the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
If B represents the allele for having black hair and b represents the allele for having white hair, the offspring of  two Bb parents would have a 25% probability of having two white hair alleles (bb), 50% of having one of each (Bb), and 25% of having only black hair alleles (BB).
Pedigree chart
Geneticists (biologists who study genetics) use pedigree charts to record traits of people in a family.
Using these charts, geneticists can study how a trait is inherited from person to person.
Geneticists can also use pedigree charts to predict how traits will be passed to future children in a family.
For instance, genetic counselors are professionals who work with families who might be affected by genetic diseases.
As part of their job, they create pedigree charts for the family, which can be used to study how the disease might be inherited.
Twin studies
Since human beings are not bred experimentally, human genetics must be studied by other means.
One recent way is by studying the human genome.
Another way, older by many years, is to study twins.
Identical twins are natural clones.
They carry the same genes, they may be used to investigate how much heredity contributes to individual people.
Studies with twins have been quite interesting.
If we make a list of characteristic traits, we find that they vary in how much they owe to heredity.
Eye colour: entirely inherited
Weight, height: partly inherited, partly environmental
Which language a person speaks: entirely environmental.
The way the studies are done is like this.
Take a group of identical twins and a group of fraternal twins.
Measure them for various traits.
Do a statistical analysis (such as analysis of variance).
This tells you to what extent the trait is inherited.
Those traits which are partly inherited will be significantly more similar in identical twins.
Studies like this may be carried further, by comparing identical twins brought up together with identical twins brought up in different circumstances.
That gives a handle on how much circumstances can alter the outcomes of genetically identical people.
The person who first did twin studies was Francis Galton, Darwin's half-cousin, who was a founder of statistics.
His method was to trace twins through their life-history, making many kinds of measurement.
Unfortunately, though he knew about mono and dizygotic twins, he did not appreciate the real genetic difference.
Twin studies of the modern kind did not appear until the 1920s.
Genetics of prokaryotes and viruses
The genetics of bacteria, archaea and viruses is a major field of research.
Bacteria mostly divide by asexual cell division, but do have a kind of sex by horizontal gene transfer.
Bacterial conjugation, transduction and transformation are their methods.
In addition, the complete DNA sequence of many bacteria, archaea and viruses is now known.
Although many bacteria were given generic and specific names, like Staphylococcus aureus, the whole idea of a species is rather meaningless for an organism which does not have sexes and crossing-over of chromosomes.
Instead, these organisms have strains, and that is how they are identified in the laboratory.
Genes and development
Gene expression is the process by which the heritable information in a gene, the sequence of DNA base pairs, is made into a functional gene product, such as protein or RNA.
The basic idea is that DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into proteins.
Proteins make many of the structures and all the enzymes in a cell or organism.
Several steps in the gene expression process may be modulated (tuned).
This includes both the transcription and translation stages, and the final folded state of a protein.
Gene regulation switches genes on and off, and so controls cell differentiation, and morphogenesis.
Gene regulation may also serve as a basis for evolutionary change: control of the timing, location, and amount of gene expression can have a profound effect on the development of the organism.
The expression of a gene may vary a lot in different tissues.
This is called pleiotropism, a widespread phenomenon in genetics.
Alternative splicing is a modern discovery of great importance.
It is a process where from a single gene a large number of variant proteins can be assembled.
One particular Drosophila gene (DSCAM) can be alternatively spliced into 38,000 different mRNA molecules.
Epigenetics & control of development
Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene activity which are not caused by changes in the DNA sequence.
It is the study of gene expression, the way genes bring about their phenotypic effects.
These changes in gene activity may stay for the remainder of the cell's life and may also last for many generations of cells, through cell divisions.
However, there is no change in the underlying DNA sequence of the organism.
Instead, non-hereditary factors cause the organism's genes to behave (express themselves) differently.
Hox genes are a complex of genes whose proteins bind to the regulatory regions of target genes.
The target genes then activate or repress cell processes to direct the final development of the organism.
Extranuclear inheritance
There are some kinds of heredity which happen outside the cell nucleus.
Normal inheritance is from both parents via the chromosomes in the nucleus of a fertilised egg cell.
There are some kinds of inheritance other than this.
Organelle heredity
Mitochondria and chloroplasts carry some DNA of their own.
Their make-up is decided by genes in the chromosomes and genes in the organelle.
Carl Correns discovered an example in 1908.
The four o'clock plant, Mirabilis jalapa, has leaves which may be white, green or variegated.
Correns discovered the pollen had no influence on this inheritance.
The colour is decided by genes in the chloroplasts.
Infectious heredity
Maternal effect
In this case nuclear genes in the female gamete are transcribed.
The products accumulate in the egg cytoplasm, and have an effect on the early development of the fertilised egg.
The coiling of a snail, Limnaea peregra, is determined like this.
Right-handed shells are genotypes Dd or dd, while left-handed shells are dd.
The most important example of maternal effect is in Drosophila melanogaster.
The protein product maternal-effect genes activate other genes, which in turn activate still more genes.
This work won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1995.
Aspects of modern genetics
Much modern research uses a mixture of genetics, cell biology and molecular biology.
