the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
In the northern USA and Europe, glaciation created numerous small lakes which gradually filled with humus to make marshes.
Some of these were drained using open ditches and trenches.
The largest project of this type in the world has been in process for centuries in the Netherlands.
The area between Amsterdam, Haarlem and Leiden was, in prehistoric times swampland and small lakes.
Turf cutting (Peat mining), subsidence and shoreline erosion gradually caused the formation of one large lake, the Haarlemmermeer, or lake of Haarlem.
The invention of wind powered pumping engines in the 15th century permitted drainage of some of the marginal land, but the final drainage of the lake had to await the design of large, steam powered pumps and agreements between regional authorities.
The elimination of the lake occurred between 1849 and 1852, creating thousands of km2 of new land.
WebCom Systems, software created for designing soakaways and filter trenches.
NDS , drainage calculator.
Ancient drains, a series of images of the earliest drainage systems in the ancient Indus city of Mohenjo daro
Stormwater DesignInformation on stormwater design
Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health by George E. Waring, 1867, from Project Gutenberg
Drainage photos
Empoldering is a method of reclaiming land from the sea, and a way to control floods.
Empoldering involves the use of a polder, a piece of land in a low-lying area that has been reclaimed from a body of water by building dikes and drainage canals.
Although empoldering is usually carried out in low-lying coastal areas, it can also be dome in inland areas such as lakes and rivers.
It is common in countries like the Netherlands, where much of the country is below sea level and subject to flooding.
About one-fifth of the land in the Netherlands has been reclaimed from the sea.
Their largest and most successful project is the Zuider Zee project.
Polders have two distinct features.
Firstly, they are enclosed by dikes to keep the water out.
The dikes also serve to protect the polder from erosion.
Secondly, polders are continually maintained by systems of drainage canals and pumps which prevent them from becoming waterlogged and hence, suitable for cultivation.
Limits of land reclamation
Cost of reclaiming from deeper waters
Availability of sand
Dispute over territorial boundaries
A resistor limits the electric current that flows through a circuit.
Resistance is the restriction of current.
In a resistor the energy of the electrons that pass through the resistor are changed to heat and/or light.
For example, in a light bulb, the tungsten filament acts as a resistor that heats up because of the current going through it, causing it to glow.
Series and parallel
Series - Where the resistors are linked one after another.
Parallel - Where the resistors are linked over one another.
There are many different types of resistors.
Resistors have different power ratings to tell engineers how much power they can handle before they break and how accurate their value is.
Connecting two resistors in series results in a higher resistance, and connecting them in parallel makes a lower resistance.
Series Circuit: Rt=R1+R2+R3+R4...Rn
Parallel Circuit: 1/Rt=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3...1/Rn
Ohm’s Law
The formula for Ohm’s law, V=I*R, states that the voltage drop across a component is equal to the product of the current flowing in the component multiplied by the resistance of the component.
When  using Ohm’s law, you are able to switch the formula around if needed to find a different outcome: I=V/R or R=V/I
Resistor's values are rated by the colors that are painted on the resistor.
The colored bands that are used on the sides of a resistor are black, brown, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, gray, and white.
Each color represents a different number.
The black band represents the number 0, brown band represents the number 1, red is 2 and so on all the way to white which is the number 9.
These numbers are very important in the electronic field.
A resistor has multiple bands of color on its side.
The most common have four or five but they can range all the way up to 6 per resistor.
On a four band resistor, the last band is usually gold or silver.
The gold band represents a positive or negative 5% tolerance.
The silver band on a resistor represents a positive or negative 10% tolerance.
Hold this band on the right side, and read the colors from left to right.
The first two bands are read as the numbers that they represent in the color code.
The third band acts as a multiplier for the other bands, so for example, if the third band was an orange band which is a 3, it would mean you multiply the two numbers by 1000.
In short you add the value of the color in zeros at the end, so add three zeros.
Online calculators are available to calculate color codes.
When the color codes are put into the calculator, it will automatically calculate the value of the resistor, along with the tolerance.
Resistors are used in many different ways.
First of all, they are put in circuits to protect components from damage such as LEDs.
They also control the amount of current flowing in a circuit, for example, if you want less current to flow you would put in a resistor with a higher value.
Resistors can also split voltage between different parts of a circuit and control time delay.
Electric heaters use very large resistors to turn electricity into heat.
Usually, engineers try to make resistors heat up as little as possible to not waste power, but in a heater, this "waste" is a good thing.
You can also use resistors for soldering electronics.
Resistor materials
There are many different types of resistors you can find.
They are all made with a resistive material encased in a non-conductive material, such as plastic.
Fixed resistors are usually made of carbon encased in a plastic cylinder, with a connecting wire on either end.
Most resistors used in electronics today are carbon resistors.
Older resistors were made of other poorly conducting metals, in order to restrict the flow of charge.
The Death Star is a fictional moon-sized space station and superweapon.
It was invented for the Star Wars movies.
It was a huge spherical space station which fired a ray of energy which could destroy a planet.
Origin and design
The details of the Death Star changed between different models during production of Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope.
These changes include the position of the superlaser.
The idea of the Death Star as a large, spherical space station was the same in all the models.
The sound of the Death Star counting down until it fires comes from the Flash Gordon movies.
Making a Death Star that was only partly built (but was still powerful) was a problem for Industrial Light & Magic's modelmakers for Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi.
