientists assumed that the majority of synaptic communication in the brain was electrical.
However, through the careful histological examinations by Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934), a 20 to 40 nm gap between neurons, known today as the synaptic cleft, was discovered.
The presence of the gap suggested chemical messengers moved across the synaptic cleft.
In 1921 German pharmacologist Otto Loewi (1873–1961) confirmed that neurons can communicate by releasing chemicals.
By experiments involving the vagus nerves of frogs, Loewi was able to slow the heart rate of frogs by controlling the amount of saline solution present around the vagus nerve.
Loewi asserted that sympathetic regulation of cardiac function can be mediated through changes in chemical concentrations.
Otto Loewi also discovered acetylcholine (ACh)—the first known neurotransmitter.
Some neurons do, however, communicate by electrical synapses through the use of gap junctions, which allow specific ions to pass directly from one cell to another.
Hard rock is a variation of rock music with roots in early 1960s garage rock and psychedelic rock.
The term "hard rock" may be used several genres such as punk rock and grunge in order to distinguish them from the more radio-friendly pop rock genre.
Notable Artists
The Beatles (such as Helter Skelter, I Want You (She’s So Heavy)
Sally Beamish (born London,  26 August 1956) is an English composer.
She has written music for orchestra, chamber music, vocal and choral music.
Sally studied the viola at the Royal Northern College of Music.
Later she also studied in Germany and Italy.
Sally started her career playing the viola in a chamber group called the Raphael Ensemble.
The experience of playing in small groups was important for her development as a composer.
Her music often combines and contrasts solo instruments, exploring the sounds they can make.
She has written works for the Swedish and Scottish Chamber Orchestras and has had works performed at the BBC Proms.
Her trumpet concerto, written for Håkan Hardenberger and the National Youth Orchestra of Scotland was performed at the Proms in 2003 with Martyn Brabbins conducting.
She has also written concertos for the flute, viola, saxophone, percussion and accordion and is planning to write concertos for  viola (her third), saxophone quartet and cello.
She has written a stage musical about the Scottish Highlands.
She lives in Scotland with her husband and young daughter.
Sally Beamish  – official website
Nakhodka (Russian Находка) is a port city in Primorsky Krai, Russia.
It is one of the most eastern cities in Russia.
Nakhodka is a port on the Japan Sea.
It is located around Nakhodka Bay.
Nakhodka means "Lucky find" in Russian.
The village Amerikanka was the first permanent settlement at the location of the current city.
Nakhodka became an urban-type fishing settlement in 1941.
It received  city status on May 19, 1950.
This date is now called City Day.
The economy of the city is based mainly on the port and port-related businesses.
This include processing and canning fish.
In Soviet times, Nakhodka was the only Soviet port in the Far East open to foreign vessels.
After Vladivostok started being used by foreigners in 1991, the port of Nakhodka is not used as much as before.
Economic activity in the city has become much less because of this..
Nakhodka is still an important international port.
It is the center of the coastal trade.
Exports include timber, coal, fluorspar, honey, fish and seafood.
Cities in Russia
Sumatra, known also as Sumatera, is the sixth largest island in the world.
It is in western Indonesia.
It is to the west of the Sunda Islands, and is bordered by the Indian Ocean.
Sumatra contains the provinces of Daerah Istimewa Aceh, Riau, Riau Islands, Bangka Belitung Islands, Jambi, Bengkulu, Lampung, North Sumatra, South Sumatra, and West Sumatra.
Sumatra has an area of about 443,066 km².
Sumatera Online
The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom.
Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Tories.
The British prime minister was usually from one of the two parties.
The Whigs played a central role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders, who were Roman Catholic.
The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715.
They held it until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760, allowed Tories back in.
Karl Marx on the Tories and the Whigs (1852)
Former political parties in the United Kingdom
1678 establishments
1868 disestablishments
1670s establishments in Europe
17th-century establishments in England
19th-century disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Espionage or spying is a practice of getting information about an organization, society, or country that is meant to be secret or confidential, without permission.
Espionage usually involves having access to where the needed information is stored or to the people that know the information.
In wartime, espionage is a war crime.
The person who does it is called a "spy" or more vaguely an "agent".
A double agent is one who trades information to both sides, and is (without their knowledge) being employed by both sides.
