the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Work is being done to make strong, fully dense nano crystalline hydroxyapatite ceramic materials for orthopedic weight bearing devices, replacing foreign metal and plastic orthopedic materials with a synthetic, but naturally occurring, bone mineral.
Ultimately these ceramic materials may be used as bone replacements or with the incorporation of protein collagens, synthetic bones.
High-tech ceramic is used in watch cases.
The material is valued for its light weight, scratch-resistance, durability and smooth touch.
IWC is one of the brands that initiated the use of ceramic in watchmaking.
Advanced Ceramics – The evolution, classification, properties, production, firing, finishing and design of advanced ceramics
How pottery is made
How sanitaryware is made
World renowned ceramics collections at Stoke-on-Trent Museum  Click on Quick Links in the right-hand column to view examples.
The Gardiner Museum  – The only museum in Canada entirely devoted to ceramics
introduction, scientific principles, properties and processing of ceramics
The American Ceramic Society The American Ceramic Society
Lucideon Limited (formerly CERAM Research Limited and previously the British Ceramic Research Association)
Worldwide Ceramics Directory
An inorganic compound is a chemical compound that does not have carbon–hydrogen bonds that is, it is not an organic compound.
That means it is not a carbon-based compound.
Types of inorganic compounds
The division between the two types of compound is not absolute.
Some carbon-containing compounds are traditionally considered inorganic.
Many chemicals in nature are not compounds, but are ions.
Sodium, chloride, and phosphate ions are essential for life, as are some inorganic molecules such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water and oxygen.
Aside from these simple ions and molecules, virtually all compounds covered by biochemistry contain carbon and can be considered organic or organometallic.
Major types of inorganic compounds may  include:
Minerals, such as salt, asbestos, silicates, ...
Alloys, like brass, bronze, ...
Most compounds involving non-metallic elements, like silicon, phosphorus, chlorine, oxygen, for example water
Applied mechanics, also known as theoretical and applied mechanics, is a branch of the physical sciences and the practical application of mechanics.
Applied mechanics examines the response of bodies (solids and fluids) to external forces.
Some examples of mechanical systems include the flow of a liquid under pressure, the fracture of a solid from an applied force, or the vibration of an ear in response to sound.
A practitioner of the discipline is known as a mechanician.
The discipline has its roots in ancient Greece where Aristotle studied the way bodies behaved when they were thrown through the air (e.g. a stone).
However it was Galileo, Kepler and especially Newton who laid the foundations for much of the so-called Newtonian mechanics we know today.
Mechanics is the original discipline of physics, dealing with the macroscopic world that humans perceive.
It is therefore a huge body of knowledge about the natural world.
Mechanics encompasses the movement of all matter in the universe under the four forces: gravity, the strong and weak interactions, and the electromagnetic interaction.
Some aspects of classical mechanics
Astrodynamics, spacecraft navigation, orbital eccentricity, etc.
Solid mechanics, elasticity, the properties of (semi-)rigid bodies
Acoustics, sound in solids, fluids, etc.
Hydraulics, fluids in equilibrium
Applied / Engineering mechanics
Statistical mechanics, large assemblies of particles
Relativistic or Einsteinian mechanics, universal gravitation
An object will stay at a constant speed unless a force acts on it.
F= Ma: the overall force acting on an object = the mass of the object multiplied by the object's acceleration.
For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.
Particle physics, the motion, structure, and reactions of particles
Nuclear physics, the motion, structure, and reactions of nuclei
Condensed matter physics, quantum gases, solids, liquids, etc.
Quantum statistical mechanics, large assemblies of particles
iMechanica: the web of mechanics and mechanicians
Mechanics Blog by a Purdue University Professor
The Mechanics program at Virginia Tech
Newton (unit), the SI unit of force (named in honour of Isaac Newton)
Newton scale, a temperature scale devised by Isaac Newton
Newtonian mechanics
Bert Newton, Australian television personality
Bridgett Newton, actress, Play by Play, Bones, Silicon Valley, House
Cam Newton, an American football player
Chris Newton, youth golfer, skier, and philosopher
Frances Newton, American convicted murderer from Texas
Helmut Newton, a German photographer
Huey P. Newton, founder of the Black Panther Party
Sir Isaac Newton, a famous English physicist
John Newton, British slave trader-turned-hymn writer and anti-slavery campaigner
John Newton (ACW), American Civil War general and Chief Engineer of the US Army
Juice Newton, American singer
Keith Newton, English footballer
Lauren Newton, Bert Newton's daughter
Matthew Newton, Bert Newton's son
Nate Newton, former NFL offensive lineman
Newton, Australian pop artist musician, famous for his song, Streamline
Newton (Billy Myers), a singer from the UK best known for the hit "Sky high"
Olivia Newton-John, pop-icon and singer-actress of the 70s and 80s
Patti Newton, Bert Newton's wife
Syvelle Newton, a college football player
Thandie Newton, British actress
Wayne Newton, American singer and entertainer
Fig Newton, a soft cookie with a center of fig fruit.
It usually includes fig seeds, providing a crunchy mouth feel.
Newton OS,  operating systems made by Apple, for their MessagePad personal digital assistants (PDAs).
XMM-Newton,  an orbiting X-ray observatory (named in honor of Sir Isaac Newton).