Only the front side of the 137-centimeter model was finished.
The image was flipped horizontally for the final movie.
Both Death Stars were created in the movies by using a full models, models of sections of the space station and matte paintings.
Depiction
The first Death Star was shown in its finished form in Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope.
It was commanded by Grand Moff Tarkin (Peter Cushing).
The Death Star was the Galactic Empire's "ultimate weapon".
The movie begins with Leia Organa (Carrie Fisher) attempting to take the station's plans to the Rebel Alliance, wanting to help them destroy the Death Star.
Onboard her vessel, she was captured by an imperial ship and taken captive to the Death Star.
There, Tarkin tries to make Leia reveal the location of the rebel base by threatening the use of the Death Star to destroy Leia's home world, Alderaan.
She tells them a location but not the real one, but Tarkin has her planet destroyed anyway.
Later, Luke Skywalker (Mark Hamill) and his small crew are also captured and taken to the station, escaping with Leia shortly after.
In the movie's main battle scene, the force ghost of Obi-wan Kenobi tells Luke to use the Force to help him direct proton torpedoes from his x-wing into the Death Star' reactor core and not with his ship's targeting system.
Luke obeys and successfully launches the torpedoes into the core.
This ultimately resulted in the destruction of the battle station.
Return of the Jedi takes place four years later.
At this time, the Empire is building a new Death Star.
It is half-finished in the movie.
Emperor Palpatine (Ian McDiarmid) and Darth Vader (David Prowse/James Earl Jones) send the Rebels false information with the intention of trapping the Rebels, saying that the station's weapons systems are not fully functional.
They also want to get Skywalker on board so they can turn him to the dark side of the Force.
In the movie's climax, Vader throws Palpatine down one of the station's reactor core, apparantly killing him.
However, Palpatine fires a large amount of sith lightning during this process and critically damages the electronics on Vader's suit that keeps him alive.
Luke tries to get his father out of the battle station but he dies shortly after.
Luke then takes Vader's body and leaves the Death Star just before it is destroyed by Lando Calrissian onboard the Millennium Falcon.
The first Death Star is also dealt with in the Star Wars prequel trilogy.
Its schematics are shown in Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones.
At the end of Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith, the Death Star is shown starting to be built.
Science fiction technology
The Doctor of Philosophy, (PhD, Ph.D., DPhil or D.Phil.)
is a degree a person gets from a university by finishing a doctorate program.
In many areas of study, the PhD/DPhil is the highest degree that a person can earn (this is called the "terminal degree").
There are PhD/DPhil degrees for many different fields, such as PhDs/DPhils in literature, philosophy, history, science, mathematics, and engineering.
Some PhD/DPhil degrees have existed for hundreds of years, such as the PhD/DPhil in Canon Law.
Other PhD/DPhil degrees were developed in the 1970s and 1980s, such as the PhD/DPhil in Computer Science.
Requirements for degree
To be admitted to a PhD/DPhil program, a person usually has to have completed their Bachelor's degree or master's degree that is related to the PhD/DPhil degree.
For example, a person applying to be admitted to a PhD/DPhil degree in Theater would normally have to have a master's degree such as a Master of Arts (MA) degree in Theater, English Literature, or a related area.
Elements of a PhD/DPhil degree
The PhD/DPhil degree usually takes between three and six years of full-time study to complete.
They may or may not require a master's degree beforehand.
Many PhD/DPhil degrees begin with a period of graduate courses.
After the PhD/DPhil student has taken these courses, they take examinations to test what the student knows about their area of study.
After the student passes the exams, they begin to do original research.
The product is a long research report called a dissertation (or a "thesis").
Some PhD/DPhil degrees also require students to pass exams in languages (such as French, German, or other languages).
Many PhD/DPhil students teach undergraduate students or assist professors with research during their PhD/DPhil studies.
As a requirement for university teaching
Requirements for university teaching vary in different subjects and in different countries.
A PhD/DPhil is necessary or usual to become a university professor in many fields, especially in science.
However, many famous professors have not had higher degrees, though that is less common today.
In some fields, there is no PhD/DPhil, and so another degree is required to become a university professor.
For example, the highest degree in Fine Arts fields such as printmaking or graphic design is the Master of Fine Arts (MFA) degree.
A person with an MFA degree can become a university professor in some Fine Arts fields.
The Mathematics PhD in the United Kingdom: Notes on its History Contains information/links of more general relevance than mathematics.
Academic degrees
The Global 200 is the list of ecoregions identified by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) as priorities for conservation.
According to the WWF, an ecoregion is defined as a "relatively large unit of land or water containing a characteristic set of natural communities that share a large majority of their species, dynamics, and environmental conditions (Dinerstein et al.
1995, TNC 1997)."
The WWF assigns a conservation status to each ecoregion in the Global 200: critical or endangered; vulnerable; and relatively stable or intact.
Over half of the ecoregions in the Global 200 are rated endangered.
