the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
It is concerned with how a message needs to be changed, so that it can be transmitted over a  channel, an how to undo the changes at the other end, so that the original message can be recovered.
These processes are known as encoding and decoding.
Information theory also talks about how much self-information there is in a message.
This is the theoretical basis for data compression, cryptography and digital signatures.
Error detection and correction is about detecting if errors have occurred when the message was transmitted.
In some cases, it may be possible to recover the original message even if errors have occurred, or part of the message has been lost.
A pedestrian is a person travelling on foot, whether walking or running.
In modern times, the term mostly refers to someone walking on a road or footpath, but this was not the case historically.
The main way humans get around is by walking.
The first humans walked out of Africa about 60,000 years ago.
We walked across India to reach Australia.
We walked across Asia to reach the Americas.
We walked from the fertile crescent area to reach Europe.
Nowadays, roads often have a designated footpath attached especially for pedestrian traffic, called the sidewalk in American English and the pavement in British English.
There are also footpaths not associated with a road which are used only by pedestrians, especially ramblers, hikers or hill-walkers and there are roads not associated with a footpath.
These footpaths, in mountains or forests, are called trails.
Efforts are underway by pedestrian advocacy groups to make it easy to be a pedestrian in new developments, especially to counteract newer developments where 20 to 30 percent do not include sidewalks.
Some activists advocate large auto-free zones where pedestrians only or pedestrians and some non-motorised vehicles are allowed.
Early Pedestrians in North America
US Pedestrian Advocacy Groups
UK Pedestrian Advocacy Group
Transportation Alternatives: Pedestrian Advocacy
America Walks
Street quality promotion by street parties
Pedestrian InRoads – US Pedestrian advocacy group
Perils For Pedestrians on YouTube
Walkable Communities
Donald Appleyard's Livable Streets study
Ultramarathons
Patricia Deutsch Ross (born Elaine Patricia Deutsch; December 16, 1943 – July 26, 2017) was an American actress.
She was best known for appearing the television game show  Match Game in the 1970s.
She was also known for doing voices in animated movies.
Deutsch was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Capitol Critters - Trixie
The Emperor's New School - Mata the Lunch Lady
The Smurfs - Additional Voices
Time Squad - Amelia Earheart
Happily N'Ever After - Additional Voices
Jetsons: The Movie - Lucy 2
Kronk's New Groove - Waitress
Monsters, Inc. - Additional Voices
Tarzan - Tantor's Mother
The Emperor's New Groove - Waitress
The Land Before Time VII: The Stone of Cold Fire - Rainbow Face #2
Comedians from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
A body double is a person who works in the movie or television production industry.
Body doubles are models that act in scenes that actors or actresses do not want to do.
For example, body doubles sometimes act in love scenes or scenes of nudity, where a person's body is shown.
Body doubles are usually models that have developed very good bodies by exercising and by eating well.
Actors whose characters must appear nude or otherwise show more skin, often have flaws and imperfections such as may come with age or being overweight and it can be expensive to digitally edit these out.
Often, movies or television shows that use body doubles do not admit that a body double model was used.
In the popular American movie Pretty Woman, a fashion and parts model named Donna Scoggins posed for the infamous movie poster in thigh-high boots, while another body double, Shelley Michelle, filmed nude scenes that actress Julia Roberts did not want to do.
Another job in the movie and television production industry where people do actions that the actors or actresses do not want to do is the job of stuntman.
A stuntman is a person who does dangerous actions in movies, for example, jumping, falling, getting in a car accident, or pretending to fight with knives.
What distinguishes a "stunt person" from a "stunt double" is the particular character they portray.
If the character in question is a main character and/or central to the plot and uniquely identifiable, the stuntman is then typically referred to as a "stunt double" in the credits.
Furthermore, intergenerational conflict describes cultural, social or economic discrepancies between generations.
These can be caused by value shift or conflict of interest between younger and older generations.
An example are changes to an intergenerational contract that may be necessary to reflect a change in demographics.
For examples of intergenerational conflict, Dreaming in Cuban, by Cristina Garcia is a good novel to take a look at.
en:Intergenerationality#Conflict
An intergenerational contract is an agreement between different generations.
It assumes that future generations will honor the contract and provide a service to a generation that has done the same service for an older generation.
The most common use of the term is in social security and refers to the consensus  to provide pensions for the retired generations through payments made by the working generations.
The use of the word contract is not entirely accurate as the next generation enters the agreement without consent.
Inca rope bridges were simple suspension bridges over canyons and gorges to provide access for the Inca Empire.
Bridges of this type were suitable for use since the Inca people did not use wheeled transport - traffic was limited to pedestrians and livestock.
These bridges were an important part on the Inca road system and are an excellent example of Inca innovation in engineering.
They were frequently used by runners delivering messages throughout the Incan empire.
The Last Inca Suspension Bridge: A Photo Album (various images of amazing Inca Bridges and pathways, old and new.)
Boston University, Inca Bridge to the past This bridge was also in use of crossing when they were at war.
Incas: Lords of Gold and Glory, 1992, Virginia: Time-Life Books.
Finch, Ric, 2002, Keshwa Chaca: Straw Bridge of the Incas:  Ithaca, N.Y., South American Explorer, n. 69, fall/winter 2002, p. 6-13.
