the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
They revolted, led by Toussaint L'Ouverture.
After a hard and bloody struggle, they won their independence.
In 1804, Haiti became the first independent black republic in the world.
Today there are many monuments in Haiti remembering the Haitian Revolution.
One of the largest is La Citadelle Laferriere.
On January 12, 2010, in the afternoon of a Tuesday, Haiti was struck by a magnitude-7.0 earthquake.
This was the worst earthquake to hit the country in the past 200 years.
The quake's epicenter was just outside the Haitian capital of Port-au-Prince.
The quake caused major damage to Port-au-Prince and nearby areas.
Over 200,000 people were thought to have been killed, but it was hard to be sure because many people were buried in mass graves before they could be identified.
Haiti is made of ten regions known as departments (, singular départment).
These departments are further divided into 41 arrondissements, and 133 communes.
These are the second and third level units of administration.
Artibonite (Gonaïves)
Centre (Hinche)
Grand'Anse (Jérémie)
Nippes (Miragoâne)
Nord (Cap-Haïtien)
Nord-Est (Fort-Liberté)
Nord-Ouest (Port-de-Paix)
Ouest (Port-au-Prince) *national capital*
Sud-Est (Jacmel)
Sud (Les Cayes)
The Republic of Haiti is divided into 10 departments, but the central government has control over most political affairs.
The president is head of state and is normally elected by popular vote for a five-year term.
The president cannot serve consecutive terms.
However, because of inconclusive election results in 2015, Haiti's current interim president was elected by the legislature.
The prime minister is head of government and is appointed by the president and confirmed by the bicameral National Assembly.
The National Assembly's upper house is the 30-seat Senate, and the lower house is the 118-seat Chamber of Deputies.
Members of both houses are elected through a majoritarian system.
Senators serve six-year terms and deputies serve four-year terms.
There have been efforts toward constitutional reform to ensure that more women are represented in politics on the national level, but these reforms have not yet resulted in concrete changes.
1 January: Jour de l'Indépendance ("Independence Day")
2 January: Jour des Aïeux ("Ancestors' Day")
1 May: Fête de l'Agriculture et du Travail ("Agriculture and Labor Day")
18 May: Fête du Drapeau et de l'Université ("Flag and University Day")
17 October: Anniversary of the Death of Jean-Jacques Dessalines
1 November: All Saint's Day
2 November: All Soul's Day
18 November: Battle of Vertières' Day and Armed Forces Day
25 December: Christmas Day
Carnival (Only Mardi Gras is an official holiday)
Haiti is the least developed country in the Americas.
It is also one of the least developed and poorest countries in the world.
There are indicators that can be used to compare social and economic situations between countries.
Some indicators show that Haiti has fallen behind other poor developing countries since the 1980s.
In 2006, Haiti ranked 146th of 177 countries in the United Nations Human Development Index (2006).
About 90% of the Haitian people were living in poverty in 2003.
Haiti is the only country in the Americas on the United Nations list of Least Developed Countries and it is the poorest country in the Americas.
The economy was staying even or falling behind even before their big earthquake.
About 66% of all Haitians work in agriculture.
Most of them do small-scale subsistence farming (meaning that they are able to grow just enough to survive).
This does not bring in much money.
Very few jobs were created in the last ten years.
However, the informal economy is growing.
Mangoes and coffee are two of Haiti's most important exports.
Haiti has consistently ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world on the Corruption Perceptions Index.
About one third of the national government's budget is money given to them by other countries.
The United States gives the most money.
Canada gives the second largest amount of money.
The European Union, Venezuela and Cuba also give and help Haiti's economy in different ways.
Haiti has renewed its alliances with Venezuela and Cuba in 2006 and 2007.
From 2001-2004, the United States stopped giving aid to Haiti completely.
The aid was cut off after Haiti's 2000 election.
The election's results were questioned, and President Aristide was accused of cheating to win the election.
Aristide was overthrown in 2004.
After that, the United States started giving aid to Haiti again.
The United Nations led a peacekeeping operation called the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti. (
The Mission is called called MINUSTAH in Haiti; this is an acronym for the Mission's name in French).
The Brazilian army led the peacekeeping operation.
Haiti has a large amount of foreign debt (money owed to other countries and international institutions to repay loans).
The Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) program planned to forgive about $525 million of Haiti's debt by mid-2009.
In 2009, the population of Haiti (the number of people living in the country) was about 10,090,190.
Figures from the DNA Nationwide Studies Institute say that the racial makeup of the population is:
94.2%: Black (Descendants mainly from the Fon, Ewe, Yoruba, and Bantu tribes of West/Central Africa)
5.4%: Mulatto (European and African descent).
0.4%: White (mainly of French, Polish, and Arab origin)
People begin to make cutlery in Sheffield, England.
Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa
Spanish arrive in present-day Gulf of Mexico
Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral officially discovers Brazil and claims the land for Portugal.
1901 (MCMI) was a common year starting on Tuesday in the Gregorian calendar, and starting on a Monday in the Julian calendar.
It was also the first year of the 20th century.
Big Events of 1901
On January 1, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia, and Tasmania form the Commonwealth of Australia.
John Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow becomes the first Governor-General and Edmund Barton becomes the 1st Prime Minister of Australia.
The first Australian parliament meets in Melbourne on May 9.
In the United Kingdom, on January 22, Queen Victoria dies at the age of 81, having reigned for 63 years, 7 months and 2 days, longer than any British monarch before her.
In the United Kingdom and the British Empire, her death marks the end of the Victorian era.
Her 59-year-old son succeeds her as King Edward VII of the United Kingdom.
In China, the Boxer Rebellion is crushed and China is forced to accept Peace terms decided by Western Powers, Japan and Russia.