Global 200: Terrestrial
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Guinean moist forests
Congolian coastal forests
Cameroon Highlands forests
Central Congolian lowland forests
Western Congolian moist forests
Albertine Rift montane forests
East African Coastal Forests
Eastern African montane forests
Madagascar lowlands and subhumid forests
Seychelles and Mascarene Islands moist forests
Sulawesi moist forests
Moluccas moist forests
Southern New Guinea lowland forests
New Guinea montane forests
Solomons-Vanuatu-Bismarck moist forests
Queensland tropical rain forests
New Caledonia moist forests
Lord Howe-Norfolk Islands forests
Indomalaya
South Western Ghats montane rain forests and moist deciduous forests
Sri Lanka moist forests
Northern Indochina Subtropical moist forests
Southeast China-Hainan moist forests
Taiwan montane forests
Annamite Range moist forests
Sumatran Islands lowland and montane forests
Philippines moist forests
Palawan moist forests
Kayah-Karen/Tenasserim moist forests
Peninsular Malaysian lowland and montane forests
Borneo lowland and montane forests
Nansei Shoto Archipelago forests
Eastern Deccan Plateau moist forests
Naga-Manipuri-Chin hills moist forests
Cardamom Mountains moist forests
Western Java montane forests
Greater Antillean moist forests
Talamancan-Isthmian Pacific forests
Choco-Darien moist forests
Northern Andean montane forests
Coastal Venezuela montane forests
Guianan moist forests
Napo moist forests
Rio Negro-Jurua moist forests
Guayana Highlands moist forests
Central Andean yungas
Southwestern Amazonian moist forests
Atlantic forests
South Pacific Islands forests
Hawaii moist forests
Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests
Madagascar dry deciduous forests
Nusa Tenggara dry forests
New Caledonia dry forests
Indochina dry forests
Chhota-Nagpur dry forests
Mexican dry forests
Tumbesian-Andean valleys dry forests
Chiquitano dry forests
Atlantic dry forests
Hawaii dry forests
Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests
Sierra Madre Oriental and Occidental pine-oak forests
Greater Antillean pine forests
Mesoamerican pine-oak forests
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
Eastern Australia temperate forests
Tasmanian temperate rain forests
New Zealand temperate forests
Eastern Himalayan broadleaf and conifer forests
Western Himalayan temperate forests
Appalachian and mixed mesophytic forests
Southwest China temperate forests
Russian Far East temperate forests
Temperate coniferous forests
Pacific temperate rain forests
Klamath-Siskiyou forests
Sierra Nevada forests
Southeastern coniferous and broadleaf forests
Valdivian temperate rain forests-Juan Fernandez Islands
European-Mediterranean montane mixed forests
Caucasus-Anatolian-Hycanian temperate forests
Altai-Sayan montane forests
Hengduan Shan coniferous forests
Boreal forests/taiga
Muskwa-Slave Lake boreal forests
Canadian taiga
Ural Mountains taiga
East Siberian taiga;
Kamchatka taiga and grasslands
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
Horn of Africa acacia savannas
East African acacia savannas
Central and Eastern miombo woodlands
Sudanian savannas
Northern Australia and Trans-Fly savannas
Terai-Duar savannas and grasslands
Llanos savannas
Cerrado woodlands and savannas
Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
Northern prairie
Patagonian steppe
Daurian steppe
Flooded grasslands and savannas
Sudd-Sahelian flooded grasslands and savannas
Zambezian flooded savannas
Rann of Kutch flooded grasslands
Everglades flooded grasslands
Pantanal flooded savannas
Montane grasslands and shrublands
Ethiopian Highlands
Southern Rift montane woodlands
East African moorlands
Drakenberg montane shrublands and woodlands
Central Range subalpine grasslands
Kinabalu montane shrublands
Northern Andean paramo
Central Andean dry puna
Tibetan Plateau steppe
Middle Asian montane steppe and woodlands
Eastern Himalayan alpine meadows
Alaskan North Slope coastal tundra
Canadian low arctic tundra
Fenno-Scandia alpine tundra and taiga
Taimyr and Russian coastal tundra
Chukote coastal tundra
Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrub
Fynbos
Southwestern Australia forests and scrub
Southern Australia mallee and woodlands
California chaparral and woodlands
Chilean Matorral
Deserts and xeric shrublands
Namib-Karoo-kaokoveld deserts
Madagascar spiny thicket
Socotra Island desert
Arabian Highland woodlands and shrublands
Carnavon xeric scrub
Great Sandy-Tanami deserts
Sonoran-Baja deserts
Chihuahuan-Tehuacan deserts
Galapagos Islands scrub
Atacama-Sechura deserts
Central Asian deserts
Mangroves
Gulf of Guinea mangroves
East African mangroves
Madagascar mangroves
New Guinea mangroves
Sundarbans mangroves
Greater Sundas mangroves
Guianan-Amazon mangroves
Panama Bight mangroves
Global 200: Freshwater ecoregions
Large rivers
Congo River and flooded forests (Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo)
Mekong River (Cambodia, China, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam)
Colorado River (Mexico, United States)
Lower Mississippi River (United States)
Amazon River and flooded forests (Brazil, Colombia, Peru)
Orinoco River and flooded forests (Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela)
Yangtze River and lakes (China)
Large river headwaters
Congo basin piedmont rivers and streams (Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Republic of Congo, Sudan)
Mississippi piedmont rivers and streams (United States)
Upper Amazon rivers and streams (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana (France), Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela)
Upper Paraná rivers and streams (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay)
Brazilian Shield Amazonian rivers and streams (Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay)
