the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Standardized textbook classification
A somewhat standardized classification system has been adopted by most current mammalogy classroom textbooks.
It is based on living animals.
The following taxonomy of extant and recently extinct mammals is from Vaughan et al.
Subclass Prototheria: monotremes: platypuses and echidnas
Subclass Theria: live-bearing mammals
Infraclass Metatheria: marsupials
Infraclass Eutheria: placentals
List of living orders
Monotremes (monotremata)
Marsupials (marsupialia)
Superorder Xenarthra
Order Pilosa
Order Cingulata
Superorder Afrotheria
Order Proboscidea
Superorder Laurasiatheria
Insectivora (no longer used)
Order Eulipotyphla
Order Chiroptera
Order Carnivora
Order Perissodactyla
Order Artiodactyla
Order Cetacea
Superorder Euarchontoglires
Order Rodentia
Order Lagomorpha
Order Primates
Debate on the meaning of "mammalia"
Because two quite different dates are given in the taxobox, an explanation is needed.
Rowe defines mammals as "the taxon originating with the most recent common ancestor of extant (living) Monotremata and Theria".
That puts the emphasis heavily on living mammals, where, as Rowe points out, the database of characters is extensive.
"An altogether different perspective on defining Mammalia is based on traditional palaeobiological practice.
An arbitrary decision is made about which characters to select as defining characters... Characters deemed appropriate are those reflecting the... fundamental mammalian biology.
The essence of mammalian life is to be found in their endothermic temperature physiology, greatly enlarged brain, dentition capable of chewing food, highly agile, energetic locomotion, and so on.
The organisms that achieved this grade of overall organisation are deemed to be Mammalia... Around the end of the Triassic period, about 205 mya, a number of fossils are found of very small animals that have [most] of the skeletal characters of modern mammals".
A number is a concept from mathematics, used to count or measure.
Depending on the field of mathematics, where numbers are used, there are different definitions:
People use symbols to represent numbers; they call them numerals.
Common places where numerals are used are for labeling, as in telephone numbers, for ordering, as in serial numbers, or to put a unique identifier, as in an ISBN, a unique number that can identify a book.
Cardinal numbers are used to measure how many items are in a set.
For example, {A,B,C} has size "3".
Ordinal numbers are used to specify a certain element in a set or sequence (first, second, third).
Numbers are also used for other things like counting.
Numbers are used when things are measured.
Numbers are used to study how the world works.
Mathematics is a way to use numbers to learn about the world and make things.
The study of the rules of the natural world is called science.
The work that uses numbers to make things is called engineering.
Numbering methods
Numbers for people
There are different ways of giving symbols to numbers.
These methods are called number systems.
The most common number system that people use is the base ten number system.
The base ten number system is also called the decimal number system.
The base ten number system is common because people have ten fingers and ten toes.
There are 10 different symbols {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9} used in the base ten number system.
These ten symbols are called digits.
A symbol for a number is made up of these ten digits.
The position of the digits shows how big the number is.
For example, the number 23 in the decimal number system really means (2 times 10) plus 3.
Similarly, 101 means 1 times a hundred (=100) plus 0 times 10 (=0) plus 1 times 1 (=1).
Numbers for machines
Another number system is more common for machines.
The machine number system is called the binary number system.
The binary number system is also called the base two number system.
There are two different symbols (0 and 1) used in the base two number system.
These two symbols are called bits.
A symbol for a binary number is made up of these two bit symbols.
The position of the bit symbols shows how big the number is.
For example, the number 10 in the binary number system really means 1 times 2 plus 0, and 101 means 1 times four (=4) plus 0 times two (=0) plus 1 times 1 (=1).
The binary number 10 is the same as the decimal number 2.
The binary number 101 is the same as the decimal number 5.
Names of numbers
English has special names for some of the numbers in the decimal number system that are "powers of ten".
All of these power of ten numbers in the decimal number system use just the symbol "1" and the symbol "0".
For example, ten tens is the same as ten times ten, or one hundred.
In symbols, this is "10 × 10 = 100".
Also, ten hundreds is the same as ten times one hundred, or one thousand.
In symbols, this is "10 × 100 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000".
Some other powers of ten also have special names:
1 – one
10 – ten
100 – one hundred
1,000 – one thousand
1,000,000 – one million
When dealing with larger numbers than this, there are two different ways of naming the numbers in English.
Under the "long scale", a new name is given every time the number is a million times larger than the last named number.
It is also called the "British Standard".
This scale used to be common in Britain, but is not often used in English-speaking countries today.
It is still used in some other European nations.
Another scale is the "short scale", under which a new name is given every time a number is a thousand times larger than the last named number.
This scale is a lot more common in most English-speaking nations today.
1,000,000,000 – one billion (short scale), one milliard (long scale)
1,000,000,000,000 – one trillion (short scale), one billion (long scale)
1,000,000,000,000,000 – one quadrillion (short scale), one billiard (long scale)
Natural numbers are the numbers which we normally use for counting: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, etc.
Some people say that 0 is a natural number, too.
The set of all natural numbers is written as .
Another name for these numbers is positive numbers.
