the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Unlike the original game, the updated version also allows for multiple solutions to puzzles and a new co-operative mode for two players.
In the DS version, there is no voice acting, only subtitles.
A version for iPhone and iPod touch was released on January 20, 2010.
In May 2010, a version with higher resolution and a digital comic was released on the iPad.
A PC version was released on August 27, 2010 on various digital distribution services.
Revolution made a comic book for the DS release of The Director's Cut in 2009 (see Comic), and also a launch trailer.
On the release of The Director's Cut on iPhone and iPod touch on January 24, 2010, Revolution released the launch trailer on their YouTube channel, revolutionbevigilant.
On the 8th day of Apple's 12 Days of Christmas, Revolution made The Director's Cut free for download for 24 hours.
The original is currently available from Sold Out Sotware and Good Old Games (if you buy The Director's Cut).
The iPhone version of The Director's Cut  can be purchased from the iPhone/iPod Touch AppStore.
The iPad version is also available on the iPad AppStore.
The Mac version is available from Steam and the Mac AppStore.
The PC version can be purchased from Intel Appup, Steam and Good Old Games, and also as part of the Broken Sword Complete package from Mastertronic.
The Wii and DS versions are currently available in stores.
Downloadable content
The Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars - Director's Cut Original Soundtrack was released on the iTunes Store on December 28 December, 2009.
If you buy The Director's Cut on Good Old Games, you also get the original game, original manual, HD wallpapers, the soundtrack, 11 avatars, and the comic book.
The comic book of the same name was created by Charles Cecil and very well known artist Dave Gibbons for the DS release of Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars - Director’s Cut in March 2009.
The short comic provides a further glimpse back into Nico’s past, leading readers right up to the events of her playable segments in the game.
The game was a commercial success.
Charles Cecil said that it sold around a 1.000.000 copies in the mid 90's.
He also said that the sales of Revolution's games are going slightly back up again.
Critical response Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars got very good reviews from critics.
Adventure Gamers praised the game's story, puzzles, art, voice acting and interface, and called it a true masterpiece and adventure gaming at its absolute finest.
However, the magazine stated that long conversations may put some players of.
Joe Antol of Adventure Classic Gaming stated that it's one of the best adventures he has played in a number of years, and that it's a "must play and experience" adventure title for any adventure game lover.
Game Over Online praised the GBA version, saying that Revolution did a great job redrawing the game's visuals, and that its patience, maturity and depth are some things that are rarely seen on the GBA.
RPGFan stated that even if the GBA version can be buggy at times, it's still a worthy addition to any GBA library, and is one of the finest examples of how a well-crafted graphic adventure should be done.
James Gordon of HonestGamers praised the games graphics, sound and story, and even called it one of the best GBA games to date, he stated that you may not want to play it more than once, even though he did.
PC Gamer praised the game's story, puzzles and art.
However, unlike most critics, the reviewer has criticized the voice acting, saying that it is not quite professional, and at times annoying.
He also criticized the puzzles, stating that they were good, but some required to much pixel-hunting. "
Mr. Bill and Lela" of Mr. Bill's Adventureland stated that it's a "winner" and a totally addictive game, which combines the very best aspects of traditional adventure games and mystery thrillers, with even a little romance thrown in for good measure, and a suspenseful and slowly evolving story that will keep you glued to your seat.
Like the original release, Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars - Director's Cut also got very good reviews from critics.
App Spy praised the game's great looking visual presentation, excellent touch screen controles and challenging puzzle gameplay, and called it a must own games, even for newcomers to the genre, but stated that the hint system can make things too simple, and that the auto-save function is not the greatest.
Touch Arcade said: "Whether you're an old fan of the original game, a newcomer to the series, or even someone who's never played a point-and-click adventure before, Broken Sword is a game with mass appeal that will draw you in" and called it "A Point-and-Click Classic Made Even Better".
Slide to Play gave both, the iPhone and iPad a 4 out of 4 stars, and called it a real winner, even among other classic adventures.
Nigel Wood of Touchgen praised the game's great visuals, sound, and well implemented interface, but called story the winner in the game, as it can "like a good book, keep you glued to your little screen".
