the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
September 2 – The forces of the Holy League of 1684 liberate Buda from the Ottoman Turkish rule that leads to the end of Turkish rule in Hungary during the subsequent years.
The League of Augsburg is founded.
Russia, Saxony, Brandenburg and Bavaria join the Holy League against the Ottoman Turkish Empire.
A group of conspirators met at Charborough House in Dorset to plan the overthrow of king James II of England by Parliamentarians and the Dutch William III of Orange-Nassau.
A hurricane saves Charleston, South Carolina, from attack by Spanish vessels.
January 16 – Archibald Bower, Scottish historian (died 1766)
January 31 – Hans Egede, Norwegian Lutheran missionary (died 1758)
April 9 – James Craggs the Younger, English politician (died 1721)
April 28 – Michael Brokoff, Czech sculptor (died 1721)
April 29 – Peregrine Bertie, 2nd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English statesman (died 1742)
May 24 – Gabriel Fahrenheit, German physicist and inventor (died 1736)
June 9 – Andrei Osterman, Russian statesman (died 1747)
July 6 – Antoine de Jussieu, French naturalist (died 1758)
July 9 – Philip Livingston, American politician (died 1749)
July 31 (or August 1) – Benedetto Marcello, Italian composer (died 1739)
August 12 – John Balguy, English philosopher (died 1748)
August 19 – Eustace Budgell, English writer (died 1737)
August 19 – Nicola Porpora, Italian composer (died 1768)
October 15 – Allan Ramsay, Scottish poet (died 1758)
January 31 – Jean Mairet, French dramatist (born 1604)
February 10 – William Dugdale, English antiquarian (born 1605)
April 6 – Arthur Annesley, 1st Earl of Anglesey, English royalist statesman (born.
April 19 – Antonio de Solís y Ribadeneyra, Spanish writer (born 1610)
June 23 – William Coventry, English statesman (born c.1628)
July 10 – John Fell, English churchman (born 1625)
July 16 – John Pearson, English theologian (born 1612)
August 13 – Louis Maimbourg, French-born historian (born 1610)
October 26 – John Egerton, 2nd Earl of Bridgewater, English politician (born 1623)
November 11 – Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, French general (born 1621)
November 11 – Otto von Guericke, German physicist and inventor (born 1602)
Castle of Carimate destroyed.
Nur ad-Din defeats the Principality of Antioch at the Battle of Inab.
During this period Europe, North Africa and the Near East fell under increasing domination by the Roman Empire.
It continued expanding under the emperor Claudius (43).
The reforms introduced by Augustus during his long reign stabilized the empire.
Later in the century the Julio-Claudian Dynasty, which had been founded by Augustus came to an end with the death of Nero in 68.
There followed the famous Year of Four Emperors, a brief period of civil war and instability, which was finally brought to an end by Vespasian, 9th Roman emperor, and founder of the Flavian Dynasty.
China continued to be dominated by the Han Dynasty, despite a 14-year interruption by the Xin dynasty under Wang Mang.
Han rule was restored in 23.
Wang Mang's rule represents the watershed between the Western/Former Han and the Eastern/Later Han.
Regional events and politics
Western Europe: Controlled by Rome.
Southern Europe: Controlled by Rome.
North Africa: Controlled by Rome.
West Africa: Numerous tribal governments.
Central Africa: Bantu tribes, collapsing Nok civilization.
East Africa: Meroe, Blemmyes, Axum Empire.
Southern Africa: Bantu tribes, Khoisan.
Western Asia: Rome, Parthian empires, as well as many smaller tribes.
Central Asia: Sarmatian tribes.
South-central Asia: Kushan empire, Western Satraps, Satavahana, Tibetans.
Southeast Asia: City states, Khmer, Mon kingdoms, Funan.
East Asia: Eastern Han Dynasty of China, Three Kingdoms (Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla) of Korea.
Early 1st century  – Augustus of Primaporta (perhaps a copy of a bronze statue of ca.
20 BC) is made.
It is now kept in Musei Vaticani, Braccio Nuovo, Rome.
Early 1st century – Gemma Augustea is made.
It is now kept at Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
Early 1st century – House of the Silver Wedding, Pompeii, is built.
Excavated in 1893, the year of the silver wedding anniversary of Italy's King Humbert and his wife, Margherita of Savoy, who have supported archaeological fieldwork at Pompeii.
Early 1st century – Inner shrine, Ise, Mie, Mie Prefecture, is built.
Yayoi period.
1: Lions became extinct in Western Europe.
c. 6: Census of Quirinius
8–23: Wang Mang temporarily overthrew the Han dynasty of China.
9: Three Roman legions were destroyed at Teutoberg Forest by Germans under the leadership of Arminius.
14: Augustus Caesar, first emperor of Rome, dies.
His nephew Tiberius is his successor.
28–75: Emperor Ming of Han, Buddhism reaches China.
Humans arrive on Pentecost Island and establish the Bunlap tribe, among others.
26: According to the Bible, Jesus begins his ministry.
30: Death of Jesus on the cross.
Beginning of the Christian Church.
34: Conversion of Saint Paul.
44: Death of Herod Agrippa.
41–54: Rachias, an Ambassador sent from Sri Lanka to the court of Claudius.
Masoretes adds vowel pointings to the text of the Tanakh, the Hebrew Bible.
Buddhist monks in Sri Lanka first write down Buddha's teachings, creating the Pali canon.
The regions of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and North India come under the control of the Kushans, a nomadic people forced out of northwest China by the Han Dynasty.
