the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The 2px orbital of oxygen is oriented perpendicular to the plane of the molecule and switches sign with a C2 and a σv'(yz) operation, but remains unchanged with the other two operations (obviously, the character for the identity operation is always +1).
This orbital's character set is thus {1, -1, 1, -1}, corresponding to the B1 irreducible representation.
Similarly, the 2pz orbital is seen to have the symmetry of the A1 irreducible representation, 2py B2, and the  3d''xy orbital A2.
These assignments and others are in the rightmost two columns of the table.
Molecular symmetry at the University of Exeter
Molecular symmetry at Imperial College London
Molecular Point Group Symmetry Tables
Molecular symmetry at Otterbein University
Pictorial overview of the 32 groups
Jean Paul Getty (December 15, 1892 – June 6, 1976) was an American industrialist.
He founded the Getty Oil Company.
In 1957 Fortune magazine named him the richest living American, and the 1966 Guinness Book of Records named him as the world's richest private citizen, worth an estimated $1,200 million.
At his death, he was worth more than $2 billion.
A book published in 1996 ranked him as the 67th richest American who ever lived. (
The book ranked his wealth as a percentage of the United States gross national product.)
Despite his wealth, Getty was known for being a miser.
Getty enjoyed collecting art and antiquities.
His collection formed the basis of the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, California, and over $661 million of his estate was left to the museum after his death.
He established the J. Paul Getty Trust in 1953.
The trust is the world's wealthiest art institution.
It operates the J. Paul Getty Museum, the Getty Foundation, the Getty Research Institute, and the Getty Conservation Institute.
His father George Getty owned a petroleum business in Minneapolis, Minnesota.
J. Paul was one of the first people in the world with a fortune estimated at over one billion U.S. dollars.
He enrolled at the University of Southern California, then at University of California, Berkeley before graduating in 1914 from Magdalen College, Oxford with degrees in economics and political science.
He spent his summers between studies working on his father's oil fields in Oklahoma.
Running his own oil company in Tulsa, he made his first million by 1916.
However, in 1917, he announced that he was retiring to become a Los Angeles-based playboy.
Although he eventually returned to business, Getty had lost his father's respect.
Just before George Franklin Getty died in 1930, he believed that Jean Paul would destroy the family company, and told him so.
After taking a few years off from the money-making grind to enjoy spending his earnings on women, Getty returned to Oklahoma in 1919.
During the 1920s he added about $3 million to his already sizable estate.
His succession of marriages and divorces (three during the 1920s, five throughout his life) so distressed his father, however, that J. Paul inherited a mere $500,000 of the $10 million the senior Getty left at his death in 1930.
Getty carefully invested his resources during the Great Depression.
Getty acquired Pacific Western Oil Corporation.
He began the acquisition (completed in 1953) of the Mission Corporation, which included Tidewater Oil and Skelly Oil.
In 1967 the billionaire merged these holdings into Getty Oil.
Beginning in 1949, Getty paid Ibn Saud $9.5 million in cash and $1 million a year for a 60-year concession to a tract of barren land near the border of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
No oil had ever been discovered there.
After spending $30 million over four years, oil was discovered there.
From 1953 onward, Getty's gamble produced  a year, which contributed greatly to the fortune which made him one of the richest people in the world.
Getty learned to speak Arabic which helped his unparalleled expansion into the Middle East.
Getty owned the controlling interest in nearly 200 businesses, including Getty Oil.
Associates identified his overall wealth at between $2 billion and $4 billion.
It did not come easily, perhaps inspiring Getty's widely quoted remark—"The meek shall inherit the earth, but not the mineral rights."
He moved to England in the 1950s and loved English culture (Anglophile).
He lived and worked at his 16th-century Tudor estate, Sutton Place near Guildford; the traditional country house became the centre of Getty Oil and his associated companies and he used the estate to entertain his British and Arabian friends (including the British Rothschild family and numerous rulers of Middle Eastern countries).
Getty lived the rest of his life in the British Isles, dying of heart failure at the age of 83 on June 6, 1976.
Marriages, divorces, and children
He had five sons with four of his wives:
Jeanette Demont (married 1923 – divorced 1926); one son George Franklin Getty II (1924–1973)
Allene Ashby (1926–1928?,
that is, bigamous 1926-1927 and its exact resolution is unknown)
Adolphine Helmle (1928–1932); one son Jean Ronald Getty (born 1929)
Ann Rork (1932–1936); two sons Eugene Paul Getty, later Jean Paul Getty Jr (1932–2003) and Gordon Peter Getty (born 1933)
Louise Dudley Lynch (1939–1958); one son Timothy Ware Getty (1946–1958)
Success as an autobiographical author
Getty wrote a very successful book entitled How to Be Rich.
Coin-box telephone
Getty famously had a pay phone installed at Sutton Place, helping to seal his reputation as a miser.
In his autobiography, he described his reasons:
Now, for months after Sutton Place was purchased, great numbers of people came in and out of the house.
Some were visiting businessmen.
Others were artisans or workmen engaged in renovation and refurbishing.
Still others were tradesmen making deliveries of merchandise.
Suddenly, the Sutton Place telephone bills began to soar.
The reason was obvious.
Each of the regular telephones in the house has direct access to outside lines and thus to long-distance and even overseas operators.
All sorts of people were making the best of a rare opportunity.
They were picking up Sutton Place phones and placing calls to girlfriends in Geneva or Georgia and to aunts, uncles and third cousins twice-removed in Caracas and Cape Town.