In 1952, Birtwistle entered the Royal Manchester College of Music in Manchester on a clarinet scholarship.
While there he met other young composers like Peter Maxwell Davies and Alexander Goehr.
Together with pianist John Ogdon and conductor Elgar Howarth, he formed the New Music Manchester group, which put on performances of modern music, especially music using serialism.
Birtwistle left the college in 1955, then studied at the Royal Academy of Music and afterward made a living as a schoolteacher.
In 1965 he got a Harkness Fellowship which gave him the opportunity to study composition in the United States.
In 1975 Birtwistle became musical director of the new Royal National Theatre in London, a post he held until 1983.
He was given a knighthood in 1988 and was made a Companion of Honour in 2000.
From 1994 to 2001 he was Henry Purcell Professor of Composition at King's College London.
His music is quite complicated and modern in style.
Sometimes it reminds one of Igor Stravinsky and Olivier Messiaen.
Sometimes he uses blocks of sound like Edgard Varèse.
His first opera Punch and Judy is quite different from a traditional Punch and Judy children's entertainment.
It is very serious and quite violent.
He has written other operas: The Mask of Orpheus (1984), Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (1990),  The Second Mrs Kong (1994), and The Last Supper (2000), .
When Gawain was performed in 1994 at the Royal Opera House a group of hecklers booed and whistled loudly.
However, this only made the opera more famous as lots of people read about it and came to hear it.
He wrote a piece called Panic for alto saxophone, jazz drum kit and orchestra.
Punch and Judy, a traditional children's puppet show
Punch and Judy, characters in Big Shot
Punch and Judy, an opera by Harrison Birtwistle.
"Punch and Judy", a song released by Marillion in 1984
The Punch and Judy Man, a 1962 British comedy film
"Punch and Judy", a song by The Stranglers from their 1984 album Aural Sculpture
"Punch and Judy", a song by Elliott Smith from his 1997 album Either/Or
"Punch Judy", three-piece London-based band on the punky side of pop  gives short reviews and gig details
Punch and Judy, a pair of re-occurring characters in the anime Cowboy Bebop
Lorsch is a small town in southwest Germany ( south of Frankfurt am Main) in the Kreis Bergstraße district of the state of Hessen.
More than 12,000 people live in the town.
It is the site of a Benedictine abbey, which used to be one of the greatest centers of Carolingian art.
The abbey is also famous for the Lorsch Codex, which was produced there around the end of the 12th century.
The abbey has been declared a World Heritage Site.
The Nibelungenlied identifies Lorsch as the birthplace of Siegfried.
Scottish English, the accents and dialects of English spoken in Scotland
Scottish Gaelic, a Celtic language native to Scotland
Scots language, a Germanic language spoken in lowland Scotland
Scotts (disambiguation)
Dominic Bernard Patrick Luke Monaghan (born 8 December 1976) is an English actor.
He is well known for playing Merry Brandybuck in Peter Jackson's movie trilogy of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings.
He is also well known for playing Charlie Pace on the television series Lost.
Monaghan was born in Berlin to British parents.
He has a tattoo on his right arm of the English word "nine" written with the Tengwar script.
It means that his character was one of the nine members of the Fellowship of the Ring in The Lord of the Rings.
Many other cast members also got similar tattoos during the making of the movie.
On his left arm is a tattoo that says "Living is easy with eyes closed", a line from The Beatles' song "Strawberry Fields Forever".
On Lost, Charlie's tape/bandage finger-rings with letters spelling out words were Monaghan's idea.
He thought that because Charlie is an artist, he would still want to be creative even when trapped on an island.
Monaghan also actually plays the guitar on Lost.
Dominic dated Evangeline Lilly while the two of them were on Lost.
The two broke up in 2007.
The Dominic Monaghan Resource
Dominic Monaghan interview
The article about the Sioux leader is at Crazy Horse
Le Crazy Horse Saloon or Le Crazy Horse Paris is a nightclub in Paris, founded in 1951.
It is famous for its cabaret, which features nude female dancers.
It was opened by Alain Bernardin, who also managed it until his suicide in 1994.
Today the cabaret is run by Bernardin's children.
The franchise includes Crazy Horse Paris for one in Las Vegas (formerly La Femme), at the MGM Grand.
