the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The game that made him want to enter the video game industry was the 1978 arcade game Space Invaders.
1977–1984: Arcade beginnings and Donkey Kong
Nintendo was a small Japanese company in the late 1970s.
They had traditionally sold playing cards and other novelties.
However, they started making toys and games in the mid-1960s.
Through a mutual friend, Miyamoto's father set up an interview with Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi.
After showing some of his toy creations, Miyamoto was hired in 1977 as an apprentice in the planning department.
Miyamoto became Nintendo's first artist.
He helped create the art for Nintendo's first original coin-operated arcade video game, Sheriff.
He first helped the company develop a game with the 1980 release Radar Scope.
The game had some success in Japan.
However, by 1981, Nintendo's efforts to sell it in the North American video game market failed.
This left the company with a lot of arcade machines that were not sold.
Nintendo was also facing financial ruin.
In order to try to keep Nintendo going, Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi decided to change unsold Radar Scope machines into a new arcade game.
He asked Miyamoto to do this.
Miyamoto said self-deprecatingly that "no one else was available" to do the work.
Nintendo's head engineer, Gunpei Yokoi, oversaw the project.
Miyamoto thought of many characters and story ideas, but eventually decided on a love triangle between a gorilla, a carpenter, and a girl.
He wanted to create something like what was with comic characters Bluto and Popeye for the woman Olive Oyl.
Although, Nintendo tried to get the rights to Popeye, but they failed.
Bluto became an ape, a form Miyamoto said was "nothing too evil or disgusting".
This ape would be the pet of the main character, "a funny, hang-loose kind of guy."
Miyamoto also said "Beauty and the Beast" and the 1933 film King Kong influenced him.
Donkey Kong was the first time that the creation of a video game's story came before the actual programming.
Usually, the story was added without much care.
Miyamoto had high hopes for his new project.
However, he did not actually know how to program it himself; instead, he thought of the game's concepts, then asked technicians on whether they were possible.
He wanted to make the characters different sizes, move in different ways, and react in various ways.
However, Yokoi thought Miyamoto's original design was too difficult.
Yokoi suggested using see-saws to catapult the character across the screen; however, this was also too difficult to do.
Miyamoto next thought of using sloped platforms and ladders to move the character.
He thought of using barrels for obstacles.
When he asked that the game have multiple stages, the four-man programming team complained that he was basically asking them to make the game repeat, but the team eventually programmed the game.
When the game was sent to Nintendo of America for testing, the sales manager did not like how it was different from the maze and shooter games common at the time.
When American staffers started naming the characters, they decided on "Pauline" for the woman.
She was named after Polly James, wife of Nintendo's Redmond, Washington, warehouse manager, Don James.
The playable character was first called "Jumpman".
They changed the name to Mario.
He was named after Mario Segale, the warehouse landlord.
These character names were written on the American cabinet art and used in advertising.
The staff also got an English name for the game.
The title was Donkey Kong.
Donkey Kong was successful.
Miyamoto started to work on sequels Donkey Kong Jr. in 1982 and Donkey Kong 3 in 1983.
In the next game, he changed the Donkey Kong character Jumpman into Mario.
He gave him a brother: Luigi.
He named the new game Mario Bros. Yokoi convinced Miyamoto to give Mario some special powers, namely being able to fall from any height without getting hurt.
Mario's look in Donkey Kong—overalls, a hat, and a thick mustache—led Miyamoto to change parts of the game.
He changed it to make Mario look like a plumber instead of a carpenter.
Miyamoto thought that New York City would be the best setting for the game.
He thought it was the best place because it has a "maze of subterranean sewage pipes".
The two-player mode and other parts of gameplay were influenced by an earlier video game called Joust.
To date, games in the Mario Bros. series have been released for many consoles.
Shortly after, Miyamoto also drew the character sprites and game design for the Baseball, Tennis, and Golf games on the NES.
1985–1989: NES/Famicom, Super Mario Bros., and The Legend of Zelda
Nintendo released its first home video game console, the Family Computer (released in North America as the Nintendo Entertainment System).
While this happened, Miyamoto created two of the most famous games for the console and in the history of video games as a whole: Super Mario Bros. (a sequel to Mario Bros.) and The Legend of Zelda (an entirely original title).
In both games, Miyamoto decided to focus more on gameplay than on high scores.
This was different from most games at the time.
Super Mario Bros. was a linear game.
The player moved the stage by running, jumping, and dodging or defeating enemies.
Miyamoto used nonlinear gameplay in The Legend of Zelda.
This requires the player to think their way through riddles and puzzles.
The world was big and it seemed to never end.
It had a lot of different choices and depth never seen before in a video game.
With The Legend of Zelda, Miyamoto wanted to make an in-game world that players could relate to.
He said it was like a "small garden that they can put inside their drawer."
He was influenced from his time as a boy around Kyoto.
When he was a boy, he explored nearby fields, woods, and caves; each Zelda title has this feeling of exploration. "
When I was a child," Miyamoto said, "I went hiking and found a lake.
It was quite a surprise for me to find it.
When I traveled around the country without a map, trying to find my way, finding amazing things as I went, I realized how it felt to go on an adventure like this."
He recreated his memories of becoming lost in the maze of sliding doors in his family home in Zeldas maze-like dungeons.
In February 1986, Nintendo released the game as the first game for the Nintendo Entertainment System's new Disk System.