Topics which have been the subject of Nobel Prizes in either chemistry or physiology  include:
Alternative splicing, where one gene codes for a variety of related protein products.
Genomics, the sequence and analysis the function and structure of genomes.
Genetic engineering, the changing of an organism's genome using biotechnology.
Mobile genetic elements, types of DNA which can change position in the genome.
Horizontal gene transfer, where an organism gets genetic material from another organism without being the offspring of that organism.
Epigenetics, the study of changes in gene activity which are not caused by changes in the DNA sequence.
CRISPR: In 2012, Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier suggested that CRISPR-Cas9 (enzymes from bacteria which control microbial immunity) could be used to edit genomes.
This has been called one of the most significant discoveries in the history of biology.
The two scientists shared the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Genetics of human behaviour
Many well-known disorders of human behaviour have a genetic component.
This means that their inheritance partly causes the behaviour, or makes it more likely the problem would occur.
ADHD (attention deficit disorder)
Drug use and abuse
Risk taking
Learning and cognitive ability
ENCODE: the complete analysis of the human genome
Standard works
Alberts B, Bray D, Hopkin K, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P. 2013.
Essential cell biology, 4th Edition.
Garland Science.
ISBN 978-1-317-80627-1.
King R.C;  Mulligan P.K. & Stansfield W.D. 2013.
A dictionary of genetics.
8th ed, Oxford University Press.
Griffiths A.J.H. & others 2000.
An introduction to genetic analysis.
7th ed, Freeman, New York.
Hartl D. & Jones E. 2005.
Genetics: analysis of genes and genomes.
6th ed, Jones & Bartlett. .
Klug, William S. et al 2012.
Concepts of genetics.
10th ed, Pearson. .
Church Square Park is a park in Hoboken, New Jersey between Garden Street and Willow Avenue and 5th and 6th Streets.
The Hoboken Public Library is on its north side.
Parks in the United States
In economics, supply is the amount of something that companies are willing to provide in a market.
The law of supply and demand will decide the price at which something will be bought and sold.
According to C.R. McConnell and S.L.Brue, a supply is a scale showing the amount of a good or service that sellers offer for sale in the market at different prices for a while
The volume of supply (volume of output) is the number of goods that a commodity producer (enterprise, firm) is ready to offer at a certain price for a certain period, all other things being equal.
Amount of supply is the amount of a product or service that is on sale at a certain price at a certain time.
It is possible to consider both an individual supply (the offer of a specific seller) and the total value of the supply (the offer of all sellers present on the market).
In economics, it is mainly the total value of the supply for a product or service that is studied.
Supply law
The law of supply is a direct relationship between the price and the value of the supply of goods or services during a certain period.
The manufacturer's main task is to solve the problem — how much product to make at a given price.
There are 2 general ideas:
the higher the price, the higher the offer;
the lower the price, the lower the offer.
Factors affecting supply
Various factors can make a seller more or less willing to produce and sell a good.
The more common ones are:
Price of variable inputs: Variable inputs refers to the factors of production used to produce a good.
When the cost of using these factors increases, the overall cost of producing the good increases as the marginal cost of producing the good increases.
Firms thus produce less for the same amount of resources used and supply becomes lesser.
Productivity: When factors of production become more productive, they can produce a greater output for the same amount of resources used.
Productivity improvements include improvements in technology, increased training for labor, better usage of resources, etc.
Government policies: When the government intervenes in the market, it can do so by subsidizing or taxing the production of the good.
When a subsidy is provided, it lowers the marginal cost of producing the good, thus allowing firms to produce more for the same amount of resources used, thereby increasing supply.
When a tax is used, the marginal cost of producing the good increases.
Firms now produce lesser for the same amount of resources used and supply becomes lesser.
Number and size of firms: When there are more firms in the market, more resources are being used to produce the good, thus increasing the supply of the good.
When a firm gets bigger, the marginal cost of producing the good may decrease due to economies of scale, thus increasing the supply of the good.
Supply shocks: When there are natural disasters (such as earthquakes or epidemics), there is a decrease in the factors of production as capital may be destroyed and labor being unable to work.
Man-made disasters such as industrial disputes (e.g. strikes) will also cause labor to be unable to work.
As there is a decrease in the factors of production, the supply of the good becomes lesser.
Demand is the total amount of goods or services which people want to buy, for a set price.
The demand for an item indicates how much it is needed or wanted.
This is important in economics, because the law of supply and demand will decide the price at which something will be bought and sold.
Demand is the amount of goods that people want to buy at a given price.
Prices go up when supply is less, and demand is more.
It follows the law of demand where as price increases, demand decreases and vice versa showing an inverse relationship between quantity demanded and price.
This is known as the law of demand which assumes that the consumer will want more.
Demand forecasting tries to predict how demand will change in the future.
Sometimes the demand does not change much no matter what the price is.
One example is when people are addicted to illegal drugs.
These people need to get their drugs, they will pay any price they can afford.
This effect is known as elasticity.
A transaction is an exchange.
Money, goods, and services are often exchanged.
They are bought, sold or traded.
The  (Latin for "British Encyclopaedia"), previously published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., is a popular encyclopaedia which right now published as an online.
It is written in British English.