Large river deltas
Niger River delta (Nigeria)
Indus River Delta (India, Pakistan)
Volga River Delta (Kazakhstan, Russia)
Mesopotamian delta and marshes (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait)
Danube River delta (Bulgaria, Moldova, Romania, Ukraine, Yugoslavia)
Lena River delta (Russia)
Small rivers
Upper Guinea rivers and streams (Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone)
Madagascar freshwater (Madagascar)
Gulf of Guinea rivers and streams (Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of Congo)
Cape rivers and streams (South Africa)
New Guinea rivers and streams (Indonesia, Papua New Guinea)
New Caledonia rivers and streams (New Caledonia)
Kimberley rivers and streams (Australia)
Southwest Australia rivers and streams (Australia)
Eastern Australia rivers and streams (Australia)
Xi Jiang rivers and streams (China, Vietnam)
Western Ghats Rivers and Streams (India)
Southwestern Sri Lanka rivers and streams (Sri Lanka)
Salween River (China, Myanmar, Thailand)
Sundaland rivers and swamps (Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore)
Southeastern rivers and streams (United States)
Pacific Northwest coastal rivers and streams (United States)
Gulf of Alaska coastal rivers and streams (Canada, United States)
Guianan freshwater (Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela)
Greater Antillean freshwater (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico)
Balkan rivers and streams (Albania, Bosnia and Herzogovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Macedonia, Turkey, Yugoslavia)
Russian Far East rivers and wetlands (China, Mongolia, Russia)
Large lakes
Rift Valley lakes (Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia)
High Andean lakes (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Peru)
Lake Baikal (Russia)
Lake Biwa (Japan)
Small lakes
Cameroon crater lakes (Cameroon)
Lakes Kutubu and Sentani (Indonesia, Papua New Guinea)
Central Sulawesi lakes (Indonesia)
Philippines freshwater (Philippines)
Inle Lake (Myanmar)
Yunnan lakes and streams (China)
Mexican highland lakes (Mexico)
Xeric basins
Central Australian freshwater (Australia)
Chihuahuan freshwater (Mexico, United States)
Anatolian freshwater (Syria, Turkey)
Global 200 Marine ecoregions
Antarctic Ocean
Antarctic Peninsula & Weddell Sea
Bering Sea (Canada, Russia, United States)
Barents-Kara Sea (Norway, Russia)
Temperate shelfs and seas
Mediterranean Sea (Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Serbia & Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey)
North Temperate Atlantic
Northeast Atlantic Shelf Marine (Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden, United Kingdom)
Grand Banks (Canada, St. Pierre and Miquelon (France), United States)
Chesapeake Bay (United States)
North Temperate Indo-Pacific
Yellow Sea (China, North Korea, South Korea)
Sea of Okhotsk (Japan, Russia)
Patagonian Southwest Atlantic (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay)
Southern Australian Marine (Australia)
New Zealand Marine (New Zealand)
Temperate upwelling
California Current (Canada, Mexico, United States)
South Temperate Atlantic
Benguela Current (Namibia, South Africa)
South Temperate Indo-Pacific
Humboldt Current (Chile, Ecuador, Peru)
Agulhas Current (Mozambique, South Africa)
Tropical upwelling
Central Indo-Pacific
Western Australian Marine (Australia)
Eastern Indo-Pacific
Panama Bight (Colombia, Ecuador, Panama)
Gulf of California (Mexico)
Galápagos Marine (Ecuador)
Eastern Tropical Atlantic
Canary Current (Canary Islands, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Morocco, Senegal, Western Sahara)
Tropical coral
Nansei Shoto (Japan)
Sulu-Sulawesi Seas (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines)
Bismarck-Solomon Seas (Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands)
Banda-Flores Sea (Indonesia)
New Caledonia Barrier Reef (New Caledonia)
Great Barrier Reef (Australia)
Lord Howe-Norfolk Islands Marine (Australia)
Palau Marine (Palau)
Andaman Sea (Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India), Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand)
Tahitian Marine (Cook Islands, French Polynesia)
Hawaiian Marine (Hawaii)
Rapa Nui (Easter Island)
Fiji Barrier Reef (Fiji)
Western Indo-Pacific
Maldives, Chagos, and Lakshadweep atolls (Chagos Archipelago (United Kingdom), India, Maldives, Sri Lanka)
Red Sea (Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen)
Arabian Sea (Djibouti, Iran, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen)
East African Marine (Kenya, Mozambique, Somalia, Tanzania)
West Madagascar Marine (Comoros, Madagascar, Mayotte and Iles Glorieuses (France), Seychelles)
Western Tropical Atlantic
Mesoamerican Reef (Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico)
Greater Antillean Marine (Bahamas, Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States)
Southern Caribbean Sea (Aruba, Columbia, Netherlands Antilles, Panama, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela)
Northeast Brazil Shelf Marine (Brazil)
Map of the Global 200
Conservation status map of the global 200
List of the Global 200
An ecoregion (ecological region), sometimes called a bioregion, is the next smallest ecologically and geographically defined area beneath "realm" or "ecozone".
Ecoregions cover relatively large area of land or water, and contain characteristic, geographically distinct natural communities and species.
When defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the boundaries of an ecoregion approximate the original extent of the natural communities prior to any major recent disruptions or changes.
The WWF has identified 825 terrestrial ecoregions, and approximately 450 freshwater ecoregions across the Earth.
