the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Adiyogi Shiva statue, recognized by the Guinness World Records as the "Largest Bust Sculpture” in the world; the statue is for inspiring and promoting yoga, and is named Adiyogi, which means "the first yogi", because Shiva is known as the originator of yoga.
Shiva is considered the Great Yogi who is totally absorbed in himself – the transcendental reality.
He is the Lord of Yogis, and the teacher of Yoga to sages.
As Shiva Dakshinamurthi, states Stella Kramrisch, he is the supreme guru who "teaches in silence the oneness of one's innermost self (atman) with the ultimate reality (brahman)."
The theory and practice of Yoga, in different styles, has been a part of all major traditions of Hinduism, and Shiva has been the patron or spokesperson in numerous Hindu Yoga texts.
These contain the philosophy and techniques for Yoga.
These ideas are estimated to be from or after the late centuries of the 1st millennium CE, and have survived as Yoga texts such as the Isvara Gita (literally, 'Shiva's song'), which Andrew Nicholson – a professor of Hinduism and Indian Intellectual History – states have had "a profound and lasting influence on the development of Hinduism".
Other famed Shiva-related texts influenced Hatha Yoga, integrated monistic (Advaita Vedanta) ideas with Yoga philosophy and inspired the theoretical development of Indian classical dance.
These include the Shiva Sutras, the Shiva Samhita, and those by the scholars of Kashmir Shaivism such as the 10th-century scholar Abhinavagupta.
Abhinavagupta writes in his notes on the relevance of ideas related to Shiva and Yoga, by stating that "people, occupied as they are with their own affairs, normally do nothing for others", and Shiva and Yoga spirituality helps one look beyond, understand interconnectedness, and thus benefit both the individual and the world towards a more blissful state of existence.
The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Shiva the destroyer or transformer.
These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad" or the "Great Trinity".
However, the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism feature many triads of gods and goddesses, some of which do not include Shiva.
Shiva with Parvati.
Shiva is depicted three-eyed, the Ganges flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull garland, covered in ashes, and seated on a tiger skin
Third eye: Shiva is often depicted with a third eye, with which he burned Desire (Kāma) to ashes, called "Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: त्र्यम्बकम् ), which occurs in many scriptural sources.
In classical Sanskrit, the word ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three eyes".
However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word 'ambā' or 'ambikā' means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "three mothers".
These three mother-goddesses who are collectively called the Ambikās.
Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambikā.
Crescent moon: Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon.
The epithet Candraśekhara (Sanskrit: चन्द्रशेखर "Having the moon as his crest" – 'candra' = "moon"; 'śekhara' = "crest, crown") refers to this feature.
The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.
The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.
Ashes: Shiva iconography shows his body covered with ashes (bhasma, vibhuti).
The ashes represent a reminder that all of material existence is impermanent, comes to an end becoming ash, and the pursuit of eternal soul and spiritual liberation is important.
Matted hair: Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin, "the one with matted hair", and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair" or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".
A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly.
Blue throat: The epithet Nīlakaṇtha (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ; nīla = "blue", 'kaṇtha' = "throat").
Since Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthan to eliminate its destructive capacity.
Shocked by his act, Parvati squeezed his neck and stopped it in his neck to prevent it from spreading all over the universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach.
However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue.
Meditating yogi: his iconography often shows him in a Yoga pose, meditating, sometimes on a symbolic Himalayan Mount Kailasha as the Lord of Yoga.
Sacred Ganga: The epithet Gangadhara, "Bearer of the river Ganga" (Ganges).
The Ganga flows from the matted hair of Shiva.
The 'Gaṅgā' (Ganga), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.
Tiger skin: Shiva is often shown seated upon a tiger skin.
Serpents: Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.
Trident: Shiva typically carries a trident called Trishula.
The trident is a weapon or a symbol in different Hindu texts.
As a symbol, the Trishul represents Shiva's three aspects of "creator, preserver and destroyer", or alternatively it represents the equilibrium of three Gunas of "sattva, rajas and tamas".
Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru.
This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation known as Nataraja.
A specific hand gesture (mudra) called 'ḍamaru-hasta' (Sanskrit for "ḍamaru-hand") is used to hold the drum.
This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect.
Axe (Parashu) and Deer are held in Shiva's hands in Odisha & south Indian icons.