These numbers are sometimes written as +1 to show that they are different from the negative numbers.
But not all positive numbers are natural (for example,  is positive, but not natural).
If 0 is called a natural number, then the natural numbers are the same as the whole numbers.
If 0 is not called a natural number, then the natural numbers are the same as the counting numbers.
So if the words "natural numbers" are not used, then there will be less confusion about whether zero is included or not.
But unfortunately, some say that zero is not a whole number, while others say that whole numbers can be negative. "
Positive integers" and "non-negative integers" are another way to include zero or exclude zero, but only if people know those words.
One way to think of negative numbers is to use a number line.
We call one point on this line zero.
Then we will label (write the name of) every position on the line by how far to the right of the zero point is.
For example, the point one is one centimeter to the right, and the point two is two centimeters to the right.
However, the point one centimeter to the left of the zero point cannot be point one, since there is already a point called one.
We therefore call this point minus one (−1, as it is one centimeter away but in the opposite direction).
Adding a negative number to another is the same as taking away the positive number with the same numerals.
For example, 5 + (−3) is the same as 5 − 3, and equals 2.
Taking away a negative number from another is the same as adding the positive number with the same numerals.
For example, 5 − (−3) is the same as 5 + 3, and equals 8.
Multiplying two negative numbers together produces a positive number.
For example, −5 times −3 is 15.
Multiplying a negative number by a positive number, or multiply a positive number by a negative number, produces a negative result.
For example, 5 times −3 is −15.
Since finding the square root of a negative number is impossible for real numbers (as negative times negative equals positive for real numbers), the square root of -1 is given a special name: i. This is also called the imaginary unit.
Integers are all the natural numbers, all their opposites, and the number zero.
Decimal numbers and fractions are not integers.
Rational numbers are numbers which can be written as fractions.
This means that they can be written as a divided by b, where the numbers a and b are integers, and b is not zero.
Some rational numbers, such as 1/10, need a finite number of digits after the decimal point to write them in decimal form.
The number one tenth is written in decimal form as 0.1.
Numbers written with a finite decimal form are rational.
Some rational numbers, such as 1/11, need an infinite number of digits after the decimal point to write them in decimal form.
There is a repeating pattern to the digits following the decimal point.
The number one eleventh is written in decimal form as 0.0909090909 ... .
A percentage could be called a rational number, because a percentage like 7% can be written as the fraction 7/100.
It can also be written as the decimal 0.07.
Sometimes, a ratio is considered as a rational number.
Irrational numbers
Irrational numbers often occur in geometry.
For example, if we have a square which has sides of 1 meter, the distance between opposite corners is the square root of two, which equals 1.414213 ... .
This is an irrational number.
Mathematicians have proved that the square root of every natural number is either an integer or an irrational number.
One well-known irrational number is pi.
This is the circumference (distance around) of a circle divided by its diameter (distance across).
This number is the same for every circle.
The number pi is approximately 3.1415926535 ... .
An irrational number cannot be fully written down in decimal form.
It would have an infinite number of digits after the decimal point, and unlike 0.333333 ..., these digits would not repeat forever.
The rational numbers, including integers
The irrational numbers
The real numbers form the real line.
This is all the numbers that do not involve imaginary numbers.
Imaginary numbers
There is no number in the real numbers which when squared, makes the number −1.
Therefore, mathematicians invented a number.
They called this number i, or the imaginary unit.
The sum of two imaginary numbers is found by pulling out (factoring out) the i. For example, 2i + 3i = (2 + 3)i = 5i.
The difference of two imaginary numbers is found similarly.
For example, 5i − 3i = (5 − 3)i = 2i.
When multiplying two imaginary numbers, remember that i × i (i2) is −1.
For example, 5i × 3i = ( 5 × 3 ) × ( i × i ) = 15 × (−1) = −15.
Imaginary numbers were called imaginary because when they were first found, many mathematicians did not think they existed.
The person who discovered imaginary numbers was Gerolamo Cardano in the 1500s.
The first to use the words imaginary number was René Descartes.
The first people to use these numbers were Leonard Euler and Carl Friedrich Gauss.
Both lived in the 18th century.
Complex numbers are numbers which have two parts; a real part and an imaginary part.
Every type of number written above is also a complex number.
Complex numbers are a more general form of numbers.
The complex numbers can be drawn on a number plane.
This is composed of a real number line, and an imaginary number line.
3i|_
2i|_          .
2+2i
i|_
|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|
−2    −1     0     1     2     3     4     5     6
−i|_                .3−i
.−2−2i   −2i|_
−3i|_
To add two complex numbers, add the real and imaginary parts separately.
For example, (2 + 3i) + (3 + 2i)  = (2 + 3) + (3 + 2)i= 5 + 5i.
To subtract one complex number from another, subtract the real and imaginary parts separately.
For example, (7 + 5i) − (3 + 3i) = (7 − 3) + (5 − 3)i = 4 + 2i.
To multiply two complex numbers is more complicated.
It is easiest to describe in general terms, with two complex numbers a + bi and c + di.
Transcendental numbers
A real or complex number is called a transcendental number if it can not be obtained as a result of an algebraic equation with integer coefficients.