Theatres in France
Cnidaria is a phylum with about 11,000 species of animals.
All of them are simple and aquatic, and most of them live in the sea.
Some are colonial, composed of zooids which may be clones.
Cnidarian zooids may take the form of polyps or medusae at different phases of their life.
Cnidaria take their name from special cells which have organelles that sting: the nematocysts.
This device is largely responsible for their success: it is their main specialised and distinctive cell type.
The word Cnidaria is spoken without the initial "C", and with a long "i".
So it sounds like "Naidaria".
In a similar way, the term Ctenophore is pronounced as "Teenophore".
Originally, a Greek kappa was in front of the words, and it was pronounced.
The name comes from Greek language knidi, "nettle", thus mening "nettle-like animals" as all cnidarians have stinging cells like nettles.
There are five classes in the group.
Jellyfish occur in four of the classes.
Subphylum and class Anthozoa: the sea anemones and corals.
Subphylum Medusozoa: the jellyfish
Class Scyphozoa: the 'true' jellyfish.
Class Cubozoa: the box jellies.
Class Hydrozoa: the hydroids: (Hydra; Portuguese man o' war).
Class Staurozoa: the stalked jellyfish.
Basic body forms
Adult cnidarians are usually either free-swimming medusae or sessile polyps.
Many alternate between the two forms.
Both forms are radially symmetrical, like a wheel and a tube respectively.
Most have fringes of tentacles equipped with cnidocytes around their edges.
Medusae usually have an inner ring of tentacles around their mouth.
Some hydroids may be colonies of zooids which serve different purposes: defence, reproduction and catching prey.
The mesoglea of medusae is a thick and springy jelly, so it returns to its original shape after muscles around the edge have contracted.
This makes a sort of jet propulsion.
In medusae the only supporting structure is the jelly inside their cell layers.
Hydra and most sea anemones close their mouths when they are not feeding, and the water in the digestive cavity then acts as a kind of skeleton, rather like a water-filled balloon.
Other polyps such as Tubularia use columns of water-filled cells for support.
Sea pens stiffen the mesogleal jelly with calcium carbonate spicules and tough fibrous proteins, rather like sponges.
In some colonial polyps, a chitinous periderm gives support and some protection to the connecting sections and to the lower parts of individual polyps.
Stony corals secrete massive calcium carbonate exoskeletons.
A few polyps collect materials such as sand grains and shell fragments, which they attach to their outsides.
Some colonial sea anemones stiffen the mesoglea with sediment particles.
There is a long fossil record for the corals, and soft-bodied forms appear in some exceptional strata.
Some are believed to be among the Ediacaran biota.
Hiking path
Path (computing), where to find a file on a computer
Path (graph theory), a sequence of vertices of a graph
Path (topology), a continuous function
Path, a name for the vectors in vector graphics
Calvinism belongs to the Reformed tradition of Protestantism.
This tradition goes back to John Calvin and other theologians.
Important Calvinists from Europe include: Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and Huldrych Zwingli, and from England, reformers Thomas Cranmer and John Jewel.
Because John Calvin had great influence and played an important role in the confessional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the 17th century, the tradition generally became known as Calvinism.
John Calvin's international influence on the development of the doctrines of the Protestant Reformation began at the age of 25, when he started work on his first edition of the Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1534 (published 1536).
Alongside the work he contributed to confessional documents for use in churches, Calvin's beliefs and practices left a direct influence on Protestantism.
He is only one of many people to influence the doctrines of the Reformed churches, but he eventually became one of the most prominent theologians.
The rising importance of the Reformed churches, and of Calvin, happened in the second phase of the Protestant Reformation, when evangelical churches began to form, after Martin Luther, another important Reformer, was excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church.
Calvin was a French exile in Geneva.
He had signed the Lutheran Augsburg Confession in 1540, but his importance came from the Swiss Reformation.
This was not Lutheran, but followed Huldrych Zwingli and then Calvin.
True Calvinism (historical Calvinism) does not teach that God chooses who will be saved and who will not be saved.
Instead, it teaches that for God's own glory, He recreates men with a new nature - a nature that loves God and hates sin - instead of men keeping their old nature, as if they kept their old nature, they would not want to follow God.