25th President of the United States, William McKinley, is shot by Leon Czolgosz at the Pan-American exposition in Buffalo, New York and dies 8 days later.
Theodore Roosevelt succeeds him as president.
The first Nobel Prizes are given in Stockholm on December 10, the 5th anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death.
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen wins the Prize in Physics for the discovery of X-rays, and the Nobel Peace Prize is shared between Frederic Passy and Jean-Henri Dunant, founder of the International Red Cross.
January 1  First day of the 20th century.
January 1  Australia becomes a country, as New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia and Tasmania form the Commonwealth of Australia.
January 1  Nigeria becomes a British Protectorate.
January 5  A typhoid outbreak occurs in a Seattle jail.
January 10  China accepts Peace terms by Western Powers, Japan and Russia, as the Boxer Rebellion is crushed.
January 22  Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom dies on the Isle of Wight at the age of 81.
Her son, Edward VII of the United Kingdom, succeeds her.
January 28  Baseball's American League declares itself a Major League.
February 2  The funeral of Queen Victoria takes place.
February 6  The first public telephones are installed at railway stations in Paris.
February 14  Edward VII of the United Kingdom opens his first parliament.
February 22  A Pacific Mail Steamer sinks in the Golden Gate Harbor, killing 128 people.
February 23  The United Kingdom and Germany agree on the border between German East Africa (present-day Tanzania) and the British colony of Nyasaland (present-day Malawi).
March 4  William McKinley starts his second term as President of the United States.
Theodore Roosevelt becomes Vice President of the United States.
March 6  Wilhelm II of Germany survives an assassination attempt in Bremen.
March 17  The showing of 71 Vincent van Gogh paintings in Paris creates a sensation.
March 31  The United Kingdom's 1901 census is held.
April 25  The State of New York becomes the first to require automobile license plates.
April 29  Hirohito is born.
He later becomes the longest-reigning Japanese Emperor, dying in 1989.
May 3  Jacksonville, Florida is destroyed by fire, as 10,000 people are made homeless.
May 9  Australia opens its first Parliament in Melbourne.
May 17  The US Stock Market crashes.
May 24  78 miners die in the Caerphilly pit disaster in South Wales.
May 25  River Plate football club, in Buenos Aires, is founded.
June 2  Katsura Taro becomes Prime Minister of Japan.
June 12  Cuba becomes a US protectorate.
July 4  The Covered Bridge at Hartland, New Brunswick, Canada, is opened.
At 390 metres long, it is the longest covered bridge in the world.
July 4  William Taft becomes Governor-General of the Philippines.
August 6  Robert Falcon Scott, on board the RRS Discovery, sets sail on his expedition to the Ross Sea in Antarctica.
August 11  Under Erich von Drygalski, Germany's first Antarctic expedition begins.
August 30  Hubert Cecil Booth patents an electric vacuum cleaner.
September 6  Assassination of William McKinley: US President William McKinley is shot by Leon Czolgosz at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York.
September 7  The Boxer Rebellion officially ends in China.
September 14  William McKinley, 8 days after being shot, dies of his injuries.
Theodore Roosevelt becomes the 26th President of the United States.
October 2  The first Royal Navy submarine is launched.
October 24  Michigan school teacher Annie Taylor goes down Niagara Falls in a barrel, and survives.
October 29  Leon Czolgosz is executed at Auburn State Prison, New York, for the assassination of William McKinley.
November 9  Future King George V of the United Kingdom is made Prince of Wales.
November 25  Auguste Deter is first examined by Alois Alzheimer in Germany.
She becomes the first-known sufferer of what is later called Alzheimer's disease.
December 10  The first Nobel Prizes are given in Stockholm on the 5th anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death.
December 12  Guglielmo Marconi receives the first Trans-Atlantic radio signal, sent from Poldhu, England to Newfoundland, Canada.
December 13  Modern 32-bit computers will incorrectly set their clocks to this time on January 19, 2038
December 20  The final spike is driven into the Mombasa-Victoria-Uganda railway in what is now Kisumu, Kenya.
Boer War (1899 - 1902)
Norway allows women to vote in local elections.
Pablo Picasso creates the first paintings of his Blue Period.
Rudyard Kipling's ''Kim (book) published.