Proving that a certain number is transcendental can be extremely difficult.
Each transcendental number is also an irrational number.
The first people to see that there were transcendental numbers were Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Leonhard Euler.
The first to actually prove there were transcendental numbers was Joseph Liouville.
He did this in 1844.
ea for algebraic a ≠ 0
November (Nov.) is the eleventh month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between October and December.
Its name is from the Latin word novem, which means "nine".
It was the ninth month of the year before January and February were added to the Roman Calendar.
November always begins on the same day of the week as March, and additionally, February in common years.
November always ends on the same day of the week as August.
November is the eleventh month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, after October and before December, which is the last month.
November has 30 days.
It was the ninth month in the old Roman calendar, which is where its name comes from.
It kept its name when January and February were added to the beginning of the year, despite becoming the eleventh month.
The ninth month is now September.
November begins on the same day of the week as February in common years and March every year, as each other's first days are exactly 39 weeks (273 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively.
November ends on the same day of the week as August every year, as each other's last days are exactly 13 weeks (91 days) apart.
In common years, November starts on the same day of the week as June of the previous year, and in leap years, September and December of the previous year.
In common years, November finishes on the same day of the week as March and June of the previous year, and in leap years, September of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, November starts on the same day of the week as August of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, May of the following year.
In years immediately before common years, November finishes on the same day of the week as May of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, February and October of the following year.
In the Northern Hemisphere, November is an Autumn (Fall) month, and the further north in the hemisphere, the more likely it is to get colder as December approaches.
In the Southern Hemisphere it is a Spring month.
In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of May in the other.
Several observances around the beginning of the month are believed to be related, linked to the old Celtic celebration of Samhain on November 1.
These events include Halloween (October 31), Day of the Dead in Mexico (October 31 to November 2), All Saints Day (November 1) and All Souls Day (November 2).
In several mainly Christian countries, it is month in which people who died in war are commonly remembered, mainly related to the end of World War I on November 11, 1918.
Near the end of the month Advent, the period leading up to Christmas, begins.
Events in November
October 31 to November 2  Day of the Dead (Mexico)
October 31/November 1  Samhain, Celtic and Pagan celebration.
November 1  All Saints Day (Christian); this is the day after Halloween.
November 1  Independence Day (Antigua and Barbuda)
November 1  World Vegan Day
November 1  Day of the Leaders of the Bulgarian National Revival.
November 1  Foundation Day (Kerala and Karnataka, India).
November 2  All Souls Day (Christian)
November 2  Statehood Day (North Dakota and South Dakota, US)
November 3  Independence Day (Panama)
November 3  Independence Day (Dominica)
November 3  Independence Day (Federated States of Micronesia)
November 4  Flag Day (Panama)
November 4  National Unity  and Armed Forces Day (Italy)
November 4  Unity Day (Russia)
November 5  Guy Fawkes Night (United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand)
November 6  Constitution Day (Dominican Republic)
November 9  Independence Day (Cambodia)
November 9  Schicksalstag (Germany), several historical events in German history occurred on this date.
November 10  National Heroes Day (Indonesia)
November 10  United States Marine Corps Birthday
November 10  Atatürk Remembrance Day (Turkey)
November 11  Remembrance Day (UK), or Veterans Day (US).
At 11 am on 11 November 1918 the guns of the Western Front fell silent after more than four years of continuous warfare.
The Allied nations chose this day and time for the commemoration of their war dead and continue to do so by marking a 1–2 minute silence at 11 am on November 11 each year.
The time of the remembrance is also known as the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month.
November 11  Christian feast day of Saint Martin of Tours.
November 11  Independence Day (Poland)
November 11  Independence Day (Angola)
November 14  Children's Day (India)
November 14  World Diabetes Day
November 15  Republic Proclamation Day (Brazil)
November 15  Independence Day (Palestine)
November 16  Icelandic language Day
November 16  International Day of Tolerance.
November 16  Day of Declaration of Sovereignty (Estonia)
November 18  Independence Day (Latvia)
November 18  Birthday of Sultan Qaboos (Oman)
November 19  National Day of Monaco
November 19  International Men's Day
November 19  World Toilet Day
November 19  Flag Day (Brazil)
November 19  Liberation Day (Mali)
November 20  Revolution Day (Mexico)
November 20  Transgender Day of Remembrance (United States)
November 20  Day of National Sovereignty (Argentina)
November 22  Independence Day (Lebanon)
November 22  Day of the Albanian Alphabet
November 23  Saint George's Day in Georgia.
November 24  Lachit Divas (Assam in India)
November 25  Independence Day (Suriname)
November 25  National Day of Bosnia and Herzegovina
November 25  Christian feast day of Saint Catherine of Alexandria
November 28  Independence Day (Albania)
November 28  Independence Day (Mauritania)
November 28  Republic Day (Burundi and Chad)
November 29  International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People
November 29  Liberation Day (Albania)
November 29  Tubman Day (Liberia)
November 30  Saint Andrew's Day (Scotland)
November 30  Independence Day (Barbados)
November 30  Last day of the North Atlantic Hurricane Season
Divali (Hinduism), celebrated in October or November
Election Day (United States), on Tuesday closest to November 5.
