the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Some isotopes that are radioactive only stay radioactive for much less than a second.
Other things can stay radioactive for thousands of years.
Some of the machines that make radiation are called particle accelerators.
Scientists use these machines to make radiation so they can study it.
X-ray machines also make radiation, so doctors can see the inside of the human body and help people.
Nuclear weapons (atomic weapons) use a nuclear reaction to produce massive amounts of energy, in the form of heat, light, and radiation.
This radiation is spread by the dust, ash, and smoke produced by the blast.
Nuclear reactors are used to make electricity.
They make a lot of radiation, but the reactors are built carefully to keep the radiation inside the reactor.
But many people are afraid that if there were a problem with the reactor, radioactive material could escape into the environment, harming or killing many animals and people.
Also, the parts of the reactor stay radioactive, and can kill people, for hundreds or thousands of years, so people are not sure where they can keep parts of old reactors safely away from people.
Alpha radiation is used in static eliminators and smoke detectors.
Ionizing radiation are used to sterilize medical instruments.
It is also used in food irradiation and the sterile insect technique.
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulates most commercial radiation sources and non-medical exposures in the US:
Biological Effects of Low Level Exposures: Radiation Hormesis
Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: BEIR VII Phase 2
NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Ionizing Radiation
RISC-RAD  is a European research project on assessment of low dose cancer risk
UNSCEAR 2000 Report, Volume 1: Sources
UNSCEAR 2000 Report, Volume 2: Effects
Beginners Guide to Ionising Radiation Measurement
Quantities, units and their relationships
Plans for homemade ionizing radiation meter
List of common household radioactive items
Ionizing radiation -Citizendium
Click is an onomatopoeia.
It is sometimes used to indicate pressing the button on a computer mouse.
Dr. Edwin Eugene "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr., retired Colonel (born January 20, 1930) is an American pilot and astronaut.
He was one of the Apollo 11 astronauts and the second person to have ever walked on the moon.
Aldrin was born in Glen Ridge, New Jersey.
He earned a BSc in Mechanical Engineering from the military academy West Point in 1951.
After graduate and postgraduate studies, he received a ScD in Aeronautics and Astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1963.From his earlier activity as a fighter pilot in the Korean War he won several medals, including the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal.
Apollo 11 mission
He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the NASA Exceptional Service Medal.
After the death of Michael Collins in 2021, Aldrin became the last surviving member of the Apollo 11 crew.
Aldrin left NASA in March 1972.
He has been married three times: to Joan Archer, to Beverly Zile, and to his current wife, Lois Driggs Cannon.
He had three children with Joan, named James, Janice and Andrew.
He married Cannon on Valentine's Day, 1988.
He is the oldest contestant on the television series Dancing with the Stars.
He competed in 2010.
1930 births
American astronauts
Apollo astronauts
People from Glen Ridge, New Jersey
Scientists from New Jersey
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria.
In the past, people called it consumption.
TB is caused by several types of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
The disease usually attacks the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body.
How it spreads
The bacteria can travel through the air and spread from one person to the next.
This happens when infected people cough, sneeze, or spit.
Of every 100 people with TB, between five and ten people show symptoms.
In these people, the disease is called active.
Tuberculosis kills more than half of the people who are infected if they do not get treatment.
Detection and treatment
Diagnosis of active TB relies on radiology.
Doctors often look at an X-ray of the chest.
In addition, they check body fluids.
These fluids have microbes in them, which are grown in cell cultures.
The cell cultures are then analysed to see if the person is infected with TB.
If the patient has TB, but does not show symptoms, the disease is 'latent'.
Doctors use a skin test, called the Mantoux test, to detect latent TB.
They often do blood tests too.
There is a vaccine against some forms of tuberculosis.
It is called bacillus Calmette–Guérin vaccine.
TB used to be easily treated and cured with antibiotics.
However, the bacterium is now highly resistant to most antibiotics.
This resistance makes treatment difficult.
Many different kinds of antibiotics need to be given over a long period of time.
There is a form of tuberculosis that is resistant to all drugs.
Tuberculosis can have many symptoms.
The most common include:
A cough that does not go away, especially if the person is coughing up blood (this is called hemoptysis)
Chest pain
Not having any appetite
Very pale skin
Listless eyes
Sweating a lot at night
Difficulty breathing
Feeling very tired
People are also more likely to get tuberculosis if they live close to other people who have TB.
For example, TB can spread easily in homeless shelters, prisons, and immigrant communities.
How common is TB?
Experts believe that one third of the world population is infected with M. tuberculosis.
New infections occur at a rate of one per second.
In 2007, about 13.7 million chronic cases were active globally.
In 2010, about 8.8 million new cases developed and nearly 1.5 million people died from the disease, most of them  in developing countries.
The number of tuberculosis cases has been decreasing since 2006, and new cases have decreased since 2002.