Newton, South Australia
Newton, New Zealand
Newton, Singapore
The Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences
Newton, Bridgend county borough, Wales
Newton, Cambridgeshire, England
Newton, Cheshire, England
Newton, Herefordshire, England
Newton, Lancashire, England
Newton, Suffolk, England
Newton, Swansea, Wales
Newton, near Rugby, Warwickshire
Newton-le-Willows, Merseyside known as Newton to locals
Newton-le-Willows, North Yorkshire, England
Newton under Roseberry, North Yorkshire
Newton (wine estate), a wine estate in California
Newton, Mississippi
Newton, New Hampshire
Newton, North Carolina
Newton, Utah
Newton, Wisconsin
Newton Township, Michigan
Newton (the centaur in The Mighty Hercules cartoon)
Newton Abbot, Devon, England
Newton Mearns, Scotland
Paleobiology is a branch of science which studies animals, plants and microbes  buried in rock.
These stoney items are called fossils.
Paleobiology  combines biology with the study of these fossils.
There are several branches of paleobiology:
Paleobotany – Study of ancient plants
Micropaleobiology
Paleobiochemistry
Paleoecology – Uses fossils to learn about how the environment was long ago
Taphonomy
Paleoichnology
Stratigraphic paleobiology
Evolutionary developmental paleobiology – Studies how animals changed over time
Baron Franz Nopcsa von Felső-Szilvás started paleobiology in the late 19th century while working at the University of Vienna.
He tried to learn how the animals lived, rather than merely put together their bones, as many geologists were doing at the time.
A central venous catheter (CVC) or "central line" is a catheter put in a large vein in the neck, chest, or groin when a patient needs close cardiovascular monitoring, for assessment of fluid status, and so that intravenous drugs and fluids can be given to the patient more effectively.
The veins most commonly used are the internal jugular vein, the subclavian vein, and the femoral vein.
Central Line (Cape Town), a commuter rail service in Cape Town, South Africa
Central line (London Underground), a line northwest/west to northeast through central London, England
Central line (Mumbai Suburban Railway), a public transit system serving Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Central Line (Newark), a former streetcar line in New Jersey, United States
Central Line (Sweden), a railway line between Sundsvall and Storlien
Central Line (Tanzania), a rail line that runs west from Dar es Salaam to Kigoma
Central Link, a light rail service in Seattle, Washington, United States
Central Subway, a light rail service in San Francisco, California, United States
Chūō Line (Central Line), one of several train lines in Japan
Jungang Line (disambiguation) (Korean Central Line railways)
Moscow Central Circle, a commuter line encircling central Moscow, Russia
Central Line (band), a 1980s British R&B, funk, disco band
Central line (geometry), certain lines related to a given triangle
Central line (medicine), a catheter placed into a large vein in the neck, chest or groin
Central Artery, a section of freeway in Boston, Massachusetts
When one uses macroscopic for abstract objects, one thinks of the world as we see it without any help.
Lengths scales are called macroscopic if they fall in the range of more or less than 1 mm or up to 1 km.
One may use the term macroscopic also for a "larger view", namely a view only available from a large perspective.
A macroscopic position could be considered the "big picture".
A microscopic view could reveal a thick round skin seemingly composed entirely of cracks and fissures (as viewed through a microscope) or, further down in scale, a collection of molecules in the rough shape of a sphere.
Macroscopy in physics
In physics macroscopy is a relative term.
If one looks at a galaxy, a star is microscopic in comparison with the whole galaxy, even if it is many, many orders of magnitude larger than us.
macroscopy can also be described as a relation between any two objects in terms of its magnification on a scale of some sort.
A macroscopic object is something that we are able to see in plain sight through our own field of vision no matter where we are located.
In spacetime light must also come into contact with our eyes and the object we are observing in order for it to be visible.
If something can be seen with the naked eye, it means that it can be seen without using a microscope, binoculars, glasses or a telescope.
In astronomy, a naked-eye object is something, such as a star, that the general public can see without using these tools.
Naked Eye Observing in Astronomy
Naked-Eye Stargazing: Learning the Sky and its constellations
Naked Eye Navigation , Polynesia Voyages
An order of magnitude is an approximation of the logarithm of a value relative to some contextually understood reference value, usually ten, interpreted as the base of the logarithm and the representative of values of magnitude one.
Logarithmic distributions are common in nature and
considering the order of magnitude of values sampled from such a distribution can be more intuitive.
When the reference value is ten, the order of magnitude can be understood as the number of digits in the base-10 representation of the value.
Similarly, if the reference value is one of certain powers of two, the magnitude can be understood as the amount of computer memory needed to store the exact integer value.
But if one would compare the surface of an orange with that of the earth, one would say the surface of the earth is many orders of magnitude larger than that of the orange.
Orders of magnitude are generally used to make very approximate comparisons.
It is mainly used while doing scientific notation.
If two numbers differ by one order of magnitude, one is about ten times larger than the other.
If they differ by two orders of magnitude, they differ by a factor of about 100.
Two numbers of the same order of magnitude have roughly the same scale: the larger value is less than ten times the smaller value.
Orders of magnitude are used to make approximate comparisons.
If numbers differ by one order of magnitude, x is about ten times different in quantity than y.  If values differ by two orders of magnitude, they differ by a factor of about 100.
Powers of 10, a graphic animated illustration that starts with a view of the Milky Way at 1023 meters and ends with subatomic particles at 10-16 meters.
Orders of Magnitude - Distance
What is Order of Magnitude?
The Nokia N-Gage is a mobile phone and handheld game console.
It was first sold on October 7, 2003.
Nokia's official N-Gage site
Project NeXt – Portal with N-Gage Next Generation information (inoff.)