Rosary beads: he is garlanded with or carries a string of rosary beads in his right hand, typically made of Rudraksha.
This symbolises grace, mendicant life and meditation.
Nandī: Nandī, also known as "Nandin", is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: 'vāhana').
Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name Paśupati, or Pashupati (Sanskrit: पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle" and by Kramrisch as "lord of animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.
Mount Kailāsa: Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode.
In Hindu mythology, Mount Kailāsa is conceived as resembling a Linga, representing the center of the universe.
Gaṇa: The Gaṇas are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash.
They are often referred to as the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature.
Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee.
His son Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title 'gaṇa-īśa' or 'gaṇa-pati', "lord of the gaṇas".
Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India.
It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.
Forms and depictions
According to Gavin Flood, "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing themes.
The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.
Destroyer and Benefactor
Shiva is represented in his many aspects.
Left: Bhairava icon of the fierce form of Shiva, from 17th/18th century Nepal; Right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in Rishikesh.
In Yajurveda, two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrifying (Sanskrit: 'rudra') and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: 'śiva') forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here".
In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.
The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names.
The name Rudra reflects Shiva's fearsome aspects.
According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud-, which means "to cry, howl".
Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means "wild, of rudra nature", and translates the name Rudra as "the wild one" or "the fierce god".
R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible".
Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation.
Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys".
Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher".
Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as Kāla "time" and Mahākāla "great time", which ultimately destroys all things.
The name Kāla appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time".
Bhairava "terrible" or "frightful" is a fierce form associated with annihilation.
In contrast, the name Śaṇkara, "beneficent" or "conferring happiness" reflects his benign form.
This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara (c. 788–820), who is also known as Shankaracharya.
The name Śambhu (Sanskrit: शम्भु swam-on its own; bhu-burn/shine) "self-shining/ shining on its own", also reflects this benign aspect.
Ascetic and householder
Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder (grihasta), roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.
When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating.
His epithet Mahāyogi ("the great Yogi: 'Mahā' = "great", Yogi = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga.
While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.
As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya.
His epithet Umāpati ("The husband of Umā") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, Umākānta and Umādhava, also appear in the sahasranama.
Umā in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign Pārvatī.
She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari, Durga, Kali, Kamakshi and Minakshi.
The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy.
They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe.
His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles.
Kartikeya is worshipped in South India (especially in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in Northern India by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.
Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children.
As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini, Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her.
As a result of this union, Shasta – identified with regional deities Ayyappan and Aiyanar – is born.
In outskirts of Ernakulam in Kerala, a deity named Vishnumaya is stated to be offspring of Shiva and invoked in local exorcism rites, but this deity is not traceable in Hindu pantheon and is possibly a local tradition with "vaguely Chinese" style rituals, states Saletore.
In some traditions, Shiva has daughters like the serpent-goddess Manasa and Ashokasundari.
According to Doniger, two regional stories depict demons Andhaka and Jalandhara as the children of Shiva who war with him, and are later destroyed by Shiva.
Iconographic forms
The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Sanskrit: 'naṭarāja', "Lord of Dance") is popular.
The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.
His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period.
In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: 'nṛtyamūrti') are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular.
The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava, which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world.
When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Shiva does it by the Tandava, and Lasya, which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati.
Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava.
The Tandava-Lasya dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.
Dakshinamurthy (Dakṣiṇāmūrti) literally describes a form ('mūrti') of Shiva facing south ('dakṣiṇa').
This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras.
This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu.
Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.
An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara ('Ardhanārīśvara') shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female.
According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", not as "half-man, half-woman".
Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, Tripura, of the Asuras.
Shiva's name Tripurantaka ('Tripurāntaka''), "ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.
Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam.
These are depicted in various designs.
One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped, disk-shaped object, the yoni, symbolism for the goddess Shakti.
In Shiva temples, the linga is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice.
According to Monier Williams and Yudit Greenberg, linga literally means 'mark, sign or emblem', and also refers to a "mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred".
It implies the regenerative divine energy innate in nature, symbolized by Shiva.
Some scholars, such as Wendy Doniger, view linga merely as an erotic phallic symbol, although this interpretation is criticized by others, including Swami Vivekananda, Sivananda Saraswati, and S. N. Balagangadhara.
According to Moriz Winternitz, the linga in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult.
The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post.
In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman.
Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga.
In the text Linga Purana, the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.