Historical Calvinism also teaches that if God did not choose to save someone, there would be no-one to be saved.
The spread of Calvinism
Although much of Calvin's practice was in Geneva, his publications spread his ideas of a reformed church to many parts of Europe.
Calvinism became the theology of most Christians in Scotland (see John Knox), the Netherlands, and parts of Germany, and was influential in France, Hungary, Transylvania, and Poland.
Calvinism was popular as well for some time in Scandinavia, especially Sweden, but was rejected in favor of Lutheranism after the synod of Uppsala in 1593.
Most settlers in the American Mid-Atlantic and New England were Calvinists, including the Puritans and Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam (New York).
Dutch Calvinist settlers were also the first successful European colonizers of South Africa, beginning in the 17th century, who became known as Boers or Afrikaners.
John Wesley (2001).
Calvinism Calmly Considered.
C. Gordon Olson (2002).
Beyond Calvinism and Arminianism: An Inductive, Mediate Theology of Salvation.
Global Gospel Publishers.
"Calvinist Childrearing Methodology" from A Study of the First Maternal Association of Utica, New York, 1824-1833 by Elizabeth Shanklin
"The Impact of Calvinism on Sixteenth Century Culture" 1967 By Dr. W. Stanford Reid
Calvinist websites
Center for Reformed Theology and Apologetics - offers many materials from a Calvinist perspective.
Monergism - classic articles and resources; claims to have the largest collection of Reformed/Calvinist resources on the Internet.
Calvinism Index  by Colin Maxwell
Calvinism and other theological systems
What is Calvinism? -
A Summary of the Presbyterian Religion.
Calvinism & Arminianism - a brief comparison of Calvinism and Arminianism from The Five Points of Calvinism - Defined, Defended, Documented by Steele
Christian movements and denominational families
Jean Cauvin, also Jean Calvin  (John Calvin in English) (July 10, 1509 – May 27, 1564), was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and was a central developer of the system of Christian theology called Calvinism or Reformed theology.
In Geneva, he rejected Papal authority, established a new scheme of civic and ecclesiastical governance.
He is famous for his teachings and writings and infamous for his role in the execution of Michael Servetus.
Calvin was born with the name Jean Chauvin (or Cauvin, in Latin Calvinus) in Noyon, Picardie, France, to Gérard Cauvin and Jeanne Lefranc.
In 1523, Calvin's father, a lawyer, sent his fourteen-year-old son to the University of Paris to study humanities and law.
By 1532, he had attained a Doctor of Law degree at Orléans.
In 1536, he settled in Geneva, Switzerland.
After being expelled from the city, he served as a pastor in Strasbourg from 1538 until 1541, before returning to Geneva, where he lived until his death in 1564.
Calvin's thought
Calvin trained to be a lawyer.
He studied with some of the best teachers of the Renaissance in France.
Some of the training used newer humanistic methods of trying to understand, dealing with a text directly.
The training was important for Calvin.
When he started to believe in Evangelicalism, he used these methods with the Bible.
He used the bible to form his thoughts.
He taught and preached what he believed the Bible taught.
Reformers such as Jan Hus and Martin Luther are seen as original thinkers that started a movement.
Calvin was a great logician.
He organised a movement.
He was not so much an innovator in doctrine.
Calvin knew the writings of the early Church Fathers and the great Medieval schoolmen very well.
Earlier Reformers also influenced him.
Calvin did not disagree with the Scholastics of the Middle Ages completely.
He used them and adapted their thoughts according to his understanding of the Bible.
Calvin is often associated with the doctrines of predestination and election.
He had similar ideas to the other magisterial Reformers about these doctrines.
Last years (1555–1564)
Calvin's power was very great in his last years.
He was known all around the world as a reformer different from Martin Luther.
Mainly, Luther and Calvin respected each other.
However, Luther and a Zürich reformer Huldrych Zwingli thought differently about the eucharist.
Calvin's thoughts about it made Luther believe that Calvin agreed with Zwingli.
At the same time, Calvin was sad that the reformers were not all together.
He tried to join them together by signing the Consensus Tigurinus.
This was an agreement between the Zürich and Geneva churches.
Calvin's greatest help to the English-speaking people was by giving Marian exiles in Geneva protection.
He did this starting in 1555.