Woodside, South Australia is a town
Woodside, Victoria is another town
Woodside Petroleum is an Australian company
Woodside is a neighborhood in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia
Woodside, New Zealand is a locality near Greytown in the Wairarapa
Woodside, Aberdeen is a district of Aberdeen
Woodside, Bedfordshire is a hamlet near Luton
Woodside, Berkshire is a hamlet on the edge of Windsor Great Park
Woodside, Bradford is a locality in Bradford, West Yorkshire
Woodside, County Durham is a village in County Durham
Woodside, Combria
Woodside, Glasgow is a district of Glasgow
Woodside, London is a neighbourhood in the London Borough of Croydon, South London
Woodside, Merseyside is a locality in Birkenhead, Wirral
Woodside, Paisley is a district of Paisley
Woodside Estate, an industrial estate in Dunstable, Bedfordshire
Woodside, Newark, New Jersey
Woodside, Pennsylvania
Woodside Township, Otter Tail County, Minnesota
Woodside Township, Polk County, Minnesota
Woodside, Queens a neighborhood in the borough of Queens, New York City USA.
Woodside, a neighborhood of Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
Woodside (Home) is a home in Marion, Indiana that was designed by architect Frank Lloyd Wright.
Sony PSP
Pinhead Gunpowder is a punk rock band from California, United States.
Its members are Billie Joe Armstrong (singer and guitarist of Green Day), Aaron Cometbus, Bill Schneider and Jason White.
White and Schneider also participate in Green Day.
Fahizah EP (1992)
Jump Salty (1995)
Carry The Banner (1995)
Goodbye Elliston Avenue (1997)
Shoot The Moon EP (1999)
8 Chords, 328 Words EP (2000)
Pinhead Gunpowder / Dillinger Four split EP (2000)
Compulsive Disclosure (2003)
Harry Connick, Jr. (born September 11, 1967) is an American singer, piano player and actor.
He plays jazz music mostly, but also pop music.
In 2014, he became a judge on American Idol.
His father is former New Orleans district attorney Harry Connick Sr..
2007 Oh, My NOLA
2007 Chanson du Vieux Carre
2006 Harry on Broadway, Act I
2005 Occasion : Connick on Piano, Volume 2
2004 Only You
2003 Harry for the Holidays
2003 Other Hours : Connick on Piano, Volume 1
2002 Thou Shalt Not
2001 Songs I Heard
2001 30
1999 Come By Me
1997 To See You
1996 Star Turtle
1994 She
1993 When My Heart Finds Christmas
1992 25
1991 Blue Light, Red Light
1990 Lofty's Roach Souffle
1990 We Are in Love
1989 When Harry Met Sally...
1988 20
1987 Harry Connick Jr.
1978 Eleven
1977 Dixieland Plus
DVD movies
2008 P. S., I Love You
2007 Bug
2004 Mickey
2003 Basic
2001 Life Without Dick
2000 The Simian Line
2000 My Dog Skip
1999 Wayward Son
1999 The Iron Giant
1998 Hope Floats
1997 Excess Baggage
1996 Independence Day
1995 Copycat
1991 Little Man Tate
1990 Memphis Belle
Harry Connick Jr. internet site
Harry Connick Jr. internet site on Sony Music
connick.com - fans of Harry Connick, Jr.
Harry Connick, Jr. music videos  (Sony BMG)
singers from Louisiana
actors from Louisiana
Pantheism is the belief that God and the universe are equivalent (the same thing).
A pantheist believes that everything that exists is a part of God or that God is a part of everything that exists.
The name pantheism comes from the Greek words theism (belief in God) and pan (all).
Any doctrine or philosophy that believes that the universe and everything in it is God is said to be pantheistic.
Most pantheists believe the universe is sacred and the earth and nature are divine.
Some Christians, Jews and Sufis are Pantheists.
However, their majority believes that while God is in everything, there is more to God than just the universe.
Hindu Wisdom
Pantheist Prophet: Henry David Thoreau  by Harold W. Wood, Jr
Scientific Pantheism site
The Holographic Paradigm
Universal Pantheist Society home page
World Pantheist Movement home page
Panentheism is the belief that the universe is part of God.
Followers believe that one or more gods are both part of the universe and greater than it.
To some people, this is a very confusing concept (idea) and was first created by philosophers in the early centuries AD.
Deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen, the first element.
Deuterium has one proton and one neutron.
Hydrogen does not have a neutron, only a proton.
Another isotope of hydrogen, tritium, has two neutrons.
The chemical symbol for Deuterium is 2H but D is also used often.
Two deuterium atoms combined with an oxygen atom is sometimes called "heavy water."
This is because it is like water (H2O), but heavier because deuterium has one more neutron in its nucleus.
Heavy water is sometimes used in nuclear reactors.
It is also used as a solvent for NMR spectroscopy.
This is because it will dissolve the sample, like normal water, but it will not be detected by the magnet in an 1H NMR.
Deuterium -Citizendium
Boer (IPA: /bur/) is the Dutch word for farmer which is used to call the descendants of the Dutch farmers of Southern Africa during the 1700s, as well as those who left the Cape Colony during the 1800s to live in the Orange Free State, Transvaal and Natal.
They did this to escape the British rule, and the wars between the British imperial government and the native tribes on the eastern frontier.
In 1657, “vrybriewe” was granted to 9 burgers, the first farmers or Boers (Boere) at the Cape.
Although they were not known as Afrikaners, they did not regard themselves as living in a European country.