Tuberculosis does not happen at the same rate around the world.
About eighty percent of the population in many Asian and African countries test positive for TB, but only five to ten percent of people in the United States do.
People usually get tuberculosis because of a weakened immune system.
Many people with HIV and AIDS can also get tuberculosis.
Frequently asked Questions about TB at CDC.gov
ExplainTB: Multilingual audiovisual information on tuberculosis
The word American is used to mean a person or a thing from the United States or any country in the Americas - North America, Central America, and South America.
In English, the most common use of this word is to mean a person or a thing from the United States.
Due to the ambiguity of the word, some languages avoid using the word to refer to someone and/or thing from the United States and use more specific demonyms instead, such as Spanish estadounidense and German US-Amerikaner, for example.
Yankee is sometimes used within the English language too (though the word historically refers specifically to a inhabitant of New England).
A Native American is someone who is mostly descended from the people who lived in the Americas before the Europeans arrived.
Native Americans are also called First Nations and Indians.
There is no language "American."
Some important languages used in the Americas are English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish.
Some people still use Native American languages.
Quechua is the largest.
Grain is the seeds of some special kinds of grass.
The main types of commercial grain crops are cereals.
People grow different kinds of grain as food.
The different kinds of grain are perhaps one of the most important foods in the world.
Maize or Indian corn (or simply as "corn")
Oats
87% of all grain grown by farmers around the world is maize.
Grains contain carbohydrates that people can eat.
In poorer countries, grains are a large part of the food supply.
In richer countries, they are still important as food, but not as important as in poorer countries.
Growing grain uses a lot of water.
About 1,000 tons of water is needed to grow one ton of grain.
Many different foods are made from different types of grain.
Grain is often ground into a powder called flour.
Flour can be made into breads, cakes, or noodles.
Tortillas are made from a special flour of dried maize (corn) called masa.
A clause is a part of a sentence.
Each clause is made up of a subject (who or what the sentence is about) and a predicate (what happens in a sentence).
Each predicate has only one main verb.
I love you is a sentence which has only one clause.
I love you and I will always love you is a sentence which has two clauses.
The two clauses are I love you and I will always love you.
These clauses are joined together by the word and, which is a conjunction).
Clauses may be independent or dependent.
Two clauses can be joined with a pronoun.
For example: I live in London, which is in England.
Here, I live in London is the first clause, and which is in England is the second clause.
The word which is a pronoun which takes the place of London.
It joins the two clauses.
A sentence can contain many clauses.
But sentences with fewer clauses are easier to understand.
Dependent and independent clauses
A simple sentence may also be called an independent clause.
It may be a part of a compound or complex sentence, but it can also stand on its own as a simple sentence (or independent clause).
A subordinate clause also called a dependent clause is one which cannot stand by itself.
This is because it does not express a complete thought.
It contains both a subject and a verb.
A subordinate clause always depends on a main clause.
The main clause is almost always an independent clause, therefore the main clause by itself makes sense and can stand on its own.
However, the subordinating clause does not.
For example, I love you makes perfect sense left on its own.
However, and always will, does not.
The only time a sentence can be made up of only dependent clauses is when they are joined by correlative conjunctions: conjunction pairs like "either/or", "neither/nor", and "not only/but also".
Clauses: the Essential Building-Blocks
Purdue Owl: Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses
The world is split into multiple classes (groups) of people.
The two main classes are the working class and the ruling class.
The working class is exploited by the ruling class.
There is a class conflict
When workers realize their exploitation, they will revolt and take over ownership of factories and materials (dictatorship of the proletariat)
Communism (stateless, classless society with free enterprise).
The idea that people who have been exploited will not in turn exploit those who they were made to believe exploited them
These ideas come from the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and their most notable work is The Communist Manifesto.
They have had a lot of influence in many countries.
Marxism influenced other political views, such as social democracy and reformist socialism.
Both believe that the ideas of Marx and Engels can be achieved through what Marx called 'bourgeois democracy'.
People disagree a lot on how a Marxist society should be organized: "Marxist political economists differ over their definitions of capitalism, socialism and communism.
These differences are so fundamental, the arguments among... Marxist political economists have sometimes been as intense as their oppositions to capitalism".
Key ideas
The working class vs. the capitalist class
Most people are called "workers" because they work in factories, offices, or farms for money.
They belong to the "working class" (or "proletariat").
These people do not own the places they work in or the materials they need for their work.
Another group, who are not as big as the working class, are "capitalists" (or "bourgeoisie").
They own the factories, land, and buildings that the workers work in.
They also own some of the tools the workers have to use.
Marx calls capitalists the "Ruling Class" because they live off of the work of all the workers.
He also says that the capitalists own the government, army, and courts.
Most workers work for companies owned by either capitalists or "petit-bourgeois" (small-time exploiters).
The capitalist pays the worker in exchange for the worker's time.