LEVEL stated that even 13 years after its first appearance, Broken Sword lost nothing of its powers, and called it a fantastic adventure game with lovely characters, strong story and DS-enhanced puzzle solving.
Just Adventure stated that the game consists of a rich plot, fun characters and puzzles, and great art and soun.
Francis Rizo III of Video Game Talk stated that Broken Sword with its engagingly deep storyline, gorgeous art, fun writing, entertaining puzzles and terrific vocal cast, just raised the bar to a level that will be incredibly hard to meet for any game, and that people should buy it, as it is fun and its success may spur developers to take another look at this somewhat dormant genre, supplementing the wave of Wii ports with something new and original.
Awards Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars - Director's Cut was nominated for a British Academy Video Games Award 2010 for Story, but lost to Uncharted 2: Among Thieves.
In 2010, The Director's Cut won the award for Best European Adventure at the European Games Awards.
In 2004, Adventure Gamers ranked Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars at #4 on their list of Top 20 Adventure Games of All-Time.
Adventure Classic Gaming ranked it at #3 on their list of Top 10 retro graphic adventure games of all time from PC to consoles, in 2006.
Metacritic ranked it at #9 on their list of 25 Best iPhone and iPad Games of 2010.
In 2011, Adventure Gamers ranked it at #4 again on their list of Top 100 All-Time Adventures.
In 2011, the first two Broken Sword games have been downloaded by over 4 million people.
Sequels Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars spawned three sequels.
The first, Broken Sword II: The Smoking Mirror was released in 1997 and is the only game in the series that does not follow the Knights Templar story line.
It uses the same engine as the first Broken Sword game.
Six years later, Revolution released Broken Sword: The Sleeping Dragon, which moved to 3D graphics, and is the only game in the series that uses a direct control mechanism.
It uses the RenderWare engine.
In 2006, the company Broken Sword: The Angel of Death (released as Secrets of the Ark: A Broken Sword Game' in North America), which returns to the point 'n' click system used in the first two games, and is the only game in the series not released on any console.
The game uses Sumo Digital's engine.
In 2009, Revolution released a director's cut of the first game, named Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars - Director's Cut.
The company released a remastered edition of the second, named Broken Sword: The Smoking Mirror - Remastered, in 2010.
Revolution has confirmed that there will be a new Broken Sword'' game in the future, and in 2D, but did not confirm they are currently making one.
Broken Sword: The Shadow Of The Templars GameSpot profile
Broken Sword - Official on Facebook
Revolution Games on Facebook
was an old province of Japan in the area of Ehime Prefecture on the island of Shikoku.
The province was sometimes called .
Iyo had borders  with Awa, Sanuki, and Tosa Provinces.
The maps of Japan and Iyo Province were reformed in the 1870s.
Ōyamazumi jinja was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Iyo.
Much Ado about Nothing is a comedy by William Shakespeare.
It is set in Messina, Sicily (which is in Italy) and is a comedy/love story about two pairs of lovers, Hero and Claudio and Benedick and Beatrice.
This story is one of William Shakespeare's more popular plays.
The villain in this story is called Don John and he convinces Claudio that Hero is cheating on him and then he refuses to marry her whilst Benedick and Beatrice are tricked into confessing their true love for each other.
In the end the Constable accidentally sorts everything out and everyone celebrates both marriages.
Don John (the villain) can't bear anyone else to be happy.
He is an illegitimate child meaning his upbringing has been rocky and he is insecure, leading to his selfish behaviour getting the better of him throughout the play.
The maps of Japan and Kii Province were reformed in the 1870s.
Hinokuma-Kunikakasu jinjū was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Kii.
Amalgamated Wireless Australasia Limited (AWA), Australian manufacturer of radio and communications equipment
AWA Tower, Sydney, Australia
Awa, Tokushima, a town in Japan
Awa District, Chiba, a modern geographical and administrative area in Japan
Awa District, Tokushima, a modern geographical and administrative area in Japan
Awa Province (Chiba), an historical geographical and administrative area in Japan
Awa Province (Tokushima), an historical geographical and administrative area in Japan
At 21 he was appointed professor of chemistry at Giessen, recommended by Alexander von Humboldt.
There he established the world's first major school of chemistry.