As more immigrants from Europe arrived at the Cape, more international marriages took place.
Soon their language and culture were lost and transformed.
They regarded themselves as a new nation, the Afrikaner people.
Paul Heyns, born in 1696 christened his son Michiel Afrikanus (the Afrikaner).
One Hendrik Bieslow in 1707 proclaimed in public “Ik ben een Afrikaander”.
The Boers later created the Boer Republics, which were defeated in the 1880-1881 and 1899–1902 Anglo-Boer wars (Anglo-Boere-oorloë).
After that, many Boers emigrated to other countries, but many still live in modern South Africa, Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) and Zimbabwe.
Not to be mistaken for the Muhammad Ali who became Muhammad Ali Pasha, Wali of Egypt and Sudan
Muhammad Ali (born Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr.; January 17, 1942 – June 3, 2016) was an American boxer.
He became one of the most famous boxers in the world with his "rope-a-dope" technique.
He was also well known for his clever rhymes.
In 1999, Ali was named "Sportsman of the Century" by Sports Illustrated magazine.
He won the World Heavyweight Boxing Championship three times.
Ali also won an Olympic gold medal for boxing during the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome, Italy.
Ali was also known as “The Greatest”.
Ali was born in Louisville, Kentucky.
He was named after his father, Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr.
Ali changed his name after converting to Nation of Islam in 1965.
Because of his Islamic beliefs, Ali would not fight in the Vietnam War when the army tried drafting him.
This made him an international figure around the world.
Ali retired from boxing in 1981.
In the early 1980s, it was found out that Ali had Parkinson's syndrome.
He became well known for his social work and charity.
Muhammad Ali was married four times.
He had seven daughters and two sons.
One of his sons was adopted by him.
On December 20, 2014, Ali was hospitalized for a mild case of pneumonia.
Ali was once again hospitalized on January 15, 2015 for a urinary tract infection after being found unresponsive at a guest house in Scottsdale, Arizona.
Health and Death
Ali was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease.
On June 3, 2016, Ali died from septic shock due to respiratory problems at a Scottsdale, Arizona hospital, aged 74.
Disease-related deaths in Arizona
Medalists at the 1960 Summer Olympics
A mechanician is an engineer or a scientist working in the field of mechanics, or in engineering, applied mechanics and similar fields.
Sometimes mechanicians are also called mechaniker and mechanicist.
People who made lasting contributions to mechanics more than 100 years ago
Guillaume Amontons: laws of friction
Galileo Galilei: notion of strength.
Josiah Willard Gibbs: thermodynamics
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz: contact mechanics
Issac Newton: Newton's laws, law of gravitation
iMechanica, news and views of interest to mechanicians and their friends.
Homepage of the ASME International Applied Mechanics Division
Mathematics Geneaology Project
Mechanician Career Description
The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
By compressive stress the material is under compression.
Compressive stress to bars, columns, etc.
leads to shortening.
One can increase the compressive stress until compressive strength is reached.
Then materials will react with ductile behaviour (most metals, some soils and plastics) or with fracture in case of brittle materials (geomaterials, cast iron, glass, etc.).
For example, if a cylinder is compressed under the action of the applied force, the restoring force per unit area is known as the compressive stress.
It is one of the best stresses for chassis, so if you have a chassis report explain it well as it helps a lot.
Cambuslang railway station is a train station for the Scottish town of Cambuslang, in South Lanarkshire (near Glasgow.)
The station is owned and managed by First ScotRail.
There is a train every ten minutes.
Trains come more often at busy times of the day.
The station has a ticket office at the top, with a bridge across the track and two ramps down to each platform.
Train times and station information for Cambuslang from the National Rail website.
Map and Aerial photo from Multimap.com
First ScotRail: Official Website
SPT Official Website
A two-dimensional object rotates around a  center (or point) of rotation.
A three-dimensional object rotates around a line called an axis.
If the axis of rotation is within the body, the body is said to rotate upon itself, or spin– which implies relative speed and perhaps free-movement with angular momentum.
A circular motion about an external point (for example the Earth around the Sun) is called an orbit or more properly orbital revolution.
Types of rotation
In flight dynamics, the principal rotations are known as pitch, roll and yaw.
The term rotation is also used in aviation to refer to the upward pitch of an aircraft, particularly when starting the major climb for takeoff.
The same terms are used for fish moving through water.
Amusement rides
Many amusement rides provide rotation.
A Ferris wheel and observation wheel have a horizontal central axis, and parallel axes for each gondola, where the rotation is opposite, by gravity or mechanically.
Rotation, usually called spin, plays a role in many sports.
Topspin and backspin in tennis.
English, follow and draw in billiards and pool.
Curve balls in baseball and spin bowling in cricket.
Table tennis paddles are specialized to allow players to spin the ball as they hit it.
Product of Rotations at cut-the-knot
When a Triangle is Equilateral at cut-the-knot
Rotation (Interactive Animation) at Math is Fun
Rotate Points Using Polar Coordinates
In physics, moment of force (often just moment) is a measure of a force's tendency to cause a body to rotate about a specific point or axis.
In this concept the moment arm, the distance from the axis of rotation, plays an important role.
The lever, pulley, gear, and most other simple machines create mechanical advantage by changing the moment arm.
The SI unit for moment is the newton meter (kgm²/s²).
History of moment
The principle of moments is derived from Archimedes' discovery of the operating principle of the lever.
In the lever one applies a force, in his day most often human muscle, to an arm, a beam of some sort.