Copies of this issue may still be available for purchase from the South American Explorer.
Gade, D.W., 1972, Bridge types in the central Andes:  Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v. 62 (1), p. 94-109.
[Shows the bridge at Huinchiri and predicts the art of building it will be lost within another generation;   fortunately, this prediction has proven untrue, and ethnic/adventure tourism may help save this bridge for posterity.]
Malaga Miglio, Patricia, and Gutierrez, Alberto, (pub.
date unknown), Qishwachaca:  Rumbos (magazine published in Peru), p. 30-34.
McIntyre, Loren, 1973, The Lost Empire of the Incas:  National Geographic Magazine, v. 144, n. 6, p. 729-787.
McIntyre, Loren, 1975, The Incredible Incas and Their Timeless Land: Washington D.C., National Geographic Society, 199 p.
Roca Basadre, David and Coaguila, Jorge, eds.,
2001, Cañon delApurimac, La Ruta Sagrada del Dios Hablador:  Lima, Empresa Editora ElComercio, S.A., 78 p.
Secrets of Lost Empires:  Inca, 1995, NOVA program, available on video.
Squier, Ephraim George, 1877, Peru:  Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas:   New York, Harper Bros., 577 p.
Von Hagen, Victor, 1955, Highway of the Sun:  New York, Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 120 p.
Chmielinski, Piotr, 1987, Kayaking the Amazon:  National Geographic Magazine, v. 171, n. 4, p. 460 - 473.
Ewoks are a fictional race of small, bear-like creatures from George Lucas' Star Wars universe.
They first appeared in the film Return of the Jedi.
They live on the forests on the moon of the Planet Endor.
They often wear the skins or skulls of animals they have hunted.
The most famous Ewok is Wicket W. Warwik, a brave Ewok who destroyed an entire Imperial shield projector.
The Ewoks were also well known for their victory against the Empire in the "Battle of Endor".
Star Wars species
The Inca road system (El Camino Inca) of Peru was the most extensive among the many roads and trails that were constructed in pre-Columbian South America.
It went across the Andes mountains and reached heights of over 5,000 m (16,500 feet) above sea level.
The Inca road system covered approximately 22,500 kilometres (14,000 mi) and provided access to over three million km² of territory.
The trails were used by the Inca people as a means of relaying messages, carried via knotted-cord quipu and by memory; and for transporting goods.
Messages could be carried by runners covering as much as 240 km (150 mi) per day, working in relay fashion much like the Pony Express of the 1860s in North America.
There were approximately 2,000 inns, or tambos, placed at even intervals along the trails.
The inns provided food, shelter and military supplies to the tens of thousands who traveled the roads.
Main routes
The most important Inca road was the Camino Real, as it is known in Spanish, with a length of 5,200 km (3,230 mi).
It began in Quito, Ecuador, passed through Cusco, and ended in what is now Tucumán, Argentina.
The Camino Real went across the mountain ranges of the Andes, with peak altitudes of more than 5,000 m. El Camino de la Costa, the coastal trail, with a length of 4,000 km (2,420 mi), ran parallel to the sea and was linked with the Camino Real by many smaller routes.
Inca trail to Machu Picchu
By far the most popular of the Inca trails for trekking is the Capaq Nan trail, which leads from the village of Ollantaytambo to Machu Picchu, the so-called "Lost City of the Incas".
There are many well-preserved ruins along the way, and hundreds of thousands of tourists from around the world make the three- or four-day trek each year, accompanied by guides.
The Inca Trail to Machu Picchu is actually three routes, which all meet up near Inti-Pata, the 'Sun Gate' and entrance to Machu Picchu.
The three trails are known as the Mollepata, Classic and One Day trails, with Mollepata being the longest of the three.
Passing through the Andes mountain range and sections of the Amazon rainforest, the Trail passes several well-preserved Inca ruins and settlements before ending at the Sun Gate on Machu Picchu mountain.
The two longer routes require an ascent to beyond 12,000 ft (3,660 m) above sea level, which can result in altitude sickness.
Inca: Lords of Gold and Glory.
Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1992.
Andean World: Indigenous History: Culture and Consciousness by Kenneth Adrien.
Inca trail map
Inca trail tour
Interactive Map Interactive Map
Inca Trail to Machu Picchu Interactive Map
Inca Trail to Machu Picchu Information
Inca_civilization
Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc. is an American company that produces movies and at one time, television shows.
It is now one of the "Big Five" American movie studios and the oldest, busiest and most well-known member of the Sony Pictures Motion Picture Group, which is owned by the Japanese company Sony.
Sony Pictures also includes smaller studios like TriStar Pictures, Screen Gems, and Sony Pictures Animation.
The studio buildings are located at the Sony Pictures Studios lot in Culver City, California.
Formed in 1918 as CBC Film Sales by brothers Jack and Harry Cohn and their partner Joe Brandt, the studio started out very small.
It eventually adopted the "Columbia" name in 1924 and became better known and successful under president Harry Cohn and film director Frank Capra making Western movies, comedy movies, and short films.
After Harry Cohn died, the studio went under hard times in the 1960s and 1970s before being bought by the Coca-Cola Company in 1982.
It created a side project with CBS and HBO that became TriStar Pictures and started making more successful films again such as the Ghostbusters movies and The Karate Kid.