Tacitus mentions the Suiones, who will one day be called the Swedes.
Kaundinya, an Indian Brahmin marries Soma and establishes the Pre-Angkor Cambodian Kingdom of Funan.
The Goths settle in northern Poland, which they called Gothiscandza, and shape the Wielbark culture.
c. 50: Christian Council of Jerusalem.
c. 52: Arrival of Apostle Thomas to Malabar, India.
Beginning of Christianity in India.
Mid-1st century – Wall niche, from garden in Pompeii, is made.
It is now kept at Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge, England.
Mid-1st century – Detail of a wall painting in the House of M. Lucretius Fronto, Pompeii, is made.
July 19, 64: Great Fire of Rome, first Roman mass Persecution of Christians, earliest significant recognition of Christians in Rome.
66–73: First Jewish-Roman War.
August 70: destruction of Herod's Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans under Titus.
August 79: Pompeii and Herculaneum destroyed by eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
Jewish Council of Jamnia.
Spread of the Roman Empire, reaches largest size under Trajan.
Arena (colosseum) is constructed, origin of the name Arena.
Late 1st century – Cityscape, detail of a Second Style wall painting from a bedroom in the House of Publius Fannius Synistor, Boscoreale, is made.
It is now at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.
The painting "Alexander the Great confronts Darius III at the Battle of Issos", detail of mosaic floor decoration from Pompeii, Italy is made.
It is a Roman copy after a Greek painting of c. 310 BC, perhaps by Philoxenos or Helen of Egypt.
It is now at Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples, Italy.
Late 1st century – Bedroom, from the House of Publius Fannius Synistor, Boscoreale is made.
It is reconstructed with later furnishings  at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.
Late 1st century – Seascape, detail of a wall painting from Villa Farnesina, Rome, is made.
Late 1st century – Young Woman Writing, detail of a wall painting, from Pompeii, is made.
It is now kept at Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples.
Late 1st century – Mausoleum under Construction, relief from the tomb of the Haterius family, Via Labicana, Rome, is made.
It is now kept at Musei Vaticani, Museo Gregoriano Profano, ex Lateranese, Rome.
Late 1st century – Middle-Aged Flavian Woman is made.
c. Late 1st century – early 2nd century – Buddha and Attendants, from Katra Keshavdev, Mathura, Madhya Pradesh, India, is made.
Kushan period.
It is now kept at Mathura Museum.
1st–2nd centuries – Tomb model of a house is made.
Eastern Han dynasty.
It is now kept at The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri.
Ban Chao
Berenice of Cilicia
Boudica, also known as Boadicea
Clement I of Rome
Decebalus
Du Shi
Elisha ben Abuyah
Gan Ying
Guangwu of Han
Hillel the Elder
Liu Xin
Livia
Ma Yuan
Ming of Han
Wang Chung
Wang Mang
Codex, the first form of the modern book, appears in the Roman Empire
Year 78—the beginning of the Saka Era used by South Asian calendars.
Various inventions by Hero of Alexandria, including the steam turbine (aeolipile), water organ, and various other water-powered machines.
In 31, the Han Dynasty Chinese engineer and statesman Du Shi (d. 38) from Nanyang invented the first known hydraulic-powered bellows to heat the blast furnace in smelting cast iron.
He used a complex mechanical device that was powered by the rushing current against a waterwheel, a practice that would continue in China.
Although Philo of Byzantium described the saqiya chain pump in the early 2nd century BC, the square-pallet chain pump was innovated in China during this century, mentioned first by the philosopher Wang Chong around 80 AD.
Wang Chong also accurately described the water cycle in meteorology, and argued against the mainstream 'radiating influence' theory for solar eclipses, the latter of which was accepted by many, including Zhang Heng.
The Chinese astronomer Liu Xin (d. 23) documented 1080 different stars, amongst other achievements.
End of 1st century – codex replaces the scroll.
According to the New Testament, during the reign of Tiberius, Jesus, a Jewish religious leader from Galilee, was crucified in Jerusalem on the charge of blasphemy for claiming to be the Son of God.
But "God raised him from the dead" three days later, see Resurrection of Jesus.
Over the next few decades his followers, following the Great Commission, including the apostle Paul, carried his message throughout the Greek-speaking regions of Asia Minor, eventually introducing it to Rome itself.
Roman rulers began to persecute the new sect almost immediately (the emperor Nero accused the Christians of starting the fires that destroyed much of Rome in 64 AD), and would continue to do so for centuries, sometimes vigorously, and other times passively.
Christian tradition records that all of Christ's apostles except John the Evangelist suffered martyrdom.
In the 4th century, Christianity was eventually taken up by the emperor Constantine.
One of his successors Julian the Apostate renounced it for paganism and again persecuted the Church.
However, by the end of the 4th century, Emperor Theodosius I proclaimed Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire.
Note: years before or after the 1st century are in italics.
Equidae is a family of odd-toed ungulate that are only one surviving genus: Equus.
Horses, donkeys and zebras belong in this genus.
Animals of the Equus genus can have hybrid offspring, but they are usually sterile.
The Lynx is a small cat.
It is a genus with four species.
The four species are in Eurasia, Spain, Canada and America, and do not overlap much.
Lynx have short tails, and usually some hair on the ears.
They have large paws (feet) padded for walking on snow, and long whiskers on the face.
The color of the body is from light brown to grey and is sometimes marked with dark brown spots, especially on the legs.
They weigh about 5 kg or about 11 pounds (approximately the size of a large domestic cat) and can weigh up to about 30 kg (66 pounds).