The capitalist has bought a period of time from the worker, which the worker must then use to labor for the capitalist.
According to Marxist thinking, this is the only way that a capitalist can create extra money from a commodity (a piece of merchandise).
The capitalist exploits the worker's time as much as they can.
The capitalist receives a certain price for the commodity the worker made.
The capitalist builds up capital by paying the worker less than that price.
In this way, the capitalist exploits the worker's labor by:
Not paying the worker what their labor was worth
Keeping the extra money that they did not pay the worker
Here is an example of exploitation of labor.
Jane is a shoemaker.
She works for Michael, who owns a shoe factory that can make 60 pairs of shoes in a day.
Jane makes 60 pairs of shoes every day.
Michael pays Jane $20 a day.
However, Michael sells each pair of shoes for $2 each.
This means he makes $120 in a day.
After he pays Jane her $20 wage, Michael has $100 left over.
However he then has to pay for materials which cost $1 for each pair, so that's $60 each day.
Then running expenses of the factory cost him $10 a day.
So he only gets $30 at the end of the day for managing the business.
This remaining wealth is called "Profit" or "Surplus [extra] Value."
In other words, even though Jane makes 60 shoes every day, she only gets paid the value of 10 pairs of shoes.
The rest of the day, while she is making the other 50 shoes, she is creating money for her boss.
Her labor is making him richer and helping him earn money.
It is this Surplus Value, or Profit, which Marxism thinks as an exploitation of labor.
This exploitation allows the smaller class (capitalists) to live without working while making a profit, while the bigger class (the workers) have to work for the capitalists to survive under usually poor working conditions.
Marxism says that factories, tools, and work places cannot create new value on their own.
They are like a blueberry bush: it has no value on its own.
People have to create that value by laboring.
For example, someone spends a day picking blueberries.
Those blueberries can now be traded or eaten because of the labor that was put in to pick them.
Marxist thinking claims that capitalists and workers are constantly struggling.
They call this "Dialectical Materialism."
This is the idea that the history of humans is the history of conflict between classes.
Different classes with different interests argue or fight each other.
Social change (or in its absence, social stagnation) is the result.
Marxism says that capitalists want to exploit the workers as much as possible and make their pay as low as they can.
The capitalists do this to create as much profit for themselves as possible, as quickly as possible.
Workers, on the other hand, have to struggle to keep their wages up and to keep the "rate of exploitation" low, so that they can live more peaceful lives.
This is what Marxism calls "class struggle": where workers and their bosses fight against each other to gain for themselves.
Marxists think that all of written human history has been divided by economic classes.
One example is feudal society (a medieval society controlled by feudal lords and nobles).
The ruling class got their power and wealth from the labor of peasants (farmers).
But as peasants demanded more and more for themselves, small shopkeepers and tradespeople began to appear.
Many of these people formed guilds and eventually began to employ workers.
These workers were able to gain wealth for themselves at these jobs.
These historical events created capitalism.
In this way, Marxists think that history has been pushed forward by class struggle.
They think that change will be born from this struggle, just like capitalism was.
However, they also think that capitalism will give way to communism; as the exploitation of workers becomes worse it will lead workers to revolt against their capitalist rulers.
The core of Marxist thinking is called Materialism.
Materialism is a philosophical view that says that communities develop from the "ground up".
It says that the "higher" qualities of culture (like art, manners, customs, and religions) are actually founded on the "lower" or simpler qualities of life.
These qualities include having enough of what people need to survive, like food and shelter; who has money and what they have to do to get it; who is allowed to work, and who is forced to work.
Changes in the higher qualities of culture (sometimes called the "Superstructure") are often linked to changes in the lower qualities of life (sometimes called the "Base").
One example is that in medieval times,  people thought "honor" or duty to people with more power than them was very important.
Today, in Western countries, many people see ambition (being someone who works hard for their own goals) as more important.
This is because, in medieval times, people worked their entire lives under lords who depended on them not only for work but for war.
Today, people work for themselves more, and our society lets some people move up from being poor to being rich.
In this case, what people see as good and important depends on how the rulers get value out of their workers.
A "classless society"
Marxism recognizes that in earlier time periods, we lived first under rulers who owned everything.
Then we lived under lords who owned land with workers who lived and worked on that land.
In Marx's time, people lived under governments that allowed many people to own property.
Eventually, Marxists believe that we will move to a society where everyone owns everything in common.
This will be called communism.
In other words, human society has always been based on the economic forces that human beings can control.
For Marxism, this means that each society would take its form based on its "mode of production."
Marxists believe that humans' ability to produce goods and services today means people can move beyond the conflicts of a society that is divided into classes.
Many Marxists believe that there will always be revolts and with the right conditions revolutions.
In these revolutions, the workers will fight the capitalists.
If they win, they will set up a socialist "workers' state" (a form of government where the workers are the rulers of society).
