the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
M Greenschist – a generic term for a mafic metamorphic rock dominated by green amphiboles
S Greenstone –  greenish sandstone; and a geologic formation in Great Britain
S Greywacke – an immature sandstone with quartz, feldspar and rock fragments within a clay matrix
S Gritstone – a coarse sandstone formed from small pebbles
I Horneblendite – a mafic or ultramafic cumulate rock dominated by >90% hornblende
M Hornfels – a metamorphic rock formed by heating by an igneous rock
I Ignimbrite – a fragmental volcanic rock
I Kimberlite – a rare ultramafic, ultrapotassic volcanic rock and a source of diamonds
S Lignite – brown coal
S Limestone – a sedimentary rock composed primarily of carbonate minerals
M Marble – a metamorphosed limestone
S Marl (geology) – a limestone with a considerable proportion of silicate material
M Migmatite – a high grade metamorphic rock verging upon melting into a magma
S Mudrock – a sedimentary rock composed of clay and muds
S Mudstone – a type of mudrock
I Nephelinite – a silica undersaturated plutonic rock with >90% nepheline
I Obsidian – volcanic glass
S Woolite – a chemical sedimentary limestone (formed by precipitation)
I Pegmatite – an igneous rock (or metamorphic rock) with giant sized crystals
I Peridotite – a plutonic or cumulate ultramafic rock composed of >90% olivine
M Phyllite – a low grade metamorphic rock composed mostly of micaceous minerals
I Plutonic rocks – intrusive rocks that crystallized from magma slowly cooling below the surface of the Earth.
I Pumice – a fine grained volcanic rock with gas bubbles inside
I Pyroclastic rocks – rocks of volcanic origin
M Quartzite – a metamorphosed sandstone typically composed of >95% quartz
I Rhyolite – a felsic volcanic
S Sandstone – a clastic sedimentary rock defined by its grain size
M Schist – a low to medium grade metamorphic rock
M Serpentinite – a metamorphosed ultramafic rock dominated by serpentine minerals
S Shale – a clastic sedimentary rock defined by its grain size
S Siltstone – a clastic sedimentary rock defined by its grain size
M Skarn – calcium-bearing silicate rocks of any age: a metasomatic rock
M Slate – a low grade metamorphic rock formed from shale or silts
M Steatite – Steatite or soapstone is a metamorphic rock.
It has a large amount of the mineral talc.
I Syenite – a plutonic rock dominated by orthoclase feldspar; a type of granitoivolcanic rock; can be a generic term
I Tonalite – a plagioclase-dominant granitoid
S Travertine – a carbonate precipitate from hot-springs.
S Tufa – a porous carbonate precipitate from ambient-temperature water
I Tuff – a fine grained volcanic rock formed from volcanic ash
I Variolite
S Dickstone – a matrix-supported carbonate sedimentary rock
Agate a variety of quartz
Alabaster a variety of gypsum or calcite-rich rock
Albite
Alexandrite a variety of chrysoberyl
Alforsite
Allingite a synonym of ambe
Altaite
Alunite
Alvanite
Amazonite a variety of microclin
Amber fossilized resin
Amethyst a variety of quartz
Amosite asbestiform grunerite
Amphibole (mineral group)
Analcime
Analcite synonym of analcime
Anatase
Anglesite
Anorthite
Anorthoclase
Antigorite
Apatite (mineral group)
Aquamarine a variety of beryl
Arfvedsonite
Armalcolite
Asbestos  fibrous serpentine or amphibole minerals
Astrophyllite
Avalit
Aventurine a variety of quartz
Axinite (mineral group)
Baddeleyite
Bastnaesite (mineral group)
Beckerite natural resin
Bertrandite
Biotite (mineral group)
Bixbite
Blomstrandine synonym of aeschynite-(Y)
Boehmite
Bornite
Briartite
Brucite
Burmite amber from Burma
Bytownite
Canfieldite
Carnallite
Carnelian a variety of quartz
Carnotite
Celadonite
Cerussite
Chabasite (mineral group)
Chalcedony a variety of quartz
Chalcocite
Chlorapatite
Chlorite (mineral group)
Chromite
Chrysolite gemmy yellow-green forsterite
Chrysotile group name - asbestiform serpentine
Cinnabarite synonym of cinnabar
Clevite (not a valid species)
Clinochrysotile
Clinoclase
coal (mineral group)
Coesite
Colemanite
Coltan short for minerals of the columbite group
Columbite (mineral group)
Cooperite
Cordierite
Covellite
Crocidolite  asbestiform riebeckite
Crookesite
Cylindrite
Cymophane variety of chrysoberyl
Datolite
Dawsonite
Delessite [[magnesian chamosite]]
Diaspore
Emerald variety of beryl
Epsom salt synonym of epsomite
Euxenite-(Y)
Feldspar (mineral group)
Ferberite
Ferricrete
Ferro-anthophyllite
Ferrocolumbite
Ferrotantalite
Fergusonite (mineral group)
Fluorapatite
Fluorichterite
Fluorspar synonym of fluorite
Franckeite
Franklinite
Gadolinite (mineral group)
Garnet (mineral group)
Germanite
Glauconite
Grunerite
Hemimorphite
Hibonite
Hiddenite variety of spodumene
Hornblende some minerals of the amphibole group
Hübnerite
Hutchinsonite
Hyalite variety of opal
Hydroxylapatite
Idocrase synonym of vesuvianite
Illite
Ilmenite
Jade  tough, green rock, chiefly made of jadeite or amphiboles
Jasper a variety of quartz
Kainite
Kalsilite
Kamacite
Karpinskyite
Keilhauite  variety of titanite
Kern
Kobellite
Kogarkoite
Krantzite natural resin
Kunzite variety of spodumene
Lepidolite
Leucite
Lizardite
Lodestone
Lonsdaleite
Lorandite
Magnesia (mineral)
Magnetite
Malacolite
Manganocolumbite
Marcasite
Mariposite variety of phengite/muscovite