The oldest known archaeological linga as an icon of Shiva is the Gudimallam lingam from 3rd-century BCE.
In Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, twelve major temples of Shiva are called Jyotirlinga, which means "linga of light", and these are located across India.
Five mantras
Five is a sacred number for Shiva.
One of his most important mantras has five syllables (namaḥ śivāya).
Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pañcabrahmans.
As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:
These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.
Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.
The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.
According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad:One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (
Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)
Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to "ansh" – literally 'portion, or avatars of Shiva', but the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in Saivism.
The Linga Purana mentions twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars, however such mention is unusual and the avatars of Shiva is relatively rare in Shaivism compared to the well emphasized concept of Vishnu avatars in Vaishnavism.
Some Vaishnava literature reverentially link Shiva to characters in its mythologies.
For example, in the Hanuman Chalisa, Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.
The Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana claim sage Durvasa to be a portion of Shiva.
Some medieval era writers have called the Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara an incarnation of Shiva.
Maha Sivaratri festival is observed in the night, usually in lighted temples or special prabha (above).
There is a Shivaratri in every lunar month on its 13th night/14th day, but once a year in late winter (February/March) and before the arrival of spring, marks Maha Shivaratri which means "the Great Night of Shiva".
Maha Shivaratri is a major Hindu festival, but one that is solemn and theologically marks a remembrance of "overcoming darkness and ignorance" in life and the world, and meditation about the polarities of existence, of Shiva and a devotion to humankind.
It is observed by reciting Shiva-related poems, chanting prayers, remembering Shiva, fasting, doing Yoga and meditating on ethics and virtues such as self-restraint, honesty, noninjury to others, forgiveness, introspection, self-repentance and the discovery of Shiva.
The ardent devotees keep awake all night.
Others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to Jyotirlingam shrines.
Those who visit temples, offer milk, fruits, flowers, fresh leaves and sweets to the lingam.
Some communities organize special dance events, to mark Shiva as the lord of dance, with individual and group performances.
According to Jones and Ryan, Maha Sivaratri is an ancient Hindu festival which probably originated around the 5th-century.
Another major festival involving Shiva worship is Kartik Purnima, commemorating Shiva's victory on the demons Tripurasura.
Across India, various Shiva temples are illuminated throughout the night.
Shiva icons are carried in procession in some places.
Thiruvathira is a festival observed in Kerala dedicated to Shiva.
It is believed that on this day, Parvathi met Lord Shiva after her long penance and Lord Shiva took her as his wife.
On this day Hindu women performs the Thiruvathirakali accompanied by Thiruvathira paattu (folk songs about Parvati and her longing and penance for Lord Shiva's affection).
Regional festivals dedicated to Shiva include the Chittirai festival in Madurai around April/May, one of the largest festivals in South India, celebrating the wedding of Minakshi (Parvati) and Shiva.
The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations, because Vishnu gives away his sister Minakshi in marriage to Shiva.
These include festivals dedicated to Annapurna such as Annakuta and those related to Durga.
In Himalayan regions such as Nepal, as well as in northern, central and western India, the festival of Teej is celebrated by girls and women in the monsoon season, in honor of goddess Parvati, with group singing, dancing and by offering prayers in Parvati-Shiva temples.
The ascetic, Vedic and Tantric sub-traditions related to Shiva, such as those that became ascetic warriors during the Islamic rule period of India, celebrate the Kumbha Mela festival.
This festival cycles every 12 years, in four pilgrimage sites within India, with the event moving to the next site after a gap of three years.
The biggest is in Prayaga (renamed Allahabad during the Mughal rule era), where millions of Hindus of different traditions gather at the confluence of rivers Ganges and Yamuna.
In the Hindu tradition, the Shiva-linked ascetic warriors (Nagas) get the honor of starting the event by entering the Sangam first for bathing and prayers.
Beyond the Indian subcontinent and Hinduism
Shiva has been adopted and merged with Buddhist deities.
Left: Daikokuten is a Shiva-Ōkuninushi fusion deity in Japan; Right: Acala is a fierce Shiva adaptation.
In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has been Batara Guru, which is derived from Sanskrit Bhattaraka which means "noble lord".
He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent.
However, the Batara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him.
Batara Guru's wife in southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others.
Shiva has been called Sadasiva, Paramasiva, Mahadeva in benevolent forms, and Kala, Bhairava, Mahakala in his fierce forms.