The costs of their friendly chats were, of course, charged to the Sutton Place bill.
Getty placed dial-locks on all the regular telephones, limiting their use to authorised staff, and the coin-box telephone was installed for others.
When speaking in a televised interview with Alan Whicker, Getty said that he thought guests would want to use a payphone .
Grandson's kidnapping
On July 10, 1973 in Rome, 16 year old John Paul Getty III was kidnapped and a ransom of $17 million was demanded over the phone for his safe return.
However, "the family suspected a ploy by the rebellious teenager to extract money from his miserly grandfather."
John Paul Getty II asked his father for the money, but was refused.
In November 1973 an envelope containing a lock of hair and a human ear was delivered to a daily newspaper.
The demand threatened that Paul would be further mutilated unless $3.2 million was paid: "This is Paul’s ear.
If we don’t get some money within 10 days, then the other ear will arrive.
In other words, he will arrive in little bits."
When the kidnappers finally reduced their demands to $3 million Getty senior agreed to pay  no more than $2.2 million - the maximum that would be tax deductible.
He loaned his son the remaining $800,000 at 4% interest.
Paul III was found alive in southern Italy shortly after the ransom was paid.
After his release Paul III called his grandfather to thank him for paying the ransom but Getty refused to come to the phone.
Nine people were later arrested for the kidnapping, but only two were convicted.
Paul III was permanently affected by the trauma and became a drug addict.
After a stroke brought on by a cocktail of drugs and alcohol in 1981, Paul III was rendered speechless, nearly blind and partially paralyzed for the rest of his life.
He died thirty years later on February 5, 2011 at the age of 54.
First, he argued that to submit to the kidnappers' demands would immediately place his other fourteen grandchildren at the risk of copy-cat kidnappers.
He added:
The second reason for my refusal was much broader-based.
I contend that acceding to the demands of criminals and terrorists merely guarantees the continuing increase and spread of lawlessness, violence and such outrages as terror-bombings, "skyjackings" and the slaughter of hostages that plague our present-day world. (
Getty, 1976, pg.139).
The 2017 movie All the Money in the World is based on these events.
Christopher Plummer plays J. Paul Getty.
In 2018, a television series based on the events, Trust, premiered with Donald Sutherland playing Getty.
Getty, J. Paul.
The history of the bigger oil business of George F.S. F. and J. Paul Getty from 1903 to 1939.
Los Angeles?,
Europe in the eighteenth century. [
Santa Monica, Calif.]: privately printed, 1949.
Le Vane, Ethel, and J. Paul Getty.
Collector's choice: the chronicle of an artistic odyssey through Europe.
London: W.H. Allen, 1955.
My life and fortunes.
New York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1963.
The joys of collecting.
New York: Hawthorn Books, 1965.
How to be rich.
Chicago: Playboy Press, 1965.
The golden age.
New York: Trident Press, 1968.
How to be a successful executive.
Chicago: Playboy Press, 1971.
As I see it: the autobiography of J. Paul Getty.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice-Hall, 1976.
Hewins, Ralph.
The richest American: J. Paul Getty.
New York: Dutton, 1960.
Lund, Robina.
The Getty I knew.
Kansas City: Sheed Andrews and McMeel, 1977. .
Miller, Russell.
The house of Getty.
New York: Henry Holt, 1985. .
de Chair, Somerset Struben.
Getty on Getty: a man in a billion.
London: Cassell, 1989. .
Painfully rich: J. Paul Getty and his heirs.
London: Macmillan, 1995. .
J. Paul Getty Diaries, 1938-1946, 1948-1976.
The Getty Research Institute.
Guide to the J. Paul Getty Family Collected Papers, 1880s-1989.
Collection primarily contains letters, photographs, financial records, legal documents, and publications created or collected by J. Paul Getty and his parents, George F. Getty I and Sarah C. Getty.
J. Paul Getty and Ashby sisters papers, 1926-1992.
The Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, California.
Personal correspondence and telegrams, clippings, a book, and photographs, 1926-1992 and undated, related to J. Paul Getty, Allene Ashby (Getty's second wife), and Belene Ashby.
J. Paul Getty Museum
Insecula biography
Wiki-Genealogy
Getty's How To Be Rich: A commentary by Tom Butler-Bowdon
Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture - Getty, J. Paul
Ranch House Records, 1921, 1945-1960s, 1980s, 1999-2007, undated The Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, California.
These records are organized in four series: Series I. Historic American Buildings Survey documentation, 1999, 2001; Series II.
Renovation and administration records, 1954-1982; Series III.
Architectural drawings, 1921, 1945-1951, 1975-1976 and undated; Series IV.
Photographs and miscellaneous file, circa 1950s-1960s, 1980s, 1999-2007.
Collected papers for biography of J. Paul Getty, circa 1890s-1973, 1984, undated (bulk 1957-1973) The Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, California.
The collection comprises material created or collected by Ralph Hewins in the course of researching and writing the biography The Richest American: J. Paul Getty (1960).
Paradise Lost is an epic poem in blank verse by the 17th-century English writer John Milton.
It was printed in 1667 though it was written nearly ten years earlier.
The second part was printed in 1674.
Most of the poem was written after Milton was blind.
Discussion and Information Forum
17th-century British poems
Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi(  )[variations] (c. 1942 - 20 October 2011) better known as Colonel Gaddafi, was a Libyan politician.
He ruled Libya from 1969 to 2011.