It was originally only printed on paper, but late in the 20th century it expanded to have digital, or computer versions as well.
Since 2010, it is out of print in paper versions.
The encyclopaedia is split into many books.
The articles in the books are arranged in alphabetical order.
There have been versions of it that are for children as well.
It is the largest printed encyclopaedia in English, and the second largest encyclopaedia.
The largest is Wikipedia.
Many people consider it to be the best encyclopaedia, because they think it is accurate and has lots of detail.
The encyclopaedia was once very small, the first edition in 1768 only had 3 books.
Slowly it became bigger.
The last edition, the 15th, started in 1974, has 29 books, plus two indexes.
It includes an extra book called Propædia, to classify knowledge.
The 29 books and made up of a Macropædia and a Micropædia.
The Macropædia is a larger one, with more detailed articles that can be as long as 300 pages, made up of 17 books, while the Micropædia is the smaller one with many much shorter articles that are usually less than 750 words.
The Micropædia is used for fast-checking, but for more detailed information, people have to use the Macropædia.
Each book is very big, more than 1,000 pages per book.
Every year, an update book was published.
The last yearbook was for 2018, published in 2017.
In March 2012, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced it would no longer publish printed editions, and would focus instead on Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
The articles in the Britannica are for educated adults, not for children, and written by about 100 full-time editors and over 4,000 expert contributors.
The Britannica is the oldest English-language encyclopaedia now.
It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in Edinburgh, Scotland and grew very popular, with its third edition in 1801 comprising of 21 books.
The size of the Britannica is almost the same since the 1930s, with about 40 million words on half a million topics.
The encyclopaedia was once owned by British people.
In the 20th century it was American-owned, but it is still written in British English.
Over time, the encyclopaedia has had difficulties trying to earn money, which almost every encyclopaedia is facing.
Many different people have owned the Britannica.
They include Scottish publisher A & C Black, Horace Everett Hooper, Sears Roebuck and William Benton.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. is owned by Jacqui Safra, a Swiss billionaire and actor.
Information technology has become better and more electronic encyclopaedias such as Microsoft Encarta and Wikipedia have made people not want to buy encyclopaedias in print anymore.
So that it still can survive, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has kept on telling people that the Britannica is good and accurate, made the encyclopaedia cheaper, and made electronic versions on CD-ROM, DVD and the World Wide Web.
Since the early 1930s, the company has also promoted spin-off reference works.
There are 15 official editions of the encyclopaedia, with some extensions to the 3rd and 5th editions (see the Table below).
Actually, one can say that the 10th edition was only an extension to the 9th edition, and the 12th and 13th editions were extensions to the 11th edition.
The 15th edition was reorganised in 1985, and the updated, current version is the 15th edition.
Through the encyclopaedia's history, the Britannica wanted to be an excellent reference book and to provide learning materials for those who want to study.
In 1974, the 15th edition had a third wish: to put together all that everyone knows.
The history of the Britannica can be divided into five main eras, or lengths of time.
First era
In its first years (1st–6th editions, 1768–1826), the Britannica was controlled by the people who first wrote it, Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, and by their friends and relations, such as Thomas Bonar, George Gleig and Archibald Constable.
The Britannica was first published between 1768 and 1771 in Edinburgh, a city in Scotland, called the Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A dictionary of arts and sciences, compiled upon a new plan.
It was written to replace the French Encyclopédie.
Its logo, which is the floral emblem of Scotland, shows that the Britannica was a Scottish business.
The encyclopaedia being created is one of the most famous events that happened in the time when Scotland started inventing many things, or the Age of Enlightenment.
The Britannica started as three-book set ( in the 1st edition) written by one young editor—William Smellie— Many people said that the first edition of the encyclopaedia was very inaccurate, and had many problems in it.
Slowly, the Britannica changed, in the first era, to a 20-book set written by many people.
Although a few other encyclopaedias had been fighting with the Britannica, such as Rees's Cyclopaedia and Coleridge's Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, these encyclopedias either went bankrupt or were not finished because the people writing them argued.
When the first era was almost over, the Britannica had many people helping to write it, all having different types of skills.
The encyclopaedia managed to get so many people by inviting their friends to help.
Second era
In the second era (7th–9th editions, 1827–1901), the Britannica was owned by the Edinburgh company, A & C Black.
Although some of the people who helped write the Britannica helped because they were friends of the most important editors, many other people wanted to help the Britannica because it was becoming very successful.
These people came from many other countries, and some of them were very famous for the things they wrote about.
An index of all the articles was written to add to the 7th edition of the encyclopaedia, and they continued to make an index until 1974.
The first English chief editor was Thomas Spencer Baynes, who led the making of the famous 9th edition, which is also called the "Scholar's Edition".
The 9th edition is considered to be the Britannica most meant for students ever written.
However, at the end of the 19th century, the 9th edition was already too old and the Britannica had many financial problems.
Third era
In the third era (10th–14th editions, 1901–1973), the Britannica was owned by American people, who started to advertise a lot to earn more money.
The American owners also slowly made the Britannica's articles simpler, so it could serve more people.
The 11th edition is said by many people to be the best edition of the encyclopedia.