With the city's protection, they could make their own reformed church under John Knox and William Whittingham.
They later carried many of Calvin's ideas back to England and Scotland.
However, Calvin was most interested in trying to change his homeland, France.
He helped the building of churches by giving out literature and offering ministers.
Between 1555 and 1562, over one hundred ministers were sent to France.
Inside Geneva, Calvin mainly wanted to make a collège, a school for children.
A place to build the school was picked on March 25, 1558.
It was opened the next year on June 5, 1559.
It was divided into two parts.
One part was a grammar school.
The grammar school was called the collège or schola privata.
The other part was an advanced school called the académie or schola publica.
In five years there were 1,200 students in the grammar school and 300 in the advanced school.
The collège later became the Collège Calvin, one of the college preparatory schools of Geneva.
The académie became the University of Geneva.
In autumn 1558, Calvin became ill with a fever.
He was afraid he might die before finishing his last revision of the Institutes.
Because of this, he forced himself to work.
The last edition became much longer, so Calvin called it a new work.
It was 21 chapters in the edition before the last one.
However, in the last one, it was 80.
This was because of more detail in the material that was already there: more subjects were not really added.
Soon after he became better, he strained his voice while preaching.
This made him cough violently.
He burst a blood-vessel in his lungs.
His health became much worse after this.
He preached his last sermon in St. Pierre on February 6, 1564.
On April 25, he made his will.
In his will, he left a little money to his family and to the collège.
A few days later, the ministers of the church came to visit him.
He died of septicaemia.
This goodbye is recorded in Discours d'adieu aux ministres.
He remembered his life in Geneva.
Calvin died on May 27, 1564.
He was 54.
On the next day, he was buried in an unmarked grave in the Cimetière de Plainpalais.
People are not sure where the grave is exactly.
However, a stone was added in the 19th century to mark a grave traditionally thought to be Calvin's.
General collections
Writings of Calvin at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library (CCEL)
Theological works
Institutes of the Christian Religion at CCEL
Psychopannychia
Jean Calvin, Théodore de Bèze,
Calvin's Commentaries on the Bible at CCEL
Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles, (with Calvin's dedication to Edward VI), tr.
by John Owens, Edingurgh, The Calvin Translation Society, 1855.
Jules Bonnet, Letters of John Calvin, Carlisle, Penn: Banner of Truth Trust 1980.
Bernard Cottret, Calvin, a Biography, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Eerdmans, 2001.
Roland Bainton (1974).
Women of the Reformation in England and France.
Boston, MA: Beacon Press. .
John Farrell, "The Terrors of Reform," chapter five of Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau.
Cornell University Press, 2006.
John Foxe.
An Account of the Life of John Calvin
St Peter's Cathedral in Geneva
1509 births
French Christians
French theologians
People from Hauts-de-France
A Trebuchet was a device used in wars and sieges in the Middle Ages.
It could be used to throw stones at ramparts, trying to break them down.
It could also be used to throw things over the walls of a city.
These could be corpses of animals or people that had died of the plague.
Trebuchets were more accurate than other medieval catapults.
The trebuchet works in a simple way.
The basket of the trebuchet is filled with heavy rocks.
This acts as a counterweight for the other end, which is usually filled with one large rock.
Several men arm the trebuchet by raising the counterweight up and the firing arm down.
At this point the arm is released, the heavy basket swings down and the arm swings up, launching the rock far and fast.
The sling adds an additional 10-15 feet of arm length and gives the projectile a whip like speed then releases.
The sling gives the projectile most of its speed.
Secrets of Lost Empires: Medieval Siege (building of and history of trebuchets), from the NOVA website
article on Trebuchet Mechanics  (in PDF format)
The Finnish Trebuchet
Homemade Trebuchet
Homemade Spring Trebuchet
Medieval Trébuchet
Animated Trebuchet
Evolution of Sling Weapons
Tarascon, sometimes called Tarascon-sur-Rhône, is a city in the south of France.
The city is about 20 km from either Arles or Avignon.
The city was founded by the Romans in the year 48.
Some people know the city from the book Tartarin de Tarascon by Alphonse Daudet.
There is also a castle near the city.
About 14.000 people lived in Tarascon in 2003.
Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
The Kurdish population is estimated to be around 35-40 million people.