Meerschaum
Mendozite
Menilite
Metacinnabarite
Microcline
Milk quartz
Molybdenite
Monazite
Morganite
Muscovite
Nepheline
Niobite
Niobite-tantalite
Orthochrysotile
Orthoclase
Palagonite
Parachrysotile
Pentlandite
Periclase
Petalite
Petzite
Phenacite
Phillipsite
Phlogopite
Plagioclase
Plivine
Pollucite
Polycrase
Prehnite
Pumicite
Pyrochlore
Rhodochrosite
Roumanite
Rutile
Salt (sodium chloride)
Samarskite
Scheelite
Simetite
Smectite
Sodalite
Soda niter
Sperrylite
Stannite
Stantienite
Steacyite
Strontianite
Sylvite
Talcum
Tantalite
Teallite
Thortveitite
Titanite
Tremolite
Troctolite
Uralite
Uraninite
Vaterite
Weloganite
Willemite
Wiserine
Wolframite
Wollastonite
Xenotime
Yttria
Zabuyelite
Zaccagnaite
Zaherite
Zajacite-(Ce)
Zakharovite
Zamboninite
Zanazziite
Zapalite
Zappinite
Zaratite
Zeuxite
Zhanghengite
Zharchikhite
Zhemchuzhnikovite
Zhonghuacerite-(Ce)
Ziesite
Zimbabweite
Zinalsite
Zinc-melanterite
Zincite
Zincobotryogen
Zincochromite
Zinkenite
Zinnwaldite
Zippeite
Zirconolite
Zircophyllite
Zirkelite
List of rocks
Minerals are substances that are formed naturally in the Earth.
A mineral can be made of single chemical element or more usually a compound.
There are over 4,000 types of known minerals.
Two common minerals are quartz and feldspar.
Characteristics of minerals
is an inorganic solid. (
elemental mercury is an exception)p184
Has a definite chemical make-up
usually has a crystal structure; some do not
is formed naturally by geological processes
"A mineral is a homogeneous (which means composed of parts or elements that are all of the same kind) naturally occurring substance with a definite but not necessarily fixed chemical composition.
Most minerals are solids with an ordered atomic arrangement, and most are inorganic in the chemical sense of that word".
Minerals and rocks
Minerals are different from rocks.
A mineral is a chemical compound with a given composition and a defined crystal structure.
A rock is a mixture of one or several minerals, in varying proportions.
A rock has only two of the characteristics minerals have–it is a solid and it forms naturally.
A rock usually contains two or more types of minerals.
Two samples of the same type of rock may have different kinds of minerals in them.
Minerals are always made up of the same materials in nearly the same proportions.
A ruby is a mineral.
Therefore, a ruby found in India has similar makeup as a ruby found in Australia.
Formed in nature
Minerals are formed by natural processes.
A few substances with the same chemical composition as minerals can be produced by living creatures as part of their shells or bones.
The shells of molluscs are composed of either calcite or aragonite, or both.
Traditionally, chemicals produced by living things are not considered minerals.
However, it is difficult to see why an organic substance should not be called a mineral if its chemical nature and its crystalline structure is identical with its inorganic twin.
This issue is now under debate: see Railsback part II.
Minerals form in many ways.
The mineral halite, which is used as table salt, forms when water evaporates in a hot, shallow part of the ocean, leaving behind the salt it contained.
Many types of minerals are made when molten rock, or magma cools and turns into a solid.
Talc, a mineral that can be used to make baby powder, forms deep in Earth as high pressure and temperature causes changes in solid rock.
The extraordinary thing is, that most minerals owe their formation to life, or at least to the Great Oxygenation Event. "
Sturdy minerals rather than fragile organic remains may provide the most robust and lasting signs of biology".
A mineral is a solid—that is, it has a definite volume and a rough shape.
Volume refers to the amount of space an object takes up.
For example, a golf ball has a smaller volume than a baseball, and a baseball has a smaller volume than a basketball.
A substance that is a liquid or a gas is not a mineral.
However, in some cases its solid form is a mineral.
For instance, liquid water is not a mineral, but ice is.
Definite chemical makeup
Each mineral has a definite chemical makeup: it consists of a specific combination of atoms of certain elements.
An element is a substance that contains only one type of atom.
Scientists can classify minerals into groups on the basis of their chemical makeup.
Though there are thousands of different minerals, only about 30 are common in Earth's crust.
These 30 minerals make up most rocks in the crust.
For that reason, they are called rock-forming minerals.
Silicates are most common group.
All the minerals in this group contain oxygen and silicon—the two most common elements in Earth's crust—joined together.
Silicates may include other elements such as aluminium, magnesium, iron and calcium.
Quartz, feldspar, and mica are common silicates.
Carbonates are the second most common group of rock-forming minerals is the carbonates.
All the minerals in this group contain carbon and oxygen joined together.
Calcite, which is common in seashells, is a carbonate mineral.
Oxides include the minerals from which most metals, such as tin and copper, are refined.
An oxide consists of an element, usually a metal, joined to oxygen.
This group includes haematite, a source of iron.