Muammar al-Gaddafi was born in a tent near Qasr Abu Hadi.
His family came from a small tribal group called Qadhadhfa.
His family were Arabized Berber people in heritage.
He joined the Libyan military in 1961; the military was one of the few ways for lower class Libyans like him to rise in social status.
He became a colonel.
Ruler of Libya
Gaddafi became head of state of Libya after removing King Idris from power in a 1969 bloodless coup.
He ruled Libya from September 1, 1969 to August 23, 2011.
After the coup, Gaddafi established the Libyan Arab Republic.
He was one of the longest-serving non royal rulers in history, because he had ruled for more than 41 years.
Gaddafi used Arab socialist and Arab nationalist ideas.
He published a book about his philosophical views in 1975.
This book is commonly known as The Green Book.
In 1977, he left the power of Libya, and continued playing role of revolutionary.
People called him the "Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution".
In the 1980s, he developed chemical weapons, because of it critics called Libya a pariah state.
A Dutch investigation found that Gaddafi had built up a "billion-dollar empire", from assets in an international company in the oil industry.
It also claims that his assets are scattered throughout much of Europe, Despite no trace or proof for even 1 billion have been found.
Gaddafi had a strong interest in geo-political control, was a firm supporter of OAPEC and led a Pan-African campaign for a United States of Africa.
In 1986 Libya was bombed by US, home of Gaddafi was targeted but he survived.
Bombing was condemned by many nations and also by UN.
In 1988, the United Nations imposed economic sanctions on Libya.
Gaddafi started to have closer economic and security relations with the West.
He cooperated with investigations into alleged Libyan anti-western acts, by 1999 he offered to dismantle weapon of mass destruction of Libya, which would be inspected in 2003.
As a result, the UN sanctions were lifted in the same year.
2011 Libyan protests
In February 2011 there were major violent protests against Libyan government.
These came alongside other demonstrations in Tunisia, Egypt, and other parts of the Arab world.
The protests quickly turned into a civil war.
Gaddafi vowed to "die a martyr" if necessary in his fight against rebels and external forces; he also said that "peaceful protest is one thing but armed rebellion is another."
Accusal of Crimes
On 17 May 2011 the International Criminal Court issued a request for an arrest warrant against Gaddafi for alleged crimes against humanity, which was approved on 27 June and a warrant was issued by the court.
On June 2011, according to investigation made by Amnesty International, it was found that there was no evidence for many of the alleged crimes, and that the rebels had falsely blamed Gaddafi as well as the government.
He was accused of ordering the Lockerbie bombing in Scotland that killed over 200 people.
The bombing targeted a civilian plane and it was downed.
The Libyan Civil War (2011) erupted in February.
The aim was to remove Gaddafi from power.
Gaddafi was captured alive and killed by NATO backed rebels in Sirte, Libya, on 20 October 2011.
Sirte was the last stronghold of the Gaddafi regime.
Heads of state of Libya
Prime Ministers of Libya
Otto Konrad (born 1 November 1964) is a retired Austrian football goalkeeper.
He now works as goalkeeping coach for SV Grödig in Austria's First League.
He started his professional career with his local club SK Sturm Graz.
He stayed 11 years and then went to SV Austria Salzburg.
With this team he reached 3 national titles and played in the  1994 UEFA Cup Final which Salzburg lost to Inter Milan.
In the 1994/95 season he even scored a goal for Salzburg.
This goal was voted "Goal of the year 1994".
1997 to 1998 he became goalkeeper of Real Zaragoza in Spain but returned to Austria where he played for GAK, DSV Leoben and PSV Salzburg.
He played 12 matches for the Austrian national football team and was member of the squad for the 1990 FIFA World Cup.
At all his international career was not as successful as the club career because at that time there was a lot of competition among goalkeepers in Austria.
In organic chemistry, an electrocyclic reaction is a type of pericyclic rearrangement reaction.
The reaction is electrocyclic if the result is one pi bond becoming one sigma bond or one sigma bond becoming a pi bond.
Electrocyclic reactions share the following properties:
electrocyclic reactions are driven by light (photoinduced) or heat (thermal)
the reaction mode is determined by the number of pi electrons in the part with more pi bonds
an electrocyclic reaction can close a ring (electrocyclization) or open a ring
the stereospecifity is determined by a conrotatory or a disrotatory transition state formation as predicted by the Woodward–Hoffmann rules.
The torquoselectivity in an electrocyclic reaction refers to the direction that the substituents rotate.
For example, the substituents in a reaction that is conrotatory can still rotate in two directions.
It produces a mixture of two products that are the mirror image of each other (enantiomeric products).
A reaction that is torquoselective restricts one of these directions of rotation (partially or completely) to produce a product in enantiomeric excess (where one stereoisomer is produced much more than the other).
Chemists are interested in electrocyclic reactions because the geometry of the molecules confirm a number of predictions made by theoretical chemists.
They confirm the conservation of molecular orbital symmetry.
The Nazarov cyclization reaction is an electrocyclic reaction that closes a ring.
It converts divinylketones to cyclopentenones. (
It was discovered by Ivan Nikolaevich Nazarov (1906–1957).)
An example is the thermal ring-opening reaction of 3,4-dimethylcyclobutene.
The cis isomer only yields cis,trans-2,4-hexadiene.
But the trans isomer gives the trans,trans diene:
The frontier-orbital method explains how this reaction works.
The sigma bond in the reactant will open in a way that the resulting p-orbitals will have the same symmetry as the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of the product (a butadiene).