Archimedes noted that the amount of force applied to the object, the moment of force, is defined as M = rF, where F is the applied force, and r is the distance from the applied force to object.
Yield strength - The stress a material can withstand without permanent deformation.
This is not a sharply defined point.
Yield strength is the stress which will cause a permanent deformation of 0.2% of the original dimension.
Ultimate strength - The maximum stress a material can withstand.
Breaking strength - The stress coordinate on the stress-strain curve at the point of rupture.
Typical tensile strengths
Note: Multiwalled carbon nanotubes have the highest tensile strength of any material yet measured, with labs producing them at a tensile strength of 63 GPa, still well below their theoretical limit of 300 GPa.
However, as of 2004, no macroscopic object constructed of carbon nanotubes has had a tensile strength remotely approaching this figure, or substantially exceeding that of high-strength materials like Kevlar.
Note: many of the values depend on manufacturing process and purity/composition.
January 2003 sci.physics thread on water tensile strength and trees
Theory re the discrepancy in static vs dynamic measurements of water's tensile strength
Bosconian is a video arcade game made by Namco in 1981.
The player moves a spaceship and tries to destroy "space stations".
There are also other things in space that the player has to destroy to get to the space stations.
The game was later used on many of the early personal computers.
Bosconian won the 1982 Arcade Award for Best Science Fiction/Fantasy Coin-Op Game.
The award was given out in January 1983.
It beats both Atari's Gravitar and Sega's Zaxxon.
1981 video games
The Sunday Night Project is a British comedy television programme.
It was broadcast on Channel 4 from 2005-2009.
The show was presented by Justin Lee Collins and Alan Carr with a different guest host each week.
2009 British television series endings
Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia (, ,  – 17 July 1918) was the youngest daughter of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and his wife Alexandra Fyodorovna.
Anastasia was murdered with her family on 17 July 1918 by the Bolshevik secret police.
She was a sister of Grand Duchess Olga, Grand Duchess Tatiana, Grand Duchess Maria, and Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia.
During the years of Communist rule nobody knew where she was buried.
This led to many stories that she could have escaped and still be alive.
The bodies of the Tsar, Tsarina, and three daughters were found in a grave near Yekaterinburg in 1991; however, the bodies of Alexei Nikolaevich and one of his sisters (either Anastasia or Maria) were not there.
In January 2008, Russian scientists said that the remains of a young boy and woman found near Yekaterinburg in August 2007 might be the missing bodies.
On 30 April 2008, Russian scientists used DNA testing to prove that they were the Tsarevich Alexei and his sister.
In March 2009, the last results of the DNA testing were published by Dr. Michael Coble of the US Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory.
This proved that all four Grand Duchesses were murdered.
Several women have claimed to have been Anastasia.
The most famous was Anna Anderson.
However, DNA testing in 1994 on pieces of Anderson's tissue and hair showed that she was not related to the Imperial family.
Life and childhood
When Anastasia was born, her family was disappointed.
They had hoped for a son who would be heir to the throne.
In honor of her birth, her father forgave the students who had been put in prison for joining in riots in St. Petersburg and Moscow.
Because of this, Anastasia's name means "the breaker of chains" or the "prison opener".
It can also mean "of the resurrection".
People often spoke of this when there were stories that she had not died.
Anastasia was a Grand Duchess.
Because this made Anastasia an "Imperial Highness", she was higher in rank than other Princesses in Europe who were "Royal Highnesses".
The Tsar's children lived very simply.
They slept on hard camp cots without pillows when they were healthy, took cold baths in the morning, and had to clean their rooms and sometimes sew.
Most of their servants usually called Anastasia by her first name instead of calling her "Her Imperial Highness".
Sometimes they called her "Anastasie", "Nastya", "Nastas", or "Nastenka".
Anastasia was also called "Malenkaya", meaning "little (one)", or "shvibzik", the Russian word for "imp".
Anastasia was a bright, lively child.
People described her as short and plump, with blue eyes and blonde hair.
Margaretta Eagar, Anastasia's governess, said that somebody had once called young Anastasia the most charming child he had ever seen.
Lili Dehn said that Anastasia was "pretty", but had "more of a clever face, and her eyes were wells of intelligence".
Anastasia was clever, but she was never much interested in studying.
Pierre Gilliard, Sydney Gibbes, and ladies-in-waiting Lili Dehn and Anna Vyrubova said that Anastasia was funny and good at acting.
Some people did not like her sharp, quick remarks.
Anastasia's playful behavior was often punished.
According to Gieb Botkin, "in naughtiness she was a true genius".
He was the son of the court doctor Yevgeny Botkin, who later died with the family at Ekaterinburg.
Anastasia tripped the servants, tricked her teachers, and climbed trees and refused to come down.
Once at a snowball fight, she rolled a rock into a snowball and threw it at her older sister, Tatiana.
Princess Nina Georgievna, Anastasia's cousin, said that "Anastasia was nasty to the point of being evil".
She said that Anastasia would get angry when her friends won games, or when the younger Nina was taller than she was.
She also cared less about her looks than her sisters.
Hallie Erminie Rives, an American writer, described how Anastasia ate chocolates without taking off her white opera gloves at the St. Petersburg opera house when she was 10-years-old.
Anastasia's family called Anastasia and her older sister Maria "The Little Pair".
This was because they shared a room, often wore the same dress, and played together a lot.
Their older sisters Olga and Tatiana were known as "The Big Pair", because they shared a room as well.