Its owner, Horace Hooper, worked extremely hard to make the 11th edition perfect.
When Hooper had financial problems, the Britannica was managed by Sears Roebuck for about 18 years (1920–1923, 1928–1943).
In 1932, the vice-president of Sears, Elkan Harrison Powell, owned the Britannica.
In 1936, he started to continuously revise the encyclopaedia often (still done so today), in which every article is checked at least two times every ten years.
This was a big difference from before, when the articles were not changed until they wrote a new edition, about every 25 years, with some articles used again without revising them.
He also quickly made some educational products which made the encyclopedia even more well known by everyone.
In 1943, William Benton managed the Britannica until his death in 1973.
Benton also set up the Benton Foundation, which managed the Britannica until 1996.
In 1968, near the end of this era, the Britannica celebrated its 200-year anniversary, and in 2014 published the last printed edition.
The Encyclopaedia Now
2007 print version
Since 1985, the Britannica has had four parts: the Micropædia, the Macropædia, the Propædia, and a two-book index.
The Britannicas articles are found in the Micropædia and Macropædia, which contain 12 and 17 books, respectively, each book having about one thousand pages.
The 2007 Macropædia has 699 detailed articles, which can be as short as 2 pages and as long as 310 pages, and having references and named writers.
The 2007 Micropædia has about 65,000 articles, and about 97% contain less than 750 words, no references, and no named contributors.
The Micropædia articles are supposed to be for quick fact-checking and to help in finding more information in the Macropædia.
The Macropædia articles are supposed to be well-written articles on their subjects and articles of information where you cannot find anywhere else.
The longest article (310 pages) is on the United States, and came from putting the articles on the individual states together.
Information can be found in the Britannica by following the notes telling where people can find more information in the Micropædia and Macropædia; but there are very little of this, with about only one of this every page.
So, readers are asked to try to use the indexes or the Propædia, which organises what is in the Britannica volumes by topic.
The use of the Propædia is its "Outline of Knowledge," which wants to organise all of everything people know.
The Outline is thought through by the Britannica'''s editors to decide which articles should be included in the Micropædia and Macropædia.
The Outline is also intended to be a study guide, and to tell a student who wants to learn a topic in depth what articles to use.
However, libraries say that very few people use it, and reviewers recommend the encyclopedias to not print it anymore.
The Propædia also has diagrams printed on transparent paper of big topics and a section which lists the people working together to make the encyclopaedia.
Altogether, the Micropædia and Macropædia have about 40 million words and 24,000 pictures.
The index has 2,350 pages, which lists all the 228,274 topics written about in the Britannica,.
The Britannica uses the British spellings and not American spellings.
For example, it uses colour (not color), centre (not center), and encyclopaedia (not encyclopedia).
However, this rule is not always followed, for example defense and not defence.
The other spellings of the word is sometimes shown with a link, for example "Color: see Colour."
Since 1936, the articles of the Britannica have been revised often, with about 10% of the articles brought to be re-written each year.
One Britannica website said in 2007 that 46% of the articles were revised in the past three years; but another Britannica web-site says only 35% of the articles were revised.
The way the articles are arranged (in alphabet order) in the Micropædia and Macropædia is very accurate.
Non-English letters are ignored and articles with numbers such as "War of 1812" are arranged as if the number had been written out ("War of Eighteen-twelve").
If the articles have the same names, articles about persons go first, then by places, then by things.
People with the same names are arranged first alphabetically by country and then by their time.
Similarly, places that have the same names are arranged by alphabet by the country they are in.
Other Britannicas
There are a few smaller versions of the Britannica encyclopedias.
The Britannica Concise Encyclopædia, written in one book, has 28,000 shorter articles.
Compton's by Britannica, published in 2007, with the old Compton's Encyclopedia, in it is written for teenagers who are 10–17 years old and has 26 books and 11,000 pages in it.
A Children's Britannica was published by the company in 1960; this was edited by John Armitage and written for His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales; the writers were almost all British.
Other books are My First Britannica, written for children who are six to twelve years old, and the Britannica Discovery Library, written for children who are three to six years old (issued in 1974 to 1991).
Since 1938, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has published a Book of the Year every year, with information about the past year's events, which is written online since the 1994 edition (with the events of 1993).
The company also publishes a few books on special topics, such as Shakespeare: The Essential Guide to the Life and Works of the Bard (Wiley, 2006).
The Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2006 DVD contains over 55 million words and over 100,000 articles.
It includes 73,645 Britannica articles, with the other articles from the Britannica Student Encyclopædia, the Britannica Elementary Encyclopædia and the Britannica Book of the Years (1993–2004), plus a few old articles from old editions of the encyclopaedia.
The whole DVD also includes other bonus tools including maps, videos, sound clips, animations and web links.
It also has study tools and a dictionary and thesaurus from Merriam-Webster.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online is a web site with more than 120,000 articles and is updated often.
It has features, updates and links to news reports from The New York Times and the BBC every day.
People need to pay to use the website.
Special discounts are given to schools, colleges and libraries since these big groups of people are important in Britannica's business.
Articles can be read online for free, but only the first few sentences can be seen.
Beginning in early 2007, the Britannica let people read the articles for free if they are linked to another website, since these links let the articles appear more often and easily in search engines.