They are between 70 and 150 cm long, with a relative short tail - 5-25 cm.
They live for about 20 years.
Lynx are similar to a regular house cat, but larger.
They have a powerful body on short, furry legs attached to hefty feet, and a bobbed, black-tipped tail.
The fur is spotted and yellowish-brown to grey.
It has a collar of fur around the face, giving a triangular shape.
They also have long black ear tufts.
Lynx live in the high altitude forests with many shrubs, reeds and grass.
They hunt only on the ground, but can climb trees and swim.
They can be found in the some places in northern Scandinavia, in North America and also in the Himalayas.
Since the 1990s people try to move part of the population of the Eurasian lynx to Germany.
They can also be found in Białowieża Forest (northeastern Poland), and southern Spain.
The Colorado Division of Wildlife tried to move other wild Lynx populations from Canada back to the United States.
Lynx are usually solitary, although a small group may travel and hunt together occasionally.
Mating takes place in the late winter and once a year the female gives birth to between two and four kittens.
The young stay with the mother for one more winter, a total of around nine months, before moving out to live on their own as young adults.
Lynx make their dens in crevices or under ledges.
They feed on a wide range of animals from white-tailed deer, reindeer, roe deer, small red deer, and chamois, to smaller, more usual prey: snowshoe hares, fish, foxes, sheep, squirrels, mice, turkeys and other birds, and goats.
They also eat ptarmigans,voles, and grouse.
The genus Lynx
Iberian lynx or Spanish Lynx, Lynx pardinus
The Iberian lynx is the most endangered feline in the world.
There are only two populations (together, 300 animals), in the southern Spain.
Canada Lynx in the Southern Rockies
The Iberian Lynx The natural history of the Iberian lynx
Hopes raised by Spain lynx births
Shania Twain  (born Eilleen Regina Edwards; August 28, 1965, in Timmins, Ontario, Canada) is a Canadian singer-songwriter and record producer.
She was married a long time to music producer Mutt Lange.
She is very successful in the country and pop music genres.
She had a residency show at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada, in late 2012.
Her 1995 album The Woman in Me brought her fame.
Her 1997 album Come On Over became the bestselling album of all time by a female musician in any genre and the bestselling country album of all time.
It has sold more than 40 million copies worldwide.
In 2017, she released the album Now, her first in 15 years.
She wrote and co-produced all of the songs.
It entered at the top of the charts in Australia, Canada, the UK, and the US, where it opened with 137,000 combined copies and streams.
Twain married music producer Robert John "Mutt" Lange on December 28, 1993.
They have a son, Eja (pronounced "Asia") D'Angelo, who was born on August 12, 2001.
On May 15, 2008, a spokesperson for Mercury Nashville said that Twain and Lange were separating.
This was after Lange allegedly had an affair with Twain's best friend, Marie-Anne Thiébaud.
Their divorce was finalized on June 9, 2010.
On December 20, 2010, Twain's manager said that Twain was engaged to Swiss Frédéric Thiébaud (the ex-husband of her former best friend), an executive at Nestlé.
They married on January 1, 2011, in Rincón, Puerto Rico.
Twain is a longtime vegetarian.
In 2001 she was voted PETA's very first Sexiest Vegetarian Alive.
In September 2010, it was confirmed that Twain was to release her first biography, From This Moment On, on May 3, 2011.
The cover work for the book was released on March 2, 2011.
Awards and honours
She was named the 1999 Entertainer of the Year by both the Academy of Country Music and the Country Music Association.
Twain was the first non-US citizen to win the CMA award.
Twain was ranked No.7 in Country Music Television's 40 Greatest Women of Country Music in 2002.
In 2003, Twain was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame.
The city of Timmins (in Ontario, Canada) renamed a street for her, gave her the key to the city, and built the Shania Twain Centre in her honour.
On November 18, 2005, Twain became an Officer of the Order of Canada.
Twain was added to the Canadian Music Hall of Fame at the Juno Awards on March 27, 2011.
On June 2, 2011, Twain received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
Her star is the 2,442nd Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the Category of Recording.
Shania Twain (1993)
The Woman in Me (1995)
Come On Over (1997)
Up! (
Now (2017)
1993–99
1993 – What Made You Say That
1993 – Dance with the One Who Brought You
1993 – You Lay a Whole Lot of Love on Me
1995 – Whose Bed Have Your Boots Been Under?
1995 – Any Man of Mine – #1 US Country
1995 – (If You're Not in It for Love) I'm Outta Here! – #
1 US Country
1995 – The Woman in Me (Needs the Man in You)
1996 – You Win My Love – #1 US Country
1996 – No One Needs to Know – #1 US Country
1996 – Home Ain't Where His Heart Is Anymore
1996 – God Bless the Child
1997 – Love Gets Me Every Time – #1 US Country
1997 – Don't Be Stupid (You Know I Love You)
1998 – When
1998 – You're Still the One – #1 US Country
1998 – From This Moment On
1998 – Honey, I'm Home – #1 US Country
1998 – That Don't Impress Me Much
1999 – Man!
1999 – Come On Over
1999 – You've Got A Way
2000–17
2000 – Rock This Country
2000 – I'm Holding on to Love (To Save My Life)!
2001 – It's Alright (Dance Mix)
2002 – Up!
2002 – I'm Gonna Getcha Good!
2003 – Forever and for Always
2003 – Ka-Ching!