Coca-Cola spun off Columbia into its own company again in 1987, which at that point had fully bought TriStar and other companies such as Merv Griffin's company, which was known for making Wheel of Fortune and Jeopardy!.
In 1989, Sony Corporation decided to buy Columbia Pictures Entertainment, which included both Columbia and TriStar.
Under Sony, Columbia moved into the former MGM studios after years of sharing space with Warner Bros. Columbia and TriStar continued making their own movies and TV shows before combining under the Sony name in 1999.
Movies Columbia Pictures has made
Columbia is known for making movies such as Ghostbusters, The Karate Kid, Men in Black, Stuart Little, 21 Jump Street, Zombieland, Bad Boys, and several movies about The Three Stooges and Spider-Man.
It has also helped make a few James Bond movies with MGM.
TV studio
At one point, one of the only ways that Columbia was still making money in the 1960s and 70s was through its TV department, which was originally the first version of Screen Gems and later renamed Columbia Pictures Television.
TV shows that Columbia made through Screen Gems/CPT included I Dream of Jeannie, Days of Our Lives and Walker, Texas Ranger.
The TV department was eventually renamed "Columbia TriStar Television" and is now known as Sony Pictures Television, and the "Columbia" name is now only tied to movies.
Official Sony Pictures website
Sony Pictures Movies
SonyPictures.net
Jason was a hero in Greek mythology.
He was born in Thessaly, northern Greece.
Jason was the captain of the ship called the Argos.
The men who helped to sail the boat were called the Argonauts.
The word Argonaut comes from the name of the boat: Argo and the word ending -naut meaning "sailor".
Jason and the Argonauts went to find the Golden Fleece.
His father was Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcus.
Jason fell in love with the daughter of the Golden Fleece's owner.
Her name was Medea.
Medea helped Jason get the Golden Fleece from her father.
Jason and Medea killed the owner of the Golden Fleece and returned to Jason's city, Iolcus.
Medea then killed Jason's half-brother Pelias so Jason could be in charge.
When she was found out, Jason and Medea went to live in the Greek city of Corinth.
Jason then married the princess of Corinth so they could stay.
The story of Jason, the Argonauts, and the Golden Fleece is told in two modern movies: Hercules starring Steve Reeves, and Jason and the Argonauts starring Todd Armstrong.
A color code is a system for displaying information by using different colors.
Color codes are often difficult or impossible for blind and color blind people to understand.
Bottled gases
Electronic color code
Web colors for HTML color codes
25-pair color code
Hanky code
Jumper cables
Navigation lights, sea marks and characteristic lights
Ribbon colors see: :Category:Ribbon symbolism
U.S. Department of Homeland Security's Advisory System
Utility color codes
The Color Code is also the title of a book (References, Joseph et al.,
2002) combined with a nutritional practice by the same name in another book publication (Heber, 2001).
The Color Code combines food science, medical knowledge and nutritional practices to encourage consumer intake of colourful plant foods for achieving optimal health.
Heber D. What Color Is Your Diet?
The 7 Colors of Health, ReganBooks, HarperCollins, 2001,
Joseph JA, Nadeau DA, Underwood A. The Color Code: A Revolutionary Eating Plan for Optimum Health, Hyperion, 2002,
Complementary colors are pairs of opposite colors.
What is meant by opposite can be different between color science, and art and the printing process.
Color science
In color science "complementary colors" are colors opposite to each other on the color wheel.
Primary colors and secondary colors are typically paired in this way:
red and cyan ( red   cyan ) (where cyan is the mixture of green and blue)
green and magenta ( green   magenta ) (where magenta is the mixture of red and blue)
blue and yellow ( blue   yellow ) (where yellow is the mixture of red and green)
Afterimages
If a person stares at a single color for about a minute then looks at a white surface, an afterimage of the complementary color will appear.
This is because of eye fatigue.
For example, if the person stares at a red color, the photoreceptors (cells in the eye which catch colored light) for red light in the retina (the back part of the eye) become fatigued.
When photoreceptors are fatigued they are less able to send information to the brain.
If the person then looks at white light, all photoreceptors will send information.
Because the photoreceptors for red light are fatigued, the information they send will not be as strong as the information about the colors other than red and the illusion of seeing the complementary color is created.
blue and orange
yellow and purple
The complement of each primary color (red, blue, or yellow) is roughly the color made by mixing the other two in a subtractive system (red + blue = purple; blue + yellow = green; red + yellow = orange).
When two complements are mixed they produce a gray or brown.
The use of complementary colors is an important aspect of art and graphic design.
This also extends to other fields such as contrasting colors in logos and retail display.
On an artistic color wheel, complementary colors are placed opposite one another.
Although these artistic complements may not be precise complements under the scientific definition, most artistic color wheels are laid out roughly like the HSV color wheel discussed above.
For example, alcohol was illegal in USA during the 1920s.
However, people felt strongly against it, and made it legal again.
Battledress is a general term for the military uniform worn into combat, as opposed to 'display' dress and formal uniforms worn at parades and functions.
It may be either monochrome (often a shade of green or brown) or in military camouflage colours.
DPM: Disruptive Pattern Material by Hardy Blechman and Alex Newman, DPM Ltd. (2004)
Khaki: Uniforms of the CEF by Clive M. Law (Service Publications, 1998).