January 3  Ngo Dinh Diem, 1st President of South Vietnam (d. 1963)
January 9  Chic Young, American cartoonist (d. 1973)
January 9  Ishman Bracey, American blues singer and guitarist (d. 1970)
January 10  Toshio Irie, Japanese politician and bureaucrat (d. 1972)
January 14  Bebe Daniels, American actress (d. 1971)
January 14  Alfred Tarski, Polish logician and mathematician (d. 1983)
January 16  Frank Zamboni, American inventor (d. 1988)
January 16  Fulgencio Batista, Cuban leader (d. 1973)
January 21  Ricardo Zamora, Spanish footballer (d. 1979)
January 24  A. M. Cassandre, Ukrainian-born artist, designer and teacher (d. 1968)
January 29  Arcady Aris, Russian Chuvash writer and literary critic (d. 1941)
January 30  Rudolf Caracciola, German racing driver (d. 1959)
February 1  Clark Gable, American actor (d. 1960)
February 1  Frank Buckles, last-surviving American World War I veteran (d. 2011)
February 10  Stella Adler, American actress (d. 1992)
February 17  Philotheus Boehner, German monk and medieval scholar (d. 1955)
February 19  Florence Green, British supercentenarian and last-surviving World War I service veteran (d. 2012)
February 20  Muhammad Naguib, President of Egypt (d. 1984)
February 22  Ken G. Hall, Australian movie director (d. 1994)
February 25  Zeppo Marx, American comedian (d. 1979)
February 28  Linus Pauling, American chemist (d. 1994)
March 3  Claude Choules, British-Australian supercentenarian and last-surviving World War I combat veteran (d. 2011)
March 3  Gino Cervi, Italian movie actor (d. 1974)
March 7  Beatrice Roberts, American actress (d. 1970)
March 18  Helmut Fink, German World War I veteran (d. 2009)
March 18  Manly Hall, Canadian writer (d. 1990)
March 21  Karl Arnold, German politician (d. 1958)
March 24  Ub Iwerks, American cartoonist (d. 1971)
March 25  Ed Begley, American actor (d. 1970)
March 27  Carl Barks, American cartoonist (d. 2000)
March 27  Erich Ollenhauer, German politician (d. 1963)
March 27  Eisaku Sato, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1975)
March 27  Kenneth Slessor, Australian poet (d. 1971)
March 28  Martha of Sweden, mother of King Harald V of Norway (d. 1954)
April 1  Francisco Ascaso, Spanish anarcho-syndicalist (d. 1936)
April 13  Jacques Lacan, French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist (d. 1981)
April 18  Elene Akhvlediani, Georgian painter (d. 1975)
April 18  Al Lewis, American songwriter (d. 1967)
April 23  E.B. Ford, British ecological geneticist (d. 1988)
April 29  Hirohito, Emperor of Japan (d. 1989)
April 30  Simon Kuznets, Ukrainian-born economist (d. 1985)
May 5  Blind Willie McTell, American musician (d. 1959)
May 7  Gary Cooper, American actor (d. 1961)
May 9  Fuzzy Knight, American actor (d. 1976)
May 17  Werner Egk, German composer (d. 1983)
May 18  Vincent du Vigneaud, American chemist (d. 1978)
May 20  Max Euwe, Dutch chess player (d. 1981)
May 21  Manfred Aschner, German-born Israeli microbiologist and entomologist (d. 1989)
May 21  Sam Jaffe, American movie producer (d. 2000)
May 21  Suzanne Lilar, Belgian writer (d. 1992)
May 24  Jose Nasazzi, Uruguayan footballer (d. 1968)
June 6  Sukarno, 1st President of Indonesia (d. 1970)
June 10  Frederick Loewe, German-born composer (d. 1988)
June 13  Tage Erlander, Prime Minister of Sweden (d. 1985)
June 16  Henri Lefebvre, French sociologist and philosopher (d. 1991)
June 18  Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia (d. 1918)
June 19  Piero Gobetti, Italian publicist and political activist (d. 1926)
June 24  Harry Partch, American composer (d. 1974)
July 9  Barbara Cartland, British novelist (d. 2000)
July 28  Rudy Vallee, American singer, actor, bandleader and entertainer (d. 1986)
August 4  Louis Armstrong, American jazz musician (d. 1971)
August 5  Thomas Ryan, American naval officer (d. 1970)
August 8  Ernest Lawrence, American physicist (d. 1958)
August 10  Franco Dino Rasetti, Italian scientist (d. 2001)
August 18  Jean Guitton, French writer and philosopher (d. 1999)
August 20  Salvatore Quasimodo, Italian writer (d. 1968)
August 26  Chen Yi, Chinese military commander and politician (d. 1972)
September 2  Adolph Rupp, college basketball coach (d. 1977)
September 9  Agostinho Fortes Filho, Brazilian footballer (d. 1966)
September 9  Hendrik Verwoerd, South African politician (d. 1966)
September 13  James McCoubrey, Canadian-American supercentenarian, oldest-living man
September 17  Francis Chichester, British adventurer (d. 1979)
September 22  Charles B. Huggins, Canadian cancer researcher and Nobel Prize winner (d. 1997)
September 23  Jaroslav Seifert, Czech politician (d. 1986)
September 28  Ed Sullivan, American television personality (d. 1974)
September 28  William S. Paley, American businessman (d. 1990)
September 29  Enrico Fermi, Italian physicist (d. 1954)
October 1  Jose Leandro Andrade, Uruguayan footballer (d. 1957)
October 6  Aslak Brekke, Norwegian singer (d. 1978)
October 7  Souvanna Phouma, Laotian leader (d. 1984)
October 7  Frank Boucher, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1977)
October 10  Alberto Giacometti, Swiss sculptor (d. 1966)
October 24  Gilda Gray, Polish-born dancer and actress (d. 1959)
November 3  Leopold III of Belgium (d. 1983)
November 4  Masako Nashimoto, Crown Princess of Korea (d. 1989)
November 4  Max Wagner, Mexican-born American actor (d. 1975)
November 9  Marvel Rea, American actress (d. 1937)
November 11  Magda Goebbels, wife of Joseph Goebbels (d. 1945)
November 15  Bunny Roser, American baseball player (d. 1979)
November 16  Ernest Nagel, Czech-born philosopher (d. 1985)
November 17  Lee Strasberg, Austrian-American actor (d. 1982)
November 18  George Gallup, American statistician and opinion pollster (d. 1984)
November 22  Joaquin Rodrigo, Spanish composer (d. 1999)
November 29  Mildred Harris, American actress (d. 1944)
December 2  Raimundo Orsi, Argentine-Italian footballer (d. 1986)
December 5  Walt Disney, American animator and movie producer (d. 1966)
December 5  Werner Heisenberg, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976)
December 9  Odon von Horvath, Austro-Hungarian writer (d. 1938)
December 14  King Paul of Greece (d. 1964)
December 16  Margaret Mead, American anthropologist (d. 1978)
December 19  Rudolf Hell, German inventor (d. 2002)
December 25  Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, British royal (d. 2004)
December 27  Marlene Dietrich, German actress (d. 1992)
December 31  Karl-August Fagerholm, Prime Minister of Finland (d. 1984)
January 11  Vasily Kalinnikov, Russian composer (b. 1866)
January 14  Victor Balaguer, Spanish politician and writer (b. 1824)