The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivism traditions found on the subcontinent.
However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).
In the pre-Islamic period on the island of Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though not identical religions.
The medieval era Indonesian literature equates Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana (Vishnu).
This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.
The worship of Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the Hephthalite Empire, and Kushan Empire.
Shaivism was also popular in Sogdia and the Kingdom of Yutian as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan.
In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread ("Yajnopavita").
He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sogdian dress.
A panel from Dandan Oilik shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh.
Another site in the Taklamakan Desert depicts him with four legs, seated cross-legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls.
It is also noted that Zoroastrian wind god Vayu-Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.
Daikokuten, one of the Seven Lucky Gods in Japan, is considered to be evolved from Shiva.
The god enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune.
The name is the Japanese equivalent of Mahākāla, the Buddhist name for Shiva.
Shiva is also mentioned in Buddhist Tantra.
Shiva as Upaya and Shakti as Prajna.
In cosmologies of Buddhist tantra, Shiva is depicted as passive, with Shakti being his active counterpart.
In Mahayana Buddhist cosmology, Shiva resides in Akaniṣṭha, highest of Śuddhāvāsa (Pure Abodes) where Anāgāmi ("Non-returners") who are already on the path to Arhat-hood and who will attain enlightenment are born in.
The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says, "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi."
In the same chapter, it also says, "Shiva speaks, and the Siddhas listen."
In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh has mentioned two avtars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avtar and Parasnath Avtar.
In contemporary culture
In contemporary culture, Shiva is depicted in films, books, tattoos and art.
He has been referred to as "the god of cool things" and a "bonafide rock hero".
Popular films include the Gujarati language movie Har Har Mahadev, the Kannada movie Gange Gowri and well-known books include Amish Tripathi's Shiva Trilogy, which has sold over a million copies.
On television, Devon Ke Dev...Mahadev, a television serial about Lord Shiva on the Life OK channel was among the most watched shows at its peak popularity.
A 90's television series of DD National titled Om Namah Shivay was also based on legends of Lord Shiva.
In the Final Fantasy videogame series, Shiva is often depicted as a benevolent ancient being of Ice Element who frequently aids the heroes against mighty foes (via summoning).
Shiva is also a character in the video game Dark Souls'', with the name Shiva of the East.
ASCII art is art made out of ASCII characters.
This can be simple art like "<3" (it looks almost like a heart if you turn your head sideways), or it can be more complex, with characters carefully placed out, containing many lines of characters.
ASCII Art Wiki Community
A riddle can be classed as a statement with a solution.
This solution, however, need not be logical.
Solving riddles usually involve thinking about the question and putting it into context.
Anglo-Saxon riddles
riddles for adults-interesting and challenging riddles for adults
Novalis is the pseudonym of Georg Philipp Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg (May 2, 1772 – March 25, 1801), who was a writer and philosopher of the early German Romanticism.
1772 births
1801 deaths
Body piercing or just piercing is a form of body modification, where humans of either gender pierce their skin to put jewellery through the hole later.
There are many different reasons some people have piercings, such as religious or other cultural purposes.
Many people, especially in North America and Europe, choose to be pierced for ornamental, or sexual pleasure.
In early records, it was not common to discuss the use of piercings or their meanings.
However, body adornment and modification are estimated have been around for more than 5000 years, found in mummies like Ötzi the Iceman, Europe's oldest natural mummy estimated to be about 5,300 years old.
Piercing of the ears, nose, and tongue have a long history in many ancient cultures, and lip piercing and stretching were more common in African tribes, especially for cultural identification.
Piercings in the 20th & 21st century
Body piercings of any kind were not popular in Western cultures in the beginning of the 20th century.
After World War II, the gay subculture used piercings as a fashion statement.
Other subcultures, such as "hippie" and the punk movement also began to use piercings as a form of expression in the 1960s and 1970s.
Genital piercing is becoming more common.
Sometimes people get genital piercings to create interest or attract attention.
Some types of genital piercing are supposed to increase sexual pleasure.
Something that is made of matter
Something about the human body
Something done by a force made when something moves to apply or create the force. (
This is only a form of Kinetic energy.)
Elonka Dunin (; born December 29, 1958) is an American video game developer.
Her job is to make computer games at Simutronics Corporation, in Missouri.