Miyamoto worked on different games for the Nintendo Entertainment System.
These games included Ice Climber, Kid Icarus, Excitebike, and Devil World.
He also worked on sequels to Super Mario Bros and The Legend of Zelda.
'Super Mario Bros. 3 was developed by Nintendo Entertainment Analysis & Development; the game took more than two years to make.
1990–2000: SNES, Nintendo 64, Super Mario 64, and Ocarina of Time
A merger between Nintendo's different internal research and development teams led to the creation of Nintendo Entertainment Analysis & Development (Nintendo EAD).
Miyamoto was the head of it.
Nintendo EAD had about fifteen months to develop F-Zero, one of the launch titles for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System.
Miyamoto worked on different games on the Super Nintendo Entertainment System.
One of them was Star Fox.
For the game, programmer Jez San convinced Nintendo to make an upgrade for the Super Nintendo.
This upgrade would allow it to be able to show three-dimensional graphics better.
This upgrade was the Super FX chip.
Using this new hardware, Miyamoto and Katsuya Eguchi designed the Star Fox game with an early use of three-dimensional graphics.
Miyamoto produced two big Mario titles for the system.
The first game was Super Mario World.
It was a launch title.
It was included with Super Nintendo Entertainment System consoles.
It had an overworld as in Super Mario Bros.. It had a new character, Yoshi.
Yoshi would go on to be in many other Nintendo games.
The second Mario game for the system was Super Mario RPG.
It was different than most Mario games.
Miyamoto led a team that was a partnership between Nintendo and Square Co.; it took almost a year to develop the graphics.
The story takes place in a newly rendered Mushroom Kingdom based on the Super Mario Bros. series.
Shigeru Miyamoto helped Satoshi Tajiri.
Miyamoto guided him during the creation of Pocket Monsters: Red and Green (released in English as Pokémon Red and Blue), the first video games in the Pokémon series.
He was also the producer for these games.
Miyamoto worked on social gameplay ideas such as trading.
Pokémon would become one of the most popular entertainment franchises in the world, spanning video games, anime, and other merchandise.
Miyamoto made several games for the Nintendo 64.
Most of these games were from his previous franchises.
His first game on the Nintendo 64 was Super Mario 64.
He was the main director.
In developing the game, he started with character design and the camera system.
Miyamoto and the other designers were unsure of what the game should be like.
It took months to decide on a good camera view and layout.
The first idea used a fixed path.
This would have been similar to an isometric-type game.
They decided on a free-roaming 3D design.
He changed the design of the Nintendo 64 controller to fit with that of Super Mario 64.
Using what he had learned about the Nintendo 64 from developing Super Mario 64 and Star Fox 64, Miyamoto produced his next game, The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time.
He led a team of several directors.
Individual parts of Ocarina of Time were developed by multiple directors—a new strategy for Nintendo EAD.
However, when things progressed slower than expected, Miyamoto returned to the development team with a more central role.
He was helped in public by interpreter Bill Trinen.
The team was new to 3D games.
However, assistant director Makoto Miyanaga remembers a feeling of "passion for creating something new and never done before".
Miyamoto went on to produce a sequel to Ocarina of Time, known as The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask.
Miyamoto worked many Mario series spin-offs for the Nintendo 64.
These included Mario Kart 64 and Mario Party.
2000–2011: GameCube, Wii, and DS
Miyamoto produced many games for the GameCube.
This included the launch title Luigi's Mansion.
The game was first shown at Nintendo Space World 2000 as a technical demo.
It was designed to show off the graphical power of the GameCube.
Miyamoto made a short demo of the game concepts.
Nintendo decided to make it a full game.
Luigi's Mansion was later shown at E3 2001 with the GameCube console.
Miyamoto made more Mario spinoffs in these years.
He also produced the 3D game series Metroid Prime.
This was because the original designer Yokoi, a friend of Miyamoto's, died.
In this time he developed Pikmin and its sequel Pikmin 2.
These games were based on his experiences gardening.
He also worked on new games for the Star Fox, Donkey Kong, F-Zero, and The Legend of Zelda series on the GameCube and the Game Boy Advance systems.
With the help of Hideo Kojima, he helped the developers of Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes.
He helped with many games on the Nintendo DS.
The games included the remake of Super Mario 64, Super Mario 64 DS.
It also included the new game Nintendogs, a new franchise based on his own experiences with dogs.
2011–present: Wii U, 3DS, and Switch
Miyamoto produced Super Mario 3D Land and Luigi's Mansion: Dark Moon for the 3DS, and Pikmin 3 for the Wii U.
After Nintendo president Satoru Iwata died in July 2015, Miyamoto was chosen to be an acting Representative Director, along with Genyo Takeda.
He was no longer in this position in September 2015 when Tatsumi Kimishima became the company's president.
He was also chosen to be in the position of "Creative Fellow" at the same time.
He would give expert advice to Kimishima as a "support network" alongside Takeda.
Miyamoto was a creative director on the 2017 game Super Mario Odyssey.
He was not one of its producers.
He is credited as being a big influence on the game's development.
Development philosophy
Miyamoto and Nintendo do not use focus groups.
Instead, Miyamoto figures out if a game is fun by playing it himself.
He says that if he enjoys it, others will too.
He uses how the Pokémon series was created as an example.
He said "And that's the point – Not to make something sell, something very popular, but to love something, and make something that we creators can love.