Dressed to Kill: Canadian Army Uniforms in World War Two by Michael Dorosh (Service Publications, 2001).
www.canadiansoldiers.com: extensive discussion of Canadian Army uniforms, insignia, and traditions from 1900-2000
SketchUp is a 3D modelling program made for architects, engineers, and moviemakers.
It is easier to use than most programs used for three dimensional drawings.
SketchUp was created by the company @Last Software and released in August 2000.
In 2006, @Last Software was bought by Google.
They released SketchUp6 in January 2007.
SketchUp6 can use add-ons that let things build with the program be made into files that can be used with Google Earth.
In 2012, SketchUp was bought by Trimble Navigation.
SketchUp official website
SketchUp Wiki The SketchUp Wiki
Islamism is a group of ideologies that say that Islamic nations should be run by sharia (Islamic laws).
Generally, it is the idea that Islam should guide both society and politics, as well as people's personal lives.
Important people who have inspired Islamist movements include Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Malcolm X, Ayatollah Khomeini, Sayyid Qutb, Muhammad Iqbal.
Poitiers is a city in France, the prefecture of the Vienne department in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region.
The town is picturesque; and its streets are interesting for their remains of ancient architecture, especially of the Romanesque period, and the memories of great historical events.
The city itself is very old.
It already existed as a Gaulish fort in the time when Julius Caesar came to Gaul.
It was the capital of the Pictones tribe.
Poitiers is in the centre of the Vienne department, between the valleys of the Boivre and the Clain rivers.
The old town is on the slopes and the summit of a plateau which rises 130 feet (40 m) above the streams which surround it on three sides.
Poitiers is at about  from Bordeaux,  from Paris,  from Limoges and  from Nantes.
The commune of Poitiers is surrounded by the communes:
The inhabitants of Poitiers are known, in French, as Pictaviens (women: Pictaviennes).
With a population of 87,435, Poitiers has a population density of  inhabitants/km2.
Poitiers forms, with seven other communes, the urban area of Poitiers with a population of 128,111 inhabitants (2013) and an area of .
This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Poitiers, formed by 97 communes, with a population of 257,233 inhabitants (2013) and an area of .
Poitiers is the prefecture of the Vienne department, the capital of the arrondissement of Poitiers and the administrative centre () of five canton:
Poitiers-1, with 23,086 inhabitants (2014).
Poitiers-2, with 25,371 inhabitants (2014).
Poitiers-3, with 26,843 inhabitants (2014).
Poitiers-4, with 20,756 inhabitants (2014).
Poitiers-5, with 22,170 inhabitants (2014).
It is part of the intercommunality Grand Poitiers ().
Northampton, UK
Marburg, Germany
Lafayette, USA
Yaroslavl, Russia
Moundou, Chad
Iaşi, Romania
René Descartes studied law at the University of Poitiers
Michel Foucault, French philosopher
Jean-Pierre Thiollet, French author
Brian Joubert, French ice skating champion
City council website (in French)
Visiting Poitiers (in English)
Tourisme Poitiers (official site, in French)
Tourism Poitiers  (official site, in English).
Valence is a city in the south of France, along the Rhône river.
It is in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in the Drôme department in France.
Asti, Italy, since 1966
Biberach an der Riss, Germany, since 1967
Clacton-on-Sea, United Kingdom, since 1969
Ijevan, Armenia, since 1996
Gedera, Israel, since 1997
Communes in Drôme
Valence-sur-Rhône, a city in the south of France, capital of the Drôme department
Valence-sur-Baïse, a city in the Gers region of France
Villages in France:
Valence (Charente), a village in Poitou-Charentes
Valence (Tarn-et-Garonne) a village near Agen
Valence-d'Albigeois, a village near Albi
Valence-en-Brie, a village near Melun
Valence (chemistry), a concept from chemistry
Valence band, a concepts from Physics
Valence quarks, a concepts from Physics
Valence (biology), a concept from biology
An anvil is a hard piece of metal which is used as a workbench when making things out of iron or steel.
An anvil is used by a blacksmith when he needs to hammer hot iron to bend it into the shape he wants.
A blacksmith can make new shoes for horses.
Anvils were known in the Bronze Age and possibly earlier.
They were used in Ancient Greece and Ancient Egypt.
They are still in use today, although not nearly as much as 100 years ago when there were many more horses.
Anvils are extremely heavy.
They are made in different sizes.
The 17th century writer John Bunyan was a tinker (someone who mends pots and pans).
He walked around the villages of Bedfordshire with a small anvil and a few tools on his back.
His anvil was wedge-shaped, so that he could knock it into the ground when he needed to do a repair.
His anvil is now in the John Bunyan museum in Bedford.
Use as a musical instrument
The anvil has sometimes been used as a percussion instrument because it makes a very loud sound when hit by the hammer.
Usually musicians use a metal bar mounted on a sound-box.
This sounds just as good as a real anvil (which would be very heavy to carry around).
Verdi wrote some famous music called the Anvil Chorus in his opera Il Trovatore.
Wagner asked for 18 anvils in Das Rheingold in the scene which takes place below the earth where the Nibelungs are working at their forges.