He invented the chemical laboratory, and used it for teaching.
He founded and edited the Annalen der Chemie, the leading German-language journal of chemistry.
Liebig invented new methods for the analysis of organic materials.
He showed that, to grow, plants need (as well as water and sunlight) carbon dioxide, minerals and nitrogen compounds.
He discovered that nitrogen was an essential plant nutrient, and invented the first nitrogen-based fertiliser.
His Law of the Minimum stated that a plant's development is limited by the one essential mineral that is in the shortest supply.
He described the effect of individual nutrients on crops.
"...the production of all organic substances no longer belongs just to the organism.
It must be viewed as not only probable but as certain that we shall produce them in our laboratories.
Sugar, salicin (aspirin), and morphine will be artificially produced".
Liebig's textbooks were the standard for many years.
Liebig's work was closely followed in Britain, and he was awarded the Royal Society's Copley Medal in 1840.
His own country made him a Baron in 1845.
was an old province of Japan in the area of Chiba Prefecture on the island of Honshū.
It is also known as  or .
Awa jinja was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Awa.
Spaceflight is when an object (or spacecraft) made by man flies into outer space.
A spaceflight can occur with or without humans on board.
The Russian Soyuz program, the American Space Shuttle and the International Space Station are examples of manned missions. (
Manned means the spacecraft has humans on board.)
On the other hand, examples of unmanned flights are space probes which fly into deeper space, and satellites which travel around and orbit the Earth or other planets. (
Unmanned means the spacecraft does not have any people on board.)
Space probes and satellites are both machines that work either by radio control from Earth or are fully automatic.
Spaceflight is used for space exploration such as manned missions to the Earth's moon or unmanned missions to other planets in the solar system.
Spaceflight can also be used for tourism and satellite telecommunications.
A spaceflight begins with a rocket launch, which provides enough energy to get out of Earth's atmosphere and to orbit the Earth.
Once the rocket is in space, the activity of the rocket is watched and studied by scientists back on Earth.
Some rockets may remain in space forever, some break apart when they re-enter Earth's atmosphere.
Some spacecraft are made to land on other planets, and most manned spacecraft are made to land back on Earth, most of the time using a parachute to land safely.
On October 3, 1942, a German V-2 missile crossed the Kármán line ( above the Earth) on October 3, 1942.
This was the first spaceflight.
The first man-made satellite to travel around Earth was the Russian Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957.
Some examples of manned spacecraft are Soyuz, Starship, Starliner, Gemini, Apollo, Crew Dragon, Mercury (It is both the name of a spacecraft and a planet), the Space Shuttle, and Orion.
Unmanned spacecraft include communications satellites, space telescopes, space probes and planet rovers.
was an old province of Japan in the area of Kagawa Prefecture on the island of Shikoku.
The maps of Japan and Sanuki Province were reformed in the 1870s.
Tamura jinja was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Sanuki.
was an old province of Japan in the area of Kōchi Prefecture on the island of Shikoku.
The maps of Japan and Tosa Province were reformed in the 1870s.
Tosa jinja was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Tosa.
The NE555 is a common IC (or integrated circuit) introduced in 1972.
It is used in timers.
It is popular among hobbyists and can be found in many electronics stores that sell bare components, such as RadioShack.
A VGA connector is a type of computer plug.
It is used to send analog video signal to an output device like a television screen or a computer monitor.
Most VGA connectors have 15 pins; 3 rows of 5 pins.
Some of them are a bit different, and have 18 pins; 3 rows of 6 pins.
ar:منظومة عرض مرئي
it:Video Graphics Array#Connettore VGA
A microbial cyst is a resting or dormant stage of a microorganism, usually a bacterium or a protist or rarely an invertebrate animal, that helps the organism to survive in unfavorable environmental conditions.
It can be thought of as a state of suspended animation in which the metabolic processes of the cell are slowed down and the cell ceases all activities like feeding and locomotion.
Encystment also helps the microbe to spread easily, from one host to another or to a better environment.
When the encysted microbe reaches an environment good for its growth and survival, the cyst wall breaks down by a process known as excystation.
Unfavorable environmental conditions  trigger the making of a cyst.