2003 – Thank You Baby! (
For Makin' Someday Come So Soon)
2003 – She's Not Just a Pretty Face
2003 – When You Kiss Me
2004 – It Only Hurts When I'm Breathing
2004 – Party for Two
2004 – Don't!
2005 – I Ain't No Quitter
2005 – Shoes
2011 – Today Is Your Day
2017 – Life's About to Get Good
2017 – Swingin' with My Eyes Closed
Canadian feminists
Country singers
The Grass Roots are an American rock music group.
Their peak in popularity was in the 1960s and 1970s.
They formed in Los Angeles, California in 1966.
Their biggest hit was the song "Midnight Confessions" which charted in the US at #5 in 1968.
Their 1969 song "I'd Wait a Million Years" was #15 in the U.S..
Where Were You When I Needed You (1966)
Let's Live for Today (1967)
Feelings (1968)
Leavin' It All Behind (1969)
Lovin' Things (1969)
Move Along (1972)
Alotta Mileage (1973)
Grass Roots (1975)
The ABC Collection (1976)
14 Greatest (1978)
Powers of the Night (1982)
Live at Last (2000)
Symphonic Hits (2001)
Live Gold (2008)
The Complete Original Dunhill/ABC Hit Singles (2014)
Dionne Warwick (born December 12, 1940) is an American R&B singer.
She was born in East Orange, New Jersey.
Warwick sang many songs written by Burt Bacharach and Hal David.
Many of these songs were hits.
In 1990, Warwick hosted and executive produced a talk show, Dionne and Friends.
She was a contestant in the 2011 season of The Apprentice.
People from East Orange, New Jersey
Participants in American reality television series
Barenaked Ladies are a Canadian band.
They formed in Toronto, Canada in 1988.
The band is made up of four men.
In 1991, the band was taken off the program for a New Year's Eve concert in Toronto because someone thought the name was bad.
The band started as a duo with Ed Roberstson and Steven Page.
Lead singer Page left the band in 2009 to begin a solo career.
He was also arrested in 2008 for having the illegal drug cocaine.
Ed Roberston - guitar and vocals
Jim Creegan - vocals and bass
Kevin Hearn - vocals, keyboard, accordion and guitar
Tyler Stewart - vocals and drums
Ed Robertson is also the host of a television programme, called Ed's Up.
On the programme, he travels around Canada by airplane.
A plane he was flying crashed into trees in 2008.
Roberston and the other passengers were not hurt.
The theme song to the television series The Big Bang Theory is performed by Barenaked Ladies.
Gordon (1992)
Maybe You Should Drive (1994)
Born on a Pirate Ship (1996)
Rock Spectacle (1996)
Stunt (1998)
Maroon (2000)
Disc One: All Their Greatest Hits (2001)
Everything To Everyone (2003)
Barenaked For The Holidays (2004)
Barenaked Ladies Are Me (2006)
Talk To The Hand: Live In Michigan DVD (2007)
Barenaked Ladies Are Men (2007)
Snacktime! (
All In Good Time (2010)
Ed's Up TV pages
1988 establishments in Canada
Paul Revere & the Raiders were an American pop group who were popular in the 1960s.
They started in Portland, Oregon in 1960.
Musical groups from Oregon
Musicians from Idaho
Musicians from Portland, Oregon
Singers from Idaho
Singers from Portland, Oregon
20th-century establishments in Oregon
is a video game for the Nintendo DS.
In Nintendogs, the player has dogs.
At the start of the game one can choose a type of dog and give it a name.
They give the dogs food and drinks if a dog is good one might get to feed them a dog biscuit or a jerky treat.
The dogs can be washed, taken for a walk, taught to do tricks and put into contests.
The contests are: agility trial, disc competition and obedience trial.
One can find out how to compete in these contests by looking at their care books, under Supplies.
They are: Dalmatian and Friends, Chihuahua and Friends, Labrador and Friends and Dachshund and Friends.
All breeds are unlockable in every version and a player can unlock dogs by increasing his trainer points.
However, the player can only have three dogs at home.
To get more the player must drop off one at the Dog Hotel.
Every player can only drop off five dogs at a time.
If the player does not play the game for a long period of time, the dog may run away.
So players need to play with their dogs daily.
A sequel, Nintendogs + Cats, was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2011.
Cancelled Nintendo GameCube games
Nintendo DS-only games
Luigi is a video game character made by Nintendo.
The famous game designer, Shigeru Miyamoto, made him.
Luigi is the younger but taller fraternal twin brother of the Nintendo mascot, Mario.
He is in many games all over the Mario series, almost always as an assistant to his brother Mario.
The first game Luigi was in was Mario Bros. (Game and Watch) (1983) as a character seen working in a factory.
He later appeared playable in the 1983 arcade game Mario Bros and was played by the second character.
It was also done in Super Mario Bros., Super Mario Bros. 3, Super Mario World, and other games.
The first game where he was present as the first character was Super Mario Bros. 2.
In the Mario series, he is usually not the main character.
However, he has his own games where is the main character, like Luigi's Mansion and Mario is Missing!.
He also appears in many spin-offs, such as Mario Kart, Mario Party and the Super Smash Bros. series.
Luigi has also been in every show of the three DiC TV series based on the Nintendo Entertainment System and Super Nintendo Entertainment System games.
At first he was made as a palette swap of Mario with a green color instead of red.
Later in the series, he became his own character with his own personality and abilities.
As his part in the Mario series progressed, Luigi became taller and thinner than his brother.
Nintendo called 2013 "The Year of Luigi" to mark the thirty years of the existence of the character.