A large area of land or water that contains a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities that(a) share a large majority of their species and ecological dynamics;(b) share similar environmental conditions, and;(c) interact ecologically in ways that are critical for their long-term persistence.--World Wide Fund for Nature - EcoregionsThe Global 200 is the list of ecoregions identified by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) as priorities for conservation.
A terrestrial ecoregion is a certain area of land which is different from the area near it.
It has a distinct climate, geology, type of soil, water availability, and distinct living species (the animals and plants that live in the ecoregion).
For example, one ecoregion can be a desert.
It would have sand, very little water, very hot temperatures during the day and very cold at night.
The plants could be just bushes, small trees, cactii.
The animals could be scorpions, little mammals, spiders.
Or for example, an ecoregion could be a tropical forest It would have warm temperatures all day, a lot of rainfall all year, a huge river crossing, and a very organic soil.
The plants could be huge trees or ferns.
The animals could be insects, birds, fish and apes.
The scheme used to find out these ecoregions is more or less the same as that for terrestrial ecoregions.
Major habitat types are identified: polar, temperate shelfs and seas, temperate upwelling, tropical upwelling, tropical coral, pelagic, abyssal, and hadal (ocean trench) — which correspond to the terrestrial biomes.
Major biogeographic realms, analogous to the seven terrestrial ecozones, represent large regions of the ocean basins: North Temperate Atlantic, Eastern Tropical Atlantic, Western Tropical Atlantic, South Temperate Atlantic, North Temperate Indo-Pacific, Central Indo-Pacific, Eastern Indo-Pacific, Western Indo-Pacific, South Temperate Indo-Pacific, Southern Ocean, Antarctic, Arctic, and Mediterranean.
Freshwater ecoregions are the freshwater habitats of a particular geographic area, including rivers, streams, lakes, and wetlands.
Freshwater ecoregions are distinct from terrestrial ecoregions, which have biotic communities of the land, and marine ecoregions, which are biotic communities of the oceans.
Brunckhorst, D. 2000.
Bioregional planning: resource management beyond the new millennium.''
Harwood Academic Publishers: Sydney, Australia.
World Wide Fund for Nature: ecoregions
Sierra club: ecoregions
Activist network cultivating Ecoregions/Bioregions
A National Ecological Framework for Canada
Ecoregions of North America
Interactive map and images of North American ecoregions at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
Map of the ecozones
In physical geography, a wetland is an environment that combines the properties of land and water.
Wetlands are a distinct kind of ecosystem.
The combination of wet and dry areas means that many more different kinds of plants, animals and insects may live in a wetland than compared to other types of habitat.
Because of this great biodiversity, several important wetlands are among the Global 200 ecoregions that the World Wide Fund for Nature listed for conservation to try to get people to protect them.
As well, Ramsar Convention is adopted in 1971 for protection of wetland.
Wetland types
A bog or muskeg is acidic peat land (peat bog).
A moor was originally the same as a bog but has come to be associated with this soil type on hill-tops.
A moss is a raised bog in Scotland
A fen is a freshwater peat land with chemically basic (which roughly means alkaline) ground water.
This means that it contains a moderate or high proportion of hydroxyl ions (pH value greater than 7).
A carr is a fen which has developed enough to support trees.
It is a European term, mainly applied in the north of the UK.
A fresh-water marsh's main feature is its openness, with only low-growing or "emergent" plants.
It may feature grasses, rushes, reeds, typhas, sedges, and other herbaceous plants (possibly with low-growing woody plants) in a context of shallow water.
It is an open form of fen.
The Fens in eastern England were just such a wetland.
A coastal (salt)-marsh typically has very salty water, either directly from the ocean or a mixture of salt water and fresh water.
Salt-marshes may be associated with estuaries and along waterways between coastal barrier islands and the inner coast.
The plants in this kind of marsh can range from reeds in mildly brackish (salty) water to especially hardy salt-grasses (salicornia) on otherwise bare marine mud.
Many plants in salt-marshes have evolved to live in such salty conditions with special adaptations.
Salt-marshes may be converted to human use as pasture (salting) or for salt production (saltern).
A swamp is wetland with more open water surface and deeper water than a marsh.
In North America, 'swamp' is used for wetlands dominated by trees and woody bushes rather than grasses and low herbs.
This distinction does not necessarily apply in other areas, for instance in Africa where swamps may be dominated by papyrus instead of trees.
A swamp may also be described by the dominant plants growing in it.
For example: A mangrove swamp or mangal is a salt or brackish water environment dominated by mangrove trees.
A paperbark wetland is a fresh or brackish water environment dominated by the Melaleuca tree.
A dambo is a shallow, grass-covered depression of central and southern Africa.
It is waterlogged in the rainy season, and usually forms the headwaters of a stream or river.
It is marshy at the edges and at the headwater, but maybe swampy in the centre and downstream.
A bayou or slough are southern United States terms for a swamp with a creek running through it.
In an Indian mangrove swamp, it would be called a creek.
A peat swamp forest is a low-level tropical or subtropical forest wetland.
It produces peat, and is sometimes called a blackwater swamp.
A constructed wetland is man-made to make a piece of land hold more water than it otherwise would naturally.
This allows the land to stay wet enough to grow wetland plants and oftentimes hold water as well.