These include the lack of nutrients or oxygen, extreme temperatures, lack of moisture and presence of toxic chemicals, which are not good for the growth of the microbe.
Composition of the cyst wall
Different organisms have cyst walls made of different things.
The cyst walls of bacteria are formed by the thickening of the normal cell wall with added peptidoglycan layers.
The walls of protozoan cysts are made of chitin, a type of glycoprotein.
Nematode cyst walls are made of chitin reinforced by collagen.
Delivery of finished content for online distribution, with its accompanying metadata
Delivery of the end product to the consumer
Specialist networks known as content delivery networks have distribute digital content on the Internet.
Alternative technologies for content delivery include peer-to-peer file sharing technologies.
Content can only be delivered if it exists.
If it does not exist, several techniques and methods can be used for content creation or content regeneration.
Alternatively, content delivery platforms create and syndicate content remotely, acting like hosted content management systems.
en:Content delivery
The shrine was built in 947, to appease the angry spirit of Sugawara no Michizane.
He had been wrongly sent into exile.
965 (Kōhō 2): Emperor Murakami ordered that Imperial messengers be sent to report important events to the guardian kami of Japan.
These messenger, called heihaku, were initially presented to 16 shrines;
986 (Kanna 2):  Michizane was given the posthumous title of Tenjin (Heavenly Deity)
991 (Shōryaku 2): Emperor Ichijō added three more shrines to Murakami's list — including Kitano.
Kitano Tenman-gū Official web page  (In English)
Kyoto Shimbun: Open-Air Tea Ceremony...  (in English)
Shinto shrines
947 establishments
Tommy "Hurricane" Jackson (1931-1982) was an American heavyweight boxer.
He fought from 1951 until 1961.
He had a total of 44 fights.
His statistics were 34 wins (16 by knockout), 9 losses and 1 draw.
In February 1956, he was rated behind Bob Baker for the heavyweight championship title.
He fought Floyd Patterson in June 1956 to see who would be the heavyweight champion after Rocky Marciano retired and gave up the title.
Jackson lost a very close controversial 12 round split decision.
He fought Patterson again in July 1957, when Patterson was the champion.
Patterson beat him at the end of 10 rounds when the referee ended the match.
Photo 1 of Bob Baker vs Hurricane Jackson close fight
Photo 2 of Bob Baker vs Hurricane Jackson close fight
Story on Hurricane Jackson
The Pentium F00F bug is a hardware bug (design flaw) found in most original Pentium computer processors (but not in Pentium II, III, or 4).
The bug allows a malicious program running as an unprivileged (non-root) user to crash the computer by running the instructions (in hexadecimal) F00FC7C8.
In assembly language, this represents "lock cmpxchg8b eax".
If the system has crashed because of this bug, the only way to fix it is to reboot the computer, usually by unplugging it and plugging it back in.
It does no permanent damage to the computer, but it may cause data loss.
The bug was discovered in November 1997.
Many operating systems made since 1997 have protection against this bug.
A locker is a small compartment that is used to store things such as books, coats, etc.
They are commonly found in schools.
They are usually locked with a padlock or a built-in lock.
Usually there is an array of lockers.
Each user has his/her own key (or combination) and can not open other people's lockers.
There is sometimes a master key used only by the manager which can open all of the lockers.
The typical maximum padlock shackle thickness is 5/16 inch (8 mm), and the typical door thickness is 0.8 mm.
High-security lockers typically have a 10 mm or more maximum shackle thickness and a 1.2 mm door thickness.
More complicated setups are also possible.
For example, if there are cleaners in the office building, and each cleaner only cleans one floor, the cleaner for a each floor could have a sub-master key that opens only the offices on that floor, while each employee still has a key that opens only his/her office and the manager still has a key that opens all of the doors.
The exterior doors might also be configured so that they can be opened by any employee key, cleaner key, or the manager's master key.
The more complicated the setup, the more important it is to use locks that have a large number of key possibilities.
Disc-detainer locks are especially suitable for master keying due to their large number of key possibilities.
A patent attorney is an attorney who has the specialized skills and training necessary for representing clients in obtaining patents and acting in all matters and procedures relating to patent law and practice.
