the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
If so, they are present in the Neoproterozoic era, 1000 mya.
Otherwise, there is a large increase in planktonic algae around 540 mya in the Cambrian period.
If by plants we mean land plants, the first fossils are in the Silurian.
By the Silurian, fossils of whole plants are preserved, including the lycophyte Baragwanathia.
From the Devonian, detailed fossils of rhyniophytes have been found.
Early fossils of these ancient plants show the individual cells within the plant tissue.
The Devonian period also saw the evolution of the first tree in the fossil record, Wattezia.
This fern-like tree had a trunk with  fronds, and produced spores.
The coal measures are a major source of Palaeozoic plant fossils, with many groups of plants in existence at this time.
The spoil heaps of coal mines are the best places to collect; coal itself is the remains of fossilised plants, though structural detail of the plant fossils is rarely visible in coal.
In the Fossil Forest at Victoria Park in Glasgow the stumps of Lepidodendron trees are found in their original growth positions.
A prediction is a statement that someone makes about what they think is going to happen.
It is often very helpful to know what is going to happen to help prepare for these future events.
Predictions are based on the idea that two beginning positions that are like each other will have similar results.
By watching something happen, it is possible to predict what will happen if something similar happens.
Predictions are given by science or fortune tellers or horoscopes.
The most common example of a prediction is the weather forecast.
Studying how weather happens lets people predict what the weather will be by looking at what is currently happening.
This is helpful because by knowing that it is going to rain, a person can wear the right clothes for it.
Everyday life
Probability is a part of applied mathematics.
It has to do with chance, the study of things that might happen or might not happen.
For example, using probability, one can show that by throwing a coin up in the air and letting it land, half of the time it will land with one side facing up, and half of the time with the other side facing up.
Many coins have a picture of the face of a famous person on one side, and something else on the other side.
Often people call the side with the face "heads", and the other side "tails".
The probability (p) of an event E, written , is always between zero (impossible) and one (certain).
If we roll a die (plural: dice), then the chance that it will land on 1 is 1/6 (because there are 6 numbers on a die).
Similarly, the chance it will land on 2 is also 1/6.
The chance it will land on any number between 1 and 6 is 1, because every time we roll the die, it will always land on a number between 1 and 6.
Probability can be figured out using mathematics.
For example, if one rolls six dice, the chance of them getting a number more than ten is not obvious, but can be figured out using math and science.
One of the most interesting things about chance is that to figure out the probability that two things will both happen, one usually multiply their two probabilities together.
For example, suppose that one wants to know the probability of rolling two dice and getting a certain combination (it could be two 6s or a 3 then a 5, just any two).
The possibility of getting a 3 is one in six (⅙), and the possibility of getting a 5 is also one in six, so the chances of getting a 3 then a 5 is ⅙×⅙=⅟36.
If that number is expressed as somewhere between 0 and 1, it equals 0.027...7, which is fairly low.
The possibility of getting a 3, then a 5, and then a 2 would be ⅙×⅙×⅙=⅟216 or 0.00463, which is a much lower probability.
Ideas of probability
People like Jacob Bernoulli, Pierre-Simon Laplace, or Christiaan Huygens used the word probability, as described above.
Other people thought about frequencies; the notion of probability is usually called frequency probability.
A probability experiment is a situation where chance affects the result of an experiment.
If the experiment can only have two outcomes, it is named Bernoulli trial.
A coin flip is a probability experiment because chance affects whether a coin will land heads or tails when it is flipped.
Proteins are long-chain molecules built from small units known as amino acids.
They are joined with peptide bonds.
A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids.
The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide comes from the DNA sequence of a gene.
The genetic code specifies 20 standard amino acids.
Shortly after synthesis, some amino acids are chemically modified.
This alters the folding, stability, activity, and function of the protein.
Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, as cofactors.
Proteins are essential to all cells.
Like other biological macromolecules (polysaccharides and nucleic acids), proteins take part in virtually every process in cells:
Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze (help to happen) biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism.
Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as in muscle and in cells.
The cytoskeleton is a system of scaffolding that keeps cell shape.
Other proteins are important in cell signalling, immune responses, and cell division
Proteins are formed via a process called "Protein synthesis".
In this process the cell reads the genetic information of the DNA and translates it into a protein.
In eukaryotes, this process begins in the Nucleus and ends in the ribosome.
In procaryotes all of it is done in the cytoplasm.
The general concept is exactly the same for every living being.
Proteins have different functions depending on their shape.
They can be found in meat or muscle.
They are used for growth and repair, as well as for strengthening the bones.
They help to make tissue and cells.
They are in animals, plants, fungi, bacteria, and also in the human body.
Muscles contain a lot of protein.
When protein is digested, it is broken down into amino acids.
These amino acids can then be used to build new protein.
Proteins form an important part in foods like milk, eggs, meat, fish, beans, spinach, and nuts.