Presidential Election is in leap years.
Mid-term elections are in even-numbered common years, such as 2010.
Gubernatorial Elections and Senate and House of Representatives Elections are also held.
First Tuesday - Melbourne Cup horse race in Australia
Movember - Month-long observance highlighting men's health issues.
Volkstrauertag (Germany), on Sunday closest to November 16.
The United States celebrates Thanksgiving holiday on the fourth Thursday of November.
Advent, Christian lead-up to Christmas, begins on Sunday closest to November 30, falling between November 27 and December 3.
November 1, 1512  The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, painted by Michelangelo, goes on display.
November 1, 1755  An earthquake and tsunamis kills thousands of people in Lisbon, and affect other parts of Europe and North Africa.
November 1, 1922  Mehmed VI, the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, leaves the throne.
November 1, 1981  Antigua and Barbuda become independent from the United Kingdom.
November 1, 1993  The European Union is officially created.
November 2, 1889  North and South Dakota become the 39th and 40th States of the US.
November 2, 1963  South Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem is executed.
November 3, 1903  Panama becomes independent, separating from Colombia.
November 3, 1957  The Soviet Union sends the dog Laika into space.
She does not survive.
November 3, 1978  Dominica becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
November 3, 1986  The Federated States of Micronesia become independent from the United States.
November 4, 1922  Howard Carter discovers the entrance to Tutankhamun's tomb.
November 4, 1956  The Hungarian Revolution is crushed by the Soviet Union.
November 4, 1995  Prime Minister of Israel Yitzhak Rabin is shot dead by Yigal Amir.
November 4, 2008  Barack Obama is elected the 44th, and first African American, President of the United States.
November 5, 1605  The Gunpowder Plot to blow up the Parliament in London fails, and Guy Fawkes and fellow conspirators are arrested.
November 6, 1834  The first Constitution of the Dominican Republic is adopted.
November 6, 1860  Abraham Lincoln is elected President of the United States.
November 7, 1917  In Russia, the October Revolution begins.
November 7, 2000  The US Presidential election between Al Gore and George W. Bush ends in dispute.
Bush is declared the winner over a month later.
November 8, 1923  The Munich Beer Hall Putsch occurs, in Adolf Hitler's first attempt at power.
November 8, 1960  John F. Kennedy is elected President of the United States.
November 9, 1953  Cambodia becomes independent.
November 9  Significant Events in German history, including:
1918  The Weimar Republic is declared.
1923  The Munich Beer Hall Putsch is ended.
1938  Holocaust: Kristallnacht, during which Jewish synagogues and businesses were destroyed.
1989  The Berlin Wall falls, in a significant event towards the end of the Cold War.
November 10, 1989  Todor Zhivkov is brought from power in Bulgaria.
November 11, 1918  World War I comes to an end.
November 11, 1975  Angola becomes independent from Portugal.
November 12, 1918  Austria becomes a Republic.
November 13, 1970  A cyclone in present-day Bangladesh kills around 500,000 people.
November 13, 1985  The Nevado del Ruiz volcano erupts in Colombia, burying several towns under mudslides.
November 13, 2010  Burmese pro-Democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi is released from house arrest.
November 14, 1963  The island of Surtsey is formed by a volcanic eruption to the south of Iceland.
November 15, 1889  Emperor Pedro II of Brazil is overthrown and Deodoro da Fonseca declares Brazil a Republic.
November 16, 1945  UNESCO is founded.
November 17, 1869  The Suez Canal, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, is inaugurated.
November 18, 1918  Latvia declares independence from Russia
November 19, 1969  Brazilian footballer Pele scores the 1,000th goal of his career.
November 20, 1945  The Nuremberg Trials of leading Nazi war criminals begin.
November 20, 1975  Francisco Franco dies in Spain.
November 22, 1943  Lebanon becomes independent from France.
November 22, 1963  US President John F. Kennedy is shot dead in Dallas, Texas.
Lyndon B. Johnson succeeds him.
November 22, 2005  Angela Merkel becomes the first female Chancellor of Germany.
November 23, 1963  British television programme Dr. Who is shown for the first time.
November 24, 1859  Charles Darwin's The Origin of the Species is published for the first time.
November 24, 1963  Lee Harvey Oswald is shot dead by Jack Ruby.
November 24, 1991  Freddie Mercury dies, one day after announcing that he had AIDS.
November 25, 1975  Suriname becomes independent from the Netherlands.
November 26, 1922  The tomb of Tutankhamun is entered.
November 26, 2008  The 26 November 2008 Mumbai attacks begin, as terrorists strike several locations in Mumbai, India, lasting until November 29.
November 28, 1520  The first navigation of the Magellan Strait, to the south of mainland South America, is completed by Ferdinand Magellan and his crew.
November 28, 1821  Panama unites with Greater Colombia.
November 28, 1912  Albania declares independence from the Ottoman Empire.
November 28, 1960  Mauritania becomes independent from France.