On 20 February 2007, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. said that it was working with mobile phone search company AskMeNow to make an encyclopaedia in phones.
Users can send a question by text message, and AskMeNow will search Britannicas 28,000-article encyclopaedia to answer the user.
An idea to use a wiki-Britannica was announced on the June 3, 2008.
A lot of people will be involved, with the Britannica staff editing important parts.
Wired Blog
Macropædia, Micropædia, Propædia
Lee, Timothy.
Techdirt Interviews Britannica President Jorge Cauz, Techdirt.com, June 2, 2008
Historical articles
"Encyclopaedia Britannica".
In Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
1768–2005:l'aventure Britannica .
History of the Britannica, from the French Britannica site.
Vintage Britannica or "Evolving Knowledge" .
Excerpts on various topics drawn from various Britannica editions.
Earlier editions (in the public domain in the U.S.A.)
Preface to the 1st edition of the Britannica, by William Smellie.
The article "History" in the 3rd edition of the Britannica.
Articles and illustrations from the 9th and 10th editions of the Britannica.
Scanned version of the 11th edition of the Britannica.
Text version of the 11th edition of the Britannica. (
Partial)
James Mill's essay on "Government", from the Supplement to the 5th edition of the Britannica (1820).
Technical aspects of the Britannica's online and CD/DVD-ROM editions.
Britannica disagrees with Wikipedia comparison study.
To wire or not to wire?
Encyclopædia Britannica vs. Microsoft Encarta
A comparison of the two encyclopedias by Panagiota Alevizou, published in the Educational Technology & Society journal.
Encyclopaedia Britannica To Follow Modified Wikipedia Model | Epicenter from Wired.com
Business history
"Dusting off the Britannica".
Article from BusinessWeek magazine (1997).
"Death of a salesforce" .
Article from Salon (1996).
"The Work of the Encyclopedia in the Age of Electronic Reproduction".
Article by Alex Soojung-Kim Pang in First Monday''.
The Crisis at Encyclopædia Britannica  Kellogg School of Management.
Britannica
A pipeline is a long tube, that is used to transport liquids or gases over long distances.
Pipelines are made of metal.
While the transport of liquids and gases is common, some pipelines are used to transport coal or iron ore, which are mixed with mud.
Such pipelines are sometimes called slurry pipelines.
Even though a pipeline is very expensive to build, the low operating cost often makes it the cheapest transport.
Many stadiums use a central tank for beer.
Each bar is served by a pipeline from the central tank.
Even though mail and other goods can also be delivered that way, the system is generally not referred to as pipeline.
In this case, capsules are used.
These are propelled by air.
Pipeline networks are made of different components.
The supply station is where the pipeline starts.
Very often, there are  tanks that act as a buffer
There are several pumps and compressors, which move the product through the pipeline.
Partial delivery stations allow to deliver part of the product
Block valve stations use valves to isolate the pipeline into independent segments.
Regulator stations are used to release some of the pressure
The final delivery station is where the product is delivered to the consumer.
Very often tanks are used as a buffer.
The term avocado refers to a type of berry.
It has medium dark green or dark green bumpy or smooth skin depending on the variety.
The flesh of an avocado is deep chartreuse green in color near the skin and pale chartreuse green near the core.
It has a creamy, rich texture.
Avocado trees come from Central America and Mexico.
They can grow in many places, as long as it is not too cold.
Avocados have much more fat than most other fruit, but most is fat that is healthy to eat (monounsaturated fat).
Avocados have lots of potassium, B vitamins, and vitamin E and K. The Mexican food called guacamole is made of avocados.
Many other foods are also made from avocado.
Avocado is poisonous to some animals.
Many animals will get very sick or die if they eat avocado.
Avocado grows there where the climate is a little windy.
Avocado info
Avocado health benefits
Ice hockey is a sport that is played by two teams on ice.
The players wear ice skates on their feet and can skate across the ice at very high speeds.
They hold hockey sticks, which they use to push, shoot or pass a puck around the ice.
The players score by shooting the puck into a net; the goaltenders try to stop them.
Six players on each team play at once, but a whole team has over 20 players.
Each team has 2 defenders, 3 forwards, and a goalie on the ice at a time.
When a player breaks a rule, a referee calls a penalty, and the player has to sit in a penalty box for 2-4 minutes.
While the player sits in the penalty box, their team has to play without them, and will have fewer players on the ice until the penalty is over.
Ice hockey is very well-known and well-liked in Canada, Russia, Sweden, Finland, the Czech Republic, the United States, Latvia and Slovakia.
Most of the best players in the world play in the National Hockey League (NHL), which has 32 teams in the United States and Canada.
These teams are divided 2 conferences and 4 divisions.
In the regular season, they play 82 games.
Each team faces each other about 3 times.
They try to win the Stanley Cup at the end of the year.
Another popular hockey league is the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL), which has teams in Russia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Belarus, Slovakia, China and  Croatia.
In North America, women play in the Canadian Women's Hockey League and the Western Women's Hockey League.
In North America and Europe, men's hockey is much more popular than women's hockey.
Hockey is played by both men and women at the Olympic games, and at world championships.