Sulphates contain the sulphate group SO4.
Sulphates commonly form in evaporites where highly salty waters slowly evaporate, allowing sulfates and halides to precipitate where the water evaporates.
Sulphates also occur where hot waters are forced through the rock, as with geysers.
Some uses of minerals
People use minerals for many everyday purposes.
Every time people turn on a microwave oven or a TV, minerals are being used.
The copper in the wires that carry electricity to the machine is made from a mineral.
Table salt or halite, is another mineral that people use in their everyday life.
Graphite is used to make pencils
Rock salt is used in cooking
Mineral ores are the source of metals.
Some common minerals and their uses
Craft or handicraft is about making things with one's own hands and skills.
The different types of crafts can be put in groups according to the material being used.
In the Middle Ages the most common materials were metal, wood or clay.
A craftsman is a person who has the knowledge and skills of a craft.
When they have a lot of experience they may be called a master craftsman.
If they are young people learning a craft they are called an apprentice.
Kim Jong-il, birth name Yuri Irsenovich Kim (according to the Soviet Union's records) (, 16 February 1941 – 17 December 2011) was the Supreme Leader of Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) from the time of his father's death in 1994 until his own death in 2011.
He was the son of Kim Il-Sŏng.
Official North Korean propaganda said that Jong-il was born on Mount Paektu (a holy mountain in Korea); but most historians think that he was born near Chabarowsk in the Soviet Union.
The North Korean laws made him permanent ruler of North Korea for life.
He was sometimes referred to as the "Dear Leader", but this was not an official title.
His official title was "Chairman of the National Defense Commission of North Korea", "Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army" and "General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea".
Many people in North Korea were imprisoned or killed for speaking out against the Kim regime.
Almost everyone in North Korea wore a small pin with a picture of Kim Jŏng-Il or Kim Il-Sŏng on it.
The North Korean government told people of his death through the state media on 19 December 2011.
It was said that he had died two days earlier of "physical and mental over-work".
Jong-il was a Stalinist.
He believed in the North Korean Communist philosophy of Juche (self-reliance).
He was afraid to travel on aeroplanes and traveled only on trains.
He was well known for his love of movies and luxury goods, especially caviar and Hennessey brand cognac, even though North Korea was one of the poorest countries in the world.
Former United States Secretary of State Madeleine Albright once gave Jong-il a present of a basketball signed by Michael Jordan when he visited North Korea because Jong-il was a fan of the National Basketball Association and of Michael Jordan.
On the morning of 17 December 2011, at the age of 69 or 70,  Jong-il died of a heart attack while traveling.
His funeral was held on 28 December, and as a result, Kim Jong-un was then elected as the new leader of North Korea.
On 13 April 2012, Kim Jong-il was made Eternal Chairman of the National Defence Commission and Eternal General Secretary of the Workers Party of Korea.
– Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang DPR Korea (1998)
Born in the USSR – Kim Jong-il's childhood.
The many family secrets of Kim Jong Il
"Hidden Daughter" Visits Kim Jong-il Every Year (also includes photos of Kim during his youth)
Kim's family tree
1941 births
2011 deaths
North Korean military people
North Korean politicians
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Silver (symbol Ag) is a chemical element.
In chemistry, silver is element 47, a transition metal.
It has an atomic weight of 107.86 a.m.u.
Its symbol is Ag, from the Latin word for silver, argentum.
Silver is a soft metal.
It is also a precious metal.
When it is used in money or in jewellery, it is often mixed with gold or some other metal to make it harder.
It is bluish-white.
It reflects light very well.
It is a very good conductor of electricity.
It is considered a precious metal.
Silver is very malleable, and ductile, which means it can be pulled into wire or hammered into thin sheets.
Silver is one of the only words in the English language that does not rhyme with any other word.
Silver coins and bars can be bought and sold at coin shops around the world.
It is not reactive.
It does not dissolve in most acids.
Nitric acid dissolves it, though, to make silver nitrate.
It does react with strong oxidizing agents like potassium dichromate or potassium permanganate.
It does not corrode easily.
It only corrodes when there is hydrogen sulfide in the air.
Then, it forms a black coating known as tarnish.
Silver exists in two main oxidation states: +1 and +2.
The +1 is much more common.
A few compounds exist in the +2 oxidation state, but they are very strong oxidizing agents.
Silver compounds can be brown, black, yellow, gray, or colorless.
Silver compounds are disinfectants.
Silver(I) compounds
Silver(I) compounds are oxidizing agents.
They are more common.
Most of them are very expensive.
Silver bromide, light yellow
Silver carbonate, yellowish
Silver chloride, white
Silver(I) fluoride, yellow-brown
Silver iodate, colorless
Silver iodide, yellow
Silver nitrate, colorless
Silver oxide, brown-black
Silver sulfide, black
Silver(II) compounds
Silver(II) fluoride, strong oxidizing agent, highly reactive, white or gray
Silver can be found as a native metal.
Silver can be found with copper, lead, or gold in rocks.
The rocks are found mostly in Canada, Mexico, Peru, and the United States.
Peru produces the most silver.
Silver is also in chemical compounds.
Acanthite is a silver ore that is a silver compound.
Silver is extracted from the earth in several ways.
It is normally extracted using electrolysis.
Silver has been used for many thousands of years by people all over the world, for jewellery, as money, and many other things.
It is called a white metal even though it looks grey.
The word silver is also used to talk about this color or shade of grey.
Silver is also used for utensils.
It may be used to fill teeth in dentistry as an amalgam.