Uses include absorbing flash floods (by holding the extra water from the flood), cleaning sewage (which is done by the plants as the dirty water passes over their roots), enhancing wildlife habitat (for example creating new homes for rare birds or other animals) or for some other human reason.
In geography, a marsh is a type of wetland.
It has grasses, rushes, reeds, typhas, sedges, and other herbaceous plants (possibly with low-growing woody plants) in a context of shallow water.
A marsh is different from a swamp, which has a greater proportion of open water surface, which is generally deeper than a marsh.
In the US, the term 'swamp' is used for wetland dominated by trees rather than grasses and low herbs.
The water of a marsh can be fresh, brackish or saline.
Coastal marshes may be associated with estuaries and along waterways between coastal barrier islands and the inner coast.
Estuarine marshes often are based on soils consisting of sandy bottoms or bay muds.
Marshes of the Lowcountry (South Carolina) -- Beaufort County Library
Ulan-Ude (Russian:Ула́н-Удэ́; Buryat: Улаан-Үдэ), formerly Verkhneudinsk (), the capital city of the Buryat Republic, Russia.
The city is located about 100 km south-east of Lake Baikal.
It sits at the foot of the Khamar-Daban and Khrebet Ulan-Burgasy mountain ranges, next to the confluence of the Selenga River and its tributary, the Uda.
The city is divided into two parts by the Uda.
Population 359,391 (2002 Census); 352,530 (1989 Census).
It is the third largest city in East Siberia.
It is served by Ulan-Ude Airport (Mukhino) as well as the smaller Ulan-Ude Vostochny Airport.
Ulan-Ude was founded in 1666 by the Russian Cossacks.
Due to its geographical position, the city grew rapidly and became a large trade centre which connected Russia with China and Mongolia.
There are old merchants' mansions richly decorated with wood and stone carving in the historical center of Ulan-Ude, along the river banks.
They represent beautiful examples of Russian classicism.
There is also a large and highly unusual head of Lenin in the central square.
The pelagic zone is the open sea or ocean that is not near the coast.
The name comes from the Greek πέλαγος (pélagos), which might be translated as "open sea".
To make this clear, seas around continents have continental crust beneath them.
They are shallow.
Seas away from continents can be very deep, and do not have continental shelves beneath them.
Sub-zones
Epipelagic (surface to 200m): the illuminated surface zone where there is enough light for photosynthesis.
Because of this, plankton, and the food chain which feeds on it, are in this zone.
The top predators are fish such as tuna and many sharks.
Mesopelagic (from 200m to 1000m): the twilight zone.
Although some light penetrates this deep, it is insufficient for photosynthesis.
The name comes from Greek μέσον, middle.
Bathyal zone (from 1000m to 4000m): by this depth the ocean is almost entirely dark (with only the occasional bioluminescent organism).
There are no living plants, and most animals survive by consuming the snow of detritus falling from the zones above, or (like the marine hatchetfish) by preying upon others.
Giant squid live at this depth, and here they are hunted by deep-diving sperm whales.
From Greek βαθύς (bathys), deep.
Abyssal zone (from 4000m to the ocean floor): no light penetrates to this depth, and some creatures are blind and colourless.
Bioluminescence also occurs in this zone.
Hadal zone (the deep water in ocean trenches) – the name comes from Hades, the classical Greek underworld.
This zone is less well known.
Very few species live in the open areas, but many organisms live in hydrothermal vents.
The last three zones are similar in character, and some marine biologists count them as a single zone or consider the latter two to be the one zone.
Some define the hadopelagic as waters below 6000 meters, whether in a trench or not.
Other features of the deep ocean
Seamounts
Ocean ridges
The Deep Sea pages at Oceanlink
Vitamin A is a vitamin, a group of organic chemicals including retinal and several carotenoids.
The human body does not make these chemicals, and must take them from food.
Egg yolks and liver are both rich in vitamin A. Many parts of the body need vitamin A. For example, vitamin A helps sight and is good for the immune system.
It is also important for a growing embryo.
Too little vitamin A is dangerous to health.
People who do not get enough of the vitamin may lose the ability to see in poor light and suffer from a weakened immune system.
They may also have problems with memory, because vitamin A is important for the brain.
People with malnutrition often have too little vitamin A. This is common in poor countries.
Hypervitaminosis A
Too much vitamin A is also dangerous to one's health.
It is a condition known as hypervitaminosis.
Vitamin A is not soluble in water, and the human body can not get rid of the excess vitamin A easily by urination.
Too much vitamin A can make someone very sick.
People may get too much vitamin A from taking too many vitamin pills or from eating too much A-rich food like liver.
What applies to humans applies to all mammals at least.
Some large predators, such as the big cats, seem not to eat their preys' livers.
On the other hand, polar bears apparently do so, and they store vitamin A in their liver cells.
However, they have long, sometimes very long, periods between kills.
In contrast, African big cats kill about every three or four days, and they do seem to avoid eating the preys' livers.
Fat-soluble vitamins
Vitamin D is a hormone.
It is a steroid which is made in the body under the right conditions.
Its making by the body needs sunlight, which acts on the lower layers of the skin.
However, if the body does not make enough, it can be found from food sources in tiny amounts.
In fact, many countries add it automatically to certain foods like milk.
Supplements can be easily found in most developed countries.
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble nutrient.
This means that any portion not used immediately is stored in fat tissue for future use.