November 30, 1872  The first international football match is held between Scotland and England at Hamilton Crescent in Glasgow, ending 0-0.
November 30, 1966  Barbados becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
November's flower is the Chrysanthemum.
Its birthstone is the topaz.
The astrological signs for November are Scorpio (October 22 to November 21) and Sagittarius (November 22 to December 21): In the English language, November is the only month of the year whose two astrological signs begin with the same letter (they both start with an "S").
This month is tied with October as the months with the most births of US Presidents as of January 20, 2021: with six - James Knox Polk, Warren G. Harding (both on November 2), James Garfield (November 19), Joe Biden (November 20), Franklin Pierce (November 23) and Zachary Taylor (November 24).
November is also the only month of the year to be one of 26 letters in the NATO alphabet.
November 1 is the only day in November during a common year to start within the fifth sixth of the calendar year.
National flag
For example, cat is the name of a kind of animal. "
Ryan" is a name of a person, usually a male.
"Julia" is a common female name.
The word 'name' can also be used as a verb.
To name something is to give it a name.
People's names
Number of parts of a name
In some cultures, a person can have any number of name parts.
In the United States, for example, some people have three: first name, middle name, and last name.
Other people have only two: a first and last name.
In Chinese cultures, it is typical for a person to have three-part name, such as "Cheah Ching San," where "Cheah" is the surname.
Written in English format a comma is introduced making it "Ching San, Cheah."
In Muslim and Arabic culture, a name can have one to six parts.
Such as "Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh".
Relations with names of parents and other relatives
In some cultures, people have the same "family name" (or surname) as their parents.
For example, the father of John Smith may be Mike Smith.
And Mike Smith's father may be James Smith.
The "Smith" part is the same for all the family.
In other cultures, a person has the same name as his or her father, but the name is in a different place.
For example, Shafiq Hanif's son may be Hanif Kamal.
Hanif is in both the father's and son's name.
In some cultures, a name changes when people marry, divorce, go through some religious ceremony, etc.
For example, in some Spanish-speaking countries, people use two last names: their mother's father's name and their father's name.
If Elena Rodriguez Gomez and Jose Sanchez Soria marry, she may change her name to Elena Rodriguez de Sanchez, and their child could be named Pilar Sanchez Rodriguez, taking the names of both of her grandfathers.
In some cultures, personal names come from history.
In most European countries, some first names are taken from the Bible.
In some cultures, names are taken from a relative.
In other cultures, a name shows what the parents hope their child will be like.
A baby may be given a name Wisdom because parents hope the baby will be a wise girl or boy.
Some cultures avoid giving people a name of an animal.
For example, there is no name like dog, cat, snake, owl, or fish in Japanese people's first names.
But in some cultures animal names may be good.
Lengths, pronunciations, spelling, etc.
In some languages and cultures, you can tell if a word is a person's name or not by just looking at the spelling or listening to its pronunciation.
There are some other linguistic patterns.
For example, many Chinese names are made up of three syllables.
Use of names, titles, nicknames, etc.
In some cultures, people use names when they call each other.
In other cultures, people use their nicknames.
In some other cultures, people use their titles ("father," "professor," etc.)
when they call each other.
Spelling of names, titles, nicknames, etc.
Name awareness
Middle names
In the English language, names exclusively are usually pronounced in correlation with the spelling, however can be pronounced as desired, e.g. John is (jon) but can also be (ned).
However, not probable, is held true in the English rules of grammar.
Japanese names
Here are some things that are often found in Japanese names today.
In the past, people went by different rules.
Japanese names have two parts.
One is the family name and the other is the given name.
"Suzuki Ichiro" is a name of a Japanese person.
Suzuki is the family name, and Ichiro is the first name.
In the Japanese language, the family name comes first, and the given name comes second. (
It is like writing Smith John, instead of John Smith.)
A newborn baby gets a family name from their parents.
The parents have the same family name.
So, a son of Ono Yoko (female) and Ono Ken (male) is Ono something.
The family name Ono is mostly shared by the paternal (male) part of the family.
So Ono Ken's parents have the family name Ono, but Ono Yoko's parents probably do not.
Names of people change when they marry and divorce.
It is a custom in many parts of the world that women change their family name to that of their new husband when they marry.
However, in Europe and North America especially, many women no longer do this even though their mothers and grandmothers may have.
Sometimes, the man will take the woman's family name.
Niihau (or Niʻihau) is the smallest of the inhabited islands of Hawaii, in the United States.
It has a land area of 70 sq.
miles (184 km2).
It is the oldest of the eight main islands.
The whole island is owned by the Robinson family.
They bought it from the Kingdom of Hawaii for $10,000.
It was said that the buyer, Elizabeth Sinclair (later Sinclair-Robinson), liked the island better than other places such as Waikiki, Pearl Harbor, and the island of Lanai.
There is a small US Navy base where a handful of Navy people work.
The island has a few hundred permanent inhabitants.
Almost all of them are native Hawaiians.
They support themselves largely with small family farms.
Many work for the ranch owned by the Robinsons.
The native Hawaiians lead a rural, low-tech life.
They speak the Hawaiian language and keep traditions alive.