This can only happen with a conrotatory ring-opening that results in opposite signs for the two lobes at the broken ends of the ring. (
A disrotatory ring-opening would form an anti-bond.)
The following diagram shows this:
Woodward-Hoffman rules
Correlation diagrams connect the molecular orbitals of the reactant to those of the product having the same symmetry.
Correlation diagrams can be drawn for the two processes.
These correlation diagrams indicate that only a conrotatory ring opening of 3,4-dimethylcyclobutene is "symmetry allowed" whereas only a disrotatory ring opening of 5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene is "symmetry allowed".
This is because only in these cases would maximum orbital overlap occur in the transition state.
Also, the formed product would be in a ground state rather than an excited state.
Frontier molecular orbital theory
The above diagram shows two examples.
For the 5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene (top row of diagram), only a disrotatory mode would result in p-orbitals having the same symmetry as the HOMO of hexatriene.
The two p-orbitals rotate in opposite directions.
For the 3,4-dimethylcyclobutene (bottom row of diagram), only a conrotatory mode would result in p-orbitals having the same symmetry as the HOMO of butadiene.
The p-oribtals rotate in the same direction.
Excited state electrocyclizations
Light can move an electron up to an excited state that occupies a higher orbital.
The excited electron will occupy the LUMO, which has a higher energy level than the electron's old orbital.
If light opens the ring of 3,4-dimethylcyclobutene, the resulting electrocyclization would be occur by a disrotatory mode instead of a conrotatory mode.
The correlation diagram for the allowed excited state ring opening reaction shows why:
Only a disrotatory mode, in which symmetry about a reflection plane is maintained throughout the reaction, would result in maximum orbital overlap in the transition state.
Also, once again, this would result in the formation of a product that is in an excited state of comparable stability to the excited state of the reactant compound.
Electrocyclic reactions in biological systems
Electrocyclic reactions occur frequently in nature.
One of the most common such reactions in nature is the biosynthesis of vitamin D3.
The first step involves light opening the ring of 7-dehydrocholesterol to form pre vitamin D3.
This is a photochemically induced conrotatory electrocyclic reaction.
The second step is a [1,7]-hydride shift to make vitamin D3.
Phenylalanine is used to make diketopiperazine (not shown).
Then enzymes epoxidate diketopiperazine to make the arene oxide.
This undergoes a 6π disrotatory ring opening electrocyclization reaction to produce the uncyclized oxepine.
After a second epoxidation of the ring, the nearby nucleophilic nitrogen attacks the electrophilic carbon, forming a five membered ring.
The resulting ring system is a common ring system found in aranotin and its related compounds.
The benzonorcaradiene diterpenoid (A) was rearranged into the benzocycloheptatriene diterpenoid isosalvipuberlin (B) by boiling a methylene chloride solution.
This transformation can be thought of as a disrotatory electrocyclic reaction, followed by two suprafacial 1,5-sigmatropic hydrogen shifts, as shown below:
An example of an electrocyclic reaction is the conrotatory thermal ring-opening of benzocyclobutane.
The reaction product is a very unstable ortho-quinodimethane.
This molecule can be trapped in an endo addition with a strong dienophile such as maleic anhydride to the Diels-Alder adduct.
The chemical yield for the ring opening of the benzocyclobutane depicted in scheme 2 is found to depend on the nature of the substituent R. With a reaction solvent such as toluene and a reaction temperature of 110 °C, the yield increases going from methyl to isobutylmethyl to trimethylsilylmethyl.
The increased reaction rate for the trimethylsilyl compound can be explained by silicon hyperconjugation as the βC-Si bond weakens the cyclobutane C-C bond by donating electrons.
The Arctic hare (Lepus arcticus) is a social animal that lives in the frigid tundra of North America, Newfoundland, and Greenland.
These hares often congregate in groups of up to 200 individuals.
They hop at great speeds on their large, powerful hind legs, in a kangaroo-like fashion.
The female is called a doe, the male is called a buck, and the baby hare is called a leveret.
The young are born open-eyed and furry.
Most hares live for about a year in the wild.
This mammal is hunted by arctic foxes, arctic wolves, polar bears, falcons, snowy owls, golden eagles and ermine.
They are unharmed during winter and are used to wintry weather.
Robert Burns Woodward (April 10, 1917 – July 8, 1979) was an American organic chemist.
He made many important discoveries in modern organic chemistry.
He worked on the synthesis and structure of complex natural products.
He worked closely with Roald Hoffmann on the theory of chemical reactions.
Woodward won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 1965.
Woodward was born in Boston, Massachusetts.
When he was one year old, his father died in the influenza pandemic of 1918.
He was interested in chemistry at an early age.
By the time he entered high school, he had already done most of the experiments in Ludwig Gattermann's textbook of experimental organic chemistry.
In 1928, Woodward asked the Consul-General of the German consulate in Boston, to send him copies of a few original papers published in German journals.
He was fascinated to read Otto Diels and Kurt Alder's original communication about the Diels–Alder reaction.
In 1933, he entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), but did not do well enough to continue.
MIT readmitted him in 1935, and by 1936 he had received the Bachelor of Science degree.
Only one year later, MIT awarded him the doctorate.
This was very unusual at the time, because most MIT students earned only a Bachelor of Science degree after four years.
Woodward's studies were about the synthesis of the female sex hormone estrone, a natural type of estrogen.
He held a Junior Fellowship at Harvard University from 1937 to 1938, and stayed at Harvard for the rest of his life.