Albert Parlow wrote an Anvil Polka, Varèse used an anvil in Ionisation, Walton uses an anvil in Belshazzar’s Feast and there is an anvil in the orchestra in Howard Shore's music for The Lord of the Rings movie trilogy.
The Inca were a pre-Columbian civilization and empire in the Andes of South America.
The word Inca can also mean the emperor or king of the Inca people.
It was the largest empire in the Americas, and was large even by world standards.
It existed shortly before Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas.
The Inca ruled along the western coast of South America for a little over 100 years, until the Spanish invasion in the 16th century.
The empire was centred around the city of Cusco, or Qosqo, in what is now southern Peru.
This was the administrative, political and military center of the empire.
In later years, it was also centred around Quito.
The Inca were ruled by an Emperor known as the Sapa Inca.
Throughout their empire, they built many roads and bridges to make travel  between their communities easy.
The Inca Empire was called  in Quechua, which means "four regions".
The empire only lasted for about 100 years as the arrival of the conquering Spaniards in 1532 AD marked the end of their reign.
Their main language was Quechua, but as the Empire was made up of many different groups there were probably many different languages as well.
The Inca Empire began around Lake Titicaca in about 1197.
From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used conquest and non-violent assimilation to gain a large portion of western South America.
Their empire centered on the Andean mountain ranges.
It included large parts of what is now Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile.
In 1533, Atahualpa, the last sovereign emperor, was executed by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro.
That meant the beginning of Spanish rule in South America.
The Inca Empire was supported by an economy based on the collective ownership of the land.
Popenoe, Hugh et al 1989.
Lost crops of the Incas.
Washington DC: National Academy Press.
De la Vega, Garcilaso 1961.
The Incas: the royal commentaries of the Inca.
New York: The Orion Press.
McNeill, William H. 2006.
How the potato changed the world's history.
Social Research 66 1.
Conquest of Peru, Prescott, 1847 Full text, free to read and search, a definitive history of the Incas.
One of the most readable and engaging history books of all time.
Humankind lost a civilization of impressive societal value.
Inca Land by Hiram Bingham (published 1912–1922)
Inca Artifacts, Peru, and Machu Picchu 360 degree movies of inca artifacts and Peruvian landscapes.
Inca civilization and other ancient civilizations by Genry Joil.
Inca stone cutting techniques: theory on how the Inca walls fit so perfectly.
Ancient Civilizations - Inca Great research site for kids.
Incan Ice Mummies NOVA site based on their series about the 1996 expedition that discovered Incan ice mummies.
Incan Religion
1197 establishments
1532 disestablishments
Former monarchies of South America
Sorenson, John L. and Johannessen, Carl L. (2006) "Biological Evidence for Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Voyages."
In: Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World.
Victor H. Mair.
University of Hawai'i Press.
238–297.
Central Andes Prehistoric Sequence
Duct tape, sometimes called duck tape, is a very strong adhesive tape with a cloth backing .
Usually duct tape is grey or black, but it is made in other colors including transparent, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, flames, zebra stripe, leopard spot, tye dye, and others.
People use duct tape to repair many things, for example a broken handbag or a broken chair.
Duct tape was designed during World War I. It was first used to keep water out of ammunition cases.
It was found to work so well that people started using it to fix many other things.
Duct tape was also called "100 mph tape" by the military because it is said the tape will still stick in winds at speeds of 100 miles per hour.
Duct tape got its name from its use on heating and air conditioning ducts but oddly enough, that is the one use that the tape is not very good for.
It is illegal in California to use duct tape on ducts and most professional builders in the United States are not allowed to use it either.
In the United States, people use duct tape in many action movies and television shows.
Strips of duct tape can be used to tie a person up because it is very hard to get them off.
Duct tape is also great for making things like wallets, purses, clothes, and sometimes even sculptures.
The use of it as an art medium is fairly new, though.
A text editor is a program that is run on a computer that can create and change text.
The text can be saved into a file that is called a "text file".
Text editors can be used for a lot of things.
Many people use them to write documents.
Some people write code (like HTML or C++) using a text editor.
Some text editors can edit rich text.
Rich text allows bold text, italic text, and other things.
This is why rich text is different form "text file" which do not have bold text or italic text properties.
Most text editors today support "search and replace".
A computer will quickly find some text the user wants.
The user can tell the computer to replace the found text with something else.
This can be in part or all of the document.
Copy, cut and paste are other common options in text editors.
Copy allows users to instantly add a copy of text in one place to another place.
Cut and paste are similar, except that the text is moved from one place to another instead of being copied.
This is very useful when a writer wishes to put his paragraphs in a different order, for example.
Sometimes users make mistakes, or need to do the same thing over and over without getting bored.
This is what the undo and redo features do.
Users can reverse their mistakes, or quickly repeat their actions.
Some text editors allow many mistakes in a row to be reversed; others allow only one or two.
This article is about the chemical concept of valence, or valency.
Other meanings are at valence.
For a long time, people thought that this number was a fixed property of the element in question.
They thought that carbon always has four bonds, oxygen always has two, and hydrogen always has one.
The problem was seen only later.
For example, phosphorous sometimes behaves as if it had three bonds, a valence of three.
At other times, though, it seems to have five bonds.
IUPAC saw this problem, and proposed oxidation numbers.
This means there is one number per chemical element.
The problem with this approach is that it leaves aside most chemical properties of the elements in question.