There are four factors that determine what a protein will do.
The first is the order of the amino acids.
There are 20 different types of amino acids.
The second is the little twists in the chain.
The third is how the entire structure is folded up.
The fourth is whether it is made up of different sub-units.
Haemoglobin molecules, for example, are made of four sub-units.
Damaging mutations
Most proteins are enzymes, and mutations may slow them or stop them working.
50% of human cancers are caused by mutations in the tumour suppressor p53.
p53 is a protein which regulates cell division.
Essential amino acids
Proteins are necessary in an animal's diets, since animals cannot make all the amino acids they need (they can make most of them).
They must get certain amino acids from food.
These are called the essential amino acids.
Through digestion, animals break down ingested protein into free amino acids.
The amino acids are then used in metabolism to make the enzymes and structures the body needs.
There are nine essential amino acids for humans, which are obtained from food.
The nine essential amino acids are: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.
Meat contains all the essential amino acids humans need; most plants do not.
However, eating a mixture of plants, such as both wheat and peanut butter, or rice and beans, provides all the essential amino acids needed.
Soy products like tofu provide all the essential amino acids—as does quinoa—but these are not the only way to get the protein humans need.
Protein from the Harvard School of Public Health
The periodic table is the systematic and tabular arrangement of all known chemical elements in which elements having similar properties kept together.
In the table, the elements are placed in the order of their atomic numbers starting with the lowest number of one, hydrogen.
The atomic number of an element is the same as the number of protons in that particular nucleus of an atom.
In the periodic table the elements are arranged into periods and groups.
A row of elements across the table is called a period.
Each period has a number; from 1 to 8.
Period 1 has only 2 elements in it: hydrogen and helium.
Period 2 and Period 3 both have 8 elements.
Other periods are longer.
Elements in a period have consecutive atomic numbers.
A column of elements down the table is called a group.
There are 18 groups in the standard periodic table.
Each group has a number: from 1 to 18.
Elements in a group have electrons arranged in similar ways, according to the number of valency electrons, which gives them similar chemical properties (they behave in similar ways).
For example, group 18 is known as the noble gases because they are all gases and they do not combine with other atoms.
There are two systems of group numbers; one using Arabic numerals (1,2,3) and the other using Roman numerals (I, II, III).
The Roman numeral names were used in most of the 20th century.
In 1990 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) decided to use the new system with Arabic numerals, to replace the two old group systems that used Roman numerals.
The periodic table has been used by chemists to observe patterns and relationships between elements.
There are 3 main groups in the Periodic Table; metals, metalloids, and nonmetals.
For example, elements to the bottom and far left of the table are the most metallic, and elements on the top right are the least metallic. (
e.g. cesium is much more metallic than helium).
There are also many other patterns and relationships.
The periodic table was invented by the Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev (18341907).
In his honor, element 101 was named after him, mendelevium.
Standard periodic table
Chemical Series of the Periodic Table
Alkali metals
Alkaline earths
Lanthanides
Actinides
Superactinides
Transition metals
Poor metals
Metalloids/Semi metals/Half metals
Halogens
Noble gases
State at standard temperature and pressure.
The color of the number (atomic number) above the element symbol shows the state of the element at normal conditions.
those in blue are gases
those in green are liquids
those in black are solid
Those with solid borders have stable isotopes (Primordial elements)
Those with dashed borders have only radioactive naturally occurring isotopes
Those with dotted borders do not occur naturally (Synthetic Elements)
Those without borders are too radioactive to have been discovered yet.
Other methods for displaying the chemical elements
The version of the periodic table shown above is the one most used.
Other widespread versions are shown below:
Other versions
The standard table provides the basics.
It is shown above
A vertical table for improved readability in web browsers
The big table provides the basics plus full element names
The huge table provides the basics plus full element names and atomic masses
Electron configurations
Metals and Non Metals
List of elements: includes name, symbol, atomic number, atomic mass, group, and period; sortable by any of those
List of elements by melting point
List of elements by density
Periodic table group
Periodic table period
Periodic Table of the Elements – displays basic properties
WebElements Periodic table
Physiology is the study of how living things work.
Physiologists can study how organs of an organism work together to make things happen.
In human beings, for example, the digestion of food hormones and other chemicals are made by the stomach, liver, and pancreas.
Muscle contraction happens because of chemical messages made by nerves of that muscle.
By learning how the body functions normally, physiologists and physicians can better understand what happens when organs do not function normally.
For example, an understanding of how the thyroid gland functions has helped in treating goitre.
Studies of the circulatory system and the nervous system have helped physicians understand and treat such illnesses like heart disease, stroke, and high blood pressure.
The Physiological Society
Developmental physiology
The American Physiological Society
A planet is a large object such as Venus or Earth that orbits a star.
Planets are smaller than stars, and they do not make light.