She also knows a lot about famous puzzles, especially a puzzle called Kryptos, which no one knows all the answers to yet.
In 2006, she wrote a book with hundreds of puzzles in it, called The Mammoth Book of Secret Codes and Cryptograms.
Elonka Dunin's website (biography)
Simutronics corporation
A supernova is the explosion of a giant star.
It usually happens when its nuclear fusion cannot hold the core against its own gravity.
The core collapses, and explodes.
The biggest stars that make supernovae are hypergiants and smaller ones are supergiants.
They are massive: because of gravity, they use up their energy very quickly.
Normally they only live for a few million years.
During the explosion, the total energy radiated by supernovae may briefly outshine the entire output of a galaxy.
They emit energy equal to that of the whole lifetime of a solar-like star.
The explosion blows off its stellar material away from the star, at velocities up to 30,000 km/s or 10% of the speed of light.
This drives a shock wave into the surrounding interstellar medium.
This sweeps up an expanding shell of gas and dust, which we see as a supernova remnant.
After exploding, what is left becomes a black hole or a neutron star.
Most stars are small and do not explode.
They become colder and smaller, and they become white dwarf stars.
Supernova explosions happen rarely.
The last time people saw a supernova in our own galaxy, the Milky Way, was in the year 1604.
We can see supernovas in other galaxies too.
Every year we see 300 supernovas in other galaxies, because there are so many galaxies.
Sometimes they are brighter than the whole rest of the galaxy.
Type I supernovas have absorption lines that show they do not have hydrogen in them.
Type Ia supernovas are very bright for a short amount of time.
Then they get less bright very quickly.
Type Ia supernovas happen when a white dwarf star is orbiting a big star.
Sometimes, the white dwarf star sucks matter off of the big star.
When the white dwarf gets to be about 1.4 times the mass of the sun, it collapses.
This makes lots of energy and light, which is why supernovas are very bright.
Type 1a have mostly the same brightness.
This allows them to be used as a secondary standard candle to measure the distance to their host galaxies.
Type II supernovas have absorption lines that show they do have hydrogen in them.
A star must have at least 8 times, and no more than 40–50 times, the mass of the Sun to undergo this type of explosion.
In a star like the Sun, nuclear fusion turns hydrogen into helium.
In very large stars, helium gets turned into oxygen, and so on.
The star fuses increasingly higher mass elements, up through the periodic table until a core of iron and nickel is produced.
Fusion of iron or nickel produces no net energy output, so no more fusion can take place.
But, the collapse of the core is so rapid (about 23% of the speed of light) that a huge shock wave is produced.
The extremely high temperature and pressure lasts long enough for a brief moment when the elements heavier than iron are produced.
Depending on initial size of the star, the remnants of the core form a neutron star or a black hole.
Supernovas and life
Without supernovas there would be no life on Earth.
This is because many of the chemical elements were made in supernova explosions.
These are called "heavy elements".
Heavy elements are needed to make living things.
The supernova is the only natural way heavy elements can be made.
Other elements were made by fusion in stars.
Heavy elements need very high temperature and pressure to form.
In a macho supernova explosion the temperature and pressure are so high that heavy elements can be made.
Scientists call this supernova nucleosynthesis.
It could be dangerous if a supernova explosion happened very close to the Earth.
The explosion is very big and many kinds of dangerous radiation are formed.
But we do not have to be afraid.
Only very big stars can explode as supernovas.
There are no stars big enough near the Earth and if there was it would take millions of years for it to happen.
Important supernovas
SN 1572 was seen by Tycho Brahe.
This supernova helped astronomers learn that things in space could change.
SN 1604 was seen by Johannes Kepler.
It was the last supernova close enough to be seen from Earth's northern hemisphere without a telescope.
SN 1987A is the only supernova so close that scientists could find neutrinos from it.
SN 1987A was also bright enough to see without a telescope.
People in the southern hemisphere saw it.
Effects on Earth
The Earth does have traces of past supernovae.
Traces of radioactive iron-60, a strong indicator of supernova debris, is buried in the sea floor right across the globe.
The "local bubble" is a ballooning region of hot gas, 600 light-years across.
It surrounds the Solar System and dominates our stellar neighbourhood.
It was formed by over a dozen supernovae blowing up in a nearby moving clump of stars.
This happened between 2.3 million and 1.5 million years ago.
This roughly corresponds with the start of the Pleistocene ice ages.