It's the most important feeling we should have when we make games."
Impact Time called Miyamoto "the Spielberg of video games" and "the father of modern video games."
The Daily Telegraph says he is "regarded by many as possibly the most important game designer of all time."
GameTrailers called him "the most influential game creator in history."
Miyamoto has greatly influenced various things about video games in general.
The Daily Telegraph credited him with creating "some of the most innovative, ground breaking and successful work in his field."
Many of Miyamoto's works have started new video game concepts or changed existing ones.
Miyamoto's games have received outstanding critical praise.
Some are considered to be the best games of all time.
Miyamoto's games have also sold very well.
Some became the best-selling games on Nintendo consoles and of all time.
As of 1999, his games had sold 250 million copies and grossed billions of dollars.
Miyamoto's games have received a lot of praise.
Many of his games are considered some of the best of all time.
Games in Miyamoto's The Legend of Zelda series have received a lot of praise.
A Link to the Past was a big game for Nintendo.
It is considered today to be one of the best video games ever made.
Ocarina of Time is considered by critics and gamers to be one of the best video games ever made.
Metacritic here states that Ocarina of Time is "[c]onsidered by many to be the greatest single-player video game ever created in any genre..."Ryan, Michael E. "'I Gotta Have This Game Machine!' (
Cover Story)."
Familypc 7.11 (2000): 112.
MasterFILE Premier.
July 24, 2013.
FamilyPC says "Considered by many to be the greatest video game ever […] Twilight Princess was praised by nearly everyone who reviewed it.
It is the third highest-rated game for the Wii.
It received perfect scores from major publications such as CVG, Electronic Gaming Monthly, Game Informer, GamesRadar, and GameSpy.
Many critics and fans say Super Mario 64 is one of the best and most revolutionary video games of all time.
Metacritic says that Super Mario Galaxy and Super Mario Galaxy 2 are the first- and second-highest rated games for the Wii.
A 1995 article in Maximum said that "in gaming communities, Miyamoto's name is more famous than Steven Spielberg's could ever be."
Commercial reception
Miyamoto's games have sold very well.
many of them became some of the best-selling games on Nintendo consoles and of all time.
Miyamoto's Mario series is the best-selling video game franchise of all time.
It has sold over 400 million units.
Super Mario Bros. is the second best-selling video game of all time.
Super Mario Bros., Super Mario Bros. 3, and Super Mario Bros. 2 were, respectively, the three best-selling games for the Nintendo Entertainment System.
Levi Buchanan of IGN considered Super Mario Bros. 3s appearance in the film The Wizard as a show-stealing part.
He said the movie was a "90-minute commercial" for the game.
Super Mario World was the best-selling game for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System.
Super Mario 64 was the best-selling Nintendo 64 game.
As of May 21, 2003, the game had sold eleven million copies.
At the end of 2007, Guinness World Records said the sales were 11.8 million copies.
As of September 25, 2007, it was the seventh best-selling video game in the United States because it had sold six million copies.
By June 2007, Super Mario 64 had become the second most popular title on Wii's Virtual Console.
Super Mario Bros. was the most popular on the Wii Virtual Console.
Super Mario Sunshine was the third best-selling video game for the GameCube.
The first The Legend of Zelda game was the fifth best-selling game for the Nintendo Entertainment System.
The Wind Waker was the fourth best-selling game for the GameCube.
Twilight Princess had sold well.
In the PAL region, which covers most of Asia, Africa, South America, Australia, New Zealand, and most of Western Europe, Twilight Princess is the best-selling Zelda game ever.
During its first week, the game was sold with three out of every four Wii purchases.
The game had sold 4.52 million copies on the Wii as of March 1, 2008.
1.32 million copies were sold on the GameCube as of March 31, 2007.
The name of the main character of the PC game Daikatana, Hiro Miyamoto, is for Miyamoto.
The character Gary Oak from the Pokémon anime series is named Shigeru in Japan.
He is the rival of Ash Ketchum (called Satoshi in Japan).
Pokémon creator Satoshi Tajiri was mentored by Miyamoto.
In 1998, Miyamoto was the first person to be in the Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences' Hall of Fame.
In 2006, Miyamoto was made a Chevalier (knight) of the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Minister of Culture Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres.
On November 28, 2006, Miyamoto was in TIME Asia's "60 Years of Asian Heroes," alongside Hayao Miyazaki, Mahatma Gandhi, Mother Teresa, Bruce Lee and the Dalai Lama.
He was later one of Time Magazine's 100 Most Influential People of the Year in both 2007 and also in 2008.
At the Game Developers Choice Awards, on March 7, 2007, Miyamoto received the Lifetime Achievement Award.
Both GameTrailers and IGN placed Miyamoto first on their lists for the "Top Ten Game Creators" and the "Top 100 Game Creators of All Time".
He was made a Fellow of BAFTA at the British Academy Video Games Awards on March 19, 2010.
In 2012, Miyamoto was the first interactive creator to be awarded the highest recognition in the Spanish-speaking world, the Prince of Asturias Award.
Miyamoto has a wife, Yasuko, and two children.
In 2010, his son was 25 and working at an advertising agency.
His daughter was 23 and studying zoology at the time.
His children played video games in their youth, but he also made them go outside.
Although he knows some English, he is not fluent and would rather speak in Japanese for interviews.
Miyamoto usually does not sign autographs.