"Valence" from the IUPAC Gold Book (PDF file)
This article is about a village in Poutou-Charentes, other meanings of the word are at Valence
Valence is a village in France, in Poitou-Charentes.
It is near Angoulême.
In 1999, 240 people lived there.
Communes in Charente
This article is about a village in the french department Tart-et-Garonne.
Other meanings are at Valence
Valence is a village in the Midi-Pyrénées region of France.
It is in the department Tarn-et-Garonne.
In 1999, about 4800 people lived there.
Together with 23 other, similar villages, it formed the Communauté de communes des Deux Rives.
In that structure (that is, in all the villages together) there are about 15.500 people.
Valence is located 25 km from Agen, 45 km from  Montauban, 60 km from Cahors,  90 km from Toulouse and 160 km from  Bordeaux
Communes in Tarn-et-Garonne
This article is about a village near Albi.
Valence-d'Albigeois is a village in the department of Tarn, in French region Midi-Pyrénées.
It is near Albi.
In 1999, 1142 people lived there.
Communes in Tarn
This article is about a village near Melun.
Valence-en-Brie is a village in the Île-de-France region in France.
It is located near Melun in the department Seine-et-Marne.
In 1999, 583 people lived there.
Communes in Seine-et-Marne
This article is about the medieval bastide near Condom-en-Armagnac.
Valence-sur-Baïse is a city in the Gers department of the Midi-Pyrénees region in France.
It is near Condom-en-Armagnac.
It was founded in 1274 by Gerald V, Count of Armagnac, and the Cistercian Abbey of Flaran as a Bastide (a fortified city).
In 1999, 1151 people lived there.
There is an old cisercian abbey at the place.
Today the abbey serves as a cultural center.
There is also a public washing basin, and a port, where ships can land.
Bastides
A bastide is a fortified town.
They were built mainly in the south of France in the Middle Ages.
Most bastides were built between 1229 and 1373, between the Albigensian Crusade and the Hundred Years' War.
Today, there are about 400 bastides.
They all have a central square, and a rectangular street layout.
On the market square, the houses have arcades.
They were usually built in places that were easy to defend, such as the top of a hill or on a plain.
Bastides are medieval cities.
There is an act of foundation (a law made to start them).
There are often historic documents written about them.
Some times they are planned cities and are usually only one architect (or one lord) designs it.
They were often built where there was already a village, or at a place of historical importance.
They were sometimes also built where people bought and sold things a lot (for example where trading routes crossed).
The Treaty of Paris (1229) is sometimes seen as the foundation act which made the construction of modern cities and bastides possible.
The treaty itself ended the Albigensian Crusade.
One of the first bastides built was Montauban.
Montauban became a city in 1144.
However some consider Mont-de-Marsan which was founded in 1133 to be a bastide.
Most bastides were built in the countryside.
They were basically to serve the needs of local trade (usually, agriculture).
A few of them were built in places which were very easy to defend.
Others were built where it was possible to defend them, but most bastides were simply built where they were needed.
The time when they were built was a peaceful one in the region.
Builders of Bastides
The counts of Toulouse,  Raymond VII and Alphonse of Poitiers.
The kings of France, Louis IX, Philippe III, and Philippe IV.
The kings of England, Edward I, Edward II and Edward III.
High-ranking seneschals, Doat Alaman, Eustache of Beaumarchès and Jean of Grailly.
They did this in the name of their lords.
Local lords, namely the counts of Foix, of Comminges and Astarac.
Religious authorities, such as monasteries and abbeys.
Central square
The main feature of all bastides is a central, open place, or square.
A typical square, (which was probably a model for other bastides), can be found in Montauban.
Generally, there is just one square.
Saint-Lys and Albias are different because they have two squares, one for the market, and one square for the church.
The square is also used to divide the city into quarters.
Generally it lies outside the main street (the axis) which carried the traffic.
There are three possible layouts:
completely closed: The square does not touch any street.
These are very rare; there is one example at Tournay with a size of  by ).
single-axis: These happen because of the single-axis design of the bastide.
All roads run in one direction and are parallel.
Here and there there are alleys cut between the roads.
The square is placed between two roads.
These squares are usually  to  on each side.
grid-layout; usually based on the square in Montauban.
Except in very rare cases, the church was not on the central square.
Usually it was at an angle, and faced the square diagonally.
One of the rare exceptions is Villefranche-de-Rouergue.
There were clear rules how houses could be built in the bastide.
The front of the houses - the façades - had to line up.
Also there had to be a small space between the houses.
The different housing lots were all alike,  by  was a common size.
There were only a limited number of lots.
This varied between 10, and several thousand (3,000 in Grenade-sur-Garonne)
The streets were usually  –  wide, so a chariot could pass through.
They ran alongside the façades of the houses.
Alleys run between streets, these are usually only  –  wide.
Sometimes they are only  –  wide.
When bastides were founded most had no city walls or fortifications.
This was because it was a peaceful time in history.
Such things were added later.
This was done either through a special tax, or through a law that required that the people of the city helped build the walls.
A good example is Libourne.
Ten years after the city was founded, the people asked for money to build city walls.
Once they had received the money, they spent it on making their city prettier, rather than building walls.
At the beginning of the Hundred Years' War, many bastides that had no city walls were destroyed.