This workers' state will only be temporary.
Its job will be to take power away from the capitalists, until all the capitalist countries in the world are defeated, and social classes no longer exist.
Marxists believe that if the working class makes itself the ruling class, and destroys the basis for class society (private property, or what Marx called "Bourgeois Property"), there will be a "classless society."
In a Marxist society, no social classes are in conflict, and there is no government anymore.
The state will no longer be needed.
There would be no countries.
The world will have no borders.
There will be communes around the world.
Workers will organize production of goods and services based on what people need, not based on profits.
Beliefs about modern communism
Some Marxists say that modern "communism" is not communism at all.
They say that "communist" countries like the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, Cuba, and Vietnam are really using different forms of capitalism, often with heavily "nationalized" industries.
A thinker named Tony Cliff was one of the biggest supporters of these ideas.
He wrote that states like the Soviet Union and Communist China (before 1980) were "State-Capitalist."
Not all communists, socialists, or Marxists agree on this question.
However, many strong supporters of Marxism agree that:
With socialism, workers have democratic control over economic decisions and social justice
An economy produces things (makes goods and services) based on what people need
Socialism will die and change into communism when capitalism is defeated
Distinction between Marxism, communism and socialism
People use these terms interchangeably but this is incorrect.
These concepts have different meanings:
Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism.
Socialism is a way of organizing a society in which the means of production are owned and controlled by the working class, instead of the capitalists.
Communism is the theoretical classless, stateless society that Marx proposed would arise after the demise of capitalism.
The Communist Manifesto, by Marx and Engels
The words sacred or holy are sometimes used interchangeably and are often misunderstood to mean "important" or "special"  instead of "set apart" and "pure."
According to Websters 1828 Dictionary (the more accurate definition given the spiritual context- Christian and beyond), sacred means "...separated from that which is common, vulgar, polluted, or open... or Holy."
Holy, means "Properly, whole, entire or perfect, in a moral sense.
Hence, pure in heart, temper or dispositions; free from sin and sinful affections.
Applied to the Supreme Being, holy signifies perfectly pure, immaculate and complete in moral character..."
Most religions have sacred books that provide teachings or doctrines associated with the religion.
These books are "set apart," from other books published and associated with the religion.
There is a deeper connection to these books over the others.
For Christians this book is called the Bible.
Muslim peoples have another book, they call the Qur'an.
Jews call their book the Torah.
Similarly, the Book of Mormon is also considered as a sacred book in Mormonism.
Some religious people deem specific places sacred because of their mention in the sacred books.
Jerusalem is seen as sacred by Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
Mecca is sacred in Islam, and Ise Grand Shrine in Mie Prefecture is sacred in Japanese Shinto.
In Hinduism the river Ganges is seen as holy.
Holiness in the Bible
Zürich or Zurich ( ; Swiss German: Züri [ˈt͡syɾi]) is a city in Switzerland.
Zürich is the capital city of the Canton of Zürich.
About 415,000 people live in the city and over 1.5 million live in the metropolitan area.
This makes Zürich the biggest city in Switzerland.
Zurich is located in the North of Switzerland, and it is 408 m (1,339 ft) above sea level.
It is at the northern end of Lake Zurich and is surrounded by hills; at the left side of the lake, there is the Albis mountain range, including the Felsenegg (accessible by Zurich's only cable car)  and Zurich’s "house mountain" Uetliberg.
At the right side of the lake, there are the hills Zollikerberg, with the prominent Dolder hotel and Zürichberg.
The rivers Limmat and Sihl flow through the city.
The Limmat and the Sihl flow through the city, whereby the river Sihl is connected to the Lake Zurich through the Schanzengraben, which used to be a part of the city fortress.
Left side of the Lake:
The architectural beauty of the Enge station, made of Ticino granite, the Rietberg Museum with its beautiful park, the Enge bathing establishment and the Rote Fabrik give this district a Mediterranean feel.
Right side of the Lake:
This district starts behind the Opera House and stretches as far as the Tiefenbrunnen lakeside resort.
Boutiques, villas, the Chinawiese (Chinese meadow) and, of course, the Utoquais lakeside establishment are the highlights of this area.
The city is divided into twelve districts (known as Kreis in German), numbered 1 to 12.
The first district is the old town of Zurich.
The history of Zurich starts with prehistoric settlements that were found at the border of today’s Lake Zurich.
There were different settlements and some date back to 500 BC.
From 100 BC , Celtic people inhabited the area.
When the Romans arrived, they built a military base, which they called ‘Turicum’.
This is where the term Zurich originated .
The Alemanni and the Franks (Germanic tribes) also took hold of Zürich later.
In 1218, the last member of Zürich ’s ruling family died.
After that, Zürich became a free city.
Its location in Europe contributed to its economic development.
In 1336, Rudolf Brun and the tradesmen of the city stormed the Town Hall.