The four girls sometimes signed letters with their nickname, OTMA.
They made this nickname from the first letters of their first names, Olga, Tatiana, Maria, and Anastasia.
Anastasia was very energetic, but she was often sick.
She had hallux valgus (bunions), which hurt both of her big toes.
Anastasia also had a weak muscle in her back.
Because of this, she had to be massaged twice every week.
She disliked this, and when it was time to be massaged, she would hide under her bed or in cupboards.
Anastasia's older sister, Maria, is said to have hemorrhaged in December 1914 during an operation to remove her tonsils.
The doctor performing the operation was so shocked that Maria's mother, Tsarina Alexandra, had to order him to continue.
Olga Alexandrovna said all four of her nieces bled more than was normal.
She believed they had the hemophilia gene, like their mother.
Some carriers of the gene are not hemophiliacs themselves, but they can have signs of hemophilia, like bleeding more than most people.
DNA testing on the remains of the royal family proved in 2009 that Alexei suffered from Hemophilia B. His mother and one of his sisters were carriers.
The Russians thought this sister was Maria, and Americans thought it was Anastasia.
If Anastasia had lived, she could have passed on the disease to her children.
Anastasia, like everyone else in her family, loved "Baby" Tsarevich Alexei very much.
Alexei often had attacks of hemophilia and nearly died several times.
Connection with Grigori Rasputin
Her mother trusted Grigori Rasputin, a Russian peasant and wandering "holy man".
She thought his prayers had saved her son when he was sick many times.
Anastasia and her sisters were told to treat Rasputin as "Our Friend" and to tell him their secrets.
In the autumn of 1907, Anastasia's aunt Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia went to the nursery with the Tsar to meet Rasputin.
Anastasia, her sisters and brother Alexei were all wearing their long white nightgowns.
"All the children seemed to like him," Olga Alexandrovna said later. "
They were completely at ease (comfortable) with him."
Rasputin's friendship with the Imperial children can be seen in some of the messages he sent to them.
In February 1909, Rasputin sent them a telegram, saying, "Love the whole of God's nature, the whole of His creation in particular this earth.
The Mother of God was always occupied with flowers and needlework."
But in 1910, Sofia Ivanovna Tyutcheva told other people in the family that Rasputin was allowed to see the four girls when they were wearing their nightgowns.
Rasputin's visits to the children were completely innocent, but the family was shocked and angry.
Tyutcheva told Nicholas's sister, Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia, that Rasputin visited and talked to the girls while they were getting ready for bed, and hugged and patted them.
Tyutcheva said the children did not talk about Rasputin with her and kept his visits a secret.
Tatiana wrote to her mother on 8 March 1910, that she was "so afr(aid) that S.I. (governess Sofia Ivanovna Tyutcheva) can  our friend something bad".
Xenia wrote on 15 March 1910 that she did not understand "the attitude (behavior) of Alix and the children to that sinister Grigory".
Nicholas asked Rasputin not to go into the nursery after that, and Alexandra later fired Tyutcheva.
In the spring of 1910, Maria Ivanovna Vishnyakova, a royal governess, said that Rasputin had raped her.
The empress did not believe her, saying that "everything Rasputin does is holy".
Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna was told that they had made an investigation to see if what Vishnyakova said was true, but that "they caught the young woman in bed with a Cossack of the Imperial Guard."
Vishnyakova was kept from seeing Rasputin after she claimed that he raped her.
She was fired in 1913.
But rumors still spread.
People suggested that Rasputin had seduced the Tsarina and her four daughters.
Rasputin had written warm, but completely innocent letters to the Tsarina and her four daughters.
He released the letters, which made people gossip even more. "
My dear, precious, only friend," wrote Anastasia. "
How much I should like to see you again.
You appeared to me today in a dream.
I am always asking Mama when you will  think of you always, my dear, because you are so good to me ..."
Soon after, pornographic cartoons were printed about Rasputin having relations with the Empress, her four daughters and Anna Vyrubovna.
After the scandal, Nicholas asked Rasputin to leave St. Petersburg for a time.
Rasputin went on a pilgrimage to Palestine.
Alexandra was very angry at this.
However, though the rumors continued, the imperial family continued to be friendly with Rasputin until he was murdered on 17 December 1916. "
Our Friend is so contented (happy) with our girlies,  souls have much developed," Alexandra wrote to Nicholas on December 6, 1916.
Later, A.A. Mordvinov reported in his memoirs that the four Grand Duchesses looked "cold and visibly terribly upset" by Rasputin's death.
He added that they sat "huddled up closely together" on a sofa on the night they heard he was killed.
Mordvinov remembered that they were sad and seemed to feel the beginning of great political troubles.
Rasputin was buried with an icon signed on the back by Anastasia, her mother and her sisters.
Anastasia went to his funeral on December 21, 1916.
Her family planned to build a church over Rasputin's grave.
After they were killed by the Bolsheviks, it was discovered Anastasia and her sisters were all wearing amulets with Rasputin's picture and a prayer on it.
World War I and revolution
During World War I Anastasia and her sister Maria visited hurt soldiers at a hospital at Tsarskoye Selo.
Because they were too young to become Red Cross nurses like their mother and older sisters, they played checkers and billiards with the soldiers and tried to make them happy instead.
Felix Dassel, who was treated at the hospital, remembered that Anastasia had a "laugh like a squirrel", and walked quickly "as though she tripped along."
In February 1917, Nicholas II resigned from the throne.