Some of the others quickly built stone walls, to protect the city.
Layout of a bastide
There are different base layouts for bastides.
Often for each type of layout, there was a bastide that was an example for other bastides.
The most common layout started from two perpendicular streets.
New streets were made parallel to the two original streets.
This led to a usually rectangular grid layout.
Unstructured bastide
There seems to have been no plan when these bastides were built.
This may have been for the following reasons:
They were built in a place where there already was a hamlet or village and the bastide had to allow for the buildings.
There were very few people who lived in the bastide, (which means the reason for the bastide failed).
The lords who built them had little or no authority to put their ideas into practice.
Circular bastide
The circle layout for a bastide was very rare.
The only surviving example is in Fourcès.
Enclosing type
Enclosing bastides were built around an existing small village or hamlet.
There already was a church or a small group of houses.
When new houses were built, they were added around the original buildings.
One axis design
There is one main street that links the two gates.
This makes the axis around which the bastide was built.
These are quite common, with about 30—40% of all bastides using this design.
Very often they are found on flat land.
The square is often made by making the main street bigger.
Very often there are alleys which run perpendicular to the main street.
This layout is very easy to change to fit in with the local landscape.
An example of a one axis bastide is Gimont.
Gimont is  long, and only  wide.
Sometimes, there is another street which runs parallel to the main axis.
The city square is made between the two streets.
Two axis design
There are two main streets, axes, which are perpendicular (make a right angle).
All other streets are at a right angle, or parallel to one of the two main streets.
The city square is very often in the centre, or very near the centre.
The whole city is either rectangular, square, hexagonal or oval shaped.
This layout was the plan used at the height of the bastide movement.
Making a bastide
Choosing a place where the baside can be built.
Choosing a name for it; there are different options:
Telling about the privileges of citizenship: Villefranche, La Bastide.
Telling about the site where it is built; Monségur or Montastruc tell about the fact the place was easy to defend or a pleasant one to live in.
The name tells about foreign cities the lord has visited when he went abroad, like for a crusade or for a war: Pavie, Fleurance (for Florence), Grenade, Cordes (for Cordoba), Tournay (for Tournai in Flanders ), but also Bruges (Bruges, also in Flanders) and Gan (Ghent, in Belgium).
Name of the founding nobleman, for example Libourne is named after Leyburn.
The authority of a king: Montréal (means: mountain of the king).
A contract is made between the noblemen who owned the land, and who (co-)founded the city.
A plan of what the city should look like is drawn.
Once all this steps are done, the bastide is not yet founded.
The next step is to attract people to come live in the new city.
This is done by making a Charta of customs.
This Charta does not tell so much about customs, but rather about the privileges those that live there (the citizens) get.
These privileges can be of different kinds:
Based on taxes: Those that live in the city have to pay less taxes.
Based on a given legal status.
Based on honorifics.
Bastides wanted to attract people who should come to live there.
They therefore offered equality to those who came to live there.
They made it look like citizens had equal rights, and were free.
Legal foundations for bastides
The social system was very fixed and unchanging during the Middle Ages.
The system of laws of the Middle Ages was built on the fact that society did not change.
Everyone had their place in the system and they stayed there.
The lords who built the bastide did not want to change the social system.
All they wanted was small local improvements.
Usually, the land where the bastide was built was not developed.
The lords that owned the land were not making much money from it.
They built the bastide because they hoped they would get more profits from the land.
For these reasons, people who already had a social status, (serfs, noblemen and priests) could not settle in the bastide.
A few poor noblemen gave their land to the city and started a career as a trader, because that way they could earn more money than before.
When they came to the city, they had equal chances of being able to live there, and being made a citizen (Not all people who lived in the bastide were citizens).
On paper, all citizens had equal rights and duties.
Men and women did not have equal rights.
Women are often mentioned in the Charter, and have some rights:
In most of the bastides, husbands did not have the right to beat their wives.
There are special rules regarding dowry.
Sometimes even men have to pay it.
Lepers were usually not welcome in the city.
Certain bastides had special places which would treat them, but they were generally excluded from social life.
They had to wear special badges to show they were ill, and they could not come close to normal people.
Another group of people that was generally not welcome were the Jews.
In the beginning there was no problem, but later Jews were persecuted.
Philip IV of France did not allow any Jews to live in France, in 1306.
He confiscated their belongings and sold them.
Later developments
A number of bastides were successful and still exist today.
Many others have failed, and most of their population left them.
Many bastides failed to take off, and disappeared, as new people did not come to live there.
Those that are left see an economic growth that changes the way south-eastern France is organised.
During the Hundred Years' War the bastides that are left, are forced to build city walls to defend themselves.
Those that do not disappear from the map during the war.
After the end of the war, there is prosperity again.
The position of the bourgeoisie is strengthened.
Long-distance roads are built and the bastides along these roads profit enormously.
In the 19th and 20th centuries people left the countryside to move to the cities.
During this time bastides are tested again, and some disappear.
This is about an architecture.
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In architecture, an Arcade is a passage or a walkway that is covered by arches or vaults.
It can also be a covered walkway with arches (towards a place or a street).