He is worried that if he signs an autograph for one person, many other people will ask for autographs too.
He also does not appear on Japanese television because he likes privacy.
More foreign tourists than Japanese people recognize him.
Miyamoto does not spend much time playing video games in his personal time.
He likes playing the guitar, mandolin, and banjo.
He likes bluegrass music.
He has a Shetland Sheepdog named Pikku.
The dog was why Miyamoto wanted to create Nintendogs.
He is also a semi-professional dog breeder.
He has been quoted as saying, "Video games are bad for you?
That's what they said about rock and roll."
Miyamoto like to move the furniture in his house, even late at night.
He also said that he has a hobby of guessing how long something is, then checking to see if he was correct.
He carries a measuring tape with him everywhere.
In December 2016, Miyamoto showed his hobby on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.
He also played the Super Mario Bros. theme on guitar with The Roots during the same show.
Games created
Shigeru Miyamoto on Nintendo Miiverse
"Master of Play" profile in the New Yorker, December 20, 2010
New York Times profile, May 25, 2008
from the digital TV series Play Value''
Shigeru Miyamoto at RAWG
People from Kyoto Prefecture
As an adjective, a living thing that is individual is not in a group (by him/her/itself).
An object that is individual is for only one person or thing (not shared by a group).
Something that is individual can also be different from anyone else (unique).
Some students learn better with tutors because they get individual attention.
He has a very individual taste in music.
As a noun, an individual is only one person or thing, not a group.
An individual can also mean someone who is different from anyone else (one a kind).
The rights of individuals
A strange individual
Basic English 1500 Words
A truck (or lorry in British English) is a motor vehicle used to transport goods.
The word "truck" comes from the Greek word "trochos", which means "wheel".
Most trucks use diesel fuel.
Sizes of trucks
Light trucks
Light trucks are trucks the size of cars.
They are used by individuals and also companies.
In the United States, a truck is a light truck if it weighs less than 6,300 kg (13,000 lb).
Light trucks are only a little heavier than vans or pickup trucks, but require a special driver's license.
Medium trucks
Medium trucks are heavier than light trucks but lighter than heavy trucks.
In the United States, a truck is a medium truck if it weighs between 6,300 kg (13,000 lb) and 15,000 kg (33,000 lb).
Trucks that are used for local delivery and public service (dump trucks, garbage trucks) are normally around this size.
Medium trucks have usually two axles: one at front and one at rear.
The rear wheels may be coupled (that is: two wheels hitched together) to enable heavier load, but they may also be single.
Heavy trucks
Heavy trucks are the heaviest trucks that are allowed on the road.
In the U.K. they are known as lorries.
Usually heavy trucks have three axles: one at front and two at rear, and the rear axles have coupled wheels to enable heavy loads.
Often heavy trucks pull trailers.
They can be either full trailers which have both front and rear axles or boggies and their own brakes, and are connected to the towing truck with a towbar, or semi-trailers, which are attached to a special kind of a truck called tractor unit with a turntable coupling ("fifth wheel").
A semi-trailer is a kind of trailer which has wheels only in the back and the front rides on the back of the tractor unit.
The tractor unit has an engine and the semi-trailer does not.
Driving a heavy truck requires a professional driver's license.
Truck drivers are called truckers.
The laws of various countries say what kind of vehicle combinations are allowed.
A semi-trailer can be converted into a full trailer with using a dolly.
A dolly is a small trailer which has only a bogie (= set of wheels), fifth wheel coupling for the semi-trailer and a towbar.
Using a dolly, the semi-trailer can now be hitched to an ordinary cargo-carrying truck and does not need a tractor unit.
A heavy truck-trailer combination is often called a big rig or eighteen-wheeler.
The largest heavy trucks are the Australian road trains which may have up to four semi-trailers coupled to a tractor in a train-like fashion and may carry up to 200 tonnes of cargo.
Body types
Box trucks or Dry vans ("tilts" in the UK) have walls and a roof, making a closed cargo room.
The rear has doors.
Some have a side door.
Concrete mixers have a turning drum on back.
Turning it one way mixes the concrete.
Turning it the other way pushes the concrete out.
The concrete goes down "chutes" (like large pipes with an open top).
On most trucks the concrete comes out the back.
Some new types have the concrete goes over the cab and down chutes in the front.
Concrete is very heavy and hard to mix.
Concrete mixers have to be very heavy duty.
Dump trucks ("tippers" in the UK) carry sand, gravel, and dirt.
Most dump trucks have an open-top box bed with an opening "tail-gate" door on the back.
The body lifts up at the front.
The load falls out the tailgate and is "dumped" on the ground behind the truck.
Flatbed trucks have a flat body with no sides.
There is a wall between the cab and the body.
The load will not move forward and hit the cab.
The truck can be loaded from the side or top.
Nothing covers the load.
Some trucks have sides that can be taken off or folded down.
Many times the load is covered with tarps.
Garbage trucks pick up garbage and trash from homes and some businesses.
Most were loaded from the rear.
Now some load from the front or side.
The same type of truck is often used for recycling.
Semi-tractors ("artics" in the UK) have no bodies.
They have a "fifth wheel" that carries weight.
A semi-trailer has no front wheels.
The front of the trailer goes on the fifth wheel.
The semi-tractor carries weight from the trailer and pulls the trailer
Tank trucks ("tankers" in the UK) are designed to carry liquids or gases.