Silver is used as a catalyst.
In compounds
It can kill bacteria and has other useful properties.
It is used in the silver oxide battery.
They are also used in photographic film.
They can also be used to reduce odors in clothes.
Some silver compounds are used in creams that help burns heal.
Silver has been around for thousands of years.
It was normally considered second to gold in value.
Romans used silver as money.
The symbol Ag is from the Latin name for silver, argentum.
Silver was also used to prevent infections and decay.
Silver is not a large danger to humans.
Silver compounds are toxic.
They make the skin turn blue.
Some can be carcinogens.
Colloidal silver, a common homeopathic remedy, is not toxic in normal amounts, but it does not do much.
Silver, because it is depleting, is actually more valuable than gold.
The silver saved up in the world is running out very quickly because more of it has been used each year than the amount mined in each year since 1990.
Companies that use silver have benefited from speculators who sell promises to deliver silver that does not exist, keeping prices artificially low.
This is called naked short selling.
The amount owed is more than all the silver in the world.
The price of silver could go very high when the stored silver runs out and investors start asking for their metal back, instead of taking more I.O.U.'s.
This article is about Popes in general.
For the current Pope, see Pope Francis.
Popes are elected by Cardinals of the Catholic Church.
Once they are elected they hold the position until they die or resign.
Usually they do not resign, though; Pope Benedict XVI is the only Pope to resign in the last 500 years.
A newly elected Pope chooses a regnal name.
Everyone is told this new name when the Habemus Papam is read out.
The current pope (Francis) was called Jorge Bergoglio before he became a pope.
The name Pope comes from the Greek word pappas, meaning "father".
Catholics believe that when making statements ex cathedra, that is official statements teaching about faith and morals, the Pope is infallible - which means God will not allow his followers to be misled by allowing their leader to make a wrong statement.
Only two of any Pope's statements have been ex cathedra.
Popes today travel to many countries around the world preaching.
The Pope is the only person in the world who both leads the church and government.
Like other bishops he wears a big hat called a mitre and holds a staff called a crosier.
Recent popes
Pope John XXIII, 1958-1963
Pope Paul VI, 1963-1978
Pope John Paul I, 1978
Pope John Paul II, 1978-2005
Pope Benedict XVI, 2005-2013
Pope Francis, current pope
The Popes in Avignon
During parts of the Middle Ages, the French kings had a lot of influence in Europe.
For this reason, seven popes (and two anti-popes) lived in Avignon, rather than Rome.
The Avignon Papacy was from 1309 to 1377.
During that time, the popes were known for their greed and corruption.
These popes were allies of France; the enemies of France were also their enemies.
Pope Clement V: 1305–1314
Pope John XXII: 1316–1334
Pope Benedict XII: 1334–1342
Pope Clement VI: 1342–1352
Pope Innocent VI: 1352–1362
Pope Urban V: 1362–1370
Pope Gregory XI: 1370–1378
Clement VII: 1378–1394
Benedict XIII: 1394–1423 (expelled from Avignon in 1403)
Catherine of Siena convinced pope Gregory XI to move back to Rome.
Unfortunately, he died shortly after moving.
The cardinals then elected Urban VI to be the next pope.
The French cardinals did not recognise this election as legitimate.
They declared the papal see as vacant; which led to the Western Schism.
The schism lasted until the Council of Constance in 1417.
During this time, there was a pope in Rome, an Antipope in Avignon, and for some time, a second antipope.
Each of the three was recognised as legitimate pope by different European powers.
This led to a big split in the church as a whole.
The council elected Pope Martin V as a new pope, recognised by all parties.
Christian religious occupations
The San Andreas Fault is a right-moving ('dextral') strike-slip fault.
It marks the boundary between the North American Plate on the east and the Pacific Plate on the west.
The fault was the cause of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.
It first appeared about 20 million years ago.
The San Andreas Fault is a zone several miles wide with multiple strands.
The main active strand runs both on and off-shore between Cape Mendocino and the Sea of Cortez.
From Cape Mendocino, it runs offshore to Tomales Bay.
Then it goes southward through Bolinas Lagoon, just west of the San Francisco Peninsula, to come onshore again at Daly City, through the hills of the Peninsula.
Crystal Springs reservoir is formed by the fault itself.
In the Santa Cruz mountains, it bends slightly eastward.
This is the site of the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake.
The fault continues south through the historic mission at San Juan Bautista and through the town of Hollister (where active creep can be seen to offset sidewalks and even houses).
The Transverse Ranges north of Santa Barbara are formed by compression.
Strands of the fault snake under the Los Angeles Basin.
From there it connects into the active spreading under the Sea of Cortez.
The San Andreas fault was discovered by Andrew Lawson in 1895, who climbed into the faulted serpentinite well where the south tower of the Golden Gate Bridge was being poured.
In spite of the extreme deformation of the serpentinite, Lawson declared the bridge perfectly safe.
The events of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake would seem to support his conclusion: the ruptured strand was not the one he observed in the footprint of the bridge.
Geography of California
In astronomy, voids are the empty spaces between filaments.
Both filaments and Voids are one of the largest-scale structures in the Universe.
There are no or few galaxies in voids.
Most voids have a diameter of 11 to 150 Mpc.
A 1994 official counting ("The structure of the Universe traced by rich clusters of galaxies.",
see References) lists a total of 27 supervoids with a distance of up to 740 Mpc.
Some of supervoids chosen from the list are given below.