After that, half of the government was made up of tradesmen .
The tradesmen grouped themselves into guilds.
The Canton joined Switzerland in 1351.
During the Protestant Reformation period (16th century), the city became the head of Protestant Switzerland .
It was in contact with other Protestant Swiss cities , like Bern and Geneva.
Protestant refugees came to Zürich , and further contributed to the city’s economic development.
During the 17th and the 18th century, the city grew culturally and economically .
In the city of Zürich, most of the people work in the commerce part of the economy.
Zürich is one of the largest financial centres in the world.
Many famous banks and insurance companies are located here, for example UBS, Credit Suisse, Swiss Life and Swiss Re.
The airport of Zürich is located about  to the north, in a town called Kloten.
Zürich Airport ("Flughafen Zürich", IATA:ZRH) is the biggest airport in Switzerland.
Zürich Main Station is the busiest train station in Switzerland with many national and international connections.
Many people in Zurich use public transport.
Roughly 50% of people who live in Zurich use it to get to work or school.
The ZVV network uses at least four types of transport – trains, trams, buses (both diesel and electric, also called trolley buses) and boats on the lake and river.
The public transport network also includes funicular railways and even cable cars like the one between Adliswil and Felsenegg.
Tickets are valid on all main types of public transportation.
The boats run on the Limmat and the Lake Zürich.
It connects surrounding towns between Zurich and Rapperswil.
Zurich has two universities.
ETH Zürich is ranked among the top universities in the world.
Over 20 Nobel Prize winners have studied or worked there, for example Albert Einstein.
The other university is the University of Zürich.
It is the largest university in Switzerland.
Zurich’s Educational System:
All children living in the Canton of Zurich have the right to education in compulsory Public Schools (Volksschule), which are free of charge.
The compulsory education in the canton of Zurich generally begins at the age of four and is of 11 years duration.
The compulsory period of Education includes Kindergarten, Primary School and Secondary School, where the children receive basic education qualifying them for access to vocational education and training (VET/ apprenticeship) or to continuative intermediate schools.
Kindergarten is the first step of the compulsory education, where the children stay for two years before moving on to primary school, which is divided into lower level (Grade 1-3) and middle level (grade 4-6), thus takes six years to complete.
After grade 6 of primary school, the students have two different options.
They either pass on to secondary school or change over to baccalaureate school (Gymnasium).
To change over to long-term baccalaureate school, the students need to pass an admission examination.
After primary school, students pass on to secondary school, which takes 3 years to complete.
During this time, students acquire the skills to successfully transition to a Vocational Education and Training School (VET School) or they enter Intermediate School after having passed the admission examination. (
https://www.zh.ch/en/bildung/bildungssystem.html#-1461266662)
Primary and Secondary Schools:
The total number of scholars in public schools in the Canton of Zurich in 2019 was 275260, 49,7% of them were women.
Instead, in Private schools the number of scholars was 29021, 48,1% of them were women.
Since the 2014 school year, there has been a sharp increase in the number of primary school pupils in the canton of Zurich.
The growth from the 2018 school year to the 2019 school year 2019 was 2.4%, i.e. around 100 classes.
The number of public schools in the Canton of Zurich is 504.
The number of teachers teaching in public schools is 15962.
(https://www.zh.ch/content/dam/zhweb/bilder-dokumente/themen/bildung/bildungssystem/zahlen/die_schulen_im_kanton_zuerich_2019_2020.pdf)
Zurich has two universities: ETH and UZH.
ETH Zürich is a public research university in the city of Zürich, that was founded by the Swiss Federal Government in 1984 with the stated mission to educate engineers and scientists.
The school focuses primarily on science, technology, engineering and mathematics.
Typically, popular rankings place the institution as the best university in continental Europe and ETH Zurich is consistently ranked among the top 1-5 universities in Europe, and among the top 3-10 best universities of the world.
Over 20 Nobel Price winners have studied or worked there, for example Albert Einsteins.
For Swiss students, ETH Zurich is not selective in its undergraduate admission procedures.
Like every public university in Switzerland, ETH Zurich is obliged to grant admission to every Swiss resident who took the Matura.. ETH Zurich has two campuses.
The main building was constructed 1858–1864 outside and right above the eastern border of the town, but nowadays it is located right in the heart of the city.
In the year of ETH Zurich's 150th anniversary, an extensive project called "Science City" for the Hönggerberg Campus was started with the goal to transform the campus into an attractive district based on the principle of sustainability.
The annual Polyball is the most prestigious public event at ETH Zurich, with a long tradition since the 1880s.
At the end of November, the Polyball welcomes around 10,000 dancers, music-lovers and partygoers in the extensively decorated main building of ETH Zurich.
The amicable rivalry between ETH Zurich and its neighbor, the University of Zurich, has been cultivated since 1951 (Uni-Poly).
There has been an annual rowing match between teams from the two institutions on the river Limmat.