Similarly, games being released in 2013 bring attention to Luigi, such as Luigi's Mansion: Dark Moon, Mario & Luigi: Dream Team, Dr. Luigi, and the level pack New Super Luigi U for New Super Mario Bros. U. In Super Mario 3D World a Luigi version of Mario Bros. called Luigi Bros. can be unlocked.
The events leading to the creation of Luigi began in 1982, during the making of Donkey Kong.
The Nintendo designer Shigeru Miyamoto had created Mario (who used to be "Jumpman") hoping that he would be able to present the character in many different pars in future games.
Miyamoto had been given ideas by the game Joust to create a game where two players can play at the same time.
This was the cause of his development of the game Mario Bros. in 1983, with Luigi as the brother of Mario and the second playable character.
The name Luigi is said to have been inspired by a pizza business near the head office of Nintendo of America in Redmond, Washington, called "Mario & Luigi's".
Miyamoto noticed that the word ruiji means "similar" in the Japanese language, and that Luigi was designed to have the same size, shape and gameplay of Mario.
At first in Donkey Kong, Mario was a carpenter.
In Mario Bros., Mario and Luigi were designed as Italian plumbers by Miyamoto, on the suggestion of a partner.
Software limits at the time—almost the same as those that gave Mario his special look in Donkey Kong—meant the first appearance of Luigi was limited to a simple palette swap of Mario designed to be the second player.
The characters were in every way the same, other than their colors.
The green color for Luigi would last as one of his physical characteristics in future releases.
After the success of Mario Bros., Luigi was presented to a wider market in 1985 with the release of the console game Super Mario Bros. Once again his part was limited to a palette swap of Mario, acting as the second-player in almost the same way as Mario Bros. The Japan-only form of Super Mario Bros. 2 in 1986 (released in the west as Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels in the future) marked the start of the development of Luigi becoming a separate character.
As with his last appearances, Luigi was still a palette swap of Mario.
However, his moves were not the same.
Luigi could now jump high up and a great distance more than his brother, at the cost of motion reaction and exactness.
While this form of Super Mario Bros. 2 was released in Japan, it was thought to be too hard for the American public at the time.
In 1988, as a result, an alternative release was developed to be good enough as Super Mario Bros. 2 for western players (and in the future released in Japan as Super Mario USA).
This would play a key part in forming the current look of Luigi.
The game was a conversion of Yume Kōjō: Doki Doki Panic, with the art changed to be characters and places from the Mario series.
In this release, the character of "Mama", who could jump the highest, was good enough for the model for Luigi.
This caused his taller, thinner look, combined with his Mario-design outfit and green color.
There were appearances of Luigi being taller than Mario before - for example, in the 1988 Famicom Disk System game Famicom Grand Prix II: 3D Hot Rally and before that, in a very limited 1986 anime Super Mario Bros.: Peach-Hime Kyushutsu Dai Sakusen! (
though in the anime he had a yellow shirt and blue overalls).
Licensed art for Super Mario Bros. 3 and Super Mario World presents Luigi with this new look.
Nintendo of Japan would not change his art differences to his look within the game until the 1992 game Super Mario Kart.
The appearance of Luigi from the Yume Kōjō: Doki Doki Panic version of Super Mario Bros. 2 has been used ever since, even for games made again in which he was a palette swap to start with.
Much like his appearance, Luigi's has changed over the years.
In Mario Kart 64, which voiced many characters for the first time, some characters had two different voices in relation to the region of the game.
North American and European forms present a deep voice for Luigi, by Charles Martinet, who also voices Mario, Wario, Waluigi, and Toadsworth.
The Japanese form uses a high, falsetto voice, by (then French translator at Nintendo) Julien Bardakoff.
All forms of Mario Party present the high-pitched clips of Bardakoff from Mario Kart 64.
Luigi kept this higher voice in Mario Party 2.
In Mario Golf, Mario Tennis, and Mario Party 3 his voice returned to normal.
Since then, in all games but Mario Kart: Super Circuit and Super Smash Bros. Melee, Luigi has always had a medium-pitched voice.
In Mario Kart: Super Circuit, Luigi's voice was the same high voice from the Japanese Mario Kart 64.
In Super Smash Bros. and Super Smash Bros. Melee, Luigi's voice is based on Mario's voice (with clips taken from Super Mario 64), with a higher pitch.
In Super Smash Bros. Brawl, he has his own voice clips instead of voice clips taken from Mario.
Mario Bros
New Super Mario Bros Wii
New Super Mario Bros U
Super Smash Bros. (Hidden character)
Luigi's Mansion 3
Mario Party 1-10
Super Smash Bros. Melee (Hidden character)
Mario Kart Double Dash
Super Mario Strikers (Mario Smash Football in Europe)
Super Mario Galaxy (Hidden character, unlockable, static character in game)
Super Smash Bros. Brawl (Hidden character)
New Super Mario Bros. (Hidden in one-player)
New Super Mario Bros. 2 (Hidden character)
Super Smash Bros. Ultimate (Hidden character)
Fictional characters introduced in 1983
RAID is an acronym that stands for Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks or  Redundant Array of Independent Disks.
RAID is a term used in computing.
With RAID, several hard disks are made into one logical disk.
There are different ways this can be done.
Each of the methods that puts the hard disks together has some benefits and drawbacks over using the drives as single disks, independent of each other.
The main reasons why RAID is used are:
To make the loss of data happen less often.
This is done by having several copies of the data.
To get more storage space by having many smaller disks.
To get more flexibility (Disks can be changed or added while the system keeps running)
To get the data more quickly.