Ice hockey began in Canada in the 19th century.
There are two types of penalty: The major and the minor.
The minor is the main one the referee will call during a game and the players have to go in the penalty box for two minutes.
The major is when players fight with each other or when someone did something very dangerous.
Most of time players are kicked out of the games but in a fight they only get 5 minutes in the penalty box.
In the National Hockey League (NHL) there are four referees.
Two lineman and two head referee.
Only head referees can call the penalty.
They can be recognized by the orange armband on their arm.
In the major league, the game is separated into three periods of 20 minutes.
For the minor league, the time can be different for each category.
Each period starts after the face-off.
A face-off is when two teams are in position around the face-off circle.
Then, the referee drops the puck between the players who play center.
There are 6 different positions: center, right wing, left wing, right defense, left defense and goalie.
The play is over after a whistle of any referee.
After a whistle-blow, the time stops running.
Each team can have a maximum of 20 players, including two goaltenders who have a zone to defend.
Each team has one captain and two or three assistant captains.
The ice is separated into three zones.
Each zone is marked by lines.
The center zone is between two blue lines and team zones are between one blue line and the end of the ice.
The lineman can whistle for two reasons: icing and offside.
An icing is when a player throws the puck into the zone before he crosses the red line (center line) and an offside is when a player enters the zone before the one who has the puck enters with it.
http://www.nhl.com/ice/page.htm?id=27011}
Winter Olympic sports
Christopher Columbus sets off on the voyage for which he would discover The Americas.
Virtues of Harmony was a sitcom that ran in Hong Kong from 2001 until February 2005.
Virtues of Harmony One was set in ancient China during the Ming Dynasty.
It follows the lives of the Kam family.
The allure of the series was the humorous storylines and how the good always wins.
The star of the show was Nancy Sit, a kind hearted matriarch with the best intentions.
Following the success of Virtues of Harmony One, Virtues of Harmony Two was set in modern Hong Kong with a similar cast.
Sitcoms
2001 television series debuts
2000s establishments in Asia
21st-century disestablishments in Asia
Ashford is a large town in Kent in England.
Many villages in are nearby and Ashford attracts lots of locals for its shopping.
The Ashford international railway station is connected by the Channel Tunnel to mainland Europe.
Ashford is an established and populated area of Kent with lots of houses.
The UK Government is going to build many more houses in the town and will double its population in a few years.
A song is a piece of music which contains lyrics and words.
Songs may be made by songwriters.
Other songs are folk songs, which are songs created by people long ago that have been sung as tradition.
Some people form bands which write and record songs to make money from it.
When two or three singers sing the song it is called a duet or trio.
Some people also make parodies of songs, which is usually changing the words of the song but keeping the tune.
Parodies are usually made to make fun of a song or its writer/singer (parody artist "Weird Al" Yankovic is an example of this).
The word "song" is often used to describe any piece of music, even one without words or lyrics.
The proper word for a piece of music without words is "instrumental".
sv:Musikverk
Magnesium ( /mæɡˈniːziəm/ mag-NEE-zee-əm) is a chemical element with the symbol Mg, atomic number 12 and common oxidation state +2.
It is an alkaline earth metal and the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust, where it constitutes about 2% by mass, and ninth in the known universe as a whole.
This preponderance of magnesium is related to the fact that it is easily built up in supernova stars from a sequential addition of three helium nuclei to carbon (which in turn is made from three helium nuclei).
Magnesium ion's high solubility in water helps ensure that it is the third most abundant element dissolved in seawater.
Magnesium is the 11th most abundant element by mass in the human body.
Its ions are essential to all living cells.
The ions play a major role in manipulating important biological polyphosphate compounds like ATP, DNA, and RNA.
Magnesium is also the metallic ion at the center of chlorophyll, and is thus a common additive to fertilizers.
Magnesium ions are sour to the taste, and in low concentrations help to impart a natural tartness to fresh mineral waters.
The free element (metal) is not found naturally on Earth, as it is highly reactive (though once produced, is coated in a thin layer of oxide (see passivation), which partly masks this reactivity).
The free metal burns with a characteristic brilliant white light, making it a useful ingredient in flares.
The metal is now mainly obtained by electrolysis of magnesium salts obtained from brine.
Commercially, the chief use for the metal is as an alloying agent to make aluminium-magnesium alloys, sometimes called "magnalium" or "magnelium".
Since magnesium is less dense than aluminium, these alloys are prized for their relative lightness and strength.
Magnesium is used in fireworks to make a brilliant bright light.
Another use is to mix it with other metals to make it strong, lightweight alloys such as those used to make bicycle frames.
Magnesium is used in electronic devices, including: mobile phones, laptop computers, cameras, and other electronic components.
Magnesium's low weight, good mechanical and electrical properties are good for these uses.
Dan Brown (born June 22, 1964) is an American author.
His best-known book is The Da Vinci Code.
Dan Brown lives in the United States.
His father was a math teacher and his mother was a church organist.
Before Dan Brown wrote books, he was an English teacher.
Dan Brown's wife, Blythe, is an artist.
Sometimes she is known to help him with his books.
Dan Brown also likes to write about codes and secrets.