UZH UNIVERSITY
The University of Zurich was founded in 1833 and it was the first university in Europe to be founded by the state rather than the church or a monarch.
It is closely linked with ETH in the fields of bioscience and finance.
According to the GWTS Leiden Ranking, the University of Zurich ranked 37th in the world in social sciences and humanities.
Bachelor courses are taught in Swiss German but use of English is increasing in many faculties.
The only bachelors program taught entirely in English is the English language and literacy program.
All Master courses at the Faculty of Science are held in English.
Master courses in Economics and Finance are mainly held in English, while the Master of Science in Quantitative Finance is held completely in English.
Stadt Zürich – official website
The people who do translation are called translators.
A translator who is copying a book into another language may use a language dictionary to find out how a word is written in another language.
A translator who works with the spoken word is also called an interpreter.
Translators can work independently as freelancers or by being hired by translation agencies.
People translate poetry, novels, drama, or short stories are called literary translators.
The Impact of Translation in New York City
Choosing the Perfect Translation Agency for your Company
Adapt your Translation for a better Understanding of Inter-culture
An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person who goes into outer space.
The Soviet Union and countries that it was friends with used the word cosmonaut.
Western countries including the United States said astronaut.
Astronauts are also called "taikonauts" in China or "spationaute" in France.
The first person to go into space was a Russian from the Soviet Union.
His name was Yuri Gagarin.
This happened on April 12, 1961.
The first and second people to walk on the Moon were the Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin.
This happened on July 20, 1969.
No astronauts have gone to the moon since 1972.
No people have visited any other planets yet.
Astronauts used to go into space using many different ways, but now they only go on the American SpaceX Crew-1, the Russian Soyuz, or the Chinese Shenzhou.
Several countries have worked together to build an International Space Station where people stay and work in space for long periods of time.
A few countries and companies are trying to make more ways to get people into space.
The United States is building a very big rocket called the Space Launch System.
Some American companies, for example Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and SpaceX, are being paid by the United States to make ways for people to go to space.
A hacker originally meant someone who likes to do new things with computers.
Now hacker is used to mean "someone who tries to get into another person's computer using computer software such as Trojan horse programs, computer viruses, and worms that can hurt other people computers".
The correct name for a person doing these illegal things was cracker, but many news stories used the word hacker even though it was in error.
Another meaning of hacker is someone who can change or program something, like how people can change or program a Furby to say something insulting or humorous.
In the recent years computers were becoming increasingly more complex.
This also means that people with bad intentions have more opportunities to use them for criminal purposes.
Computer engineers aren't always able to find vulnerable places in the computer code.
Hackers find such places, and use them.
There are also hackers who use the same skills for good purposes.
Such hackers are called white hat hackers.
They help computer engineers to find vulnerable places and correct problems.
A lot of skills are often required to be a hacker.
A hacker should be able to find problems or solutions that most other people cannot find.
In communications, such as radio and television, broadcasting means sending information such as television shows or music electronically to a large audience.
The information is sent through the air in radio waves, through a wire, or by a communications satellite, and then the television viewers or radio listeners pick up the signal using their television sets and radio receivers.
Gugliemo Marconi invented wireless telegraphy, in December 1901 he transmitted first radio signals across the Atlantic Ocean.
This was point to point.
Experiments with voice broadcasting began a few years later, and it grew rapidly in the 1920s.
Types of broadcasters
Different broadcasters use different radio waves and different modulating methods.
amplitude modulation on medium waves was the first to be much used.
Public broadcasters
Many countries have Public broadcasting, using money from the government to broadcast television shows and radio programs.
Examples include the BBC in Britain, NHK in Japan, and the CBC in Canada.
In the United States, most public broadcast radio and television stations are run by educational groups (such as colleges or universities) or by a state's educational department.
Public broadcasters, by law, cannot accept or display commercial advertising.
However, businesses can make donations to a public broadcaster.
Most are part of the Public Broadcasting System.
PBS is different than the other public broadcasters such as BBC, NHK and CBC, because the PBS gets a lot of its funding (money) from donations by viewers and listeners.
Public broadcasters make programs that the private companies are not interested in making, such as educational children's shows, documentaries, and public affairs shows about current issues.
Private broadcasters
As well, there are private broadcasting companies.
These are companies that broadcast television and radio programs.
To make money, private broadcasting companies sell advertisements called commercials.
Community broadcasters
A third type of broadcaster is community broadcasters.
There are community television stations and community radio stations.
Community television stations are often provided on cable networks.
Community television stations usually have shows about local issues and community events.
Some community television stations film and broadcast community cultural activities, such as musical performances or town hall meetings.
Community radio stations play music and have public affairs shows about community issues.
Community radio stations are usually small organizations that are run by volunteers.
Community radio stations often get their funding (money) from local governments, local universities, and from donations by listeners.