Jupiter is the biggest planet in the Solar System.
Planets are shaped like a slightly squashed ball (called a spheroid).
Objects that orbit planets are called satellites.
A star and everything which orbits it are called a star system.
There are eight planets in the Solar System.
Pluto used to be called a planet, but in August 2006, the International Astronomical Union decided it was a dwarf planet instead.
There are four more known dwarf planets in the Solar System, Ceres, Makemake, Eris and Haumea.
The name "planet" is from the Greek word πλανήτης (planetes), meaning "wanderers", or "things that move".
Until the 1990s, people only knew the planets in the Solar System.
4,905 extrasolar planets (exoplanets) have been discovered in 3,629 planetary systems (January 2022 data).
The count includes 808 multi-planetary systems.
Known exoplanets range in size from gas giants about twice as large as Jupiter down to just over the size of the Moon.
About 100 of these planets are roughly the size as Earth.
Nine of these orbit in the habitable zone of their star.
Origin of the planets
The planets are made of elements that are mostly different from the Sun (which is mostly hydrogen).
The Sun is mostly made up of hydrogen, with some helium.
Its energy comes from converting hydrogen to helium.
In contrast, the planets are mostly made up of larger atoms and molecules which could not have come from the Sun.
The materials of planets must have come from another source or sources.
Those sources were atoms made in earlier supernovae explosions near the Sun's path as it moved through its part of the Milky Way.
The material captured by the Sun's gravity formed the planets.
The same thing happened in other planetary systems in the galaxy.
The gas giants are made up of hydrogen gas like the Sun, plus (at their centres) "metallic" elements like the terrestrial planets.
Historical names
The planets in the Solar System have names of Greek or Roman gods, except for Earth, because people did not think Earth was a planet in old times.
However, Earth is occasionally referred by the name of a Roman god: Terra.
Other languages, for example Chinese, use different names.
Moons also have names of gods and people from classical mythology.
The names of the moons of Uranus are from the plays written by Shakespeare.
Here is a list of planets in the Solar System from the closest to the farthest
Types of planets
There are planets, and smaller objects that also go around the Sun.
Some examples of smaller objects are asteroids, comets, and trans-Neptunian objects.
There are three types of planets in the Solar System.
Terrestrial or rocky: These are planets that are like Earth.
They are mostly made up of rocks.
They include: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars.
Jovian or gas giant: These planets are mostly made of gas in their outer layers.
They all have metallic cores.
They include: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
Icy: These planets are mostly made of ice.
It includes Pluto.
Many objects in the Solar System that are not planets are also "icy".
Examples are the icy moons of the outer planets of the Solar System (like Triton).
Ice dwarfs
Many people say the government stops people from having freedom of speech, freedom of religion and other political rights that people in other countries have.
China still has one-party rule, and is not a democracy.
Territorial disputes
Diaoyu Islands (with Japan)
Nansha Archipelago (with Vietnam, Brunei, Malaysia, and the Philippines)
Xisha Archipelago (with Republic of China and Vietnam)
South Tibet - parts of Arunachal Pradesh (with Republic of India)
Aksai Chin - part of Kashmir (with Republic of India)
Lost territories (Unequal treaties)
Note: Japan's and Korea's unequal treaties have been resolved since the end of WWII.
Mongolia (lost to independence)
Tuva (lost to Russian Empire)
Outer Manchuria (lost to Russian Empire)
Kyrgyzstan (lost to Russian Empire)
parts of Kazakhstan (lost to Russian Empire)
parts of Myanmar (lost to British Empire)
Bhutan (lost to British Empire)
Hong Kong (lost to British Empire) (returned to PRC with effect from 1 July 1997 under the Sino-British Joint Declaration)
Macau (lost to Portugal) (transferred to PRC on 20 December 1999)
Tonkin & Northern Annam (lost to France)
Ryukyu Islands (lost to Japanese Empire)
Politics of China
Police are a group of people whose job is to enforce laws, help with emergencies, solve crimes and protect property.
A person who carries out this duty is known as a police officer.
They work out of a police station.
Police are trained in first aid and rescue, because police officers are often one of the first people to get to a place where people are sick or injured, such as a car accident, or a fire.
A police agency may be called a police force, police department, police service, constabulary, civil guard or protective service.
A gendarmerie is a police force that is part of the military, although its members rarely do actual military work.
Most police forces in the United States name themselves as "[Place] Police Department", such as New York City Police Department.
State police forces are usually known as either "[State] Highway Patrol" or "[State] State Police".
In the United Kingdom, most are "[Place] Police" or "[Place] Constabulary".
In Canada and other English-speaking countries, "[Place] Police Service" is common.
Ireland's police are called the Garda Síochána.
A law enforcement agency is any agency that enforces the law.
In the United States, there are some law enforcement agencies that are not called police forces but carry out similar work, such as the Federal Bureau of Investigations.