This is because Ms. Sinclair promised to help preserve Hawaiian culture and tradition when she bought the island.
Niihau is the only one of the Hawaiian islands where the Hawaiian language is the main language.
Niihau is also known as the "Forbidden Island".
This is due to the fact that until recently, the island was off-limits to all but family members, US Navy personnel, government officials and expressly invited guests.
Now, tourists can go on one of a limited number of supervised tours or hunting safaris.
On the beaches of the island are found shells which are the only shells to be classified as gems.
Niihau shells and the jewelry made from them are very popular.
Many, especially those with darker and richer color, are collectors items.
The sale of shells and shell jewelry brings extra money for the local people.
The Nēnē, or Hawaiian goose (Branta sandvicensis) is a species of goose.
It is found today on only three Hawaiian islands.
It gets its name from its soft call.
This is an unmistakable species, with its generally brown plumage (feathers) and darker head.
Its strong toes have much reduced webbing (skin between the toes), an adjustment to the lava flows on which it breeds.
The Nēnē goes about on land much more than other water birds.
When moulting (dropping old feathers and growing new ones), the Nēnē cannot fly, as do other geese, a factor which made it vulnerable to hunting.
The Nēnē was once among the most threatened waterfowl species around the world.
Once common, hunting and predators brought to the islands such as mongooses, pigs and cats reduced the population to only 30 birds in the 1950s.
However, this species breeds well in captivity (zoos and bird parks), and has been successfully re-introduced.
There are also good numbers in wild bird collections.
Network might refer to:
Contact network, a disambiguation page
A fishing net is a woven trap usually used to catch fish.
They are usually made out of rope.
A net is a kind of tool.
Other methods  of catching fish
Tame Cormorant
Internet slang is slang words which are used on the internet.
Most of these words are new, such as Wiki and blog, which were not used before the internet became popular.
Some old words were given new meanings, such as mail (which now means email).
This makes many metaphors on the Internet, such as boot (which otherwise mean a shoe) and link (which otherwise means a joint in a metal chain).
Some existing acronyms, such as "AFK" (To mean "Away from keyboard") and "IRL" (To mean "In real life") were used on bulletin board systems before the internet became popular.
These are now used on the internet, such as in chat rooms and on instant messenger software.
To flame - to send offensive messages, usually in chat rooms, forums, instant messaging software or email.
To ping - to send some data to another computer and see how long it takes for the data to come back.
Shorthand words
Shorthand is where a word is written in a shorter way because it is quicker and easier to type.
It is also done to fit more text into a limited space.
Internet slang uses many acronyms because they are quicker and easier to type.
They are often shorthand for common phrases and idioms, but they can show somebody's emotions and their certainty.
Leet speak
Leet speak (written as: L33T or 1337) is the most common language on MMORPGs because rude words are not stopped by filters.
This language is changing all the time because new words are made and used.
A lot of the words use numbers instead of letters but some were made because of typing errors which are now done on purpose.
Also, some suffixes are used, such as -age and -ness.
Nauru, ( ) officially the Republic of Nauru, is a sovereign island nation located in the Micronesian South Pacific.
Its nearest neighbour is Banaba Island in the Republic of Kiribati,  due east.
Nauru is the world's smallest island nation, covering just , the smallest independent republic, and the only republican state in the world without an official capital.
With 10,670 residents, it is the third least-populated country after Vatican City and Tuvalu.
Nauru is a phosphate rock island, and its main economic activity since 1907 has been the export of phosphate mined from the island.
English and Nauruan are the official languages of Nauru.
The current mainpresident of Nauru is Lionel Aingimea.
Nauru is a  oval-shaped island in the southwestern Pacific Ocean,  south of the Equator.
The island is surrounded by a coral reef, which can be seen during low tide.
Because of this coral reef, a harbor can't be built here, canals in the reef allow small boats access to the island.
A fertile coastal strip  wide lies inland from the beach.
The highest point of the plateau, called the Command Ridge, is  above sea level.
The only fertile areas on Nauru are on the narrow coastal belt, where coconut palms flourish.
The land surrounding Buada Lagoon supports bananas, pineapples, vegetables, pandanus trees, and indigenous hardwoods such as the tomano tree.
Nauru was one of three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean (the others were Banaba (Ocean Island) in Kiribati and Makatea in French Polynesia).
The phosphate reserves on Nauru are now almost entirely used up.
Phosphate mining in the central plateau has left a barren terrain of jagged limestone pinnacles up to  high.
Mining has stripped and devastated about 80 per cent of Nauru's land area, and has also affected the surrounding Exclusive Economic Zone; 40 per cent of marine life is estimated to have been killed by silt and phosphate runoff.
There are only about 60 native vascular plant species on the island.
Coconut farming, mining, and introduced species have damaged the island's native vegetation.
There are no native land mammals, but there are native insects, land crabs, and birds, including the endemic Nauru Reed Warbler.
The Polynesian rat, cats, dogs, pigs, and chickens have been introduced to Nauru from ships.
There are only a couple of fresh water sources on Nauru.
Storage tanks collect rainwater, but the islanders usually have to rely on desalination plants housed at Nauru's Utilities Agency.