Northern Kurdistan (Turkey)
Southern Kurdistan (Iraq)
Western Kurdistan (Syria)
Eastern Kurdistan (Iran)
Aigues-Mortes (French for "dead waters") is a city in the south of France.
It is in the Languedoc-Roussillon region.
It was originally founded by the Romans in the year 102 BC.
The first records mentioning it under its current name date from the 10th century.
Louis IX of France rebuilt the port in the 13th century.
It was the only French port of the Mediterranean at that time.
The city is laid out as a bastide.
It was the starting point for the Seventh Crusade (1248) and Eighth Crusade (1270).
Due to changes of the coastline, the city is several miles from the sea.
It is linked to the sea through a canal, nowadays.
It has well-preserved city walls.
In 1999, about 6.000 people lived there.
Aigues-Mortes is about 35 km from Nîmes.
Communes in Gard
Year 3 BC was a common year starting on Wednesday or Thursday of the Julian calendar.
At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Lentulus and Messalla.
King Maroboduus of the Marcomanni made a confederation of Germanic tribes, with the Hermunduri, Lombards, Semnoni and Vandals.
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus leads the Roman army in Germania and crossed the Elbe
Seneca, Roman statesman (d. AD 65)
Servius Sulpicius Galba, Roman Emperor (d. AD 69)
Imperial consort Fu of the Chinese Han Dynasty
Year 6 BC was a common year starting on Sunday or Monday of the Julian calendar.
At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Balbus and Vetus.
Caesar Augustus sends ferrets to the Balearic Islands to control rabbits
Tiberius is sent to Armenia.
He then retires to Rhodes.
Consort Ban, Chinese concubine of Emperor Cheng of Han, also a poet and scholar (b. 48 BC)
Consort Feng Yuan (b. c. 48 BC)
Liu Xiang, Chinese scholar (b. 77 BC)
Leopold II (Léopold Louis Philippe Marie Victor) (9 April 1835 – 17 December 1909) was King of the Belgians.
Born in Brussels the second (but oldest surviving) son of Leopold I and Louise of Orléans.
He succeeded his father to the throne on 17 December 1865 and was king until his death.
Leopold is mainly remembered as the founder and sole owner of the Congo Free State.
He lay claim to the Congo, an area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
He treated the people badly in order to make money.
His harsh rule was responsible for the deaths of between five to 10 million Congolese people.
The Congo became one of the most infamous international scandals of the early 20th century.
As a result, Leopold II was forced to give control of it to the government of Belgium.
Despite owning and ruling it as a dictator, Leopold II never visited the Congo Free State and Africa.
On 15 November 1902, Italian anarchist Gennaro Rubino tried to assassinate Leopold.
Rubino fired three shots at the King.
The shots missed Leopold and Rubino was immediately arrested.
Leopold II had a wedding ceremony with Caroline Lacroix, a prostitute, on 14 December 1909, five days before his death.
This was not legal under Belgian law.
9 April 1835 – 17 December 1865 His Royal Highness The Duke of Brabant, Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
Duke in Saxony.
17 December 1865 – 17 December 1909 His Majesty The King of The Belgians.
Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Duke in Saxony.
Kings and Queens of Belgium
Knights of the Golden Fleece
People from Brussels
George V (born George Frederick Ernest Albert; 3 June 186520 January 1936) was King of the United Kingdom.
He was the first British monarch with the family name Windsor.
His father was Edward VII.
George was born in 1865.
He was in the Royal Navy when he was twelve; he left the Navy to become king.
George was crowned King and Emperor of India in 1911.
He was married to Princess Mary of Teck.
As King during World War I, George and his wife visited the warfront regularly.
He changed the family name to "Windsor" to remove any association with a German heritage, because Germany was very unpopular at this time.
Among other things, he started the "Royal Christmas Broadcast" tradition.
He was known for being a stamp collector.
His sons Edward and George would later become kings of the United Kingdom and British Empire.
George was a popular monarch.
Many people thought he was a good king.
He died in 1936, at the age of 70.
George was king for 25 years and 8 months.
His granddaughter is the current British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II.
George was born the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales (later King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra).
He married a distant cousin (his double second cousin once removed) Mary of Teck (later Queen Mary), and they stayed married until his death.