For example, the patent attorney can not only file an application for a new patent but he can also try to stop the patent office from giving the patent to somebody else.
The term is used differently in different countries, and thus may or may not require the same legal qualifications as a general legal practitioner (i.e., a lawyer).
The titles patent agent and patent lawyer are also used in some jurisdictions.
In some jurisdictions the terms are interchangeable.
In other countries, a patent lawyer must also be qualified as a lawyer.
Each patent office regulates the people who make filings.
Patent attorneys can do this, but the patent office will not accept filings from other attorneys.
Each patent office has its own rules about what a person has to do to become a patent attorney.
In Europe, requirements for practicing as patent attorney before national patent offices differ from those needed for practicing before the European Patent Office (EPO).
On the national level, the requirements are not harmonized across the European Union, except that the EU makes sure that respective professional qualifications are mutually recognized to some degree.
In the United States, the patent attorney must pass a special examination to test his knowledge of patent office procedures.
Some countries allow lawyers who are not citizens to practice.
Some countries will allow lawyers from a second country to make filings if the second country will do the same for lawyers from that first country.
Many times, a patent attorney from a foreign country will work with a local attorney to make sure that the patent application for that country is filed correctly and quickly.
Patent & Trade Mark Attorneys  on IP Australia, the Australian Patent Office
Australian Patent Attorney Directory , developed and maintained by the IDC (Industry Development Centre (Hunter) Ltd), a not-for-profit organisation established by the Australian Government
Australian Patent Attorney Directory, free directory of patent attorney firms in Australia by capital city
Institute of Professional Representatives before the European Patent Office or "European Patent Institute (epi)"
The Chartered Institute of Patent Attorneys (CIPA) - United Kingdom
Deutsche Patentanwaltskammer - German Chamber of Patent Attorneys, in German
APTMA - Irish Association of Patent & Trade Mark Attorneys
Institut national de la propriété industrielle in French
Compagnie nationale des Conseils en Propriété Industrielle in French
Centre d'Études Internationales de la Propriété Industrielle in French
USPTO database of patent attorneys and agents
USPTO Office of Enrollment and Discipline
New Zealand patent office
New Zealand patents
New Zealand patent attorneys
Singapore Register of Patents
List of Registered Patent Agents in India as of April 2010
was an old province of Japan in the area of Ōita Prefecture on the island of Kyūshū.
Along with Buzen Province, it was sometimes called .
Maps of Japan and Bungo Province were reformed in the 1870s.
Sasamuta-jinja and Yusuhara Hachiman-gū were the chief Shinto shrines (ichinomiya) of Bungo.
Bungo Seamount
Aberystwyth (Mouth of the River Ystwyth) is a historic market town, administrative centre and holiday resort.
It is in the area of Ceredigion in West of Wales.
Locals call the area 'Aber'.
The people who live there mostly speak English, though many are also fluent in the Welsh language.
It is a university town.
The small town of over 13,000 grows by another 10,000 in term time when the students are there.
The nearby suburb of Llanbadarn Fawr has another 3,400 people.
Kronberg im Taunus, Germany, since 1997
Saint-Brieuc, France, since 1973
Esquel, Argentine Patagonia
Towns in Ceredigion
Transition Minimized Differential Signaling (or TMDS) is a standard that is used to transport uncompressed data to a digital device.
The data transmitted is digital.
By using a digital signal instead of an analogue signal, the impact of Electromagnetic interference on the signal is reduced.
This mode of transmission is mainly used for audio and visual data.
TMDS uses 8b/10b encoding.
The code set is different from the original, developed by IBM.
Encoding is a two-stage process that uses XOR and XNOR gates.
Whether to use XOR or XNOR operation is selected, so that the number ofsignal transitions is minimal; this is where the name is from.
Hazel is a genus of trees and shrubs, in the birch family.
There are 50 to 80 species, in four genera.
They are native to the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.
A maxi single is a CD single that contains more than two tracks.
The first maxi-single was released during the 1970s.
There are also cassette maxi singles that began in the 1990s.
A electric piano is a piano that makes sounds mechanically.
The sounds are turned into electrical signals by pick ups.
Electric pianos are usually seen in live performances in popular music.
A refrain is a verse or group of verses that is repeated at intervals in a piece of music or poetry.