Anastasia and her family were placed under house arrest at the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo during the Russian Revolution.
As the Bolsheviks came nearer, Alexander Kerensky moved them to Tobolsk, Siberia.
The Bolsheviks grew more and more powerful.
Anastasia and her family were moved to the Ipatiev House (House of Special Purpose), at Yekaterinburg.
Anastasia felt sad about her captivity. "
Goodby," she wrote to a friend in the winter of 1917. "
Don't forget us."
At Tobolsk, she wrote a sad theme for her English teacher, filled with spelling mistakes, about Evelyn Hope, a poem by Robert Browning about a young girl. "
When she died she was only sixteen years old," Anastasia wrote. "
Ther(e) was a man who loved her without having seen her but (k)new her very well.
And she he(a)rd of him also.
He never could tell her that he loved her, and now she was dead.
But still he thought that when he and she will live [their] next life whenever it will be that ..."
At Tobolsk, she and her sisters sewed jewels into their clothes.
This was because Alexandra, Nicholas and Maria had had their things taken away when they arrived in Ekaterinburg.
Demidova wrote to Tegleva about this, using code words for the jewels such as "medicines" and "Sednev's belongings".
Anastasia and her sisters dressed simply, and all three had their hair cut short.
It had been cut when they were ill with measles in 1917, and they had kept it short.
Pierre Gilliard remembered his last sight of the children: "The sailor Nagorny, who attended to Alexei Nikolaevitch, passed my window carrying the sick boy in his arms, behind him came the Grand Duchesses loaded with valises and small personal belongings.
I tried to get out, but was roughly pushed back into the carriage by the sentry.
I came back to the window.
Tatiana Nikolayevna came last carrying her little dog and struggling to drag a heavy brown valise.
It was raining and I saw her feet sink into the mud at every step.
Nagorny tried to come to her assistance (help); he was roughly pushed back by one of the commisars ..." Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden, too, spoke of her last sad memory of Anastasia: "Once, standing on some steps at the door of a house close by, I saw a hand and a pink-sleeved arm opening the topmost (highest) pane.
According to the blouse the hand must have belonged either to the Grand Duchess Marie or Anastasia.
They could not see me through their windows, and this was to be the last glimpse that I was to have of any of them!"
But even in the last months of her life, Anastasia could be happy.
She and other members of her family performed plays for their parents and others in the spring of 1918.
Her tutor Sydney Gibbes said that Anastasia's acting made everyone laugh.
On 7 May 1918, Anastasia wrote a letter from Tobolsk to her sister Maria in Yekaterinburg.
In the letter, she described a moment of joy, even though she was sad, lonely, and worried about her sick brother Alexei: "We played on the swing, that was when I roared with laughter (laughed loudly), the fall was so wonderful!
I told the sisters about it so many times yesterday that they got quite fed up (tired)", adding, "One could simply shout with joy."
In his memoirs, Alexander Strekotin, one of the guards at the Ipatiev House, called Anastasia "very friendly and full of fun".
Another guard said Anastasia was "a very charming devil!
She was mischievous and, I think, rarely (not often) tired.
She was lively, and was fond of (enjoyed) performing comic mimes with the dogs, as though they were performing in a circus."
Another guard, however, called her "offensive and a terrorist" and complained about some of her sharp remarks.
Anastasia and her sisters learned to wash their own clothes and make bread at the Ipatiev House.
In the summer, however, the whole family became much sadder.
According to some accounts, Anastasia once became so unhappy about the locked, painted windows that she opened one to get fresh air.
A guard is said to have seen her and fired, almost hitting her.
She did not try to open the windows again.
On 14 July 1918, local priests at Yekaterinburg held a private church service for the family.
They later said that Anastasia and her family fell on their knees during the prayers for the dead, which they had not done before.
They also noted that the girls had become very sad and did not reply to the service.
One of the priests said, "Something has happened to them in there."
But the next day, on 15 July 1918, Anastasia and her sisters seemed happier.
They joked and helped move the beds in their shared bedroom so that the cleaning women could clean the floors.
Helping the women scrub the floors, they whispered to them when the guards were not watching.
Anastasia even stuck her tongue out at Yakov Yurovsky, the head of the guards, when he turned his back and left the room.
Anastasia was executed with her family by a firing squad in the early morning of 17 July 1918.
They had been killed by the Bolshevik secret police, commanded by Yurovsky.
Captivity and execution
In October 1917, the Bolshevik revolution struck Russia.
A civil war began shortly after that.
Plans to release the Romanovs slowed down.
As the Whites (people who were still faithful to the Tsar and autocracy) came more toward Yekaterinburg, the Reds felt afraid.
They knew that the well-prepared White Army would win.
When the Whites reached Yekaterinburg, the Imperial Family were gone.
It is thought that the family had been executed.
The "Yurovsky Note" was found in 1989 and described in Edvard Radzinsky's 1992 book The Last Tsar.
The "Yurovsky Note" was a description of the event by Yurovsky after the execution.
According to the note, on the night of the murders the family was awakened and told to dress.
They were told they were moving to a new place for their safety.
They claimed it was because of the possible violence which might happen when the White Army reached Yekaterinburg.
When they were dressed, the family and the few servants were led to a small room in the house's basement.
They were told to wait there.
Alexandra asked for chairs for herself and Alexei, and she sat next to her son.
After a short time, the executioners entered the room, led by Yurovsky.
Yurovsky quickly told the Tsar and his family that they were going to die.