George was known as the Duke of York for many years until his grandmother, Queen Victoria, died peacefully at the age of 81.
His father, Edward, inherited the throne gaining the nickname "Edward the Peaceful" for his hard work maintaining stability when tensions were increasing.
Edward's death was greeted with great sadness across the empire, George describing him as "my best friend".
By the time George became king Britain was the richest, most powerful nation in the world and during his reign the Empire expanded to its greatest ever extent.
King and Emperor
George was quick to prove himself a decent and popular monarch.
He became a symbol of British resistance during the First World War in which he, and his wife, visited the war front regularly.
However, at home his popularity was waning with even H.G Wells referring to him as "an alien" because of his German background (his grandfather Prince Albert was German).
Growing increasingly worried he changed the family name to “Windsor" to remove any association with a German heritage.
He was seriously injured when thrown by his horse at a troop review in France.
As the war came to a close many world monarchies were abolished or diminished, yet under the reign of George V the monarchy remained very much firmly established and as popular with the ordinary public as his late father.
He worked hard as King, visiting many places and meeting many people, from world leaders to working class miners.
The King also made friendly relations with socialist Labour party politicians and trade union members.
The King, if anything was ahead of his ministers and understood the Empire better.
He advised the government during the General Strike of 1926 not to take a hard line against the protestor stating "Try living on their wages before you judge them."
Again, unlike most ministers, George became concerned by the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazis.
He warned that within ten years there would be yet another world war and told many to be suspicious of the Nazis.
He was correct with war in fact breaking out just three years after his death.
Among other things, he is also credited for starting the Royal Christmas Broadcast tradition in 1932.
His Silver Jubilee in 1935 was greeted with jubilations and was a very well loved king across all classes of society.
Afterwards however his health suddenly declined.
It was in these later years when George's relationship with his eldest son and heir, Edward, deteriorated.
George was cross with Edward's failure to settle down in life and was angered and appalled by his many affairs with married women.
Edward did not take royal duties seriously and, although quite popular, preferred partying and luxury, in direct conflict with George's sense of duty and hard work.
George said of his son Edward: "After I am dead, the boy will ruin himself within 12 months", indeed he was correct: less than a year after taking the throne, Edward abdicated, causing the family damage to its reputation.
George V was regarded as a wise King with good judgement.
Seriously ill, on the evening of 15 January 1936, the King took to his bedroom at Sandringham House feeling unwell; he died on the 20th January.
He lay in Westminster Hall before his state funeral.
A night previous all his surviving sons mounted guard, known as the Vigil of the Princes as a mark of deep respect.
Statues of King George V were erected across the world and he has been portrayed numerous times by actors.
It was not known until recently that he had been deliberately euthanized by his chief physician, Lord Dawson of Penn.
Dawson issued a bulletin with words that became famous: "The King's life is moving peacefully towards its close".
Dawson's private diary, unearthed after his death and made public in 1986, reveals that the King's last words, a mumbled "God damn you!",
were addressed to his nurse when she gave him a sedative on the night of 20 January.
Dawson wrote that he hastened the King's death by injecting him with a lethal combination of morphine and cocaine.
Dawson noted that he acted to preserve the King's dignity, to prevent further strain on the family, and so that the King's death at 11:55 p.m. could be announced in the morning edition of The Times newspaper rather than "less appropriate ... evening journals".
This account, revealed in 1986, caused great astonishment.
Euthanasia was completely illegal in Britain at the time of Dawson's action.
HM King George V had many titles from his birth to his death.
His titles were:
June 1865 – 24 May 1892: His Royal Highness Prince George of Wales
24 May 1892 – 22 January 1901: His Royal Highness The Duke of York
22 January 1901 – 9 November 1901: His Royal Highness The Duke of Cornwall and York
9 November 1901 – 6 May 1910: His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales
9 November 1901 – 6 May 1910: His Royal Highness The Duke of Rothesay (Scotland only)
6 May 1910 – 20 January 1936: His Majesty The King
Deaths by euthanasia
Philatelists
The word candy comes from the Persian word for "cane sugar",(نیشکر), and probably also from Sanskrit khanda, which means "piece (of sugar)".
Candy is found in almost any store because they are made in many companies.
Candy can also be made at home.
Many people like candy and think it tastes good.
Other people do not like it.