As a hormone, Vitamin D does many things in the body.
It was first discovered as the substance which could prevent and cure rickets.
It controls the levels of calcium ions and phosphates in the blood, as well as calcium and magnesium absorption in the intestines.
It helps bones grow and form.
It is also good for the immune system.
In total, there are 5 different forms, D1 to D5.
The most common ones are D2 and D3 (see images).
D3 (also called cholecalciferol) is the kind produced by the body.
It is also found naturally in marine oils and in lanolin (oil from sheep's wool), the most common source for supplements.
D2 (also called ergocalciferol) is produced by fungi.
It is similar to D3, but not exactly the same.
Getting enough
D3 is made in the skin from cholesterol, and changed into a more active form by the liver.
However, the skin will not make it unless enough ultraviolet light shines on it.
As sunlight contains ultraviolet light, getting enough sun is one way of getting enough D3.
Many things can keep the skin from making enough D3.
Winter sunlight may be too weak.
Melanin, which protects skin from damage, also keeps it from making D3, which is why people with darker skin are more prone to deficiency.
Older people are also prone, because aging skin makes less D3, even with enough sunlight.
Clothing, glass, sunscreens and sunblocks also shield the skin from getting enough ultraviolet light to make D3.
It is hard to know how much supplemental Vitamin D, if any, is needed.
Less than 25 micrograms (1000 IU) per day, but up to 100 mcg (4000 IU) per day is considered safe.
A recent panel of Vitamin D researchers concluded that at least 20-25 mcg (800-1000 IU) per day would help most adults.
Few foods naturally contain much D3.
Fish do, especially oily ones, such as salmon, sardine and mackerel.
Many kinds of edible mushrooms contain some D2, like shiitake.
Mushrooms grown in full sunlight tend to have more.
Benefits and sources of Vitamin D
Benefits of Vitamin D
Factsheet on Vitamin D
FDA takes Vitamin D drugs and feeds them to prisoners
The biodiversity characteristic of each biome, especially the diversity of fauna and subdominant plant forms, is a function of abiotic factors and the biomass productivity of the dominant vegetation.
Terrestrial biomes with higher net primary productivity, moisture availability, and temperature.
Terrestrial (land) biomes and
Aquatic (water) biomes.
Biomes are often given local names.
For example, a temperate grassland or shrubland biome is known commonly as steppe in central Asia, savanna or veld in southern Africa, prairie in North America, pampa in South America and outback or scrub in Australia.
Sometimes an entire biome may be targeted for protection, especially under an individual nation's Biodiversity Action Plan.
Terrestrial biomes
Climate is a major factor determining the distribution of terrestrial biomes.
Among the important climatic factors are:
latitude: arctic, boreal, temperate, subtropical, tropical.
humidity: humid, semi-humid, semi-arid, and arid.
seasonal variation: rainfall may be distributed evenly throughout the year, or be marked by seasonal variations.
dry summer, wet winter: most regions of the earth receive most of their rainfall during the summer months; Mediterranean climate regions receive their rainfall during the winter months.
elevation: increasing elevation causes a distribution of habitat types similar to that of increasing latitude.
Udvardy system
Bailey system
Robert G. Bailey developed a biogeographical classification system for the United States in a map published in 1975.
Bailey subsequently expanded the system to include the rest of North America in 1981, and the world in 1989.
The Bailey system is based on climate, and is divided into four domains (Polar, Humid Temperate, Dry, and Humid Tropical), with further divisions based on other climate characteristics (subarctic, warm temperate, hot temperate, and subtropical, marine and continental, lowland and mountain).
WWF system
A team of biologists developed an ecological land classification system for the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) that identified 14 biomes, called major habitat types, and further divided the world's land area into 867 terrestrial ecoregions.
This classification is used to define the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the (WWF) as priorities for conservation.
The WWF major habitat types are as follows:
Forests ('broadleaf' = Angiosperm trees)
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid)
Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid)
Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semihumid)
Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid)
Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub or sclerophyll forests (temperate warm, semihumid to semiarid with winter rainfall)
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (tropical and subtropical, semiarid)
Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (temperate, semiarid)
Flooded grasslands and savannas (temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated)
Montane grasslands and shrublands: alpine (above the tree line) or montane (below the tree line, and hence with trees).
Tundra (Arctic)
Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid)
Mangrove (subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated)
Aquatic biomes
continental shelf
littoral/intertidal zone
riparian
kelp forest
pack ice
hydrothermal vents
cold seeps
benthic zone
pelagic zone
neritic zone
Other biomes
Biomes of the world (Missouri Botanic Garden)
Biomes Quiz
Vitamin E (which is also called Tocopherol or Tocotrienol, E307, E308,E309) is a vitamin.
There are eight forms of it, E1 to E8.
It can be found in vegetable oils.
Very often it is also added to lotions and creams for the skin.
It is supposed to help the healing of the skin, after burns and injuries, and lower the risk of heart disease and cancer.
Vitamin K is a vitamin which is soluble in fat.
It is probably best known for its role in the coagulation (clotting) of blood.
However, it also serves other important functions in the body.
Vitamin K was discovered by a Danish chemist named Henrik Dam.
He won the 1943 Nobel Prize in  Physiology or Medicine for discovering its key role in the coagulation of blood.
Since that time, Vitamin K's role in other physiologic functions has become known.