Certain choices can protect against data being lost because one (or a number) of disks failed.
They do not protect against the data being deleted or overwritten, though.
In some configurations, RAID can tolerate that one or a number of disks fail.
After the failed disks have been replaced, the data needs to be reconstructed.
Depending on the configuration and the size of the disks, this reconstruction can take a long time.
Certain kinds of errors will make it impossible to read the data
Companies have used RAID systems to store their data since the technology was made.
There are different ways in which RAID systems can be made.
Since its discovery, the cost of building a RAID system has come down a lot.
For this reason, even some computers and appliances that are used at home have some RAID functions.
Such systems can be used to store music or movies, for example.
Difference between physical Disks and logical disks
A hard disk is a part of a computer.
Normal hard disks use magnetism to store information.
When hard disks are used, they are available to the operating system.
In Microsoft Windows, each hard disk will get a drive letter (starting with C:, A: or B: are reserved for floppy drives).
Unix and Linux-like operating systems have a single-rooted directory tree.
This means that people who use the computers sometimes do not know where the information is stored.(To be fair, a lot of Windows users don't know where their data is stored as well.)
In computing, the hard disks (which are hardware, and can be touched) are sometimes called physical drives or physical disks.
What the operating system shows the user is sometimes called logical disk.
A physical drive can be split into different sections, called disk partitions.
Usually, each disk partition contains one file system.
The operating system will show each partition like a logical disk.
Therefore, to the user, both the setup with many physical disks and the setup with many logical disks will look the same.
The user cannot decide if a "logical disk" is the same as a physical disk, or if it simply is a part of the disk.
Storage Area Networks (SANs) completely change this view.
All that is visible of a SAN is a number of logical disks.
Reading and writing data
In the computer, data is organised in the form of bits and bytes.
In most systems, 8 bits make up a byte.
Computer memory uses electricity to store the data, hard disks use magnetism.
Therefore, when data is written on a disk, the electric signal is converted into a magnetic one.
When data is read from disk, the conversion is done in the other direction: An electrical signal is made from the polarity of a magnetic field.
What is RAID?
A RAID array joins two or more hard disks so that they make a logical disk.
There are different reasons why this is done.
Stopping data loss, when one or more disks of the array fail.
Getting faster data transfers.
Getting the ability to change disks while the system keeps running.
Joining several disks to get more storage capacity; sometimes lots of cheap disks are used, rather than a more expensive one.
RAID is done by  using special hardware  or software on the computer.
The joined hard disks will then look like one hard disk to the user.
Most RAID levels increase the redundancy.
This means that they store the data more often, or they store information on how to reconstruct the data.
This allows for a number of disks to fail without the data being lost.
When the failed disk is replaced, the data it should contain will be copied or rebuilt from the other disks of the system.
This can take a long time.
The time it takes depends on different factors, like the size of the array.
Why use RAID?
One of the reasons why many companies are using RAID is that the data in the array can simply be used.
Those using the data need not be aware they are using RAID at all.
When a failure occurred and the array is recovering, access to the data will be slower.
Accessing the data during this time will also slow down the recovery process, but this is still much faster than not being able to work with the data at all.
Depending on the RAID level however, disks may not fail while the new disk is being prepared for use.
A disk failing at that time will result in losing all the data in the array.
The different ways to join disks are called RAID levels.
A bigger number for the level is not necessarily better.
Different RAID levels have different purposes.
Some RAID levels need special disks and special controllers.
In 1978, a man called Norman Ken Ouchi, who worked at IBM, made a suggestion describing the plans for what would later become RAID 5.
The plans also described something similar to RAID 1, as well as the protection of a part of RAID 4.
Workers at the University of Berkeley helped to plan out research in 1987.
They were trying to make it possible for RAID technology to recognize two hard drives instead of one.
They found that when RAID technology had two hard drives, it had much better storage than with only one hard drive.
However, it crashed much more often.
In 1988, the different types of RAID (1 to 5), were written about by David Patterson, Garth Gibson and Randy Katz in their article, called "A Case for Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (RAID)".
This article was the first to call the new technology RAID and the name became official.
Basic concepts used by RAID systems
Caching is a technology that also has its uses in RAID systems.
There are different kinds of caches that are used in RAID systems:
RAID controller
Enterprise disk array
In modern systems, a write request is shown as done when the data has been written to the cache.
This does not mean that the data has been written to the disk.
Requests from the cache are not necessarily handled in the same order that they were written to the cache.
This makes it possible that, if the system fails, sometimes some data has not been written to the disk involved.
For this reason, many systems have a cache that is backed by a battery.
Mirroring: More than one copy of the data
When talking about a mirror, this is a very simple idea.
Instead of the data being in only one place, there are several copies of the data.
These copies usually are on different hard disks (or disk partitions).
If there are two copies, one of them can fail without the data being affected (as it still is on the other copy).
Mirroring can also give a boost when reading data.
It will always be taken from the fastest disk that responds.
Writing data is slower though, because all disks need to be updated.
Striping: Part of the data is on another disk
With striping, the data is split into different parts.
These parts then end up on different disks (or disk partitions).
This means that writing data is faster, as it can be done in parallel.
This does not mean that there will not be faults, as each block of data is only found on one disk.
Error correction and faults
It is possible to calculate different kinds of checksums.
Some methods of calculating checksums allow finding a mistake.
Most RAID levels that use redundancy can do this.
Some methods are more difficult to do, but they allow to not only detect the error, but to fix it.
Hot spares: using more disks than needed
Many of the ways to have RAID support something is called a hot spare.