Some community radio stations also have poetry readings by local poets, or performances by local musicians or singers.
Sending information to a small selected group is called narrowcasting.
el:Ραδιοφωνία
Socialism is an economic and political system where workers own the general means of production (i. e. farms, factories, tools, and raw materials).
This can be achieved through decentralized and direct worker-ownership or centralized state-ownership of the means of production.
This is different from capitalism, where the means of production are privately owned by capital holders.
Forms of socialism
There are many kinds of socialism.
In all types, at least in principle, the State or workers own the means of production.
The major differences between the different varieties are the role of the free market (market planning), how the means of production are controlled, the role of management of workers, and the government's role in the economy.
Collectivization
One kind of socialism is "collectivization."
In this system, money and goods are shared more equally among the people, with the government in control.
In theory, this system results in the gap between classes getting smaller, with the state helping the nation's poorest people, while the richest agree to higher taxes and economic restrictions.
Communism as a goal
Socialists with more radical views believe that socialism will evolve into what they see as a more advanced system: communism, with no state, money, hierarchy or social classes whatsoever.
In Marxist theory, socialism is a temporary social state between capitalism and communism, although some socialists have no intention of transitioning to communism.
Many label these economic theories into one as "communism" when they mean the Marxist and Leninist ideas and beliefs of Russia's Bolshevik party.
Marx believed that capitalism followed the economic and political system of feudalism.
He also believed that capitalism would unfairly treat many people and that those people would eventually revolt and switch to socialism.
He also thought that socialism could be another bridge on a path to communism.
However, many people incorrectly use the term "Communist" to refer to a socialist state as a pejorative insult.
Others call this 'State Socialism,' to distinguish it from the communist goal that does not need a state or any form of government.
To non-communists, the word 'socialism' is now used mostly for attempts to come close to this goal in a democratic state.
Democratic socialism is the belief that both the economy and society should be run democratically (as opposed to authoritarianism)—to meet public needs, not to make profits for a few.
To achieve a more just society, many structures of our government and economy must be radically transformed through greater economic and social democracy so that ordinary people can participate in the many decisions that affect their lives.
Social democracy is a form of capitalism that attempts to mix parts of socialism with capitalism.
It is not a form of socialism, but shares some ideas with it.
In this system, despite there still being private property, the government generates tax revenue, typically from the wealthiest in the society and corporations, and distributes it to the poor, or even everyone in the society, via in the form of social programs.
These programs range from single-payer healthcare, to other welfare programs such as expanding SNAP benefits.
While the intentions of social democracy and socialism can be similar or shared, social democracy keeps the capitalist system intact, and tries to reforms it.
Achieving socialism would mean completely getting rid of the capitalist system.
Social democracy is often confused with democratic socialism due to the similar names and having the same short term goals.
The biggest difference is social democrats want to stop reforming capitalism when they think their reforms are good enough, but democratic socialists will not stop until capitalism is gone.
Some examples of social democracies are the Scandinavian countries.
In social democracies, some services and industries are subsidized (given money to help them run), or partly controlled by the government, or both.
For example, education, health care, housing, utility companies and public transportation are some industries that might be owned/supported by the government in a social democracy.
For the most part, people working in these industries are paid by the government, with money paid by the people as taxes.
A strong Welfare system is key to social democracy.
Many people and countries see socialism differently.
The Socialist International is an organization dedicated to the cause of promoting socialist ideals, and has ties with many socialist parties, especially Social Democratic parties.
The followers of a Welshman, Robert Owen, began calling themselves socialists in 1841.
Owen is seen as a founder of the Co-operative Movement in Britain.
He said that workers should own the companies they worked for.
The workers would then share the profits among themselves.
He set up a new model factory in New Lanark, Scotland.
Karl Marx is the most well-known creator of the theory of socialism, and of communism.
He wrote a book about capitalism, socialism, and communism, called "A critique of the social economy".
Friedrich Engels co-wrote the book, and paid for much of Marx's work and research.
Many socialist political parties were formed during the 19th century and early part of the 20th century.
During the decolonization movement in the 20th century, many armies fighting for independence planned to establish socialist countries.
Leninism is a way of thinking about how the communist party should be organized.
It says it should be a dictatorship of the proletariat (the working class holds the power).
It is thought to be one of the first steps towards socialism (where the workers own the factories, etc.).
It is one part of Marxism–Leninism, which emphasizes the transition from capitalism to socialism.
Vladimir Lenin was a Russian Marxist.
He had a set of ideas based on Marxism.
Lenin's development of Marxism has become known as Leninism.
These ideas include:
Democratic Centralism, also known as the idea of the vanguard party.
Like other communists,  Lenin wanted to see a socialist revolution led by the working class.
But he thought the workers needed strong leadership in the form of a Revolutionary Party based on Democratic Centralism.
Lenin wanted Communist political parties in every country to lead the revolution.