One common type is a sheriff's office (also sheriff's department), an agency that is led by a sheriff.
Those who carry out policing duties are known as police officers.
They may also be known as policemen
The police have different powers to help them do their job.
These powers are different in different countries.
Most police officers have the power to arrest people, search people, and search houses/properties.
They sometimes carry equipment such as guns, batons, tasers, or pepper spray.
The area where police officers can use these powers is called their jurisdiction.
If officers are outside of their jurisdiction, another police force with jurisdiction can then use their powers.
Preventing crime and protecting the public.
They do this by patrolling on foot in uniform and in police cars.
This can stop some forms of criminal behavior.
Responding to crimes.
When someone calls the police to say that a crime is happening, they must send some police officers to arrive at the scene very quickly.
They will try to stop the crime and catch the person doing it.
Investigating crime.
This means that the police try to find out who did the crime.
Arresting and detaining suspects.
When the police believe that someone has committed a crime, the police arrest them, take them to the police station and ask them questions.
However, it is the prosecutors and not the police who have the final say on whether a suspect gets charged.
To help with emergencies or problems that are not crimes.
This may be car accidents, fires, or people who are sick, hurt or lost.
The police work with firefighters, ambulances, and rescuers.
They might direct traffic, help lost children, or give traffic tickets.
Parts of police departments
Patrol officers travel through their area.
They may travel by foot, on bicycle or motorcycle, or in marked cars.
The cars have warning lights and sirens that can be used.
The sirens make a loud sound.
Patrol officers enforce motor vehicle and criminal laws.
In some locations patrol officers manage the local jail.
Detectives work on investigations that are more complex.
They try to find fraud, illegal drugs, and sex crimes like prostitution, human trafficking, and rape.
Prostitution is not a crime in all countries.
Not all countries use the same words to describe these groups.
In the United Kingdom, for example, patrol officers form the "uniform branch", while detectives work within the CID ("Criminal Investigation Department").
Also in the United Kingdom, not all police officers are armed, these police officers form an "Armed Response Unit" which comes under other names in different constabularies, in the Metropolitan Police Service, it falls under SFC (Specialist Firearms Command) which all MET Armed Police fall under
Police uniforms, equipment and methods vary depending on the country.
In some places, groups of police train for special jobs such as dealing with riots or dealing with highly dangerous criminals.
Police in different countries
Different countries have different ways of organizing their police.
Some countries like South Africa, Ireland and New Zealand have just one police force.
Other countries have more than one.
France has two police forces, one for cities and another for rural areas.
Chile also has two, one for patrol and another for investigations.
Some countries have two or more levels of police forces.
For example, most policing in Australia is carried out by the six state police forces, but there is also the Australian Federal Police who police the whole country.
Germany has a similar system.
The United Kingdom and Switzerland have many local police forces and several national agencies, but no actual national police force.
In Canada, local governments can choose to either run their own police force or give the job to a bigger one.
So most Canadian cities have their own police, while most rural areas are policed by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, which is also the national police.
The United States has over 17,000 law enforcement agencies.
Many areas have four levels of law enforcement agencies.
For example, Los Angeles has the Los Angeles Police Department but there are many other agencies that can work in the city.
This includes the county-level Los Angeles Sheriff's Department, the state-level California Highway Patrol and over 100 federal (or national) law enforcement agencies.
Worldwide, police are a small percentage of the number of people they serve.
On average there are 303.3 police officers per 100,000 people.
In most countries, police officers carry guns during their normal duties.
In the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Ireland and a few other countries, most police officers do not carry guns.
Officers may also carry pepper spray, electric shock weapons (such as tasers), and batons for defense.
Police officers also wear handcuffs to detain suspects.
Officers communicate using radio devices.
The radios can be on both the uniform and in the patrol vehicle.
1860-1870 picture of  San Fransico Police man
Police History book
Police Pictures links
Emergency services
The number  () is a mathematical constant that is the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter.
This produces a number, and that number is always the same.
However, the number is rather strange.
The number starts as 3.141592653589793... and continues without end.
Numbers like this are called irrational numbers.
The diameter is the largest chord which can be fitted inside a circle.
It passes through the center of the circle.
The distance around a circle is known as the circumference.
Even though the diameter and circumference are different for different circles, the number pi remains constant: its value never changes.
This is because the relationship between the circumference and diameter is always the same.
is commonly defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference  to its diameter :
Approximate value
Pi is often written as , or the Greek letter π as a shortcut.
Pi is also an irrational number, meaning it cannot be written as a fraction (), where 'a' and 'b' are integers (whole numbers).
This basically means that the digits of pi that are to the right of the decimal go forever—without repeating in a pattern, and that it is impossible to write the exact value of pi as a number.
Pi can only be approximated, or measured to a value that is close enough for practical purposes.
A value close to pi is 3.141592653589793238462643... A common fraction approximation of pi is , which yields approximately 3.14285714.