They usually have a round tank that is long (a cylinder) lying on its side.
There are many types of tanks because there are many liquids and gases.
Most tankers are built for only one liquid.
Wreckers ("recovery lorries" in the UK and sometimes "tow trucks" in the US) are used to lift and tow broken cars and trucks.
They usually have a boom with a cable.
Cars are often carried on special flatbeds.
The crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) is a type of sea star.
Usually, they have orange-red to purplish skin, with yellow or pink spikes on their skin.
The crown-of-thorns is also one of the largest starfish in the world, as it has a diameter of up to 3 feet.
The crown-of-thorns lives in the warmer areas of the Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Red Sea.
It only feeds on coral polyps, and usually at night.
The crown-of-thorns climbs over its prey, releases digestive enzymes to break down its food, and then absorbs the coral polyp, which has now turned into a liquid.
What's left behind by the sea star is the leftover coral skeleton.
They are usually of subdued colours, pale brown to grey-green, but they may be garish with bright warning colours in some parts of their wide range.
These bright colours warn animals that may want to eat it that it is venomous.
Effect on coral reefs
The crown-of-thorns is well known for its destructive habits of eating coral, especially on the Great Barrier Reef, which is a World Heritage Site.
Usually, when there are not too many of them, these sea stars help maintain the coral reef by preventing the faster-growing coral from taking over the coral reef.
However, when there are too many crown-of-thorns, they can devastate the reef.
Sea urchins are the Class Echinoidea of the Phylum Echinodermata.
Like the rest of the Echinoderms, literally "spike-skinned", they are entirely marine.
They are usually globe-shaped, and protected by calcareous plates and spines.p65 Urchin is an old word for hedgehog, and in many foreign languages these animals are called "sea hedgehogs".
Like other echinoderms they have five-fold symmetry (called pentamerism) and move by means of hundreds of tiny, transparent, adhesive 'tube feet'.
The symmetry is not obvious in the living animal, but is easily visible in the dried test.
Sea urchins mostly feed on algae and small animals.
They have a special chewing apparatus called Aristotle's lantern, after the Greek philosopher Aristotle who was fascinated by sea urchins.
With this apparatus they can scrape organisms stuck to the surface over which the urchin is moving.
The spines are long and sharp in some species, and protect the urchin from predators.
The spines inflict a painful wound when they penetrate human skin, but are usually not dangerous.
Echinoids also have pincer-like pedicellaria all over their body between the spines.
The job of these is to deal with anything (like larvae) settling on the test (outer shell).p101 It is not known if the spines are venomous (unlike the pedicellariae between the spines, which are venomous).
Typical sea urchins have spines that are  in length,  thick, and not terribly sharp.
Diadema antillarum, familiar in the Caribbean, has thin, potentially dangerous spines that can reach  long.
Sea urchins have five jaws with one tooth each.
The teeth grow throughout the sea urchin's life.
The teeth of the pink sea urchin chip against each other to stay sharp.
Sea urchins feed mainly on algae, but can also feed on sea cucumbers, and a wide range of invertebrates such as mussels, polychaetes, sponges, brittle stars and crinoids.
Sea urchins are one of the favorite foods of sea otters and wolf eels.
Without predators to eat them, urchins breed in large numbers and eat almost all the nearby kelp, creating an urchin barren, devoid of macroalgae and associated fauna.
Sea otters have re-entered British Columbia, dramatically improving coastal ecosystem health by eating sea urchins.
Fossil record and evolution
The first echinoid fossils are from the Lower Ordovician period.
The earliest forms had flexible tests, with plates that could slide over each other.
Echinoids were a relatively unimportant part of the biota in the Palaeozoic.
Only one group survived the P/Tr extinction event to form the basis of all later echinoids.
The group which survived into the Triassic, the Cidaroids, radiated into all other modern groups, which are known as the Euechinoids.
The break with perfect symmetry, which happened in the Jurassic, gave them definite front and back ends.
This opened up new habitats, in particular, the burrowing habitat.
Sand dollars and heart urchins have been highly successful.
The living echinoids are now important members of the biota, especially in shallow and in-shore waters.
Sea urchins as food
Some humans eat the reproductive organs of sea urchins (which they call roe).
This is popular in Korea.
In Japan, this kind of sushi is called uni.
Brittle stars are Echinoderms of the Class Ophiuroidea.
The adults are superficially like starfish, but they are a different group, with different larvae.
Like other echinoderms, they do have a skeleton of calcareous plates, and radial symmetry.
There are about 1500 different species.
Usually they have 5 arms, which can grow long, up to 60 cm, in the largest species.
The central disk of brittle stars can be three to eight inches in diameter.
Unlike starfish, they live deeper in the ocean.
Ophiuroids are known even from abyssal (>6000 m) depths.
However, brittle stars are also common members of reef communities, where they hide under rocks and even within other living organisms.
Generally, brittle stars live below 500m of depth.
There are two related groups of Ophiuroids: the Ophiurida (brittle stars) and the basket stars (Eurialida).
Basket stars usually live in the deeper parts of the range.
Brittle stars are mostly scavengers and detrivores, able to catch some small prey on occasion.
Many brittle stars are more fragile than starfish, which is how they got their name.
When they are picked up, their arms may fall off.
This might make the animal seem brittle, but they often do this as a defense to escape from predators.