In the 1960s, Woodward was named Donner Professor of Science, a post which allowed him to spend all his time on research.
In the early 1940s Wooward was using ultraviolet spectroscopy to discover the structure of natural products.
Woodward collected a large amount of information, and then worked out a series of rules, later called the Woodward's rules.
These rules could be used to find out the structures of new natural products, as well as non-natural synthesized molecules.
Woodward was always quick to use newly developed techniques.
Woodward's discovery saved chemists from spending a lot of time using chemical methods to work out the structures of compounds.
In 1944 Woodward and William von Eggers Doering reported the synthesis of the alkaloid quinine, used to treat malaria.
The synthesis was a breakthrough, as quinine was hard to get from Japanese occupied southeast Asia.
In fact, Woodward's method could not be used on a practical scale, but it was a landmark for chemical synthesis.
Organic synthesis was still largely a matter of trial and error, and nobody thought such complex structures could actually be constructed.
Woodward showed that organic synthesis could be made into a science.
Woodward's synthesis of quinine was the first of many of his very complicated and elegant syntheses.
Later work and its impact
By the 1930s, the British chemists Christopher Ingold and Robert Robinson among others had studied the mechanisms of organic reactions.
They had come up with rules which could predict reactivity of organic molecules.
Woodward was probably the first synthetic organic chemist who used these rules to predict what steps would work in a synthesis.
Organic syntheses and Nobel Prize
During the late 1940s, Woodward synthesized many complex natural products including quinine, cholesterol, cortisone, strychnine, lysergic acid, reserpine, chlorophyll, cephalosporin, and colchicine.
With these, Woodward opened up a new era of synthesis, sometimes called the 'Woodwardian era'.
He showed that natural products could be synthesized by careful applications of the principles of physical organic chemistry, and by very careful planning.
Many of Woodward's syntheses were described as spectacular by his colleagues.
Before he did them, some people thought it would be impossible to create these substances in the lab.
Woodward's syntheses were also described as having an element of art in them, and since then, synthetic chemists have always looked for elegance as well as utility in synthesis.
His work also involved the exhaustive use of the then newly developed techniques of infrared spectroscopy and later, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.
Another important feature of Woodward's syntheses was their attention to stereochemistry or the particular configuration of molecules in three dimensional space.
Most natural products of medicinal importance are effective, for example as drugs, only when they possess a specific stereochemistry.
This creates the demand for 'stereospecific synthesis', producing a compound with a defined stereochemistry.
Woodward was a pioneer in showing how one could conduct reactions that were stereospecific.
Many of his syntheses involved forcing a molecule into a certain configuration by installing rigid structural elements in it, another tactic that has become standard today.
Woodward also applied the technique of infrared spectroscopy and chemical degradation to determine the structures of complicated molecules.
Notable among these structure determinations were santonic acid, strychnine, magnamycin and terramycin.
About terramycin, Woodward's colleague and Nobel Laureate Derek Barton said:
"The most brilliant analysis ever done on a structural puzzle was surely the solution (1953) of the terramycin problem.
It was a problem of great industrial importance, and hence many able chemists had performed an enormous amount of work trying to determine the structure.
There seemed to be too much data to resolve the problem, because a significant number of observations, although experimentally correct, were very misleading.
Woodward took a large piece of cardboard, wrote on it all the facts and, by thought alone, deduced the correct structure for terramycin.
Nobody else could have done that at the time."
In the early 1950s, Woodward, and British chemist Geoffrey Wilkinson, proposed a structure for ferrocene, a compound consisting of a combination of an organic molecule with iron.
This marked the beginning of the field of transition metal organometallic chemistry.
The field later grew which grew to be important to the chemical industry.
Wilkinson won the Nobel Prize for this work in 1973, with Ernst Otto Fischer.
Some historians think that Woodward should have shared this prize along with Wilkinson.
Woodward himself thought so, and voiced his thoughts in a letter sent to the Nobel Committee.
Woodward won the Nobel Prize in 1965 for his synthesis of complex organic molecules.
In his Nobel lecture, he described the total synthesis of the antibiotic cephalosporin, and claimed that he had pushed the synthesis schedule so that it would be completed around the time of the Nobel ceremony.
B12 synthesis and Woodward-Hoffmann rules
In the early 1960s, Woodward began work on what was the most complex natural product synthesized to date- vitamin B12.
In a remarkable collaboration with his colleague Albert Eschenmoser in Zurich, a team of almost one hundred students and postdoctoral workers worked for many years on the synthesis of this molecule.
The work was finally published in 1973, and it marked a landmark in the history of organic chemistry.
The synthesis included almost a hundred steps, and involved the rigorous planning and analyses that had always characterised Woodward's work.
This work, more than any other, convinced organic chemists that the synthesis of any complex substance was possible, given enough time and planning.
However, as of 2006, no other total synthesis of Vitamin B12 has been published.
That same year, based on observations that Woodward had made during the B12 synthesis, he and Roald Hoffmann devised rules (now called the Woodward–Hoffmann rules) for elucidating the stereochemistry of the products of organic reactions.
Woodward based his ideas on his experiences as a synthetic organic chemist; he asked Hoffman to perform theoretical calculations to verify the ideas.
This was done using Hoffmann's Extended Hückel method.
The predictions of these rules were verified by many experiments.
Hoffmann shared the 1981 Nobel Prize for this work along with Kenichi Fukui, a Japanese chemist who had done similar work using a different approach.