Universe family tree: Void
U. Lindner, J. Einasto, M. Einasto, W. Freudling, K. Fricke, E. Tago: The structure of supervoids.
I. Void hierarchy in the Northern Local Supervoid.,
Astrophys.,
v.301, p.329 (1995)
M. Einasto, J. Einasto, E. Tago, G. B. Dalton, H Andernach: The structure of the Universe traced by rich clusters of galaxies.,
R. Astron.
269, 301 (1994)
A computer mouse  is an input device that is used with a computer.
Moving a mouse along a flat surface can move the cursor to different items on the screen.
Items can be moved or selected by pushing the mouse buttons (called clicking).
Today's mouse have two buttons, the left button and right button, with a scroll wheel in between the two.
Today, many computer mouse use wireless technology and have no wire.
There are many types of mouse.
Optical mouse, wireless mouse, mechanical mouse, trackball mouse.
A computer mouse is a handheld hardware input device that controls a cursor in a GUI and can move and select text, icons, files, and folders.
For desktop computers, the mouse is placed on a flat surface such as a mouse pad or a desk and is placed in front of your computer.
The picture to the right is an example of a desktop computer mouse with two buttons and a wheel.
The mouse was originally known as the X-Y position Indicator for a display system and was invented by Douglas Engelbart in 1963 while working at Xerox PARC.
However, due to Alto's lack of success, the first widely used application of the mouse was with the Apple Lisa computer.
Today this device is on virtually every computer.
The primary function is to move the mouse pointer on the screen.
The mouse pointer can be used for many actions on the computer.
Clicking or double clicking an icon, folder, or other object will open a document or execute the program.
Users can also move an icon, folder, or other object by clicking a mouse button and dragging the object with the mouse pointer.
Pointing to an item on the screen means moving your mouse so the pointer appears to be touching the item.
When you point to something, a small box often appears that describes the item.
In 1964 Douglas Engelbart (1925-2013), a researcher at Stanford Research Institute, wanted to find a way to make using computers easier.
In those days, computers were large and expensive.
Using them was very hard because everything had to be typed in on a keyboard.
This command line interface is still used by some people, such as programmers, to get things done faster.
After studying and designing for a long time, Engelbart succeeded in inventing an input device which he named 'XY index'.
At first, it needed two hands to use, but it was changed so that only one hand was needed to use it.
This model was more like the mouse that we use today, but was made up of a big ball that the user had to roll in different directions to move the cursor.
The computer mouse began to be widely used when Xerox Palo Alto Research introduced a GUI in 1981, where the mouse was used to click things on the screen.
This was also the case with the Macintosh operating system from Apple of Apple Inc when it came out in 1984, as well as Microsoft Windows.
Windows became popular over the years, so over time computer mice became used with many computers.
In 1991, the company Logitech invented the wireless mouse.
Unlike a normal mouse, wireless mice were connected by radio signals.
Newer wireless mice use Bluetooth or WiFi to connect wireless mice to computers.
On most computers, the user can move the mouse to move the cursor in the same direction.
To choose something that is on the screen,  the user can move the cursor to it and "click" the left mouse button.
The right  button is used to open menus that are different depending on where the cursor is.
The other mouse buttons can do different things, depending on the software.
Most mice have two buttons to click.
Most mice also have the "scroll wheel"—a small wheel found between the two main mouse buttons.
The user can move the wheel back and forth to "scroll" through things like a website or folder. "
Scrolling" means moving the words or pictures up or down on the screen, so another part of the page comes into view.
The wheel can also be pressed, to click it like another button.
A mouse can also be connected to and used the same way with a laptop computer, but unlike a desktop computer, one does not have to be connected to use the laptop.
This is because along with the keyboard, laptops have a built-in input device called a trackpad which does the same thing as a mouse.
Similarly, tablet computers have a touchscreen as an input device, but some, like the Microsoft Surface and those that use Android, also work with mice.
Mouse (computing) Citizendium
Metallurgy is the study of metals.
Alloys (mixtures of metals) are also studied.
There are two main branches of Metallurgy.
They are physical and chemical metallurgy.
A Metallurgist is individual who researches, manufactures and develops metal items that range from car parts to semiconductors.
Metallurgists and Metallurgical Engineers often work for consulting engineering firms;  mining and manufacturing companies; and in government and universities.
Many metallurgists hold a Bachelor of Engineering or similar 4- year degree.
Study the properties metals and alloys through scientific experiments
Plan and design machines and processes to concentrate, extract, refine and process metals.
Work in a manner that is environmentally and economically conscious.
Chemical Metallurgy
Chemical Metallurgy is the study of extracting and refining metals through chemical reactions.
This field also commonly involves corrosion prevention and surface treatment of metals.
Scientific concepts such as thermodynamics, the study of heat flow and kinetics, the study of the speed of reactions are very central to chemical metallurgy.
Metallurgists are very interested in the chemical reactions that occur with different elements.
Chemical reactions are carried out on a large scale to obtain a useful product.
3Fe2O4 + CO ->2FeO4 + CO2
Fe3O4 + CO -> 3FeO +CO2
FeO + CO ->Fe + CO2
Physical metallurgy is the science of making useful properties out of metals.
This field focus on the physical property of metals and alloys such as strength and hardness.
Properties of metals might be electrical, magnetic and physical in nature.
These properties can be changed by alloying or heat treatment.
There are many ways to make metals.
For example, large parts may be created by pouring liquid metal into a large cast in a process called casting.
Important factors in physical metallurgy include time and temperature in which the metal is made and cooled.