The island's biggest problems are climate change and rising sea levels.
Nauru is the seventh most global warming threatened nation due to flooding.
At least 80 per cent of the land of Nauru is well elevated, but this area will be uninhabitable until the phosphate mining rehabilitation programme is implemented
Nauru's climate is hot and very humid year-round because of its proximity to the equator and the ocean.
Nauru is hit by monsoon rains between November and February, but does not typically experience cyclones.
Annual rainfall is highly variable and is influenced by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, with several significant recorded droughts.
The temperature on Nauru ranges between  and  during the day and between  and  at night.
Nauru is divided into fourteen administrative districts.
Nauru, Permanent Mission to the United Nations
Asian Development Bank Country Economic Report, Nauru, November 2007
Our Airline - the former Air Nauru
Discover Nauru The Official Nauru Tourism Website
CenPac - The ISP of the Republic of Nauru
High resolution aerial views of Nauru on Google Maps
Nauru country information on globalEDGE
Commonwealth member states
A noun is a kind of word (see part of speech) that is usually the name of something such as a person, place, thing, animal, or idea.
In English, nouns can be singular or plural.
Nouns often need a word called an article or determiner (like the or that).
These words usually do not go with other kinds of words like verbs or adverbs. (
For example, people do not also describe nouns).
In English, there are more nouns than any other kind of word.
Every language in the world has nouns, but they are not always used in the same ways.
They also can have different properties in different languages.
In some other languages, nouns do not change for singular and plural, and sometimes there is no word for the.
Examples of nouns: time, people, way, year, government, day, world, life, work, part, number, house, system, company, end, party, information.
The word noun comes from the Latin nomen meaning "name."
Words like nouns were described in early days by the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini and ancient Greeks like Dionysios Thrax.
Uses of nouns
In English sentences, nouns can be used as a subject, object, or complement.
They often come after prepositions, as the 'object of preposition'.
Nouns can sometimes describe other nouns (such as a soccer ball).
When they do this, they are called modifiers or adjuncts.
There are also verb forms that can be used in the same way as nouns (such as 'I like running.')
These are called verbals or verbal nouns, and include participles (which can also be adjectives) and infinitives.
Specificness
Nouns are classified into common and proper.
Pronouns have commonly been considered a different part of speech from nouns, but in the past some grammars have included them as nouns as do many modern linguists.
Proper nouns (also called proper name) are specific names.
Examples of proper nouns are: London, John, God, October, Mozart, Saturday, Coke, Mr. Brown, Atlantic Ocean.
Proper nouns are individual things with names, not general nouns.
Proper nouns begin with an upper case (capital) letter in English and many other languages that use the Roman alphabet.
(However, in German, all nouns begin with an upper case letter.)
The word "I" is really a pronoun, although it is capitalized in English, like a proper noun.
Some common nouns (see below) can also be used as proper nouns.
For example, someone might be named 'Tiger Smith' -- even though he is not a tiger or a smith.
Common nouns
Common nouns are general names.
Sometimes the same word can be either a common noun or a proper noun, depending on how it is used; for example:
there can be many gods, but there is only one God.
there can be many internets (two or more networks connected together), but the largest internet in the world is the Internet.
Countability
In English and many other languages, nouns have 'number'.
But some nouns are only singular (such as furniture, physics) and others are only plural (such as clothes, police).
Also, some nouns are countable (for example, one piece, two pieces) but others are uncountable (for example, we do not say one furniture, two furnitures).
The plural form of most nouns is created simply by adding the letter(s) -(e)s.
more than one snake = snakes
more than one ski = skis
more than one Barrymore = Barrymores
Despite plural forms being written using the letter(s) -(e)s, the pronunciation of the letter(s) will pronounced as /-s/, /-z/, or /-ız/ depending on which type of phoneme, or unique sound, comes before it.
These variations of the plural morpheme are called allomorphs.
Some dictionaries list "busses" as an acceptable plural for "bus".
Presumably, this is because the plural "buses" looks like it ought to rhyme with the plural of "fuse," which is "fuses." "
Buses" is still listed as the preferable plural form. "
Busses" is the plural for "buss," a seldom used word for "kiss."
There are several nouns that have irregular plural forms.
Plurals formed in this way are sometimes called mutated (or mutating) plurals.
more than one child = children
more than one woman = women
more than one man = men
more than one person = people
more than one goose = geese
more than one mouse = mice
more than one deer = deer
more than one ox = oxen
more than one tooth = teeth
more than one nucleus = nuclei
more than one syllabus = syllabi
more than one focus = foci
more than one fungus = fungi
more than one cactus = cacti (cactuses is acceptable)
more than one thesis = theses
more than one crisis = crises
more than one phenomenon = phenomena
more than one index = indices (indexes is acceptable)
more than one appendix = appendices (appendixes is acceptable)
more than one criterion = criteria
more than one octopus = octopedes is correct (as the word is Greek: ὀκτώποδες).
However, octopuses is acceptable, more used and simpler.
Possessives
Nouns are words for things, and since things can be possessed, nouns can also change to show possession in grammar.