Woodward had died two years before and so was not eligible to share this Prize.
A recent paper in the journal Nature describes how mechanical stress can be used to reshape chemical reaction pathways to lead to products that apparently violate Woodward–Hoffman rules.
Woodward Institute and later life
Woodward Research Institute, based at Basel, Switzerland in 1963.
He also became a trustee of his alma mater, MIT, from 1966 to 1971, and of the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel.
Woodward died in Cambridge, Massachusetts from a heart attack in his sleep.
At the time, he was working on the synthesis of an antibiotic, erythromycin.
A student of his said:
"I owe a lot to Woodward.
He showed me that one could attack difficult problems without a clear idea of their outcome, but with confidence that intelligence and effort would solve them.
He showed me the beauty of modern organic chemistry, and the relevance to the field of detailed careful reasoning.
He showed me that one does not need to specialize.
Woodward made great contributions to the strategy of synthesis, to the deduction of difficult structures, to the invention of new chemistry, and to theoretical aspects as well.
He taught his students by example the satisfaction that comes from total immersion in our science.
I treasure the memory of my association with this remarkable chemist."
During his lifetime, Woodward authored or coauthored almost 200 publications, of which 85 are full papers.
The remainder comprising preliminary communications, the text of lectures, and reviews.
The pace of his scientific activity soon outstripped his capacity to publish all experimental details, and much of the work in which he participated was not published until a few years after his death.
Woodward trained more than two hundred Ph.D. students and postdoctoral workers, many of whom later went on to distinguished careers.
Idiosyncracies
His lectures were legendary and frequently used to last for three or four hours. [
His longest known lecture defined the unit of time known as the "Woodward", and thereafter his other lectures were deemed to be so many "milli-Woodwards" long!]
In many of these, he eschewed the use of slides and used to draw beautiful structures by using multicolored chalk.
As a result, it was always easy to take good notes at a Woodward lecture.
Typically, to begin a lecture, Woodward would arrive and lay out two large white handkerchiefs on the countertop.
Upon one would be four or five colors of chalk (new pieces), neatly sorted by color, in a long row.
Upon the other handkerchief would be placed an equally impressive row of cigarettes.
The previous cigarette would be used to light the next one.
His famous Thursday seminars at Harvard often lasted well into the night.
He had a fixation with blue, and all his suits, his car, and even his parking space were coloured in blue.
In one of his laboratories, his students hung a large black and white photograph of the master from the ceiling, complete with a large blue "tie" appended.
There it hung for some years (early 1970s), until scorched in a minor laboratory fire.
He detested exercise, could get along with only a few hours of sleep every night, was a heavy smoker, and enjoyed Scotch whisky and a martini or two.
Hoffmann would correspond with Woodward using blue paper.
Robert Burns Woodward: Architect and Artist in the World of Molecules; Otto Theodor Benfey, Peter J. T. Morris, Chemical Heritage Foundation, April 2001.
Robert Burns Woodward and the Art of Organic Synthesis: To Accompany an Exhibit by the Beckman Center for the History of Chemistry (Publication / Beckman Center for the History of Chemistry); Mary E. Bowden; Chemical Heritage Foundation, March 1992
Robert Burns Woodward
Video podcast of Robert Burns Woodward talking about cephalosporin
Petrichor () is the name of the scent of rain on dry dirt.
The term was created by two Australian researchers for an article in the journal Nature.
The Citroën Xsara Picasso is a compact MPV from Citroën introduced in 1999.
Its successor, the Citroën C4 Picasso, was introduced in 2006, but the Xsara Picasso still continued to be made until 2012.
1.6 i 65 kW (88 hp) and 70 kW (95 hp)
1.6 i 16V 80 kW (109 hp)
1.8 i 16V 85 kW (115 hp)
2.0 i 16V 100 kW (136 hp)
Xsara Picasso
Crypsis is a word in ecology which means "hiding".
It refers to the ways animals avoid being seen, or otherwise detected.
It also includes the situation when an animal is noticed, but is not recognised for what it is.
It may be either a defence against predators, or a device for predators to get near prey.
Methods include camouflage, nocturnality (night-time activity), subterranean lifestyle, transparency, and mimicry.
The word can also be used about eggs, and about pheromone production.
Crypsis can in principle involve visual, olfactory or auditory camouflage.
Hiding is the simplest case of crypsis.
The animal moves to a place where it cannot be seen.
Camouflage is the case where an animal can be seen by (for example) a predator, but not recognised.
Mimicry is the case when an animal can be seen, but seems like another animal or plant.
Warning colouration is an example.
{{Infobox weapon|
|name=Galil
|image=Galil.jpg
|caption=  An IMI Galil
|type=Assault rifle
|is_ranged=yes
|service= 1972–present
|used_by=See Users
|wars=Lebanon Conflict, War in Somalia (1992–1993), South African Border War, Operation Enduring Freedom/ISAF – Afghanistan, Iraq War, Insurgency in the Philippines, Guatemalan insurgency,Bosnian War, Colombian Armed Conflict
|designer=Yisrael Galili, Yaacov Lior
|design_date=
|manufacturer=Israel Military Industries (IMI), Bernardelli, Indumil, Ka Pa Sa State Factories
|part_length=
|cartridge= 5.56x45mm NATO  7.62x51mm NATO
|action=Gas-operated, rotating bolt
|rate=630–750 rounds/min
|velocity=
|max_range=
|feed=5.56mm: 35, 50, 65-round removable box magazine 7.62mm: 25-round box magazine
|sights=
The Galil is a family of Israeli small arms.