January 17  Frederic William Henry Myers, English scholar, poet, philosopher and psychologist (b. 1843)
January 20  Zenobe Gramme, Belgian electrical engineer (b. 1826)
January 21  Elisha Gray, American inventor (b. 1835)
January 22  Queen Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom and Empress of India (b. 1819)
January 27  Giuseppe Verdi, Italian composer (b. 1813)
February 11  Milan I of Serbia (b. 1854)
February 17  Ethelbert Nevin, American pianist and composer (b. 1862)
March 13  Benjamin Harrison, 23rd President of the United States (b. 1833)
April 3  Richard D'Oyly Carte, English impresario (b. 1844)
April 4  George T. Anderson, American Confederate general (b. 1824)
May 1  Lewis Waterman, American inventor and businessman (b. 1837)
May 5  Mariano Ignacio Prado, former President of Peru (b. 1826)
May 13  Leopoldo Alas, Spanish writer (b. 1851)
May 22  Gaetano Bresci, Italian anarchist (b. 1869)
May 24  Charlotte Mary Yonge, English novelist (b. 1823)
June 15  Max Weber, German-American general (b. 1824)
July 6  Prince Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfuerst, Chancellor of Germany (b. 1819)
July 7  Johanna Spyri, Swiss writer (b. 1827)
August 5  Victoria, Princess Royal (b. 1840)
August 12  Francesco Crispi, former Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1819)
August 12  Adolf Erik Nordenskiold, Swedish explorer (b. 1832)
September 9  Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, French painter (b. 1864)
September 14  William McKinley, 25th President of the United States (assassinated) (b. 1843)
October 1  Abdor Rahman Khan, Emir of Afghanistan (b. 1844)
October 10  Lorenzo Snow, American Mormon leader (b. 1814)
October 29  Leon Czolgosz, Polish-American assassin (b. 1873)
November 6  Kate Greenaway, English writer (b. 1846)
November 30  Edward John Eyre, English explorer of Australia and colonial Governor of Jamaica (b. 1815)
December 12  Nawab Muhammad Hayat Khan, British Indian administrator (b. 1833)
December 16  William Gregory, American politician (b. 1849)
December 17  Josep Manyanet i Vives, Catalan Saint and priest (b. 1833)
December 24  Lev Ivanov, Russian ballet dancer and choreographer (b. 1834)
Physics  Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
Chemistry  Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff
Physiology or Medicine  Emil Adolf von Behring
Literature  Sully Prudhomme
Peace  Jean-Henri Dunant and Frederic Passy
January 29 – W.C. Fields, American comedian
Volapük created.
Ned Kelly, Australian bushranger (b. 1854)
Fort Baker built near Las Vegas, Nevada
Father Damien comes to Hawaii
The Great Central Fair is held in June in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
May 5 – The American Civil War: The Battle of the Wilderness startes in Virginia.
August 21 – American Civil War: In the Lawrence Massacre, Confederate guerillas attacked the town of Lawrence, Kansas and killed 150 men.
September 1 – Canada: The Charlottetown Conference starts.
May 19 – Nathaniel Hawthorne
Journey To The Center Of The Earth by Jules Verne
March 4 – William McKinley becomes the 25th President of the United States, a title which he held from the retirement of Grover Cleveland until his assassination on September 14, 1901.
March 13 – San Diego State University is founded.
June 22 – The Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria is celebrated in the United Kingdom, marking her 60th year as the Queen of the United Kingdom.
She was the only British monarch to have celebrated a Diamond Jubilee until Queen Elizabeth II celebrated hers on June 2, 2012.
July 17 – The Klondike Gold Rush begins.
August 21 – The Oldsmobile is founded in Lansing, Michigan by Ransom E. Olds.
September 1 – The Boston subway opens as the first rapid transit in North America.
November 1 – The Juventus F.C. football club is founded.
January 23 - Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, Indian freedom fighter (d. 1945?)
February 4 – Ludwig Erhard, German politician (d. 1977)
March 1 – Shoghi Effendi (d. 1957)
March 24 – Wilhelm Reich, Austrian-American psychiatrist & psychoanalyst (d. 1957)
March 28 – Sepp Herberger, German football player (d. 1977)
April 4 – Dina Manfredini, Italian-American supercentenarian (d. 2012)
April 19 – Jiroemon Kimura, Japanese supercentenarian (d. 2013)
April 23 – Lester B. Pearson, Canadian Prime Minister (1963-1968) (d. 1972)
April 26 – Douglas Sirk, German movie director (d. 1987)
April 30 – Walt Walsh, American baseball player (d. 1966)
May 30 – Frank Wise, 16th Premier of Western Australia (1945-1947) (d. 1986)
June 7 – George Szell, Hungarian-born conductor (d. 1970)
June 10 – Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of Russia (d. 1918)
June 12 – Anthony Eden, British Prime Minister (1955-1957) (d. 1977)
June 19 – Moe Howard, American actor & comedian (d. 1975)
July 4 – Jake Forbes, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1985)
July 9 – Albert Coady Wedemeyer, American army officer (d. 1989)
July 20 – Tadeus Reichstein, Polish-Swiss chemist (d. 1996)
July 24 – Amelia Earhart, American aviator (d. 1937)
August 2 – Max Weber Swiss politician (d. 1974)
August 11 – Enid Blyton, children's writer (d. 1968)
August 12 – Otto Struve, Russian astronomer (d. 1963)
August 16 – Hersch Lauterpacht, Polish politician & judge (d. 1960)
August 19 – Roman Vishniac, Russian-American photographer (d. 1990)
August 26 – Yun Poson, President of South Korea (1960-1962) (d. 1990)
August 31 – Fredric March, American actor (d. 1975)
September 12 – Irène Joliot-Curie, French scientist (d. 1956)
September 23 – Paul Delvaux, Belgian painter (d. 1994)
September 23 – Walter Pidgeon, Canadian actor (d. 1984)
September 25 – William Faulkner, American writer (d. 1962)
September 26 – Pope Paul VI, (d. 1978)
October 8 – Rouben Mamoulian, Armenian-American movie director (d. 1987)
October 22 – Ettore Boiardi, Italian-American chef (d. 1985)
October 29 – Joseph Goebbels, German politician (d. 1945)
November 16 – Chaudhry Rahmat Ali, known for coining the name "Pakistan" (d. 1951)
November 22 – Paul Oswald Ahnert, German astronomer (d. 1989)
November 24 – Lucky Luciano, Sicilian mobster (d. 1962)
December 7 – Lazare Ponticelli, French World War I veteran (d. 2008)
December 14 – Kurt Schuschnigg, 15th Chancellor of Austria (d. 1977)
December 24 – Koto Okubo, Japanese supercentenarian (d. 2013)
A.R. Chughtai – Pakistani artist (d. 1975)
Frank O'Connor – American actor & painter (d. 1979)
Thích Quảng Đức – Buddhist monk (d. 1963)
February 19 – Karl Weierstraß, German mathematician (b. 1815)
Hodgenville is a town in the American state of Kentucky.