In song, it is often called the chorus.
The refrain is often very different to the verse in melody, rhythm and harmonics.
It usually has a higher level of dynamics and activity, often with added instrumentation.
In music, a refrain has two parts: the lyrics of the song, and the melody.
Sometimes refrains use slightly different words as they are repeated.
Such lines are still able to be recognised as part of the refrain by the fact that it is always has the same tune or melody.
The rhymes, if present, are also kept even if the words are sometimes different.
In popular music, the chorus contrasts with the verse, which leads into it, while the bridge contrasts with and leads into both.
Many popular songs from the middle of the 20th century consist only of a chorus.
The word comes from Vulgar Latin word refringere, and later from Old French refraindre, both of which mean "to repeat".
Willimantic, Connecticut is a census-designated place and former city.
It is in the town of Windham, Windham County.
About 15,823 people lived there at the 2000 census.
Eastern Connecticut State University and the Windham Textile and History Museum are in Willimantic.
Census-designated places in Connecticut
Windham is a town in Windham County, Connecticut, United States.
It contains the city of Willimantic and the villages of Windham Center,  North Windham, and South Windham.
The city of Willimantic was made part of the town in 1983.
The population was 23,733 in 2009 and 22,857 at the 2000 census.
17th-century establishments in Connecticut
Eastern Connecticut State University (ECSU) is a public liberal arts university.
It is located in Willimantic, Connecticut.
Eastern Connecticut State University is ranked in the top 100 regional universities in the North (of the United States) in the 2011 edition of the U.S. News and World Report list of Best Colleges.
There are 5,671 students attending Eastern.
The campus is suburban.
The school's athletic department are called the "Warriors".
Windham
North Windham
South Windham
Willimantic
Eastford
Killingly
Central Village
Moosup
Plainfield Village
Wauregan
Pomfret
Putnam District
Oneco
North Grosvenor Dale
Quinebaug
South Woodstock
Connecticut counties
Ashford is a town in Windham County, Connecticut.
The town had a population of 4,098 at the 2000 census.
Ashford was founded in 1714.
Eastford was a part of Ashford until 1848 or 1847.
Eastford split into its own town.
Ashford has the largest Boy scout camps in the US state of Connecticut.
1714 establishments
18th-century establishments in Connecticut
The Jadeite Cabbage (), or Jadeite Cabbage with Insects, is a Chinese sculpture.
It is a piece of jadeite carved into the shape of a Chinese cabbage head.
It also has a locust and a katydid hiding in the leaves.
The Jadeite Cabbage is a small sculpture.
It measures only .
It is  think.
It is "hardly larger than a human hand".
Jade is translucent: it  lets light pass through the sculpture.
The combination of several colors in the jade  gives the leaves the various colors of a real cabbage.
The sculpture was made from one piece of half-white, half-green jadeite.
The piece of jade has many imperfections.
These include cracks and patches of different colors.
These were used as the veins in the cabbage's stalks and leaves.
The sculpture is seen as a symbol of female virtue.
The white stalk is a symbol of purity, the leaves show fertility and  the locust and katydid symbolize children.
The sculptor of the Jadeite Cabbage is not known.
It was first shown in the Forbidden City's Yonghe Palace.
This is the home of the Qing Empire's Guangxu Emperor's Consort Jin.
She likely got the sculpture as part of her dowry for her wedding to Guangxu in 1889.
After the end of the Qing Empire in the Chinese Revolution of 1911, the sculpture became part of the collection of the Palace Museum in the Forbidden City.
The piece survived the Second Sino-Japanese War (World War II) and the Chinese Civil War.
It was finally made a part of Taiwan's National Palace Museum.
The Jadeite Cabbage has been called the "most famous masterpiece" of the entire National Palace Museum.
It is said the be one of the "Three Treasures of the National Palace Museum".
The other two are the Meat-shaped Stone and the Mao Gong Ding.
It was picked by the public as the most important item in the museum's entire collection.
people thought it was a bad thing in 2009 when it was learned that souvenir copies of the sculpture were being made in China and not in Taiwan.
These copies were being sold at the museum.