Metals undergo different phase changes, the particular position and type of crystal structure inside the metal will determine if a metal is brittle or flexible.
Ores are rocks that have a chemical compound of a metal with oxygen, called an oxide.
Separating the oxygen from the metal is called smelting.
This is done with chemistry or electricity, usually at very high temperatures.
This is the first step in metallurgy.
A rock containing enough metal to be profitable is called ore.
An alloy is a combination of a metal with one or more elements.
The metal mixture must be a solid  to be called as an alloy.
A  common way to combine metals into an alloy is by melting them, mixing and then allowing them to solidify by cooling at room temperature.
Alloys have been known since 50,000 BCE and have been continuously studied and improved.
Chromium alloys: Good at withstanding high temperature and have good resistance to corrosion.
Common composition include a mixture of chromium and Nickel
Cast Iron: Often used in making pots and pans.
Cast Iron is a mixture of Iron and around 1-3% Carbon.
It is often made using a blast furnace.
Bronze: Copper with 12-15% Tin and minor additions of  other metals such as manganese, aluminum and zinc.
Bronze is a common metal found in archeological sites.
Metal parts
Another part of metallurgy is making parts from metals.
These parts must be made so they will not break when they are used.
Metallurgists look to make metal that meets the needs of the process it will be used in.
Sometimes the metal must be lightweight or low in density.
Other times it must be tough (not easily broken).
The metallurgist must follow directions when making the part to know what metal to use.
the process of metal selection is known as the materials selection process.
Metallurgists use mathematical  equations to determine what are the most important  physical features of the metal.
Common desired characteristics include ductility, toughness, corrosion resistance, and strength.
Different metals and their associated features are often graphed on Ashby plots.
A metal starts as a block, called an ingot.
Metallurgists must know how to make a metal part from an ingot.
Parts are made from ingots different ways.
When a big hammer is used, it is called forging.
To make thin metals, a metal is put between two rolls and moved, called rolling.
Making metal hot makes it easier to change the shape of a metal part.
For this reason, most metal parts are made using hot metal.
This is hot work.
Two metal parts can be put together with much heat.
This is called welding.
Iron is easy to weld.
Metallurgists use many tools to  determine the characterizes of metal using a technique called metallography.
One of the most useful tools is the Scanning Electron Microscope.
To use an SEM a metal sample is polished and hit with electrons to produce a clear image of the metal.
This permits for the metal microstructure to be seen.
A  microstructure is what the metal looks like when zoomed in very closely.
There are many types of microstructure such as pearlite and ferrite.
Metals are sometimes pulled until they break using a tensiometer.
This is the tension test.
Information such as plastic and elastic deformation can be determined from these tests.
It is also common for metallurgists to use computer simulations to predict heat flow or the cost of making a particular product.
Common software used in metallurgy include ABAQUS and ANSYS.
A fixed-wing aircraft is a kind of aircraft.
An aircraft is a machine that can fly, but is heavier than air.
Fixed-wing aircraft are sometimes called airplanes, aeroplanes or sometimes just "planes".
All fixed-wing aircraft have wings that use forward airspeed to generate lift.
Gliders are fixed-wing aircraft that do not have engines.
A steam-powered unmanned fixed-wing aircraft, that weighed , was built by John Stringfellow, in Chard, Somerset, England in 1848.
It could fly by itself without needing to be dropped from high up.
There were gliders before this, but they had to fly by being pushed off a building or hill.
Modern day
Today, fixed-wing aircraft fly between many cities all over the world, carrying people and cargo.
Big cities usually have an international airport, where large fixed-wing aircraft can land and take off safely.
Some large cities like New York City and London have more than one airport.
Two major makers of fixed-wing aircraft are Airbus and Boeing.
Advances in technology have made fixed-wing aircraft more efficient.
Things like winglets and more efficient turbofans have helped to do this.
The wings are the most important part because they are what makes the plane fly.
The wings create a force called lift that goes against gravity which makes the plane get off the ground.
When air flows around the wing (which happens when the plane moves forward) the wing pushes air down, which in turn pushes the plane up.
Lift can also be explained using Bernoulli's principle; since wings are designed so that air goes faster on the top of the wing than on the bottom, the higher pressure on the bottom will push the plane up.
Some wings have panels on the back called flaps.
Flaps can be extended to make the wing bigger.
This makes the wing make more lift, but also more drag.
This lets the plane fly slower without stalling, so flaps are often used during takeoff and landing.
The tail (also called the vertical stabilizer) is a large flat panel normally at the back of the plane.
This helps the plane fly straight.
Some planes have more than one tail, like the Antonov An-225.
Some planes also have no tail, like the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit.
Engines push the plane forward.
This makes air flow over the wings, which makes the plane fly.
Some planes have propellers that the engine turns.
Others have jet engines.
Some fixed-wing aircraft, such as gliders, don't have engines.
Instead they use gravity to give them forward speed.
The fuselage is the part of the plane that holds the people and cargo.
It is normally shaped like a cylinder.
The fuselage might have windows or doors.
The landing gear or undercarriage is what supports the plane on the ground.
It can be wheels if the plane lands on the ground, or floats if the plane lands in the water.
If the plane lands in snow, the landing gear usually has skis.
Many planes can retract (bring inside the fuselage) their landing gear to make less drag.
Fixed-wing aircraft have long been used as airliners for moving passengers from place to place.
Cargo aircraft carry cargo across seas and long distances, and passenger aircraft also carry some cargo.
Uses in War
The first aircraft for war bombing was used in Libya in 1911 by Italy against the Ottoman Empire.