It is the county seat of Larue County.
It is most famous as the birthplace of President Abraham Lincoln.
A memorial featuring a replica (copy) of the cabin Lincoln was born in is near the town.
The University of Oxford is a university in Oxford, England.
It is the oldest university in the English-speaking world.
The Times Higher Education World University Rankings said it is the best university in the world.
The university is 38 colleges and six private halls.
All of these colleges have their own buildings and their own staff.
Oxford is quite different from most modern universities where all the students live on a campus.
Oxford does not have a campus, although it does have some central places where students from different colleges can come together (for example, libraries).
The Bodleian Library (founded in 1602) is the main library of the University of Oxford, and one of the oldest libraries in Europe.
It is the second largest library in the United Kingdom after the British Library.
There is no known date of foundation, but there is evidence of teaching as far back as 1096.
It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris.
English students were not allowed to continue studying in Paris after Thomas Becket was murdered.
There were fights between the students in Oxford and the people who lived there in the early 13th century.
Some students and teachers left the university in 1209, and made a new university in Cambridge.
These two universities are now great rivals, and together are sometimes known as "Oxbridge".
Until 1920, women were not allowed to take degrees at Oxford, although some women studied at Oxford before that time.
Nowadays, all the colleges allow both men and women as students, and the number of male and female students is roughly equal.
One of the most famous teachers at the university was Lewis Carroll, author of Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass, stories for children.
Colleges and halls
A college will normally offer the students accommodation (a room to sleep and study in) for the first and last years of their time at University.
Many also offer accommodation for other years.
A college will also have space for teaching and socializing.
When most of the older colleges started they were only for people of one sex, but St Hilda's College, the last college to allow only women to study there, recently allowed men as well.
A permanent private hall is slightly different to a college.
They were normally started by religious groups to educate their members in philosophy and theology, but some have since grown and offer a broader range of subjects.
Some halls are run by monks, and one of them – St Benet's Hall – will only accept male students.
Most colleges will teach at both undergraduate (the more basic first degree that a student takes) and postgraduate (a higher level of study) level.
There are also some special colleges that are more restrictive.
Five colleges only offer space to postgraduate students.
Harris Manchester College is only for "mature students" (those who are over 21 when they start their degree).
All Souls College does not take students – all of its members teach students or do research.
Getting into Oxford
Oxford, like Cambridge, is very popular, but there are only a limited number of spaces for students.
It is therefore harder for students to get into these universities.
The colleges look for the students with the best school results in the subjects for which they are applying, typically A marks on A-levels.
Jan Morris (ed.)
The Oxford Book of Oxford.
University of Oxford website
Overview of Master's programmes at the University of Oxford
1096 establishments
Def Leppard was one of the first hard rock bands.
They formed in Sheffield, England in 1977.
Its founding members include: lead singer Joe Elliot, bassist Rick Savage, guitarist Pete Willis, and drummer Tony Kenning.
When Kenning was fired from the band in 1978, he was replaced by Frank Noon.
The same year, Def Leppard had their first recording.
They recorded The Def Leppard EP.
Frank Noon was replaced by drummer Rick Allen the same year and guitarist Steve Clark joined the band shortly after.
They played their first show at Westfield School in Sheffield in the same year.
Their first album, On Through the Night (1980), was a hit in many parts of England.
In April 1980, Def Leppard signed with Leber Krebs management.
In the same year they went of their first U.S. tour with Ted Nugent, AC/DC, and Judas Priest.
In 1981 the band released their second album, High ‘n’ Dry.
At that time, MTV aired Def Leppard for the first time.
MTV aired their hit “Bringin’ on the Heartbreak.”
In 1982, Pete Willis was replaced by Phil Collen.
The same year, the recording with Mutt Lange for their third album takes place.
In 1983, their third album Pyromania is released.
The single “Photograph” was released and the album sells 100,000 copies a week for that year.
In 1984, drummer Rick Allen suffers the loss of an arm due to a car accident.
He soon mastered an electronic drum kit and teaches himself how to play with one arm.
In 1986, Rick Allen plays his first gig out with the band since his accident.
In 1987, the band’s fourth album, “Hysteria” is released.
The album has 12 hit singles and sells 16 million copies.