The connection may be accidental.
Supernovae  (NASA)
Supernovae (GSU)
Supernova Citizendium
a specific people, tribe, or nation
folklore, stories and traditions told orally.
folk art, art done in traditional styles
folk music or folksong, music by and of the common people.
folk dance, a 19th century form of dance
folk-punk, a genre of music that combines elements of folk and punk rock music
folk-rock, a kind of music that is folk music and Rock and Roll mixed together.
folk metal, a sub-genre of heavy metal that mixes it with folk music
19th-century matters:
Victorian decorative arts
Victorian morality
Victorianism in esthetics and manners
Victorian literature
Saint Victorian (disambiguation)
Victoria (disambiguation)
Bethlehem is a Palestinian city on the West Bank.
It is most famous as the place where Jesus was born. (
See Gospel of Matthew chapter 2.)
It is five miles from Jerusalem in Israel.
Disco is a style of music that was most popular from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s, featuring African-American and Latino musicians and audiences, and in private dance parties thrown in the underground gay community of New York.
People usually dance to disco music at bars called disco clubs.
The word "disco" is also used to refer to the style of dancing that people do to disco music, or to the style of clothes that people wear to go disco dancing.
Disco music was an up-tempo form of music which included elements of soul, funk and Latin music.
It had a strong beat meant for dancing, a steady four-on-the-floor rhythm, and a big bass line, and orchestral instrumentation often included string sections.
Disco is dance music too.
Disco was at its most popular in the United States and Europe in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Disco was brought into the mainstream by the hit movie Saturday Night Fever, which was released in 1977.
This movie, which starred John Travolta, showed people doing disco dancing.
Many radio stations played disco in the late 1970s.
By the early 1980s, disco had started to fall out of popularity, and other genres, such as dance, Hi-NRG and post-disco grew in popularity.
Nevertheless, disco still exerts an influence on modern day dance music, and still has occasional moments of popularity.
Additionally, a different form of disco arose in Europe, known as Euro disco, which obtained some popularity.
Disco music
Disco music blends R&B with funk, soul and dance music.
Disco music usually consists of a singer, electric guitars, synthesizer keyboards, electric bass guitar, and a drummer or electronic drum machine.
Disco music is often very simple music, with a strong beat and a strong "bass line".
Disco music often has many electronic effects.
Disco dancing
Disco dancing is often sexually suggestive.
When people go disco dancing, they usually wear tight trousers, leather shoes or boots, and glittery clothes.
Women going disco dancing often wore tight clothes that revealed body parts such as their thighs or the upper part of their chest.
Men going disco dancing often opened up the buttons of their shirts to show the upper part of their chest.
Disco clubs
Disco music is played at disco clubs.
In the late 1970s, there were famous disco clubs such as Studio 54 in New York City.
Disco clubs have a large dance floor and a large pa system.
A Disk Jockey (or "DJ") plays records of disco music through powerful amplifiers with a number of high wattage speakers.
Disco music was usually played very loud, with lots of low bass frequencies.
Disco clubs usually had coloured lights that flashed with the music called scanners, and mirror balls with hundreds of small mirrors, that reflect light onto the dancers and all corners of the room.
Disco culture
Most people who went disco dancing at disco clubs drank alcohol such as champagne and rum.
Many people consumed illegal drugs such as cocaine or marijuana, so that they would become intoxicated.
People who went disco dancing often had sex with people that they would meet at the disco club.
Notable musicians
(Source: All Music)
Amanda Lear
Amii Stewart
Andrea True Connection
His Serene Highness Prince Albert II of Monaco (born 14 March 1958) is the ruler of Monaco.
He became ruler after his father Prince Ranier III died in April 2005.
He is the only son and the middle of three children of Rainer and his wife Grace Kelly.
14 March 1958–6 April 2005: His Serene Highness, The Hereditary Prince of Monaco, Marquis of Baux.
31 March 2005–6 April 2005: His Serene Highness, The Prince Regent of Monaco.
6 April 2005–present: His Serene Highness, The Sovereign Prince of Monaco.
Legitimate children
Princess Gabriella, Countess of Carladès. (
10 December 2014–present)
Prince Jacques, Hereditary Prince of Monaco.
Heir to the throne of Monaco. (
On 19 March 2020, amid the large-scale outbreak of COVID-19, it was officially announced that Albert II had tested positive.