Some fixed-wing aircraft are used by air forces to defend countries.
These may be fighter aircraft, using guns or missiles for combat with other aircraft.
They may be bombers, dropping bombs on ground targets.
Fixed-wing aircraft allow people to travel longer distances, and faster than ships or trains.
Aircraft can fly from New York to London in about 7 hours.
It would take one week or more on a ship.
Militaries use airplanes to carry their soldiers quickly from place to place.
Airplanes are also used by the military to see many things on the ground easily.
This is called surveillance or reconnaissance.
Often, fixed-wing aircraft will take photographs as well, which can be used for military planning later.
An aircraft is a flying machine.
The word aircraft originally meant airships and balloons.
It comes from the words air and craft,  a term from boating as were many early aviation words.
There are many different kinds of aircraft.
Some aircraft keep in the sky by moving air over their wings.
Examples are aeroplanes, helicopters, and gliders.
Some aircraft keep in the sky by floating.
Examples are balloons and airships.
Most aircraft use engine power.
Examples are aeroplanes, helicopter, and airships.
Gliders and balloons use no power.
A few aircraft use muscle power.
Big aeroplanes for transporting people are called airliners.
Airliners are the quickest way to travel.
Airliners can fly over mountains and bad weather.
Airliners have complex technology to make them fly quickly, safely and for less money.
Scales, sizes and speeds
Largest
These are the largest aircrafts.
The largest aircraft by dimensions and volume is the British Airlander 10.
The largest aircraft by weight and largest regularly used fixed-wing aircraft is the Antonov An-225 Mriya.
The largest military aircraft and the second largest airplane is the Antonov An-124 Ruslan.
Aircraft videos
Victoria is the capital city of the province of British Columbia, Canada.
It is named after Queen Victoria.
Over 350,000 people live in the Victoria area.
Many people work for the government or in tourism.
It is warmer than other Canadian cities in the winter, so many Canadians move there when they retire.
Victoria is on Vancouver Island.
Most people travel there by boat (ferry) from Vancouver, or from Washington State.
Victoria has three ferry docks and an airport, Victoria International Airport.
Some tourist attractions are the Butchart Gardens and the Royal British Columbia Museum.
Some of the best-known buildings are the government buildings and the Empress Hotel, and both are by the Inner Harbour.
The first people to live in the area were the Coast Salish native people.
People from England built Fort Victoria in 1843.
Victoria became a city in 1862.
18,000 students study at the University of Victoria.
Other people study at Camosun College, Royal Roads University, University Canada West, Victoria College of Art, and the Canadian College of Performing Arts.
Students from all over the world study at Pearson College, near Victoria.
There are many flowers in Victoria; it is called the "city of gardens."
It is a lot drier than places nearby, and has little snow.
Jamie Benn (hockey)
Emily Carr (art)
Steve Nash (basketball)
David Foster (music)
Nelly Furtado (singer)
Kyle Germaine Johnson (Pro Biker)
Regions of Victoria
The Victoria area is made up of 13 parts.
Four of them make up Greater Victoria:
Esquimalt
Oak Bay
Central Saanich
North Saanich
Metchosin
Sooke
The Suez Canal (Arabic: قناة السويس, Qanā al-Suways, French: Le Canal de Suez) is a canal in Egypt.
It lies west of the Sinai Peninsula.
The canal is 163 km long (101 miles) and, at its narrowest point, 200 m wide (656 ft).
It runs between Port Said (Būr Sa'īd) on the Mediterranean Sea, and Suez (al-Suways) on the Red Sea.
It was built by a French company.
The canal was started in 1859 and finished in 1869.
The canal allows ships to travel between Europe and Asia without having to go the way around Africa.
This saves time and fuel.
It was built for Europeans to go to and from the Indian Ocean.
In 1859, the Suez Canal was built by Ferdinand de Lesseps of the Universal Suez Ship Canal Company, and took 10 years to build.
The first ship passed through the canal 17 November, 1869; Giuseppe Verdi wrote the famous opera Aida for this ceremony .
The canal made it possible to easily transport goods across the world.
The canal also allowed Europeans to travel to East Africa, and this area was soon controlled by European powers.
The British tried to stop it, fearing that it would increase French power in the Indian Ocean.
Later, they bought shares in the company.
The success of the Suez Canal encouraged the French to try to build the Panama Canal.
But they did not finish it.
The Panama Canal was finished later.
The canal was a central point during the Six Day War in 1967.
A UN peacekeeping force has been stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1974, to avoid more wars.
The canal reopened in 1975.
About 15,000 ships pass through the canal each year, which is about 14% of world shipping.
Each ship takes up to 16 hours to cross the canal.
In 2015 a central part of the canal was expanded so more ships can go through and go faster.
The canal was blocked for part of late March 2021 by the Ever Given, a container ship, which became stuck diagonally.
1869 establishments
19th-century establishments in Egypt
Buildings and structures in Egypt
Transport in Egypt
A canal is a waterway made by humans.
For many centuries, canals have been built as a way of transporting heavy goods in barges or boats.
Canals usually connect lakes, rivers, or oceans.
The Panama Canal is a famous canal that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean.
Many canals are reinforced with clay or concrete on the sides.
Mars is the god of war in Roman mythology.
Mars is the son of Juno and Jupiter.
Mars is the father of Romulus and Remus.
The planet Mars and the month March are named after him.
He was the god of war, murder, and bloodshed.
His Greek name is Ares.
He tried many times to start wars between the gods.