This approximation is 0.04% away from the true value of pi.
While this approximation is accepted for most of its use in real life, the fraction  is more accurate (giving about 3.14159292), and can be used when a value closer to pi is needed.
Computers can be used to get better approximations of pi.
Mathematicians have known about pi for thousands of years, because they have been working with circles for the same amount of time.
Civilizations as old as the Babylonians have been able to approximate pi to many digits, such as the fraction 25/8 and 256/81.
Most historians believe that ancient Egyptians had no concept of π, and that the correspondence is a coincidence.
The first written reference to pi dates to 1900 .
Around 1650 , the Egyptian Ahmes gave a value in the Rhind Papyrus.
The Babylonians were able to find that the value of pi was slightly greater than 3, by simply making a big circle and then sticking a piece of rope onto the circumference and the diameter, taking note of their distances, and then dividing the circumference by the diameter.
Knowledge of the number pi passed back into Europe and into the hands of the Hebrews, who made the number important in a section of the Bible called the Old Testament.
After this, the most common way of trying to find pi was to draw a shape of many sides inside any circle, and use the area of the shape to find pi.
The Greek philosopher Archimedes, for example, used a polygon shape that had 96 sides in order to find the value of pi, but the Chinese in 500  were able to use a polygon with 16,384 sides to find the value of pi.
The Greeks, like Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, were also busy with finding out other properties of the circle, such as how to make squares of circles and squaring the number pi.
Since then, many people have been trying to find out more and more exact values of pi.
In the 16th century, better and better ways of finding pi became available, such as the complicated formula that the French lawyer François Viète developed.
The first use of the Greek symbol "π" was in an essay written in 1706 by William Jones.
A mathematician named Lambert also showed in 1761 that the number pi was irrational; that is, it cannot be written as a fraction by normal standards.
Another mathematician named Lindeman was also able to show in 1882 that pi was part of the group of numbers known as transcendentals, which are numbers that cannot be the solution to a polynomial equation.
Pi can also be used for figuring out many other things beside circles.
The properties of pi have allowed it to be used in many other areas of math besides geometry, the study of shapes.
Some of these areas are complex analysis, trigonometry, and series.
Pi in real life
There are different ways to calculate many digits of π.
This is of limited use though.
Pi can sometimes be used to work out the area or the circumference of any circle.
To find the circumference of a circle, use the formula C (circumference) = π × (diameter).
To find the area of a circle, use the formula π (radius²).
This formula is sometimes written as , where r is the variable for the radius of any circle and A is the variable for the area of that circle.
4 digits are needed for a radius of 30 meters
10 digits for a radius equal to that of the earth
15 digits for a radius equal to the distance from the earth to the sun.
20 digits for a radius equal to the distance from the earth to Polaris.
People generally celebrate March 14 as Pi Day, because March 14 is also written as 3/14, which represents the first three numbers 3.14 in the approximation of pi.
Pi day started during 2001.
List of numbers
A proper noun or proper name is a noun representing a unique thing (such as London, Jupiter, John Hunter, or Toyota), as opposed to a common noun, which represents a class of things (for example, city, planet, person or corporation).
Proper nouns are the only nouns in English which have the first letter capitalized.
In English, proper nouns are not normally preceded by an article or other limiting modifier (such as any or some), and are used to denote a particular person, place, or object without regard to any descriptive meaning the word or phrase may have (for example, a town called "Newtown" may be, but does not necessarily have to be, a new [recently built] town).
Which nouns are considered proper names depends on language.
For example, names of days and months are considered proper names in English, but not in Spanish, French, Swedish, Slovenian or Finnish, where they are not capitalized.
no:Substantiv#Egennavn vs. fellesnavn
A plastic is a material that can change its shape easily.
Many things are made of plastics, some types of wood can be made out of plastic, usually because making them to the right shape is easy and plastic, gives form to wood and other things.
There are many types of plastic.
Some can be shaped only when they are freshly made; then they become hard.
Others are thermoplastic and can be softened by heating them.
These plastics can be used for 3D printing, because the plastic will become soft enough to form into different shapes, and then become hard again when they cool down.
Most plastics are man-made; they do not occur in nature.
The process of making plastics is usually quite complicated.
Most of the materials that are called plastic are polymers.
Polymers are long chains of atoms bonded to each other.
In most plastics, the long chain is a chain of carbon atoms with other atoms attached to them.
The different atoms and the shape and length of the chains change how the plastic looks and works.
People experimented with plastics based on natural polymers for a very long time.
Alexander Parkes, an English inventor (1813-1890), created an early form of plastic in 1855.
It was hard but flexible and transparent.
He called it "Parkesine" but now it is called "Celluloid."
Old plastics are usually thrown away and put in landfills.
Some plastics release toxic fumes when heated.
Some plastics are recycled so they won't become waste.