One of the most important is its role in controlling where calcium goes in the body.
Without Vitamin K, there would be a loss of blood when a person bleeds, which can lead to unconsciousness or even death.
The B vitamin complex (also called B vitamins) are a group of 8 vitamins.
They have an important job in the metabolism of cells.
Each B vitamin is a cofactor (a coenzyme) for some key metabolic processes or it is a precursor needed to make one.
Originally, people thought they were just different forms of one vitamin (as with Vitamin D, for example).
Later it turned out that they are separate vitamins that often can be found together.
They are Vitamin B1/Thiamine, Vitamin B2/Riboflavin, Vitamin B3/Vitamin P/Vitamin PP/Niacin,Vitamin B5/Pantothenic acid, Vitamin B6, Vitamin B7/Vitamin H/Biotin, Vitamin B9/Vitamin M/Vitamin B-c/Folate and Vitamin B12.
They are required for growth, and proper functioning of nerves and muscles.
B vitamins are found in meat, milk, whole grains and fresh vegetables.
mental problems
heart palpitations
heart arrhythmias
exhaustion
paranoia, vague fears, fear that something dreadful is about to happen, nervousness, ADD (attention deficiency), inability to concentrate
thoughts of dying
inability to sleep
restlessness
tingling in hands
tingling fingers and toes
crying spells, inability to cope
soreness all over
Places with a subarctic climate (also called boreal climate) have long, usually very cold winters, and short, warm summers.
It is found on large landmasses, away from oceans, usually at latitudes from 50° to 70°N. Because there are no large landmasses at such latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere, it is only found at high altitudes (heights) in the Andes and the mountains of Australia and New Zealand's South Island.
These climates are in groups Dfc, Dwc, Dfd and Dwd in the Köppen climate classification
This type of climate has very big changes in temperature throughout the year.
In winter, temperatures can drop to -40 °C (also -40 °F) and in summer, the temperature may go above 30 °C (86 °F).
But the summers are short, as there are no more than three months of the year with an average temperature of at least 10 °C (50 °F).
However, at least one must have an average temperature of at least 10 °C (50 °F) .
In addition, the coldest month must be below 0°C (32°F) The subarctic climate is in between the humid continental climate and the polar climate.
The subarctic climate is found in the these places:
Much of Siberia
The northern half of Scandinavia (milder winters in coastal areas)
Much of Canada from about 50°N to the tree line, including:
Southern Labrador
Northern Quebec except for the far north
Far northern Ontario
The northern Prairie Provinces
Most of the Yukon
Most of the Northwest Territories
With 5–7 months in a row where the average temperature is below freezing, all water in the soil and subsoil freezes several feet deep.
In the colder parts of this climate, summer warmth is not enough to thaw (unfreeze) more than a few feet on the top of the soil, so there can be permafrost(soil that is frozen forever).
When the ice melts in the summer, 2 to 14 ft (0.6 to 4 m) of soil can thaw, depending on the latitude and the type of soil.
Some subarctic climates near oceans (such as southern Alaska and the northern edge of Europe), have milder winters and no permafrost, so it is easier to farm there.
Summer is very short; it has about 45 to 100 days at most, and in a lot of places, the temperatures can go below freezing (32 °F or 0 °C) at any time of the year, even in the summer.
Vegetation (plants) in a subarctic climate usually has low diversity (only a few different types of plants grow), because only hardy (very tough) species can survive the long winters and make use of the short summers.
Trees are mostly evergreen conifers, because few broadleaved (big leaves) trees can survive the very low temperatures in winter.
This type of forest is also known as taiga.
The word taiga can also be a name for the climate itself.
A lot of plants grow in the taiga (even if there are only a few different kinds of plants), so the taiga (boreal) forest is the largest forest biome on the planet, with most of the forests in Russia and Canada.
Is it usually very hard to farm in subarctic climates, because the soil is infertile (it doesn't have the nutrients that many plants need to grow) and because of the many swamps and lakes that ice sheets make, and only very tough crops can survive the short growing seasons.
On the plus side, the days last longer in the summer as you get closer to the poles.
So the plants that can grow get a lot of sunlight.
Potatoes, strawberries, blueberries and hay for animals grow well.
Special varieties of other plants may grow as well.
There is very little precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, or hail); no more than 15 to 20 inches over an entire year.
Rain and snow may stay above ground until the ground melts.
This means that when the precipitation does soak into the ground, it can be very wet and muddy.
Thompson, Manitoba
Goose Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador
Rovaniemi, Finland
Kiruna, Sweden
Arkhangelsk, Russia
Irkutsk, Russia
Chita, Russia
Some places in the climate group Dfd (a very, very cold subarctic climate) are:
Oymyakon, Russia
Verkhoyansk, Russia
The ONS coding system is a system used in the United Kingdom for dealing with census and other statistical data.
It is used by the Office for National Statistics as a way to label each area of England and Wales.
It is also used for parts of Northern Ireland.
The system uses a code for the larger census areas, counties and districts.
It then breaks those areas down into smaller areas within the larger areas.
Each of the smaller areas get a code that is based on the larger area.
Areas are divided in this way until they get to the smallest size used for census data.
An area must have at least 40 households, but they try to not divide an area into a size smaller than 100 households.
ONS Beginners' Guide to UK Geography
Codes as in 1994