Ares - Greek mythology version of Mars
Tyr - Norse mythology version of Mars
Roman gods and goddesses
Cessna is a company that makes airplanes.
They are in Wichita, Kansas in the United States.
They make small aircraft that can hold 2 to 4 people.
Cessna aircraft
Cessna website
Aircraft companies
Clothing is an item or fabric, usually sewn together to cover part of the human body.
Humans are the only animals which wear clothing, and all people do wear suitable clothing.
The torso (body) can be covered by shirts, arms by sleeves, legs by pants or skirts, hands by gloves, feet by footwear, and head by headgear or masks.
In cold climates, people also wear heavy, thick coats such as trenchcoats.
Clothing protects the human body from the hot sun and high temperatures in warm tropical countries.
Clothing such as thick wool coats and boots keeps the human body warm in very cold temperatures (such as in the arctic).
To some extent, clothing protects people from damage to their body.
Clothing is also worn for decoration, as a fashion (clothing).
People from different cultures wear different clothing, and have different beliefs and customs about what type of clothing should be worn.
For many people, clothing is a status symbol.
It helps people project an image.
Often, clothing is a form of self-expression.
Adults in different social or work situations present different views of themselves by the clothes they wear.
Young people have an entirely different form of dress to express their personalities.
Often people will simply follow popular fashion styles so that they will fit in.
Clothing is far more than just a means to protect our bodies.
Origin of clothing
There is no easy way to be sure when clothing was first developed, because it was prehistoric and clothing is perishable.
Some information comes from studying lice.
The body louse lives in clothing, and diverged from head lice about 107,000 years ago.
This suggests that clothing existed at that time.
Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42,000–72,000 BC.
A cloak made of the fur of squirrels, from a cave in Italy, has been dated to 23.000 years BP, and may be among the oldest items of clothing.
In September 2021, scientists reported evidence of clothes being made 120,000 years ago based on findings in deposits in Morocco, a country in the northwestern part of Africa.
Things that are not clothing
People often decorate their bodies with makeup or perfume, and they also cut or change the hair on their heads and faces.
They might also go in for body modification: tattoos, scarifications, and body piercings.
But makeup and tattoos are not kinds of clothing.
Things that are carried and not worn, like wallets, purses, canes, and umbrellas, are called accessories, but they are not kinds of clothing, either.
Jewelry and eyeglasses are also accessories that are put on the body.
Nail polish is also put on the fingertips and can be interpreted as makeup.
What clothing is made of
Natural fibres, such as cotton, flax, wool, hemp, ramie, silk
Synthetic fabric, such as nylon, polyester, acrylic
Needed to make clothing
Scissors or knives.
Needles and thread.
Sewing machine or weaving wheel
A shoe is a type of footwear.
It is an item of clothing.
Shoes come in pairs, with one shoe for each foot.
There are many different types of shoes.
Athletic shoes, for example, are lightweight to make running, walking or jogging easier.
The sole of the shoe is also softer.
Shoes for formal wear are made of leather.
They are worn for business and ceremonial functions.
They are also worn for fashion.
Slippers are a kind of indoor shoe.
They are often worn when it is cold.
Shoes with a high heel are called high heels.
Tall shoes are boots.
Rubber boots are used in wet places.
People usually wear shoes in public.
They are worn for hygiene, style, and comfort.
Footwear is an item of clothing made by humans that covers and protects the foot, including the soles of the feet.
Footwear allows people to walk on rough surfaces such as gravel roads without hurting their feet.
Some types of footwear such as boots help to keep people's feet dry, or help to keep people's feet warm in cold weather.
Types of Footwear
Shoes are a type of footwear that protects the foot and the soles of the feet.
Shoes are made of many different types of materials, such as leather, fabric, and plastic.
There are several types of shoes:
Athletic shoes (also called "running shoes") are made of fabric, rubber, and plastic.
They are made for people to wear while they are doing sports or recreational activities.
Athletic shoes like spikes, give grip to sprinting on the athletic track.
Dress shoes are made for people to wear when they are wearing formal clothes such as a suit and tie or a tuxedo.
Dress shoes are normally made from dark-colored leather that is shined using shoe polish.
People working in professions such as business, law, and politics wear dress shoes.
People working in restaurants or retail stores may also wear dress shoes.
Work shoes are designed for people who work in construction or factory jobs.
Work shoes often have a steel toe cover to protect the person's toes.
Work shoes are usually made of strong leather, to protect the person's foot from sharp objects or dangerous chemicals.
Sandals are a type of footwear that consists of a covering for the sole of the feet and straps or ties which hold the sandal onto the foot.
Sandals are worn in warm countries, such as the Philippines and Cuba.
Sandals are also worn indoors in some places, such as in saunas.
Boots are a type of footwear that protects the foot and ankle.
Socks are an article of clothing for the foot, ankle, and calf (the lower part of the leg, below the knee).
Socks absorb perspiration (sweat) from the feet.
Socks also protect the foot from chafing (rubbing) against the shoe or boot, which can cause blisters.
Both men and women wear socks.
Socks are usually made from cotton or synthetic fabrics.
There are several types of socks:
Athletic socks are made of cotton or synthetic fabric.
Dress socks are made for people to wear when they are wearing dress shoes and formal clothes such as a suit and tie or a tuxedo.
Dress socks are normally made from dark-colored fabric (often black or dark blue-colored).
People working in professions such as business, law, and politics wear dress socks.
People working in restaurants or retail stores may also wear dress socks.
Winter socks are designed to keep a person's feet warm in cold weather.