Some plastics have other materials added to them, like glass, because they make the plastic stronger and stiffer.
Plastics are mostly petrochemicals, made from natural gas or from petroleum, a type of oil.
Chemical engineers refine the petroleum which goes through a heating process.
It develops ethylene and propylene, which are the chemical building blocks for many plastics.
These chemicals are then combined with other chemicals to produce a polymer.
Today, some of these plastics are also being made without oil.
Instead, other sources like plants and bacteria are used to make the plastic.
These plastics are called bioplastics.
They are useful because they can be eaten by other bacteria instead of throwing them away.
Well-known plastics, and their use
Polyamide (usually called nylon)  Women's stockings, gears, car parts, toothbrush bristles
Polycarbonate – bulletproof glass, compact discs, DVDs.
Polyethylene – tubes, bottles, shopping bags, milk jugs, body armor (made with polyethylene with especially long chains)
Polyethylene terephtalate (called PET when used for bottles, and polyester when used for clothes or other materials)
Polypropylene - food containers, chairs
Polystyrene - CD cases, plastic cups, plastic forks and knives
Polyurethane - rubber, foam, shiny coatings on wood and tile
Polyvinyl chloride (called PVC, usually) - pipes (chemicals can make PVC softer for toys and cushions)
Product stewardship includes waste disposal measures in the distribution of an industrial product.
That is, paying for the safe and proper disposal when you pay for the product, and relying on those who sold it to you, to dispose of it.
The slightly more specific idea of product take-back means that the service of waste disposal is paid for at time of purchase.
It is often applied to paint, tires, and other goods that become toxic waste if not disposed of properly.
It is most familiar as the deposit bottle - where one pays for the loan of the bottle at the same time as one purchases what is inside it.
The container deposit charged for a deposit bottle may be a fee to buy the bottle, separately from the fee to buy what it contains.
If one returns the bottle, the fee is returned, and the supplier must return the bottle for re-use or recycling.
If not, one has paid the fee, and presumably this can pay for landfill or litter control measures that dispose of say a broken bottle.
Also, since the same fee can be collected by anyone finding and returning the bottle, it is common for people to collect these and return them as a means of surviving.
This is quite common for instance among homeless people.
Legal requirements vary:  the bottle itself may be considered simple property of the purchaser of the contents, or, the purchaser may have some obligation to return the bottle to some depot so it can be recycled or re-used.
For the more toxic items, it is more likely that returning it is required:
This principle is applied very broadly beyond bottles to paint and automobile parts such as tires.
When purchasing paint or tires in many places, one simultaneously pays for the disposal of the toxic waste they become.
In some countries, such as Germany, law requires attention to the comprehensive outcome of the whole extraction, production, distribution, use and waste of a product, and holds those profiting from these legally responsible for any outcome along the way.
This is also the trend in the UK and EU generally.
In the United States, there have been many class action suits that are effectively product stewardship liability - holding companies responsible for things the product does, which it was never advertised to do.
Rather than let liability for these problems be taken up by the public sector or be haphazardly assigned one issue at a time to companies via lawsuits, many accounting reform efforts focus on achieving full cost accounting.
This is the financial reflection of the comprehensive outcome - noting the gains and losses to all parties involved, not just those investing or purchasing.
Such moves have made moral purchasing more attractive, as it avoids liability and future lawsuits.
Those who advocate these measures are concerned with the later phases of product lifecycle and the comprehensive outcome of the whole production process.
It is considered a pre-requisite to a strict service economy interpretation of (fictional, national, legal) "commodity" and "product" relationships.
Peace is a time without any fights or wars.
In a larger sense, peace (or peacefulness) can mean a state of harmony, quiet or calm that is not disturbed by anything at all, like a still pond with no ripples.
Many people and organizations want peace.
One organization that was set up to bring peace among the nations and try to make war a thing of the past was the League of Nations after World War I.  When it did not stop World War II, it was replaced by the United Nations which tries to make the world peaceful.
This means that if any member is attacked or invaded by another country without attacking that country first, the other members will come to help the country that was attacked first.
This idea was used by the United Nations to defend both South Korea and Kuwait when they were attacked.
Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote in a letter he sent from the Birmingham jail that, "True peace is not merely the absence of tension: it is the presence of justice."
In other words, Real peace is more than just problems being gone: there must be fairness to have peace.
Religious beliefs and peace
Buddhists think that peace can be gotten once all suffering ends.
To get rid of suffering and get this peace, many try to follow a set of teachings called the Four Noble Truths
Jews and Christians believe that true peace comes from a personal relationship with God.
Jesus Christ (also called the "Prince of Peace" in the Book of Isaiah) said: "Peace I leave with you; my peace I give you.
I do not give to you as the world gives.
Do not let your hearts be troubled and do not be afraid." ()
Inner peace (or peace of mind) refers to a state of being mentally and spiritually at peace, with enough knowledge and understanding to keep oneself strong in the face of stress.