Sometimes he writes about real secrets, but he mostly writes fiction.
Hollywood director Ron Howard made a movie about one of Brown's books.
Tom Hanks is the movie's star actor.
It was released in theaters in May 2006.
Brown's next book was supposed to be called The Solomon Key, but then the name was changed to The Lost Symbol.
When the book The Da Vinci Code came out in the United States, there were some puzzles hidden in the art of the book cover.
Brown said that the answers to those puzzles give hints about what would be in his next book.
Two of the puzzles are about a famous sculpture called Kryptos, which is in the middle of the CIA Headquarters building in Washington D.C.
Digital Fortress (1997)
Angels and Demons (2000)
Deception Point (2001)
The Da Vinci Code (2003)
The Lost Symbol (2009)
Inferno (2013)
Origin (2017)
Official Dan Brown website
Writers from New Hampshire
Thurso is a town in north Scotland.
The town has a population of 8,721 (2001 census)
Penzance () is a town and port in Cornwall, South West England.
It is near Land's End and the most westerly major town in England.
Many people live and work in Penzance.
In 2001, there were 21,168 people living in Penzance.
The main Cornish railway line ends at Penzance.
The fishing port of Newlyn is close to Penzance.
Towns in Cornwall
The Tonight Show is a popular late night television talk and comedy show in the United States.
It appears on the NBC television network.
The show started in 1954 and was hosted by Steve Allen.
In 1957, Jack Paar became the host, with Ernie Kovacs hosting on some nights.
In 1962, Johnny Carson took over and stayed until 1992, with announcer Ed McMahon as sidekick, and Doc Severinsen as bandleader.
Carson, McMahon, and Severinsen retired from The Tonight Show in 1992, when Jay Leno became host.
Leno left the show in 2009, and Conan O'Brien (of Late Night and Saturday Night Live fame) became host from June 2009 to January 2010 before leaving due to controversy with The Tonight Show'''s timeslot.
Jay Leno became the host of the show again on March 1, 2010.
Leno retired in 2014 when Jimmy Fallon took over.
2009 timeslot controversy
In late 2009, NBC said that they would be moving the Jay Leno Show to 11:35 PM, the time usually slotted for The Tonight Show.
The Jay Leno Show would be 30 minutes long.
The Tonight Show would be moved to 12:05 AM, but would still be a full hour long.
NBC did this because Jay Leno and Conan O'Brien were not getting enough viewers, and they believed that moving The Jay Leno Show to late night would increase their prime time viewers.
After being told this, Conan O'Brien said that he would be leaving The Tonight Show.
He said that he believed that moving the show to 12:05 would ruin it, and that it would be unfair to Late Night'', which would have been moved to 1:05 AM.
The deal was made that O'Brien would receive $33 million and that his staff of almost 200 people would receive $12 million.
Conan O'Brien's last show aired on January 22, 2010.
1954 television series debuts
1950s American television series
1960s American television series
American television talk shows
395 - Roman Emperor Theodosius I dies in Milan.
The Roman Empire is re-divided into West and East.
1287 - King Alfonso III of Aragon invades the island of Menorca.
1377 - Pope Gregory XI moves the Pope's residence (place where he lives) back to Rome from Avignon.
1524 - Giovanni da Verrazzano sets sail westward from Madeira to find a sea route to the Pacific Ocean.
1562 – France accepted the Huguenots under the Edict of St. Germain.
1566 - On his 62nd birthday, Pope Pius V officially becomes Pope.
1595 - Henry IV of France invades Spain.
1648 – England's Long Parliament agrees with the Vote of No Address, stopping dealing with King Charles I which then started the second part of the English Civil War.
1746 – Charles Edward Stuart, "Bonnie Prince Charlie", makes a Hanoverian army lose at Falkirk in his failing campaign to get back the throne for the Jacobite dynasty.
1773 – Captain James Cook becomes the first person to cross the Antarctic Circle.
1781 – Continental troops of Brigadier General Daniel Morgan makes British forces under Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton lose at the Battle of Cowpens in South Carolina.
1799 - Maltese patriot Dun Mikiel Xerri, along with some other patriots, is executed.
1811 - Mexican War of Independence: Battle of Calderon Bridge - A heavily outnumbered Spanish force of 6,000 troops defeats 100,000 Mexican revolutionaries.
1813 - Humphrey Davy creates the electric arc.
1819 – Simón Bolívar creates the Republic of Colombia.
1852 – United Kingdom accepts the freedom of the Boer places of the Transvaal.
1873 – First Battle of the Stronghold in the United States Modoc War.
1885 – A British force makes a large Dervish army lose at the Battle of Abu Klea in the Sudan.
1893 – American sugar planters led by the Citizen's Committee of Public Safety remove the government of Queen Liliuokalani of the Kingdom of Hawaii.
1899 – The United States gets Wake Island in the Pacific Ocean.
1904 - Anton Chekhov's play The Cherry Orchard is performed for the first time, at Moscow Art Theatre.
1912 – Robert Falcon Scott reaches the South Pole, one month after Roald Amundsen.
The return journey will lead to the deaths of all members of Scott's expedition, including Scott himself.
1913 - Raymond Poincaré becomes President of France.