Brittle stars do not use their tube feet for movement, but instead use muscles in their long, thin arms to go around rocks.
Ophiurids move quickly when disturbed, and are faster movers than starfish.
In living ophiuroids the plates are linked by longitudinal muscles.
Ophiurid arms only move horizontally.
The way their plates interlock prevents the arms from moving in any other plane.p64 In contrast, basket star arms can move vertically.
These movement patterns are distinct, and separate the groups.
Ophiuroids in general are mostly scavengers or detritivores.
Small organic particles are moved into the mouth by the tube feet.
Ophiuroids may also prey on small crustaceans or worms.
Brittle stars will eat small suspended organisms if available.
In large, crowded areas, brittle stars eat suspended matter from prevailing seafloor currents.
Basket stars
Basket stars (Euryalids) are large brittle stars with many rays.
Their arms branch, and can be moved in any direction.
This distinguishes them from the Ophiurids.
Basket stars may be capable of suspension feeding, using the mucus coating on their arms to trap plankton and bacteria.
They extend one arm out and use the other four as anchors.
The arms form so many branches that they are almost feathery on the ends.
They get their name because when they stretch their rays out to catch plankton, they look like the bottom of a basket.
Basket stars can be large and heavy, the biggest Ophiuroids.
The largest, Gorgonocephalus stimpsoni, weigh up to 5 kg (11 lbs) and has arms 70cms long, with a disk diameter of 14 cm.
They have a hard calcareous shell made of two parts or 'valves'.
The soft parts are inside the shell.
The shell is usually bilaterally symmetrical.
There are over 30,000 species of bivalves, including the fossil species.
There are about 9,200 living species in 1,260 genera and 106 families.
All of them live in the water, most of them in the sea or in brackish water.
Some live in fresh water.
All are filter feeders: they lost their radula in the course of evolution.
A few are carnivorous, eating much larger prey than the tiny microalgae eaten by other bivalves.
Bivalves have two shells or valves connected by a hinge with hinge teeth.
They are made of a calcareous mineral, calcite or aragonite.
The valves are covered by a periostracum, which is an organic horny substance.
This forms the familiar coloured layer on the shell.
The shells are usually held shut by strong adductor muscles.
Scallops can use their muscles to flap the valves and swim.
Some (but not all) molluscs have a part of their mantle known as the siphon (a tube).
Siphons, if they exist, come in pairs, one to suck in, one to expel.
Anything that is small enough to fit inside the hole of its incurrent siphon enters the bivalve.
When the floating material comes in, it gets stuck in slimy mucus that is on the surface of the bivalve's gills.
The food is moved down to the mouth, which is on the other side of the siphon.
Food is digested in the bivalve's stomach and intestine, and everything that is not digested goes out through the other siphon, with water.
The siphons are an adaptation of burrowing molluscs.
Those that live above the substrate (sediment), such as scallops and oysters, do not need them.
Feeding types
Protobranchs use their ctenidia solely for respiration, and the labial palps to feed
Septibranchs possess a septum across the mantle cavity which pumps in food.
Filibranchs and lamellibranchs trap food with a mucous coating on the ctenidia; the filibranchs and lamellibranchs are differentiated by the way the ctenidia are joined
As a group, the bivalves are adapted to penetrate into, and to move along horizontally along, soft ground such as mud and sand.
Common examples of this are razor shells, which can dig themselves into the sand with great speed to escape enemies, and cockles.
Scallops and file clams can swim to escape a predator, clapping their valves together to create a jet of water.
Cockles can use their foot to leap from danger.
However these methods quickly exhaust the animal.
In the razor shells the siphons can break off only to grow back later.
Defensive secretions
Comparison with brachiopods
Bivalves are superficially similar to brachiopods, but the construction of the shell is completely different in the two groups.
In brachiopods, the two valves are on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body, while in bivalves, they are on the left and right sides.
Bivalves appeared late in the Cambrian explosion and came to increase in the Palaeozoic, and dominate over brachiopods during the Mesozoic.
So, it was thought that bivalves are better adapted to aquatic life than the brachiopods, and this caused brachiopods to be out-competed and relegated to minor niches.
"The supposed replacement of brachiopods by clams is not gradual and sequential.
It is a product of one event: the Permian extinction (which affected brachiopods profoundly and clams relatively little)".
The upshot was that bivalves took over the desirable inshore habitats.
Brachiopods now live in deeper waters where food is scarcer.
Business card, contains contact details for a business or business person
Magnetic stripe card, a plastic card with data stored on it
Membership card, given to a person when they become a member of a club or organisation
Memory card, used to store digital data for computers
Postcard, a card sent to friends or relatives while travelling, with a picture on one side and a message on the other
Punched card, a card with information that is punched with holes
Telephone card, used to pay for telephone calls
Visiting card, used to identify a person as a visitor rather than staff
A small printed circuit board
Sound card, controls the sound
Video card, controls the graphics
, when writing mathematics, a function that returns the cardinality of a set
Arizona Cardinals, a National Football League team nicknamed the "Cards"
St. Louis Cardinals, a Major League Baseball team nicknamed the "Cards"
Bishop is a type of clergy in some Christian churches.
The bishop is the leader of the Christians and the Christian priests in each diocese.
The diocese which a bishop governs is called a bishopric.
Episcopal is the adjective for bishops.
A cathedral is the church building where the bishop has an episcopal throne.