In English, we usually add an apostrophe and an s to nouns to make them possessive, or sometimes just an apostrophe when there is already an s at the end, like this:
This is Sam.
This is Sam's cat.
The woman's hair is long.
There are three cats.
The cat's mother is sleeping.
How adjectives become nouns
Most adjectives become nouns by adding the suffix -ness.
Example: Take the adjective 'natural', add 'ness' to get 'naturalness', a noun.
To see a list of 100 adjectives used in Basic English, click here.
Word order in noun phrases
A noun phrase is a phrase where the head word is a noun.
In English, the word order of most noun phrases is that determiners, adjectives, and modifying nouns in respective order must appear before the head word, and relative clauses must appear after the head word.
English grammar by Sachin Jadhavar {ISBN 978-81-949383-2-3}
The words nature and natural are used for all the things that are normally not made by humans.
Things like weather, organisms, landforms, celestial bodies and much more are part of nature.
Scientists study the way the parts of nature work.
Things that have been made by people are said to be man-made or called artifacts.
From one point of view, humans are a prime example of nature, and are the most widely studied natural inhabitants of the planet earth.
Humans interact with each other in their natural environment on a day-to-day basis.
Every part of nature  everything from the air outside to the dirt on the ground  is interdependent.
Medicine studies humans in health and sickness.
From another point of view, humans and nature can be said to be in conflict.
Nature is often seen by humans as natural resources.
People cut down trees, mine ores, and grow crops.
Fires, cars, and factories make a lot of smoke and harm many places.
People who like to leave nature unharmed and those who feel they need to use more of nature often fight about what they should do.
In the modern world, with many more people and many big cities, these problems are becoming more serious.
Nature, in the broadest sense, means the physical world as a whole.
This is the meaning that physics, the study of nature (etymologically), takes.
A useful definition of natural is
"Happening or operating in accordance with the ordinary course of nature".
Oxford Shorter English Dictionary says the word in this sense is first found in 1477.
Human timeline
Life timeline
Nature timeline
A natural resource is what people can use which comes from the natural environment.
Examples of natural resources are air, water, wood, oil, wind energy, natural gas, iron, and coal.
The dividing line between natural resources and man-made resources is not clear-cut.
Hydro-electric energy is not a natural resource because people use turbines to convert the energy from moving water.
Petroleum and iron ores are natural, but need work to make them into usable refined oil and steel.
Atomic energy comes from metallic nuclear fuel, like fissionable uranium and plutonium, but rocks need technical work to make them into these nuclear fuels.
A renewable resource is one that can be used again and again.
For example, soil, sunlight and water are renewable resources.
However, in some circumstances, even water is not renewable easily.
Wood is a renewable resource, but it takes time to renew, and in some places, people use the land for something else.
Soil, if it blows away, is not easy to renew.
A non-renewable resource is a resource that does not grow and come back or a resource that would take a very long time to come back.
For example, coal is a non-renewable resource.
When we use coal, there is less coal afterward.
The non-renewable resource can be used directly (for example, burning oil to cook), or we can find a renewable resource to use (for example, using wind energy to make electricity to cook).
Most natural resources are limited.
This means they will eventually run out.
A perpetual resource has a never-ending supply.
Some examples of perpetual resources include solar energy, tidal energy, and wind energy.
There may be a limit to how much can be taken in a given day or year, but that amount can be taken again next day or next year.
Non perpetual resources include Fossil fuels such as Petroleum, coal, etc.
They have a limit of usage.
Some of the things influencing the supply of resources include whether it is able to be recycled, and the availability of suitable substitutes for the material.
Non-renewable resources cannot be recycled.
For example, fossil fuels cannot be recycled.
The demand for resources can change with new technology, new needs, and new economics (e.g. changes in cost of the resources).
Some material can go completely out of use, if people do not want it any more.
Demand of many natural resources is very high, but availability of some, such as precious metals, is very low.
Different places have different natural resources.
When people do not have a certain resource they need, they can either replace it with another resource, or trade with another country to get the resource.
People have sometimes fought to have them (for example, spices, water, arable farmland, gold, or petroleum).
When people do not have some resources, their quality of life can get lower.
So, people protect resources.
When they can not get clean water, people may become ill; if there is not enough wood, trees will be cut and the forest will disappear over time (deforestation); if there are not enough fish in a sea, people can die of starvation.
Renewable resources include crops, wind, hydroelectric power, fish, and sunlight.
Many people carefully save their natural resources so that others can use them in future.
Earth's natural wealth
Negentropy is reverse entropy.
It means things becoming more in order.
One example of negentropy is a star system such as the Solar System.
Another example is life.
As a general rule, everything in the universe tends towards entropy.
Star systems eventually become dead.
All energy has gone, and everything in the system is at the temperature of the surrounding space.
The opposite of entropy is negentropy.
It is a temporary condition in which certain things are hotter and more highly organised than the surrounding space.
This is the second law of thermodynamics:
The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system always increases over time.
Life is considered to be negentropic because it converts things which have less order, such as food, into things with more order, such as cells in the body, tissues, and organs.
In doing so, it gives off heat.