The Tsar cried "What?"
and turned to his family, but was immediately killed when several bullets hit his chest.
The Tsar, the empress, and two servants were killed in the first round of shooting.
Maria, Dr. Botkin and Alexandra's maid Demidova were hurt.
Thick smoke and dust filled the room from the shooting, so the gunmen left the room for a few minutes.
They soon came back and shot Dr. Botkin.
A gunman named Ermakov tried to shoot Tsarevich Alexei, but the jewels in the boy's clothes protected him.
Ermakov tried to kill Alexei with a bayonet but failed again.
At last, Yurovsky fired two shots into the boy's head.
Tatiana and Olga were near the wall.
They were holding onto each other and crying for their mother.
Tatiana was killed by a shot to her head.
Olga died when Ermakov shot her in the jaw.
Maria, Anastasia, and the maid Demidova were on the floor under the room's one window.
Ermakov said that he killed  Maria by shooting her head.
Ermakov then tried to stab Anastasia, failed, and said he killed her by shooting her head.
Maria's skull does not have any bullet wounds, though.
It is unclear how she died.
Ermakov was drunk during the murders, and it is possible his shot did not go entirely through her head.
She might have become unconscious and bled greatly, but remained alive.
Then, as the bodies were taken away, two of the grand duchesses moved.
One sat up and screamed, throwing her arm over her head.
The other, bleeding from the mouth, moaned and moved.
When Olga and Tatiana were shot, they were killed instantly, so Maria was probably the one who screamed.
Anastasia might still have been able to move.
Ermakov told his wife that Anastasia was killed by a bayonet, and Yurovsky wrote that as the bodies were carried out, one or more of the girls cried out and were hit on the back of the head with a club.
However, the back of Maria's skull does not show any signs of having been clubbed.
The remains of Anastasia's burnt body do not show details of how she died.
False reports of still being alive and Romanov remains
One of the greatest mysteries of the 20th century was if Anastasia had survived or not.
From 1920 to 1922, Anna Anderson, the most famous person who pretended to be Anastasia, grew very famous.
She claimed that she had pretended to be dead, then escaped with the help of a kind guard that saved her from the dead bodies after seeing she was still alive.
Her legal struggle to be recognized as Anastasia from 1938 to 1970 was a controversy for her whole life.
It was the longest running case ever heard by the German courts.
At last, the courts decided that there was not enough proof.
Anderson died in 1984 and her body was cremated.
In 1994, a tissue sample from Andersen in a hospital was used for DNA tests with the blood of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.
Prince Philip was a grandnephew of Empress Alexandra.
Dr. Gill, who did the tests, decided that if "you accept that these samples came from Anna Anderson, then Anna Anderson could  related to Tsar Nicholas or Tsarina Alexandra."
Anderson's DNA matched with a great-nephew of Franziska Schanzkowska, a missing Polish factory worker.
Some people who supported Anderson agreed that the DNA tests showed she could not have been the Grand Duchess.
At least 10 women claimed to be Anastasia.
Less famous people who pretended to be Anastasia were Nadezhda Ivanovna Vasilyeva and Eugenia Smith.
A priest took care of two young women who said that they were Anastasia and her sister Maria in the Ural Mountains in 1919.
They lived there as nuns until they died in 1964.
They were buried with the names Anastasia and Maria Nikolaevna.
People reported that trains and houses were being searched for 'Anastasia Romanov' by soldiers and secret police.
When she was put in prison for a short time at Perm in 1918, Princess Helena Petrovna, the wife of Anastasia's distant cousin, Prince Ioann Konstantinovich of Russia, said that a guard took a girl who called herself Anastasia Romanova to her cell and asked her if the girl was the Tsar's daughter.
When she did not recognize the girl, the guard took her away.
Others in Perm later said that they saw Anastasia, her mother and sisters in Perm after they were killed, but this was only a rumor.
Surprisingly, the rumors that had started to hide the fact that the family was dead helped the rumors that they were alive.
A few days after they had been killed, the German government sent telegrams to Russia asking for "the safety of the princesses of German blood".
Russia had signed a peace treaty with the Germans and did not want to tell them that the women were dead.
Instead, they told them they had been moved to a safer place.
This could have been why the 'Perm stories' began.
Another time, eight people said that they saw a young woman being captured at a railway station at Siding 37 in September 1918 after trying to escape.
These people were Maxim Grigoyev, Tatiana Sitnikova and her son Fyodor Sitnikov, Ivan Kuklin and Matrina Kuklina, Vassily Ryabov, Ustinya Varankina, and Dr. Pavel Utkin.
Some of these people said that the girl was Anastasia when they saw photographs of the grand duchess by White Russian Army investigators.
Dr. Pavel Utkin also told the investigators that the girl, whom he had helped in Perm when she was hurt, had said, "I am the daughter of the ruler, Anastasia."
During that time, there were similar stories of young people in Russia saying that they were Romanovs who had escaped.
Boris Soloviev, the husband of Rasputin's daughter Maria, defrauded many important Russian families by asking for money for a Romanov to escape to China.
Soloviev was helped by young women who pretended to be one of the grand duchesses to help trick the families.
Some suggest that there might have been a way for a guard to save anyone in the family who still lived.
Yakov Yurovsky ordered the guards to come to his office and give him the things they had stolen after the murder.
At that time, it is said that there was a short time when the killed bodies were left in the truck and in the basement of the house.
Some guards who had not joined in the murders and had felt sorry for the grand duchesses were left in the basement with the bodies.