Being "at peace" is considered by many to be healthy and the opposite of being stressed or anxious.
Peace of mind is generally associated with bliss and happiness.
Peace of mind, serenity, and calmness are descriptions of a disposition free from the effects of stress.
In some cultures, inner peace is considered a state of consciousness or enlightenment that may be cultivated by various forms of training, such as prayer, meditation, Tai chi chuan or yoga, for example.
Movements and activism
Peace movement
A movement that seeks to get ideals such as the ending of a particular war, minimize inter-human violence in a particular place or type of situation, often linked to the goal of achieving world peace.
Means to achieve these ends usually include advocacy of pacifism, non-violent resistance, conscientious objector, diplomacy, boycotts, moral purchasing, supporting anti-war political candidates, demonstrations, and lobbying to create legislation on human rights or of international law.
Theories on peace
Many different theories of "peace" exist in the world of peace studies, which involves the study of conflict transformation.
Quebec ( or ;  ) is a province in the eastern part Canada located between the Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.
It is the largest of Canada's ten provinces by size.
It also has the second largest number of people, after Ontario.
Most of Quebec's inhabitants live along or close to the banks of the Saint Lawrence River.
Not many people live in the north part of the province.
Unlike the other provinces, most people in Quebec speak French (Canadian French) and French is the only official language.
There is a strong French-language culture, which includes French-language newspapers, magazines, movies, television and radio shows.
Their culture and language, though, is different from that of France mainly because of Anglicization, having words that come from the larger English-speaking parts of Canada.
The government of Quebec has its offices in the capital, Quebec City, which is one of the oldest cities in North America.
The city with the most people in the province is Montreal, which is also the second-largest city in Canada.
Quebec has many natural resources that are used to create jobs.
Quebec also has many companies that create products for information and communication technologies, aerospace, biotechnology, and health industries.
It has also developed close relations with the Northeastern United States.
Leaving Canada
Quebec was part of New France until 1760, then under British control.
Quebec became a province in the Canadian Confederation in 1867.
Since then, some people in Quebec have wanted to leave Canada.
Since Quebec is a mainly French-speaking province, most of the people there feel that it is very different from the rest of Canada, and want to keep it that way.
Some feel that for this to happen, Quebec must leave Canada and become its own country.
However, the people of Quebec are still divided as to its place in Canada.
Quebec held democratic votes in 1980 and 1995 to decide whether to leave Canada.
In 1995, the people of Quebec chose to stay in Canada by a 1% margin.
History of Quebec
Aboriginal people and Inuit groups were the first peoples who lived in what is now Québec.
These Aboriginal people lived by hunting, gathering, and fishing.
Some of the Aboriginal people, called Iroquoians, planted squash and maize.
The Inuit fished and hunted whales and seals for fur and food.
Sometimes they warred with each other.
Vikings came in longboats from Scandinavia in 1000 AD.
Basque whalers and fishermen traded furs with Aboriginal people throughout the 1500s.
The first French explorer to reach Quebec was Jacques Cartier.
He sailed into the St. Lawrence River in 1534 and established a colony near present-day Quebec City.
Samuel de Champlain came from France and traveled into the St. Lawrence River.
In 1608, he founded Quebec City as a permanent fur trading outpost.
Champlain signed trading and military agreements with the Aboriginal people.
Voyageurs, coureurs des bois, and Catholic missionaries used river canoes to explore the interior of the North American continent.
After 1627, King Louis XIII of France made a rule that only Roman Catholics could go to live in New France.
Jesuit clerics tried to convert New France's Aboriginal people to Catholicism.
New France became a Royal Province of France in 1663.
The population grew from about 3,000 to 60,000 people between 1666 and 1760.
Colonists built farms on the banks of St. Lawrence River.
In 1753 France began building a series of forts in the British Ohio Country.
Britain asked the French to remove the forts, and the French refused.
By 1756, France and Britain were at war.
In 1758, the British attacked New France by sea and captured the French fort at Louisbourg.
In 1759, British General James Wolfe defeated General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm outside Quebec City.
France gave its North American land to Great Britain in 1763.
In 1764, New France was renamed the Province of Quebec.
In 1774, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act, giving recognition to French law, Catholic religion, and French language in the colony.
The Quebec Act gave the Quebec people their first Charter of rights.
The Quebec Act made American colonists angry, so they launched the American Revolution.
A 1775 invasion by the American Continental Army was stopped at Quebec City.
In 1783, Quebec gave the territory south of the Great Lakes to the new United States of America.
In 1867 the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the British North America Act, which brought most of the provinces together.
The conservative government of Maurice Duplessis dominated Quebec politics from 1944 to 1960 with the support of the Catholic Church.
The Quiet Revolution was a period of social and political change.