Camouflage: protective colouration of living things
Military camouflage used for uniforms, vehicles and ships
Camouflage (band), a German synth-pop band
Camouflage (book), a science fiction novel by Joe Haldeman
Camouflage (TV series) short-lived U.S. game show on TV from 1961-1962
A song by Stan Ridgway from 1986 ("I was a PFC on a search patrol hunting Charlie down...")
Camouflage is a type of clothing, fabric covering, or painted pattern used by militaries and armies to make it harder to see soldiers and weapons such as artillery guns and military vehicles.
Camouflage clothes, fabric coverings, and paint use a colored pattern of several colors that is designed to blend in with the surroundings.
Camouflage patterns are also used for hunting clothes.
Types of camouflage patterns
Camouflage patterns used in desert areas, are beige and light brown.
Camouflage patterns used in forested areas, mix different green and brown colors.
Camouflage patterns used in urban areas mix grey, white, and black colors.
Camouflage for snowy areas use white colors to blend in with the snow.
Camouflage became an important part of modern military tactics when the accuracy of rifles and cannons improved at the end of the 1800s.
But armies continued to use bright colours and designs until the 20th century.
During World War II camouflage became a common feature in military uniforms.
As well, many military vehicles such as planes and trucks were painted with camouflage patterns.
Alan Raven - The Development of Naval Camouflage 1914 – 1945
Roy R. Behrens - Art and Camouflage: An Annotated Bibliography
U.S. Army manual FM 21-76 on camouflage
Guy Hartcup - Camouflage: A History of Concealment and Deception in War (1980)
WWII War Department Field Manual FM 5-20B: Camouflage of Vehicles (1944)
History of British Military Uniforms.
Henrik Clausen
Kamouflage.net
Crye Precision's Multicam multi-environment pattern
Roggenwolf digital camouflage
Hyperstealth Biotechnology fractal camouflage
The Assyrians call it the Sayfo, the Aramaic word for "sword".
Many Assyrians were considered unpure by the Turks and were massacred for not giving up Christianity and becoming Muslims.
Assyrians lost their homes and possessions to the sultan, Adulhamed the Red.
Even before the genocide, they had been persecuted and forced to pay high taxes.
Since ancient times and the conquest by the Babylonians, the Assyrians have not have had their own nation.
Their diaspora has spread over to many different countries.
Under the Arabs and the Turks, they were oppressed and forced assimilated to the empires, and many lost their independence.
Those who have survived keep their common unity, especially in their deep Christian faith.
Personal experience quoted from the Assyrian Voice
Overview of the massacre
The Assyrian genocide (also known as Sayfo or Seyfo) was committed against the Assyrian population of the Ottoman Empire during the First World War by the Young Turks.
The Assyrian population of northern Mesopotamia included the Tur Abdin, Hakkari, Van, Siirt regions of present-day southeastern Turkey and the Urmia region of northwestern Iran.
They were forcibly relocated and massacred by Ottoman (Turkish) and Kurdish forces between 1914 and 1920 under the regime of the Young Turks.
The Assyrian genocide took place in the same context and time-period as the Armenian and Greek genocides.
But unlike these, no official national or international recognition of the Assyrian genocide has been made, and many accounts discuss the Assyrian genocide as a part of the larger events subsumed under the Armenian genocide.
The Democratic Republic of Georgia (DRG; Georgian: საქართველოს დემოკრატიული რესპუბლიკა, Sakartvelos Demokratiuli Respublika), 1918–1921, was the first modern establishment of a Republic of Georgia.
Georgia's capital was Tbilisi, and its state language was Georgian.
Created on May 26, 1918, on the break-up of the Transcaucasian Federation, it was led by the Social Democratic Menshevik party.
Facing permanent internal and external problems, the young state was not able to withstand the invasion by the Russian SFSR Red Armies.
It collapsed between February and March of 1921 to become a Soviet republic.
1920s disestablishments in Europe
Alternative rock  is a type of rock music that started between 1979-1981 and popular by 1992.
Alternative rock is made up of various subgenres that have come out of the indie music scene since the 1980s, such as grunge, indie rock, Britpop, gothic rock, and indie pop.
Anne Sullivan (April 14, 1866 – October 20, 1936) was a teacher best known as the tutor of Helen Keller.
Anne Sullivan married John Macy in 1905.
Her health started getting worse in 1914, and she died on October 20, 1936 holding hands with Helen Keller.
Anne Sullivan was born in Feeding Hills, Hampden County, Massachusetts.
Her parents, Thomas Sullivan and Alice Clohessy, were poor Irish farmers who left Ireland in 1847 because of the Irish Potato Famine.
Sullivan taught Helen Keller sign language.
Anne and Helen lived together in Forest Hills, Queens, New York and Anne died there on October 20, 1936.
Anne was Helen's favorite teacher.
Helen wrote the book 'Teacher' about Anne.
American teachers
Educators from Massachusetts
The Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra is an orchestra based in Belgrade, Serbia.
Its founder was Stevan Hristić, one of the most important Serbian composers and conductors.
The  first concert of the Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra took place on  April 28, 1923 with Hristić conducting.
The orchestra was the best orchestra in Yugoslavia.
By the 1960s it had become one of the best orchestras in Europe.
Then, during the 1990s there were wars in the areas which made up Yugoslavia.
For a time the orchestra were not allowed to play abroad.
It was a difficult time for them, and many players left.