In 1991, guitarist Steve Clark passes away.
His death was due to a mixture of alcohol and a drug overdose of prescription pain killers.
In 1992 Vivian Campbell joins the band.
Vivian Campbell was the former guitarist for Dio and Whitesnake.
That year, the album “Adrenalize” is released.
This album remains number one for five weeks and sells six million copies.
In 1993 the band has their first expirence having their music in movies.
Their song “Two Steps Behind” was used for the end credits of “Last Action Hero”.
The same year the album “Retro Active” is released.
In 1995 “The Vault” is released.
It is a compilation of all of Def Leppard’s biggest hits. “
The Vault” hits number two on the charts.
In 1996, the album “Slang” is released.
In 1998, Def Leppard had their first taste of TV.
VH1 produced a “Behind the Music” episode on Def Leppard.
Other TV exposure followed such as “Storytellers”, and “Ultimate Albums.”
In 1999, they receive the Diamond Award in the U.S. Also in 1999, the album “Euphoria” is released.
In the year 2000, the band is inducted into the Hollywood Rock Walk of Fame.
In 2001, the band releases their first DVDs, “In the Round, In your Face” and “Historia”.
The same year, VH1 broadcasts the movie “Hysteria: The Def Leppard Story.”
n 2002 the album “X” is released.
In 2004 the band releases a newer version of the album “The Vault”.
In 2005 the album and DVD “Rock of Ages” is released.
In 2006, Def Leppard releases their album “Yeah”.
The album “Yeah” is a cover album.
In 2008 the band’s 12th album “Songs from the Sparkle Lounge” is released.
The same year the band crosses genres with the country hit “Nine Lives.”
On Through the Night (1980)
High 'n' Dry (1981)
Pryomania (1983)
Slang (1996)
Yeah! (
Songs from the Sparkle Lounge (2008)
Def Leppard (2015)
Official Def Leppard website
The Def Leppard World - Discography
Musical groups from Sheffield
a kind of pillow.
husbandry, the breeding of livestock, such as conservation or agriculture.
Year 46 BC was the last year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar.
At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Caesar and Lepidus.
Titus Labienus defeated Julius Caesar in the Battle of Ruspina.
Julius Caesar defeated the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians at Thapsus.
Caesar leaves for Farther Hispania to deal with rebellion in Rome.
Caesar changes the Roman calendar to create the Julian calendar.
The Julian Calendar remains the standard in the western world until the Gregorian Calendar in 1582.
Caesar appoints his nephew Octavian his heir.
Publius Quinctilius Varus, Roman politician (d. 9 AD)
Cato the Younger (Marcus Porcius Cato) (b. 95 BC)
Metellus Scipio (b. c. 100 BC)
Vercingetorix, Gaul leader
Winter storms or snowstorms happen when warm, wet air meets with cold air.
The warm, wet air mass and the cold air mass can each be  or more in diameter.
Snowstorms affecting Northeastern United States often get their moisture from air moving north from the Gulf of Mexico and cold air from air masses coming down from the Arctic.
In the Northwest United States warm, wet air from the Pacific Ocean cools when it is pushed upward by the mountains.
Many different things can affect the direction of movement, moisture content and temperature of air masses.
All of these differences affect the type and severity of the snowstorm.
Winter storms and blizzards can make several meters of snow that blow into big drifts.
Sometimes the drifts can be over  tall.
They could even cover a house.
Lots of popular winter storms are part of North America's history.
In 1846 the Donner Party traveled away by covered wagons from Illinois headed for Sutter's Fort near Sacramento, California.
As an answer of bad decisions and slow going, they tried to go across the big Sierra Nevada Mountains in the late October.
Usually, California is still warm at that time of the year.
As the party crossed the Sierra Nevada Mountains, they did not see any snow and was not worried.
However, after they left, a huge snowstorm hit.
The party was forced to camp near Truckee, California.
The snow was so deep that the wagon wheels became stuck, so they could not move anyplace.
They tried to wait the storm out, but when one blizzard ended, another began immediately before they had time to escape.
Their food became short, so some of the people decided to hike out and find help rather than to starve to death.
Most of them died in the freezing weather, and many of those who stayed behind in the camp survived.
Of the 87 people who started in Illinois, only 47 lived.
The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (ශ්‍රී ලංකා in Sinhala, இலங்கை in Tamil) is a tropical island nation off the southeast coast of the Indian subcontinent.
The capital of the country is Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte while the largest city is Colombo.
It was known as Ceylon before 1972, and Serendib and Sinhale, among other names, before that.
It was South Asia's oldest democracy.
Ethnic make-up
Sri Lanka has three main ethnic groups.
They differ in their religions and origins, and there has often been difficulties between the groups.
The total population of the island is over 20 million people, and rapidly expanding.
The largest of the three groups is the population of Sinhalese people.
Most of them are Buddhist.
Their language is Sinhala.
They make up about 75% of the population.
The second largest group is the Tamil people.
They are Hindu.
There are about 2,271,000 Tamils in Sri Lanka.
The Sri Lankan Civil War against Tamil separatists lasted 28 years.
The third largest group is the Sri Lankan Moors.
They are Muslim.
There are over one and a half million people in this group.
They use Tamil as their language today.
Buddhist missionaries arrived from India in 250 BC during the time period of King Devanampiyatissa.
The kings of the island, and eventually most of the Sinhalese people, became Buddhists.
Legend has it that Buddha visited the island three times.
The island was subject to waves of European settlement and eventually colonisation.
The Portuguese in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Dutch in the 17th and 18th centuries, and lastly the British from 1796 to 1948.
The British traded as the others had done, but also developed plantations of coffee and tea.
Tea was planted after a fungus destroyed the coffee plantations in 1869.