1916 – The Professional Golfers Association of America (PGA) starts.
1917 – The United States pays Denmark $25 million for the Virgin Islands.
1918 - Finnish Civil War: The first serious battles take place between the Red Guards and White Guards.
1929 - Inayatullah Khan, King of Afghanistan, abdicates (resigns) the throne after only three days.
1929 – Popeye the Sailor Man, a cartoon character made by Elzie Crisler Segar, first seen in a newspaper comic strip.
1944 - World War II: Allied forces launch the first of four assaults on Monte Cassino, Italy, in an effort to reach Rome.
It would take four months and would cost 105,000 Allied lives.
1945 – Soviet forces get the almost completely destroyed Polish city of Warsaw.
1945 – The Nazis begin the process of people leaving the Auschwitz concentration camp as Soviet forces surround it.
1945 – Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg disappears in Hungary while the Soviets were in charge of him.
1946 – The United Nations Security Council has its first meeting.
1949 – The Goldbergs, the first sitcom on American television, is seen.
1950 – The Great Brinks Robbery – 11 people steal more than $2 million from an secure car in Boston, Massachusetts.
1955 - Nuclear submarine Nautilus starts its first mission.
1961 - Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba is murdered, with the governments of both Belgium and the United States suspected of being involved.
1966 – Simon and Garfunkel release their second album, Sounds of Silence, on Columbia Records.
1966 – A B-52 bomber slams into a KC-135 jet tanker over Spain, dropping three 70-kiloton hydrogen bombs near the town of Palomares and another one into the sea.
1966 – Carl Brashear, the first African American United States Navy diver, gets hurt in a way so his leg has to be chopped off.
1972 - Bangladesh receives its current Flag.
1973 – Ferdinand Marcos is declared "President for Life" of the Philippines.
1975 – Bob Dylan puts out Blood on the Tracks, often said to be one of his best albums.
1977 – Gary Gilmore is put to death by a firing squad in Utah, ending a ten-year delay on being put to death as punishment in the United States.
1982 –" Cold Sunday" in the United States sees temperatures fall to their lowest levels in over 100 years in many cities.
1985 – British Telecom says that Britain's famous red telephone boxes will no longer exist.
1989 - Cleveland school massacre in Stockton, California: Patrick Purdy kills 5 elementary school children with an assault rifle, as well as one teacher, before killing himself.
1991 – Gulf War: Operation Desert Storm begins early in the morning.
Iraq shoots 8 Scud bombs into Israel in a failed attempt to provoke Israel to fight back.
1991 – Harald V becomes King of Norway because his father, Olav V, died.
1992 – Punk rock band Green Day sends out their second full-length album, Kerplunk.
1994 – A magnitude 6.7 earthquake happens in Northridge, California.
1995 – A magnitude 7.3 earthquake called the "Great Hanshin earthquake" happens near Kobe, Japan, causing property to be damaged and killing 6,433 people.
1996 – The Czech Republic asks the European Union if they can be a member.
1998 – Paula Jones says she was sexually harassed by President Bill Clinton.
2002 – Mount Nyiragongo erupts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, making about 400,000 people homeless.
2007 - The Doomsday Clock is set to five minutes before midnight in response to North Korea's nuclear testing.
2008 - British Airways Flight 38 crash-lands at London Heathrow Airport.
All people on board survive.
2010 - Religious riots between Muslims and Christians erupt in Jos, Nigeria, killing more than 200 people.
2018 - A car bomb attack in Bogota, Colombia, kills 21 people.
1463 – Frederick III of Saxony, Elector of Saxony (d. 1525)
1501 - Leonhart Fuchs, German scientist (d. 1566)
1504 – Pope Pius V (d. 1572)
1574 - Robert Fludd, English physician, astrologer and mathematician (d. 1637)
1600 – Pedro Calderon de la Barca, Spanish playwright (d. 1681)
1640 - Jonathan Singletary Dunham, American settler and ancestor of Barack Obama (d. 1724)
1659 - Antonio Veracini, Italian composer and violinist (d. 1745)
1706 – Benjamin Franklin, American writer, inventor and statesman (d. 1790)
1712 - John Stanley, English composer (d. 1786)
1732 – Stanislaw II August Poniatowski of Poland (d. 1798)
1734 - François-Joseph Gossec, Belgian composer (d. 1829)
1738 - James Anderson, Scottish botanist (d. 1809)
1746 - Paul Brigham, Governor of Vermont (d. 1824)
1749 – Vittorio Alfieri, Italian poet and dramatist (d. 1803)
1761 - Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet, Scottish geologist and geophysicist (d. 1832)
1789 – August Neander, German theologian (d. 1850)
1798 – Auguste Comte, French philosopher (d. 1857)
1800 - Caleb Cushing, American diplomat (d. 1879)
1811 – Emperor Norton, self-declared Emperor of the United States (d. 1880)
1820 – Anne Brontë, English writer (d. 1849)
1828 - Lewis A. Grant, American Civil War general (d. 1918)
1829 - Catherine Booth, English wife of William Booth (d. 1890)
1831 – Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska of Austria (d. 1903)
1845 - Manuel Barillas, President of Guatemala (d. 1907)