A hot spare is an empty disk that is not used in normal operation.
When a disk fails, data can directly be copied onto the hot spare disk.
That way, the failed disk needs to be replaced by a new empty drive to become the hot spare.
Stripe size and chunk size: spreading the data over several disks
RAID works by spreading the data over several disks.
Two of the terms often used in this context are stripe size and chunk size.
The chunk size is the smallest data block that is written to a single disk of the array.
The stripe size is the size of a block of data that will be spread over all disks.
That way, with four disks, and a stripe size of 64 kilobytes (kB), 16 kB will be written to each disk.
The chunk size in this example is therefore 16 kB. Making the stripe size bigger will mean a faster data transfer rate, but also a bigger maximum latency.
In this case, this is the time needed to get a block of data.
Putting disk together: JBOD, concatenation or spanning
Many controllers (and also software) can put disks together in the following way: Take the first disk, till it ends, then they take the second,  and so on.
In that way, several smaller disks look like a larger one.
This is not really RAID, as there is no redundancy.
Also, spanning can combine disks where RAID 0 cannot do anything.
Generally, this is called just a bunch of disks (JBOD).
This is like a distant relative of RAID because the logical drive is made of different physical drives.
Concatenation is sometimes used to turn several small drives into one larger useful drive.
This can not be done with RAID 0.
For example, JBOD could combine 3 GB, 15 GB, 5.5 GB, and 12 GB drives into a logical drive at 35.5 GB, which is often more useful than the drives alone.
Some RAID controllers use JBOD to talk about working on drives without RAID features.
Each drive shows up separately in the operating system.
This JBOD is not the same as concatenation.
Many Linux systems use the terms "linear mode" or "append mode".
The Mac OS X 10.4 implementation — called a "Concatenated Disk Set" — does not leave the user with any usable data on the remaining drives if one drive fails in a concatenated disk set, although the disks otherwise operate as described above.
Concatenation is one of the uses of the Logical Volume Manager in Linux.
It can be used to create virtual drives.
Drive Clone
Most modern hard disks have a standard called Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology (S.M.A.R.T).
SMART allows to monitor certain things on a hard disk drive.
Certain controllers allow to replace a single hard disk even before it fails, for example because S.M.A.R.T or another disk test reports too many correctable errors.
To do this, the controller will copy all the data onto a hot spare drive.
After this, the disk can be replaced by another (which will simply become the new hot spare).
Different setups
The setup of the disks and how they use the techniques above affects the performance and reliability of the system.
When more disks are used, one of the disks is more likely to fail.
Because of this, mechanisms have to be built to be able to find and fix errors.
This makes the whole system more reliable, as it is able to survive and repair the failure.
Basics: simple RAID levels
RAID levels in common use
RAID 0 "striping"
RAID 0 is not really RAID because it is not redundant.
With RAID 0, disks are simply put together to make a large disk.
This is called "striping".
When one disk fails, the whole array fails.
Therefore, RAID 0 is rarely used for important data, but reading and writing data from the disk can be faster with striping because each disk reads part of the file at the same time.
With RAID 0, disk blocks that come after one another are usually placed on different disks.
For this reason, all disks used by a RAID 0 should be the same size.
RAID 1 "mirroring"
With RAID 1, two disks are put together.
Both hold the same data, one is "mirroring" the other.
This is easy, fast configuration  whether implemented with a hardware controller or by software.
RAID 5 "striping with distributed parity"
RAID Level 5 is what is probably used most of the time.
At least three hard disks are needed to build a RAID 5 storage array.
Each block of data will be stored in three different places.
Two of these places will store the block as it is, the third will store a checksum.
This checksum is a special case of a Reed-Solomon code that only uses bitwise addition.
Usually, it is  calculated using the XOR method.
Since this method is symmetric, one lost data block can be rebuilt from the other data block and the checksum.
For each block, a different disk will hold the parity block which holds the checksum.
This is done to increase redundancy.
Any disk can fail.
Overall, there will be one disk holding the checksums, so the total usable capacity will be that of all disks except for one.
The size of the resulting logical disk will be the size of all disks together, except for one disk which holds parity information.
Of course this is slower than RAID level 1, since on every write, all disks need to be read to calculate and update the parity information.
The read performance of RAID 5 is almost as good as RAID 0 for the same number of disks.
Except for the parity blocks, the distribution of data over the drives follows the same pattern as RAID 0.
The reason RAID 5 is slightly slower is that the disks must skip over the parity blocks.
A RAID 5 with a failed disk will continue to work.
It is in degraded mode.
A degraded RAID 5 can be very slow.
For this reason an additional disk is often added.
This is called hot spare disk.
If a disk fails, the data can be directly rebuilt onto the extra disk.
RAID 5 can also be done in software quite easily.
Mainly because of performance problems of failed RAID 5 arrays, some database experts have formed a group called BAARF—the Battle Against Any Raid Five.
If the system fails while there are active writes, the parity of a stripe may become inconsistent with the data.
If this is not repaired before a disk or block fails, data loss may occur.
An incorrect parity will be used to reconstruct the missing block in that stripe.
This problem is sometimes known as the "write hole".
Battery-backed caches and similar techniques are commonly used to reduce the chance for this to occur.
RAID levels used less
RAID 2
This was used with very large computers.
Special expensive disks and a special controller are needed to use RAID Level 2.
The data is distributed at the bit-level (all other levels use byte-level actions).
Special calculations are done.
Data is split up into static sequences of bits.