The tea plantations were the basis of Sri Lankan prosperity for a hundred years.
Lastly, rubber plantations were started in the early 20th century.
In 1965, Ceylon became the world's leading exporter of tea, with 200,000 tonnes of tea being shipped internationally annually.
Independence from the British was got in 1948, together with Dominion status in the British Commonwealth of Nations.
In 1972, Ceylon changed its name officially to the Republic of Sri Lanka, and is still a member of the Commonwealth.
In 2009 came the end of a long Sri Lankan Civil War between Sinhalese and Tamils.
Since then, tourism has rapidly grown as a source of foreign investment and currency.
National symbols of Sri Lanka
The Sri Lanka flag is also known as the Lion flag because of the Lion on it.
The Lion is holding a sword in its right paw.
There is a crimson background with four leaves in each corner.
There is a yellow border.
On the left of the flag, there are the colors green and saffron.
The lion represents bravery.
The four leaves represent Karuna, Meththa, Muditha and Upeksha.
The orange stripe represents the Sri Lankan Tamils and the green stripe represents the Sri Lankan Moors.
Easter Sunday bombings
On April 21, 2019, bombings hit  churches and hotels and left at least 290 people dead and 500 injured in the cities of
cities of Colombo, Negombo and Batticaloa.
According to officials a Sri Lankan group called National Thowheed Jamath was behind the attacks.
Most of those killed were Sri Lankan nationals, but there were also thirty-one foreigners who died,  including
eight British, eight Indian, two Turkish, two Australian, one Bangladeshi, one Portuguese and four American nationals.https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48002169
Official web portal of the Government of Sri Lanka
Office of the President of Sri Lanka
Ministry of Defence, Sri Lanka
Central Bank of Sri Lanka
World Terrorism Blog On Sri Lanka
Board of Investment of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka Export Development Board
Sri Lankan Business Directory
Virtual Library Sri Lanka
The CIA World Factbook - Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
Collection of slides of Sri Lanka, University of Pennsylvania library
NIGHANTAYA | The Environment Friendly E Community | Sri Lanka
1948 establishments in Asia
Reptile is the common name for one of the main groups of land vertebrates.
It is not used so much by biologists, who use more accurate terms.
The name "reptile" comes from Latin and means "one who creeps".
All living reptile species are cold blooded, have scaly skin, and lay cleidoic eggs.
They excrete uric acid (instead of urea), and have a cloaca.
A cloaca is a shared opening for the anus, urinary tract and reproductive ducts.
Reptiles also share an arrangement of the heart and major blood vessels which is different from that of mammals.
Many important groups of reptiles are now extinct, for example the mosasaurs.
We used to say the dinosaurs were extinct, but they survive in the form of their feathered descendants (birds).
Ancient reptiles that do survive include the turtles, the crocodiles and the Tuatara, the lone survivor of its group.
The great majority of present-day reptiles are snakes and lizards.
The study of living reptiles is called herpetology.
Birds in relation to reptiles
Some reptiles are more closely related to birds than they are to other reptiles.
Crocodiles are more closely related to birds than they are to lizards.
Theropod dinosaurs are even more closely related, because birds evolved from them.
Cladistic writers prefer a more unified (monophyletic) grouping.
This puts the birds (over 10,000 species) with what people normally call reptiles. (
see Sauropsida)
Reptilia is an evolutionary grade rather than a clade.
The main reason is that the term 'reptile' does not include birds, the descendents of theropod dinosaurs.
Another reason is that the word 'reptile' is misleading because many extinct types were very different from living reptiles.
So instead of Reptilia as a taxonomic class, today many experts use Class Sauropsida (which includes all reptiles and birds, living and extinct).
Class Synapsida includes mammals and all their forebears.
Reptile is still the usual informal term to describe living snakes and lizards.
Mammals are a genuine clade, and so Mammalia is still the taxonomic term.
Since reptiles are not monophyletic, reclassifying them is one of the key aims of researchers.
Some taxonomists, such as Benton, make Sauropsida and Synapsida as class-level taxa.
The two groups split in the Carboniferous, from stem-group Amniotes (the early tetrapods, which laid cleidoic eggs).
Eye feature
A membrane forms an inner eyelid in  reptiles and birds.
Whitish or translucent, it can be drawn across the eye to protect it from dust and keep it moist.
It is called the nictitating membrane.
Reptiles can live in large and small sizes.
Their land sizes can be both bigger and smaller than mammals.
Titanosaurs were the largest land reptiles, and the smallest land reptile is a chameleon 13.5mm long.
Living reptiles
Reptiles (living groups only)
Order Crocodilia (crocodiles, gavials, caimans, and alligators): 23 species
Order Sphenodontia (Tuatara from New Zealand): 2 species
Order Squamata (lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenids ("worm-lizards"): about 7,000 species.
Order Testudines (turtles, tortoises, and terrapins): approximately 300 species
They are part of the order Squamata.
They are carnivores, with long narrow bodies and no legs.
There are at least 20 families, about 500 genera and 3,400 species of snake.
The earliest known fossils are from the Jurassic period.
This was between 143 and 167 million years ago.
Their long, slender body has some special features.
They have overlapping scales which protect them, and help them move and climb trees.
The scales have colours which may be camouflage or warning colours.
Many species have skulls with more joints than the skulls of their lizard ancestors.
This allows the snakes to swallow prey much larger than their heads.
In their narrow bodies, snakes' paired organs (such as kidneys) appear one in front of the other instead of side by side.
Most have only one working lung.
Some species have kept a pelvic girdle with a pair of vestigial claws on either side of the cloaca.
They have no eyelids or external ears.
They can hiss, but otherwise make no vocal sounds.
They are very mobile in their own way.