During the Quiet Revolution, English Canadians lost their control over the Quebec economy, the Roman Catholic Church became less important, and the Quebec government took over the hydro-electric companies.
In 1963, a terrorist group that became known as the Front de Libération du Québec (FLQ) began doing bombings, robberies and attacks on government offices.
In 1970 the FLQ kidnapped James Cross, the British trade commissioner to Canada.
The FLQ also kidnapped and assassinated Pierre Laporte, Minister of Labour and Deputy Premier of Québec.
Laporte's body was found in the trunk of Paul Rose's car, on the South Shore of Montreal on October 17 1970.
Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau invoked the War Measures Act, and 497 people were arrested.
In 1977, the newly elected Parti Québécois government of René Lévesque introduced the Charter of the French Language.
Often known as Bill 101, it defined French as the only official language of Quebec.
The government is based in the provincial capital, Quebec City.
The government is led by a lieutenant-governor (pronounced "lef-") who represents the Crown.
As of 2019, he is Michel Doyon.
The political leader of the province is the premier.
He is François Legault of the Coalition Avenir de Quebec (CAQ), elected in 2018.
Government of Quebec
Discover the Quebec in pictures, photos
Bonjour Québec, Quebec government official tourist site
Bill 101
CBC Digital Archives – Quebec Elections: 1960–1998
Agora, online encyclopaedia from Quebec
An article on the province of Quebec from The Canadian Encyclopedia
Quebec History, online encyclopaedia made by Marianopolis College
The 1837–1838 Rebellion in Lower Canada, Images from the McCord Museum's collections
Haldimand Collection, documents in relation with Province of Quebec during the American War of Independence (1775–1784)
1867 establishments in Canada
More fully, it a cognitive process of understanding information represented by printed or written language.
It is a way of getting information and insights about something that is written.
Reading involves understanding the symbols in that language.
It can only be done if one knows the language.
Reading and hearing are the two most common ways to get information.
Information gained from reading can include entertainment, especially when reading fiction or humor.
Proofreading is a kind of reading that is done to find mistakes in a piece of writing.
Making predictions/hypothesis about the content, idea, and concepts from the title of the reading material.
Sectional reading or processing (chunking) of the material.
Checking the reliability and similarity of the read content with the predictions supported by evidence from the text.
For better comprehension, to know what and why the text says: review vocabulary, understanding of the main idea, syntax of the sentence, details/facts and sequence of the story, and make inferences about the characters’ attitudes, behaviors or circumstances in the story.
Make plausible predictions about what the next section will be about in the reading material.
A religion is a set of beliefs that is passionately held by a group of people that is reflected in a world view and in expected beliefs and actions (which are often ritualized).
There are many different religions, each with a different set of beliefs.
The beliefs are about the world and the people in it, about how they came into being, and what their purpose is.
These beliefs according to some religious sects, are often linked to supernatural beings such as God, a number of gods or spirits.
They may also be linked to an idea such as a path that the spirit of each person should take towards goodness, truth and duty.
This they called spirituality.
Each religion has different ideas about these things.
Each religion also has a "moral code" which is a set of beliefs about how humans should act.
Each religion usually has their own type of "devotions" when people worship or pray.
They often have rituals (special things that are always done in the same way) for certain times of the year or certain times of a person's life.
Other words that are used for religion are "faith" and "belief system".
Altogether, followers of religion can be known as 'believers', or 'the faithful'.
Few people follow more than one religion at a time.
The largest religions are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Sikhism, Judaism and Jainism.
There are many other religions.
People who do not believe in any gods are called atheists.
People who say that there is no evidence are called agnostics.
Religious beliefs
In many religions, one of the main beliefs is that there is a "deity" (or god) who is a great creator spirit.
In many religions, there is just one deity that the people believe in.
In other religions, there are many deities who each have different roles in the universe.
In many religions, there are other types of spirits.
These may include angels, devils and other such things which can be both good and bad.
Giving honour to God, the gods or the spirits is an important part of most religions.
While this may often be done privately, it is also often done with gatherings of people and rituals.
These rituals are often based on old traditions, and may have been done in almost the same way for hundreds, or even thousands of years.
Human spirit
Another main belief is that humans have a "soul" or spirit which lives on after their body has died.
The person's spirit is on a journey through life that continues after death.
Most religions believe that what a person does during their lifetime will affect what happens to their spirit in the afterlife.
Many religions teach that a good person's spirit can reach a special place of peace and happiness such as Heaven or Nirvana, and that a bad person's spirit can travel to a place of pain and suffering such as Hell.
Still other religions believe in reincarnation - that instead of going either to Heaven or Hell, spirits of the dead return to earth in a new body.
"Morals" are the way a human behaves to other humans.
Most religions make rules about human morals.
The rules of how people should act to each other are different in different religions.
For some religions, following a "path" of goodness, truth and duty is very important.
This is called Tao in China.