8 data bits and 2 parity bits are put together.
Then a Hamming code is calculated.
The fragments of the Hamming code are then distributed over the different disks.
RAID 2 is the only RAID level that can repair errors, the other RAID levels can only detect them.
When they find that the information needed does not make sense, they will simply rebuild it.
This is done with calculations, using information on the other disks.
If that information is missing or wrong, they cannot do much.
Because it uses Hamming codes, RAID 2 can find out which piece of the information is wrong, and correct only that piece.
RAID 2 needs at least 10 disks to work.
Because of its complexity and its need for very expensive and special hardware, RAID 2 is no longer used very much.
RAID 3 "striping with dedicated parity"
Raid Level 3 is much like RAID Level 0.
An additional disk is added to store parity information.
This is done by bitwise addition of the value of a block on the other disks.
The parity information is stored on a separate (dedicated) disk.
This is not good, because if the parity disk crashes, the parity information is lost.
RAID Level 3 is usually done with at least 3 disks.
A two-disk setup is identical to a RAID Level 0.
RAID 4 "striping with dedicated parity"
This is very similar to RAID 3, except that the parity information is calculated over larger blocks, and not single bytes.
This is like RAID 5.
At least three disks are needed for a RAID 4 array.
RAID level 6 was not an original RAID level.
It adds an additional parity block to a RAID 5 array.
It needs at least four disks (two disks for the capacity, two disks for redundancy).
RAID 5 can be seen as a special case of a Reed-Solomon code.
RAID 5 is a special case, though, it only needs addition in the Galois field GF(2).
This is easy to do with XORs.
RAID 6 extends these calculations.
It is no longer a special case, and all of the calculations need to be done.
With RAID 6, an extra checksum (called polynomial) is used, usually of GF (28).
With this approach it is possible to protect against any number of failed disks.
RAID 6 is for the case of using two checksums to protect against the loss of two disks.
Like with RAID 5, parity and data are on different disks for each block.
The two parity blocks are also located on different disks.
There are different ways to do RAID 6.
They are different in their write performance, and in how much calculations are needed.
Being able to do faster writes usually means more calculations are needed.
RAID 6 is slower than RAID 5, but it allows the RAID to continue with any two disks failed.
RAID 6 is becoming popular because it allows an array to be rebuilt after a single-drive failure even if one of the remaining disks has one or more bad sectors.
Non-standard RAID levels
Double parity / Diagonal parity
RAID 6 uses two parity blocks.
These are calculated in a special way over a polynomial.
Double parity RAID (also called diagonal parity RAID) uses a different polynomial for each of these parity blocks.
Recently, the industry association that defined RAID said that double parity RAID is a different form of RAID 6.
RAID-DP
RAID 1.5
RAID 1.5 (not to be confused with RAID 15, which is different) is a proprietary RAID implementation.
Like RAID 1, it only uses two disks, but it does both striping and mirroring (similar to RAID 10).
Most things are done in hardware.
RAID 5E, RAID 5EE and RAID 6E
RAID 5E, RAID 5EE and RAID 6E (with the added E for Enhanced) generally refer to different types of RAID 5 or RAID 6 with a hot spare.
With these implementations, the hot spare drive is not a physical drive.
Rather, it exists in the form of free space on the disks.
This increases performance, but it means that a hot spare cannot be shared between different arrays.
The scheme was introduced by IBM ServeRAID around 2001.
RAID 7
This is a proprietary implementation.
It adds caching to a RAID 3 or RAID 4 array.
Intel Matrix RAID
Some Intel main boards have RAID chip that have this feature.
It uses two or three disks, and then partitions them equally to form a combination of RAID 0, RAID 1, RAID 5 or RAID 1+0 levels.
Linux MD RAID driver
This is the name for the driver that allows to do software RAID with Linux.
In addition to the normal RAID levels 0-6, it also has a RAID 10 implementation.
Since Kernel 2.6.9, RAID 10 is a single level.
The implementation has some non-standard features.
RAID Z
Sun has implemented a file system called ZFS.
This file system is optimised for handling large amounts of data.
It includes a Logical Volume Manager.
It also includes a feature called RAID-Z. It avoids the problem called RAID 5 write hole  because it has a copy-on-write policy: It does not overwrite the data directly, but writes new data in a new location on the disk.
When the write was successful, the old data is deleted.
It avoids the need for read-modify-write operations for small writes, because it only writes full-stripes.
Small blocks are mirrored instead of parity protected, which is possible because the file system knows the way the storage is organised.
It can therefore allocate extra space if necessary.
There is also RAID-Z2 which uses two forms of parity to achieve results similar to RAID 6: the ability to survive up to two drive failures without losing data.
Joining RAID levels
With RAID different disks can be put together to get a logical disk.
The user will only see the logical disk.
Each one of the RAID levels mentioned above has good and bad points.
But RAID can also work with logical disks.
That way one of the RAID levels above can be used with a set of logical disks.
Many people note it by writing the numbers together.
Sometimes, they write a '+' or an '&' in between.
Common combinations (using two levels) are the following:
RAID 0+1: Two or more RAID 0 arrays are combined to a RAID 1 array; This is called a Mirror of stripes
RAID 1+0: Same as RAID 0+1, but RAID levels reversed; Stripe of Mirrors.
This makes disk failure rarer than RAID 0+1 above.
RAID 5+0: Stripe several RAID 5's with a RAID 0.
One disk of each RAID 5 can fail, but makes that RAID 5 the single point of failure; if another disk of that array fails, all the data of the array will be lost.