Most of them live in the tropics.
Few snake species live beyond the Tropic of Cancer or Tropic of Capricorn, and only one species, the common viper (Vipera berus) lives beyond the Arctic Circle.
They can see well enough, and they can taste scents with their tongues by flicking them in and out.
They are very sensitive to vibrations in the ground.
Some snakes can sense warm-blooded animals by thermal infrared.
Most snakes live on the ground, and in the trees.
Others live in the water, and a few live under the soil.
Like other reptiles, snakes are ectotherms.
They control their body temperature by moving in and out of the direct sunshine.
That is why they are rare in cold places.
Snakes range in size from the tiny, 10.4 cm (4 inch)-long thread snake to the reticulated python of  in length.
The extinct snake Titanoboa was  long.
Snakes are thought to have evolved from lizards.
The earliest snake fossils are from the Lower Cretaceous.
A wide range of snakes appeared during the Paleocene period (c 66 to 56 million years ago).
Not a clade
The Squamata are definitely a monophyletic group: it is a sister group to the Tuatara.
Judged by their fossil record, the squamates were present in the Mesozoic, but had a minor place in the land ecology.
Three of the six lines are recorded first in the Upper Jurassic, the others in the Cretaceous.
Probably all, certainly the lizards, arose earlier in the Jurassic.
The Mosasaurs of the Upper Cretaceous were by far the most successful of all the lizards, becoming the top predator in their ecosystem.
Although snakes and lizards look very different, neither is a proper clade.
Snakes did descend from early lizards, not once, but a number of times.
There is a monophyletic clade within the Squamata.
It is the Toxicofera.
It includes all venomous snakes and lizards, and many related non-venomous species.
The evidence for this is in recent molecular analyses.
Fossil snakes
The fossil of a primitive snake from the Lower Cretaceous has been found.
It lived about 113 million years ago.
It had rather small front and rear legs.
Several other fossil snakes have been found with small rear legs, but this is the first one with all four legs.
The snake, Tetrapodophis amplectus, lived on land and was adapted to burrowing.
The researcher said there were "a lot of very advanced snake features, including its hooked teeth, flexible jaw and spine – and even snake-like scales.
And there's the gut contents – it's swallowed another vertebrate.
It was preying on other animals, which is a snake feature".
The snake came from the Crato Formation in Brazil, and lay in a private collection for many years.
It was re-discovered in a museum at Solnhofen, Bavaria.
Most snakes are nonvenomous.
Those that have venom use it mainly to kill and subdue prey rather than for self-defense.
Some have venom potent enough to cause painful injury or death to humans.
Nonvenomous snakes either swallow prey alive or kill by squeezing.
Elapids – cobras including king cobras, kraits, mambas, Australian copperheads, sea snakes, and coral snakes.
Viperids – vipers, rattlesnakes, copperheads/cottonmouths, and bushmasters.
Colubrids – boomslangs, tree snakes, vine snakes, mangrove snakes, but not all colubrids are venomous.
Many snakes have skulls with more joints than their lizard ancestors.
This helps them swallow prey much larger than their heads.
The bones of the head and jaws can move apart to let large prey move into their body.
The throat, stomach and intestines can also expand in a most extraordinary manner.
In this was, a thin-looking snake can swallow and digest a larger animal.
To fit their narrow bodies, snakes' paired organs (such as kidneys) are one in front of the other instead of side by side, and most snakes have only one working lung.
Some species have a pelvic girdle with a pair of vestigial claws on either side of the cloaca.
This is a relic of the legs which do not appear in modern snakes.
Shedding
Snakes need to shed their skin regularly while they grow.
Snakes shed their skin by rubbing their head against something rough and hard, like a piece of wood or a rock.
This causes the skin, which is already stretched, to split open.
The snake keeps on rubbing its skin on various rough objects until the skin peels off from its head.
This lets it crawl out, turning the skin inside out.
All snakes are carnivorous; they eat other animals.
Some are venomous; they inject poison along grooves in their teeth.
Some snakes are constrictrors.
Constrictors are not venomous, so they squeeze their prey to death.
Snakes swallow their food whole, and they cannot chew.
Because snakes are cold-blooded, they do not have to eat as regularly as mammals.
People who own pet snakes feed them as infrequently as once per month.
Some snakes can go as long as six months without a good meal.
Snakes have a very flexible lower jaw, the two halves of which are not rigidly attached, and many other joints in their skull.
They can open their mouths wide enough to swallow their prey whole, even if the prey is larger in diameter than the snake itself.
Not having arms and legs doesn't stop snakes from moving.
They have developed several different ways of moving to deal with particular environments.
Each type of snake movement is discrete and distinct from the others.
Lateral undulation
Lateral undulation is a snake's only way of moving in water, and the most common way of moving altogether.
In this mode, the body of the snake alternately bends to the left and right, resulting in a series of rearward-moving "waves".
While this movement appears rapid, snakes have rarely been seen moving faster than two body-lengths per second, often much less.
This mode of movement has the same amount of calories burned per meter moved as running in lizards of the same mass.
Terrestrial lateral undulation is the most common mode of moving for most snake species.
In this mode, the posteriorly moving waves push against contact points in the environment, such as rocks, twigs, irregularities in the soil, etc.
Each of these environmental objects, in turn, generates a reaction force directed forward and towards the midline of the snake, resulting in forward thrust while the lateral components cancel out.
The speed of this movement depends upon the density of push-points in the environment, with a medium density of about 8 along the snake's length being ideal.
The wave speed is precisely the same as the snake speed, and as a result, every point on the snake's body follows the path of the point ahead of it, allowing snakes to move through very dense vegetation and small openings.
Snakes move forward in water by moving their bodies in a wave-like motion.