He thought the vanguard party would need to have strong discipline, or it would fail.
The idea that capitalism is the cause of imperialism (empire-building).
He thought that imperialism was the "highest stage" of capitalism.
Accepting the idea that the oppressed ethnic minorities (smaller groups of people) should get to have Nationalism and decide how they should be governed.
Teaching the proletariat (working class) about politics, especially Marxism.
Books by Vladimir Lenin
What Is To Be Done?.
Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism.
The State and Revolution.
"The Lenin Archive".
"First Conference of the Communist International".
Other similar links
"Marcel Liebman on Lenin and democracy".
"An excerpt on Leninism and State Capitalism from the work of Noam Chomsky".
Rosa Luxemburg. "
Organizational Questions of the Russian Social Democracy".
Karl Korsch. "
Lenin's Philosophy".
"Cyber Leninism".
"Leninist Ebooks" .
Anton Pannekoek. "
Lenin as a Philosopher".
Paul Mattick. "
The Lenin Legend".
Paul Craig Roberts. "
Dead Labor: Marx and Lenin Reconsidered".
A Bolshevik was a Russian communist in the early 20th century.
They are also called the Bolshevik Communists.
The majority of the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was a Marxist political party.
At the party congress in 1903, members disagreed with each other.
The party divided into two groups, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks.
They were called Bolsheviks because it means "those who are more."
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik group.
The more moderate group, the Mensheviks (meaning "those of the minority") were led by Julius Martov.
Although the Bolsheviks were called "those who are more", before 1917 there were more Mensheviks.
Many of Lenin's opponents were afraid that he liked to control things too much.
After the February Revolution, some of the Mensheviks took positions in the Russian Provisional Government.
Lenin said socialists must oppose the Provisional Government.
The government began to falter and Lenin started to have more authority.
Because of this, many Mensheviks joined the Bolsheviks.
The Bolsheviks led the October Revolution in Russia in 1917.
They said they created the world's first Workers' State.
The Mensheviks opposed the government led by the Bolsheviks.
Many ended up in prison or were killed.
After that, they opposed the Bolsheviks from outside Russia, in exile.
Saddam Hussein Revinathan (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was the President of Iraq, from July 16, 1979 to April 9, 2003, when he was removed from his position during the War in Iraq led by the United States.
During his time as president, he might have killed more than a million people through war and genocide, which he denied.
Saddam Hussein was born in the village of Al-Awja, in the Tikrit in Iraq.
He never knew his father, Hussein 'Abd al-Majid, who disappeared five months before Saddam was born.
Shortly before Saddam was born, Saddam's twelve-year-old brother died of cancer, leaving his mother very depressed in the final months of the pregnancy.
She tried to kill herself near the end of the pregnancy and did not want to care for Saddam when he was born.
Saddam was sent to the family of an uncle, Khairallah Tulfah, until he was three.
At 10, Saddam ran away from the family to return to live with his uncle, who was a devout Sunni Muslim, in Baghdad.
According to Saddam, in 1957, at the age of 20, Saddam became part of the Ba'ath Party.
The Ba'ath party is an Arab political party that supports socialism.
In 1958, Hussein was arrested for killing his brother-in-law because he was a communist activist.
He spent six months in prison.
Rise in the Ba'ath party
A year after Saddam had joined the Ba'ath party, army officers led by General Abdul Karim Qassim got rid of Faisal II of Iraq.
The Baathists were against the new regime, and in 1959, Saddam was involved in the attempted murder of Prime Minister Qassim.
Saddam was shot in the leg, but managed to get away to Syria.
Later, he moved to Egypt.
In exile, he attended the University of Cairo law school.
Army officers, including some with the Ba'ath party, came to power in Iraq in a military coup in 1963.
However, the new regime was kicked out quickly.
Saddam returned to Iraq, but was imprisoned in 1964 when an anti-Ba'ath group led by Abdul Rahman Arif took power.
He escaped from jail in 1967 and became one of the leading members of the party.
In 1976, Saddam was made a general in the Iraqi army.
He quickly became the most important person of the regime.
He slowly began to gain more power over Iraq's government and the Ba'ath party.
As Iraq's weak, old President, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, became more unable to do the duties of his office, Saddam began to take on an more important role as the head of the Iraqi government.
He soon became the creator of Iraq's foreign policy and represented the nation in all diplomatic situations.
Conflict with Iran
In 1979, Iran's Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown by the Islamic Revolution, giving way to an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini.
The influence of revolutionary Shi'ite Islam grew in the region, particularly in countries with large Shi'ite populations, especially Iraq.
Saddam was afraid that radical Islamic ideas were quickly spreading inside his country among most of the Shi'ite people.
He worried that these ideas would go against his leadership.
There had also been a rivalry between Saddam and Khomeini since the 1970s.
Khomeini was exiled from Iran in 1964.