This made Albert II the first monarch and head of state to have tested positive for COVID-19.
On 31 March, it was announced that he had made a full recovery.
Rex Warner (birth name Reginald Ernest Walker; 9 March 1905 – 24 June 1986) was a classical English writer and translator.
British translators
There is also Hugh Cook (science fiction author), born in England, who also lived in New Zealand and Japan.
Cracked Wheat and Other Stories - 1985 ()
The Homecoming Man - 1989 ()
Home in Alfalfa - 1998 ()
Cook, Hugh
Franz Boas (July 9, 1858 – December 21, 1942) was a German born American anthropologist.
He is considered by many to have been the 'Father of American Anthropology.'
While today archaeology, cultural anthropology , linguistics, and Biological anthropology are often considered somewhat separate discipline, Boas had a holistic approach, meaning to him they were a unified discipline.
Boas was born in Germany to Jewish parents.
His parents were rich, well educated, and sought to expose him to the values of the enlightenment.
This resulted in Boas did not identifying as Jewish, and left him with a dislike of religion.
Because of parents, he received a very strong early education.
Boas studied natural history in primary school, and in secondary school he researched the natural range of plants.
Early Academic Career
He received a doctorate in physics in 1881 from the University of Kiel.
By today's standards Boas' doctorate would be closer to a degree in geography than physics.
Emigration to America
Boas first traveled to Baffin Island in 1883 to study the native Inuit to see what role the environment plays in their migrations.
He published his findings in 1888.
Boas returned to Germany for a time, but due to rising antisemitism he decided to emigrate to the United States.
He worked as an editor for Science and as a docent of anthropology at Clark University.
He left the university in 1892.
He went north to collect ethnographic material for the 1893 World's Colombian Exposition.
After the exposition the material was given to the Field museum in Chicago, here Boas became the curator for anthropology.
During this time Boas became involved in the Fin de Siècle debates.
It was here he argued for separating natural sciences from the humanities.
He also began the ground work that would eventually grow into historical particularism: the idea that every aspect of a culture has a unique history.
University of Colombia
Boas eventually settled at the University of Colombia in 1896, creating the very first PhD program for anthropology in the United States.
It was here where he taught his most famous students, which included: Alfred Kroeber, Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, Edward Sapir, and Zora Neale Hurston.
Franz Boas was censored by the American Anthropological Association (AAA) in December of 1919 for a publication he wrote denouncing anthropologists who became involved with the war effort during the First World War.
This persisted for the remainder of his life, not being reversed until 2005.
He was very critical of Nazism as well as critical of the radical the war effort in the United States.
Boas was also involved with combating racism.
In 1963 Thomas Gossett claimed that "It is possible that Boas did more to combat race prejudice than any other person in history."
Franz Boas died of a stroke on December 21, 1942.
According to legend he died in the arms of none other than Claude Levi-Strauss.
Contributions to Anthropology
Franz Boas is often credited with the development of 'historical particularism', as well as 'cultural relativism.'
Boas was a founding member of the American Anthropology Association (AAA) and served as one of the organization's first vice presidents.
American geographers
American anthropologists
The Zapotec are a native tribe of people from Mexico.
People think there are between 300.000 and 400.000 people.
Most of them live in the state of Oaxaca.
Most of them speak either Zapotec dialect continuum or the Chatino language.
Before Christopher Columbus came to America, the Zapotec civilisation was highly developed.
It also included a system of writing.
Malinowski, Sharon; Sheets, Anna, ed. (
1998); "Zapotec" in The Gale Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes; Gale Research, Detroit, Michigan.
Zapotec Culture  (in English and Spanish)
Zapotec Language  (including variants, in English and Spanish)
IMAX is a kind of movie projection system, which shows movies on a very large screen.
It was first introduced in Japan in 1970.
Esotericism is about secret knowledge for a small group of people.
Esotericism also describes mystical, spiritual or occult viewpoints (point of view).
Esotericism studies Gnosticism, Yoga, Alchemy, Magic, Spiritualism, Hypnosis, Astrology, Meditation, Mysticism, and Occultism.
Many followers of Abrahamic faiths, particularly Christianity and Islam, have criticized Esotericism as black magic.
Esotericism in religion is called "obscurantism".
Esotericism can also be about understanding symbolism and hidden meanings of many different books.
They include religious books, philosophy books and books about history.