They were designed by Yisrael Galil and Yaacov Lior in the late 1960s.
They were made by Israel Military Industries Ltd (now Israel Weapon Industries Ltd) of Ramat HaSharon.
The Galil's design is supposed to make it work well in warm weather.
It was designed from the Finnish RK 62.
The RK 62 itself was designed from the Soviet AK-47 assault rifle.
It was chosen as the winner of a competition for the Israel Defense Forces.
This competition included many other designs.
Some of these were the M16A1, Stoner 63, AK-47 and HK33.
The Galil was officially brought into service in 1972.
It replaced the FN FAL.
The Galil is fired by a small hammer.
It has a trigger mechanism which was designed from the trigger used in the American M1 Garand.
The rifle's fire has three positions: "R" (First letter of "repeating", which is a British word for semi-automatic fire); the middle position, "A", gives fully automatic fire; and pushing the lever fully forward turns on the safety so that the weapon can not be fired.
The weapon is made with a plastic hand guard and pistol grip.
A suppressor makes the weapon quieter.
The weapon has a bottle opener and wire cutter built into the bipod.
The bottle opener was built in to stop damage to magazines.
This was because the magazines were being used to open bottles.
Wire cutters were built in to reduce the time that IDF troops took to cut down wire fences.
This is because there are many wire fences in rural areas of Israel.
The barrel has a flash suppressor.
It can be used to launch rifle grenades or attach a bayonet.
It is possible to attach the M7 bayonet to the Galil.
The Galil gets its ammunition from a curved, steel box magazine.
It can hold 35 rounds.
There is a special colour-coded 12-round magazine which is used for blanks.
The magazine is put into the gun in a similar way to the AK group.
A special attachment can allow the Galil to use STANAG magazines.
Types of Galil
The AR is the normal rifle version.
It has a plastic handguard.
The handguard can take a lot of damage before breaking.
The stock of the AR can fold (to the right side).
The SAR carbine type of the AR has a shorter barrel (332 mm, 13.07in).
Because the barrel is shorter, the mechanisms inside the barrel are also smaller.
The ARM version is a light machine gun.
It has a handle to carry the weapon, a bipod which folds and a larger handguard.
The handguard is made from wood.
The wooden handguard stays cool when the weapon is being fired fully automatically.
The bipod can be used as a wire cutter.
The back of the handguard can be used to open bottles.
This was put in to stop soldiers opening bottles with the magazines, as this damaged them.
MAR stands for Micro Galil.
It is a smaller version of the SAR.
It weighs 2.98 kg without a magazine.
The MAR gets its ammunition from a 35-round magazine.
Two of these can be attached to make reloading quicker.
The MAR has the same rate of fire (630-750 rounds per minute) as other 5.56 mm Galil models.
An optional magazine adapter inserted inside the magazine well allows the use of standard 20 and 30-round M16 magazines.
The MAR has four settings: "S"—weapon can not fire, "A"—automatic fire, "B"—3-round burst, "R"—semi-automatic fire.
The MAR can have many different sights attached to it.
The MAR can also be given with plastic magazines (instead of steel magazines).
These weigh 0.164 kg.
They can also be given with more space around the trigger so that soldiers wearing gloves can fire it.
Magal: This is a version of the Galil MAR.
It is for use with police forces.
It fires .30 Carbine rounds.
Golan: A civilian version with a new-production milled semi automatic receiver built in the United States with all other components original IMI Galil production parts.
Galil ACE: The Galil ACE is a new group of Galils.
They were designed by a Colombian company called Indumil.
There are three versions of ACE: Micro, SAR and AR.
It can have all its parts removed without using any tools.
: Standard issue rifle.
Produced under license by Indumil.
Also adopted the Galil ACE rifle by the middle of 2010, produced by Indumil.
: Uses 5.56mm versions of the Galil AR, SAR, ARM and the 7.62mm Galil Sniper.
: Uses GALATZ sniper and Micro-Galil assault rifles
: 3,000 ACE
: Komando Pasukan Katak (Kopaska) tactical diver group and Komando Pasukan Khusus (Kopassus) special forces group.
: Israel Defense Forces and Knesset Guard.
: Secretaría de Seguridad Pública.
: 5.56mm AR and ARM versions used by the Portuguese Army airborne infantry.
: Standard assault rifle of the South African National Defence Force.
Made under a license in a changed form as the R4 by Denel Land Systems.
Video of an IMI Galil being fired
Israel Weapon Industries – manufacturer's page
Operator's Manual
Israeli-Weapons.com
Galil 5.56 mm AR/ARM/SAR manual
Buddy Hinton collection
Galil rifle information
Modern Firearms
REMTEK
Golani Sporter, Guns Magazine July 2007
Automatic rifles
Battle rifles
Older authorities included the two genera, Cannabis and Humulus, in the mulberry family.
These and the former hackberry family (Celtidaceae) are now included in Cannabaceae.
Members of the family are erect or climbing plants with petalless flowers and dry, one-seeded fruits.
Hemp (Cannabis) and hop (Humulus) are the only economically important species.
Urticaceae the nettle family comprising about 45 genera of herbs, shrubs, small trees, and a few vines, distributed primarily in tropical regions.
The family is typical of the nettle order.
Many species, especially the nettles (Urtica) and Australian nettle trees (Laportea), have stinging hairs on the stems and leaves.