The cathedral is the main church of the diocese and the bishop's see.
A bishop may be given the rank of archbishop in an archdiocese.
Christian priests in some denominations must be made priests by bishops.
In these denominations, bishops are above parish priests in the hierarchy of the church's organization.
However, some Protestant denominations have no bishops or archbishops.
The Presbyterianism is an example.
The leader of the Church of Scotland is the Moderator.
The General Assembly elects the Moderator of the Church of Scotland each year.
Other Christian movements have neither bishops nor priests: Quakers are one example.
In the Catholic church, the Pope is chosen by all the cardinals from amongst their number.
According to church law, this does not have to be the case: any male, unmarried, baptized Christian who is judged fit for the office can become pope.
However, the last pope who was not a bishop was Urban VI (elected in 1378).
The pope is also 'the Bishop of Rome'.
In fact he rules an independent state within Rome, called the Vatican.
All Roman Catholic bishops answer to the pope (or to patriarchs in some orthodox churches).
In the Anglican church, bishops are governed by Archbishops.
Bishop Citizendium
Trays are flat, but with raised edges to stop things from sliding off of them.
They are often rectangular, and may or may not have handles with which to carry them.
A butler's tray has a deeper surround, handles on the short sides (usually cut into the surround) so that it can be easily carried, and folding legs.
It is used to carry drinks, and can be used as a side table.
The Orkney Islands (often also called only Orkney)  is an archipelago in the Northern Isles of Scotland, United Kingdom.
It is about 16 kilometres north of Caithness.
20 of the about 70 islands have people living on them.
The administrative centre is Kirkwall (with about 8000 people living there).
The next largest settlements are Stromness (2000 people) and St. Margaret's Hope (with about 550 people).
In addition to the mainland, most of the islands are in two groups, the North and South Isles.
All of them are made of sandstone.
The climate is mild and the soil is fertile.
Most of the land is farmed and agriculture is the main source of income for the economy.
There are many birds and fish.
Ferry services go much of the time to Lerwick (in Shetland).
Most islands have air strips (for airplanes).
This includes the shortest known flight service in the world, between Westray and Papa Westray.
Official flight time is 2 minutes.
If the wind goes in the right direction, the flight can take just over a minute.
Orkney.com Official website
Counties of Scotland
Methodism, or the Methodist movement, is a group of Protestant denominations.
The movement started in Britain in the 18th century and spread to the United States and the British Empire.
Originally it was popular with workers, poor farmers, and slaves.
Mr. John Wesley started Methodism.
He was a priest of the Church of England.
His brother Charles Wesley was a famous writer of Church music.
United Methodist Church website
The salivary glands make saliva.
Saliva keeps the mouth and other parts of the digestive system wet and slippery.
It also helps break down food when you are chewing.
This helps food go down the throat to the stomach.
There are three main pairs of salivary glands.
the parotid,
the submandibular and
the sublingual glands.
There are also many small glands in the tongue, cheeks, lips and palate.
All of those glands make mucous.
Salivary secretions and structure
Mucous
Mucous (slime) is a saccharide glycoprotein called mucin.
With water it makes the slippery lubricant used in many parts of the body, where it lines the moving parts, surfaces and tubes.
Here it lubricates the mouth, throat and alimentary canal.
The mucous also has antiseptic qualities: it contains lysozyme and immunoglobulins.
Mucous, with its antiseptic molecules and slime, traps fungi, bacteria and viruses and prevents infections.
The body produces about a litre of mucous per day, in the mouth and other places.
Serous Fluid
The serous fluid contains the enzyme amylase which acts in the digestion of carbohydrates.
Minor salivary glands on the tongue secrete the amylase.
The parotid gland produces purely serous saliva.
The other major salivary glands produce mixed (serous and mucus) saliva.
Another type of serous fluid is secreted by the two layered serous membranes which line the body cavities.
The serous fluid between the two layers acts as a lubricant and reduces friction from muscle movement.
Types of salivary gland
The parotid gland makes serous secretion only.
The submandibular glands are mixed glands.
They give serous and mucous secretions.
The sublingual glands make mucous only.
Structure of salivary glands
The glands are inside a capsule, of connective tissue.
Inside, it is made of little parts called lobules.
Blood vessels and nerves go into the lobules.
There are three main types of cells in the major salivary glands:
Serous cells  are shaped like a pyramid.
They are joined together in a group that is shaped like a ball.
Mucous cells are usually shaped like a cube.
They are joined together to make a tubules, which are very small tubes.
Myoepithelial cells are all around the part of the gland where the saliva comes out.
They can squeeze the saliva gland so the saliva comes out faster.
The small tubes go into ducts.
Those ducts go into larger ducts that have little stripes on them, called striations.
Those go into ducts between the lobes of the gland (called interlobar or excretory ducts).
The main duct of the salivary glands then opens into the mouth.
Where the glands are
The two parotid glands are near the ear (par- = next to, -otid = ear).
They are the largest salivary glands.
The sublingual gland is under the tongue.
The submandibular gland is in the shape of a “U”.
It is under the chin bone which is called the mandible.
Medical notes
See mumps
Ducts can get blocked.
This would cause pain and swelling of the gland.
Tumours of the salivary glands can occur.
These are usually benign.
Investigation is done by a sialogram, which is a radiocontrast study of a salivary duct.