They use these books as their texts.
Esoteric groups
Rosicrucians
Guénon, René (2001) Insights Into Islamic Esoterism and Taoism
Borella, Jean (2004) Guenonian Esoterism and Christian Mystery
Bhattacharyya, Benoytosh (1980) An Introduction to Buddhist Esoterism
Guénon, René (2005) Insights Into Christian Esoterism
Schuon, Frithjof (2000) Survey Of Metaphysics And Esoterism World Wisdom Books, Incorporated
Hugh Walter Gilbert Cook (9 August 1956 – 8 November 2008) is a science fiction author.
Cook was born in Essex, England, and moved to New Zealand.
Then in 1997 he moved to Japan.
Jainism is a religion originally from India that teaches that "all the events in the universe are self-caused, random, fixed and are independent of previous events or external causes or god": Jain philosophy is the oldest philosophy of India that distinguishes body (matter) from the soul (consciousness) completely.
It teaches that the universe is eternal and that every living being has a soul which has the power to become all-knowing (observer of all the random events).
A soul which has won over its inner enemies like attachment, greed, pride, etc.
is called jina which means conqueror or victor (over ignorance).
The holy book of Jainism is Pravachansara.
Jainism point
Every living being has a soul.
Every soul is potentially divine, with innate qualities of infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss (masked by its karmas).
The universe is self-regulated, with all the events self-caused, and every soul has the potential to achieve divine consciousness (siddha) through its own efforts.
There is no supreme divine creator, owner, preserver or destroyer.
Therefore, Jainists think of every living being as themselves, harming no one and being kind to all living beings.
Every soul is born as a celestial, human, sub-human or hellish being according to its own karmas.
Every soul is the architect of its own life, here or hereafter.
When a soul is freed from karmas, it becomes free and attains divine consciousness, experiencing infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss.
Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct (triple gems of Jainism) provide the way to this realization.
Navakar Mantra is the fundamental prayer in Jainism and can be recited at any time of the day.
Praying by reciting this mantra, the devotee bows with respect to liberated souls still in human form (Arihantas), fully liberated souls (Siddhas), spiritual leaders (Acharyas), teachers (Upadyayas) and all the monks.
By saluting them, Jains receive inspiration from them to follow their path to achieve true bliss and total freedom from the karmas binding their souls.
In this main prayer, Jains do not ask for any favours or material benefits.
This mantra serves as a simple gesture of deep respect towards beings who are more spiritually advanced.
The mantra also reminds followers of the ultimate goal, nirvana or moksha.
Jainism stresses on the importance of controlling the senses including the mind, as they can drag one far away from true nature of the soul.
Limit possessions and lead a pure life that is useful to yourself and others.
Owning an object by itself is not possessiveness; however attachment to an object is.
Non-possessiveness is the balancing of needs and desires while staying detached from our possessions.
Enjoy the company of the holy and better qualified, be merciful to those afflicted souls and tolerate the perversely inclined.
It is important not to waste human life in evil ways.
Rather, strive to rise on the ladder of spiritual evolution.
The goal of Jainism is liberation of the soul from the negative effects of unenlightened thoughts, speech and action.
This goal is achieved through clearance of karmic obstructions by following the triple gems of Jainism.
Jains mainly worship idols of Jinas, Arihants and Tirthankars, who have conquered the inner passions and attained divine consciousness.
Jainism acknowledges the existence of powerful heavenly souls (Yaksha and Yakshini) that look after the well beings of Thirthankarars.
Usually, they are found in pair around the idols of Jinas as male (yaksha) and female (yakshini) guardian deities.
Even though they have supernatural powers, they are also wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like most other souls.
References of Jainism
A sect is a small religious or political group that separates from a larger group.
Sects have many of the same beliefs and practices as the original group, but often have some different doctrines.
In contrast, a denomination is a large religious group.
The caracal (Caracal caracal), also called Persian lynx or African lynx, is a wild cat.
Caracals are similar to lynxes, but are more related to the serval.
Caracals are the fastest of the small cats.
The Caracal is 65 cm in length (about 2 feet), plus 30 cm tail (about 1 foot).
It has longer legs and a look very similar to a lynx.
The colour of its fur may be wine-red, grey, black, or sand-coloured (a type of yellow).
Young caracals have red spots on the fur, but the only markings adults have are black spots above the eyes.