The leaves are varied and the sap is usually watery.
The small, greenish flowers often form clusters in the leaf axils.
Both male and female flowers may be borne on the same plant.
The curled stamens of the male flowers straighten quickly as the flowers open, releasing the pollen.
Adrian Malik Fenty (born December 6, 1970) was the sixth, and youngest Mayor of the District of Columbia.
He was a national leader in urban education reform.
He lost his re-election bid in the 2010 Democratic primary to Vincent C. Gray, who went on to win the general election for mayor.
Early life, education, and family
Fenty grew up in the Mount Pleasant neighborhood of  Washington, D.C. and graduated from Mackin Catholic High School.
As a teenager, he worked at Swenson's Ice Cream next to the Uptown Theatre.
Fenty's mother is white, and his father is African-American.
Adrian Fenty is the middle child of three boys—older brother Shawn, a bicycle expert, and younger brother Jess.
Their parents are runners and own a Fleet Feet athletic shoe store in the D.C. neighborhood of Adams Morgan.
Adrian has run in the Cherry Blossom Ten Mile Run each year since 2004, improving his finishing time from 1:17:22 in 2005 to 1:02:59 in 2009.
Fenty earned a B.A. in English and Economics at Oberlin College and a J.D. from the Howard University School of Law.
He is a member of Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity.
In 1997, Fenty and lawyer Michelle Cross eloped.
Michelle Cross Fenty works for the Inter-American Development Bank.
They have three children: twins Matthew and Andrew (b. 2000) and Aerin Alexandra (b. 2008).
Entry into politics and service on D.C. Council
Fenty was an intern for Senator Howard Metzenbaum (D-OH), Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton (D-DC), and Representative Joseph P. Kennedy II (D-MA) before becoming involved in local politics.
In addition to serving as an aide to Councilmember Kevin P. Chavous, he was elected as an Advisory Neighborhood Commissioner in ANC 4C and was president of the 16th Street Neighborhood Civic Association.
In 2000, Fenty won a seat on the D.C. Council.
Fenty ran against long-time Ward 4 Councilmember Charlene Drew Jarvis.
Jarvis was well known and a heavy favorite, but Fenty campaigned hard.
He pursued an aggressive door-to-door strategy and put up large numbers of green yard signs.
Fenty was elected to the Council seat by a 57–43 percent margin.
Unopposed in both the primary and general elections in 2004, Fenty was reelected for a second term.
As a Council member, Fenty worked on constituent services.
He opposed public funding for a new baseball stadium.
He proposed funding a $1 billion capital improvement program for public schools, which the Council subsequently passed in an altered form.
He is a member of the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition, an organization formed in 2006 and co-chaired by New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg and Boston mayor Thomas Menino.
While major, Fenty used three BlackBerry devices.
One BlackBerry directly connected him to Police Chief Cathy Lanier while the latter two were for business and personal matters.
2006 Mayoral Campaign
Fenty formally announced his decision to campaign for mayor of the District of Columbia on June 1, 2005.
In the fall of 2005, then-mayor Anthony A. Williams made the widely anticipated announcement that he would not seek re-election, and then-Council Chair Linda Cropp announced she would be a candidate for Mayor.
Other candidates included businesswoman Marie Johns, then-Council member Vincent Orange, and lobbyist Michael A. Brown.
Brown dropped out of the race in September 2006.
Fenty ran on a platform of bringing a more energetic and hands-on approach to district government.
Cropp trumpeted her 25 years of experience in district government and her desire to continue the progress made by Anthony Williams, who endorsed her candidacy.
The race was widely viewed as neck-and-neck through the spring of 2006.
Both candidates raised significant and nearly equal amounts of money –roughly $1.75 million through June 10, 2006 –and neither gained any significant advantage from the numerous debates and forums.
By July 2006, public and private polling gave Fenty a roughly 10-point advantage.
Political observers have debated whether it was Fenty's unprecedented door-to-door campaign, in which he and his campaign workers visited virtually every block in the district, Cropp's lack of engagement in the campaign, or the electorate's desire for a new direction after eight years of Anthony Williams.
Cropp's campaign began a series of negative attacks during the last month of the campaign.
In direct mail and television advertisements, Cropp painted Fenty as unfit for the job and a careless lawyer who had been admonished by the D.C. Bar; in 2005, he received an informal admonition from the Bar Association for his role in a probate case in 1999.
The attacks, however, backfired; the reaction, coupled with the endorsement of the Washington Post newspaper, increased Fenty's lead in the campaign's final weeks.
On September 12, 2006, Fenty won all 142 district precincts in the Democratic Primary.
This had never happened before in District of Columbia history—and defeated Linda Cropp by a 57–31 percent margin.
Fenty received 89% of the vote in the general election.
He became the district's sixth elected mayor since the establishment of home rule.
Tenure (2007–11)
Fenty paid a lot of attention to education reform.
On the first day of his term, in an unprecedented and controversial move, Fenty introduced legislation to restructure the school system to give him full responsibility for schools.
Across the district, district residents had been demanding that the schools be "fixed."
Schools in the district had been troubled for years with student test performance scores and graduation rates among the lowest in the nation.
In 1996, a Control Board appointed by Congress had taken over control of the public school system, declaring that the schools were in a "state of emergency."
Mayor Fenty viewed this re-structuring as the solution.
In April, 2007, the D.C. Council approved Fenty's school takeover plan, and in May 2007, legislation needed to approve the change was passed by Congress and signed by President Bush.