Salivary Gland Disorders
eMedicine
Exocrine system
The vas deferens (or ductus deferens)   is a duct in a man’s body.
It is also present in other male vertebrates.
Its function is to carry sperm away from the testes, towards the penis.
There are two of these ducts, which are tubes surrounded by smooth muscle.
They connect the left and right epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts in order to move sperm.
Each tube is about 30 centimeters long.
During ejaculation the smooth muscle in the wall of the vas deferens contracts.
That pushes the sperm toward the penis.
The sperm go from the vas deferens into the urethra.
Other male sex glands push out at the same time.
There is a surgery called vasectomy that is a method of contraception.
The two vasa deferentia (Latin plural) are cut and sealed, so the sperm cannot get out of the body.
This is usually permanent, but in some cases it can be reversed.
Sometimes instead of cutting the vas deferentia, the surgeon puts something to block the sperm instead of cutting them.
Ernesto "Che" Guevara, commonly known as el Che or Che  (June 14, 1928 - October 9, 1967) was an Argentine Marxist, revolutionary, physician, author, guerrilla, diplomat, and military theorist.
He is popular with socialists.
In addition to that he was a writer and some of his articles and speeches were even published.
Time magazine said he was one of the most influential people of the 20th century.
Guerrillero Heroico, a picture of him, is called "the most famous photograph in the world."
Che Guevara was born in Rosario, Argentina in 1928.
During his holidays, he traveled.
He saw how poor some people were.
He thought that revolution could fix it.
After college, he went to Mexico.
He met Fidel Castro there in 1954.
Castro was planning a rebellion in Cuba.
Guevara joined Castro.
He fought with Castro in Cuba.
In 1959, Fidel won and became president of Cuba.
Fidel and Guevara declared Cuba a communist country.
Guevara was made head of Cuba's bank.
He later became Minister of Industry.
In 1965, Guevara helped to start other revolutions.
They were in Congo-Kinshasa and Bolivia.
In 1967, he was captured and executed by Bolivian soldiers.
His body was not found until 1997.
His nickname among friends was "Chegi Vara".
Che in popular culture
People have different opinions on Che Guevara.
Some see him as a good leader.
In addition to that he was an excellent writer and some of his articles and speeches were even published.
Others see him as a bad man who wanted to hurt people.
A black and white image of Guevara's face is one of the most merchandized images.
It can be found on many items.
They include t-shirts, hats, posters, and other items.
The image was based on a photograph by Alberto Korda Díaz.
Díaz was a Cuban photographer.
It was taken in 1960.
Guevara is still an important person.
He is seen as an example of youthful rebellion.
A movie, The Motorcycle Diaries, is about Che.
It describes a trip that he took through South America.
The trip took place in the 1950s.
The movie was directed by Walter Salles.
It was produced by Robert Redford.
BBC News (January 17, 2001). "
Profile: Laurent Kabila".
Accessed April 10, 2008.
BBC News (May 26, 2001).
Che Guevara photographer dies.
Accessed January 4, 2006.
BBC News (October 9, 2007). "
Cuba pays tribute to Che Guevara".
BBC News, International version.
Lacey, Mark (October 26, 2007). "
Lone Bidder Buys Strands of Che's Hair at U.S. Auction".
Lacey, Mark (October 9, 2007). "
A Revolutionary Icon, and Now, a Bikini".
O'Hagan, Sean (July 11, 2004). "
Just a pretty face?".
Accessed October 25, 2006.
Argentine people
Cuban scientists
A whisker is a long, thick hair around the mouth of some animals, mostly mammals such as cats and mice, that the animal uses to feel its surroundings.
Some animals, such as cats, also have whiskers above their eyes and on the backs of their legs.
Unlike other hair, whiskers should never be cut or trimmed, as this can confuse the animal.
There are different types of magma.
One is called felsic magma.
Felsic magma is thick and has silica minerals.
It mostly makes light-coloured rocks.
Another type is called mafic magma, which is runny and has less silica.
It usually makes dark-coloured rocks.
Magmas can be intermediate between both types.
Magma may become solid  by cooling slowly below the surface.
This makes "plutonic" rocks such as granite.
When magma comes out from the ground in a volcano it is called lava.
Lava cools quickly, and forms other kinds of rock such as basalt.
Magma is produced by melting of the Earth's mantle or the crust.
It happens at tectonic settings, such as subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots.
Melted material from the mantle and crust moves up through the crust and collects  in magma chambers.
When they come up through the crust, magmas may feed a volcano and come out  as lava.
But they may solidify underground to form an intrusion.
Intrusions eventually cool down and become igneous dikes or  sills.
The study of magma is usually done in lava flows.
However, magma was found under the ground three times in geothermal drilling projects—twice in Iceland and once in Hawaii.
Glue is a sticky material (usually a liquid) that can stick two or more things together.
Glue can be made from plant or animal parts, or it can be made from oil-based chemicals.
The first glues may have been natural liquids that come out of trees when they are cut.
Later, people learned to make glue by boiling animal feet, cartilage or bones.
Some very strong glues were first made from fish bones, rubber or milk.
A simple glue can be made at home by mixing wheat, flour and water.
This glue will stick pieces of paper together.
Many kinds of art can be made using glue.
A collage is a work of art made by using glue to stick coloured things onto paper.
Some glues can be used to keep water out of boats, buildings or vehicles.
In this case, the glue may be called caulk.