Jadeite Cabbage with Insects  at the National Palace Museum website
Leslie Hook. "
The Jade Cabbage" Wall Street Journal.
27 July 2007.
Brooklyn is a town in Windham County, Connecticut.
The population was 7,173 at the 2000 census.
East Brooklyn is listed as a census-designated place and is located on the east side of Brooklyn.
The town was founded in 1786 and is known for being one of Windham's "fastest growing towns".
1780s establishments in Connecticut
1786 establishments in the United States
East Brooklyn is a census-designated place in Windham County, Connecticut.
The population was 1,473 at the 2000 census.
Danielson is located in East Brooklyn.
East Brooklyn is the urban side of Brooklyn.
The racial makeup of the city was 94.30% White, 2.04% African American, 0.81% Native American, 0.75% Asian, 0.41% from other races, and 1.70% from two or more races.
Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.83% of the population.
Canterbury is a town in Windham County, Connecticut.
The population was 5,132 at the 2010 census.
The racial makeup of the town was 97.34% White, 0.36% African American, 0.28% Native American, 0.26% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.30% from other races, and 1.45% from two or more races.
Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.07% of the population.
The town was founded in the 1680s as Peagscomsuck until 1703.
In 1832, Prudence Crandall, a school teacher, opened the first school for African American girls.
The "Black Law" did not allow the education of black people.
However, Crandall taught until she was sent to prison in 1832 for a short time.
Angry mobs forced the school to close in 1834.
Crandall later married and moved out of the state.
Connecticut ended the "Black Law" in 1838.
They also gave Crandall a small pension in 1886, four years before her death.
The school is now the Prudence Crandall Museum.
Chaplin is a town in Windham County, Connecticut.
Chaplin was named after Deacon Benjamin Chaplin, an early settler.
The Chaplin Museum, Chaplin Historic District and the Witter House are located in Chaplin.
Surface tension is an effect where the surface of a liquid is strong.
The surface can hold up a weight, and the surface of a water droplet holds the droplet together, in a ball shape.
Some small things can float on a surface because of surface tension, even though they normally could not float.
Some insects (e.g. water striders) can run on the surface of water because of this.
This property is caused by the molecules in the liquid being attracted to each other (cohesion), and is responsible for many of the behaviors of liquids.
Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length, or of energy per unit area.
The two are equivalent—but when referring to energy per unit of area, people use the term surface energy—which is a more general term in the sense that it applies also to solids and not just liquids.
The cohesive forces among the liquid molecules cause surface tension.
In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero.
The molecules at the surface do not have other molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards.
This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area.
Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets.
Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the cohesive forces of the surface layer.
In the absence of other forces, including gravity, drops of virtually all liquids would be perfectly spherical.
The spherical shape minimizes the necessary "wall tension" of the surface layer according to Laplace's law.
Another way to view it is in terms of energy.
A molecule in contact with a neighbor is in a lower state of energy than if it were alone (not in contact with a neighbor).
The interior molecules have as many neighbors as they can possibly have, but the boundary molecules are missing neighbors (compared to interior molecules).
So, the boundary molecules have a higher energy.
For the liquid to minimize its energy state, the number of higher energy boundary molecules must be minimized.
The minimized quantity of boundary molecules results in a minimized surface area.
As a result of surface area minimization, a surface will assume the smoothest shape it can.
Any curvature in the surface shape results in greater area and a higher energy.
So, the surface will push back against any curvature in much the same way as a ball pushed uphill will push back to minimize its gravitational potential energy.
Effects in everyday life
A. Rain water forms beads on the surface of a waxy surface, such as a leaf.
Water adheres weakly to wax and strongly to itself, so water clusters into drops.
Surface tension gives them their near-spherical shape, because a sphere has the smallest possible surface area to volume ratio.
B. Formation of drops occurs when a mass of liquid is stretched.
The animation shows water adhering to the faucet gaining mass until it is stretched to a point where the surface tension can no longer bind it to the faucet.
It then separates and surface tension forms the drop into a sphere.
If a stream of water were running from the faucet, the stream would break up into drops during its fall.
Gravity stretches the stream, then surface tension pinches it into spheres.
C. Objects denser than water still float when the object is nonwettable and its weight is small enough to be borne by the forces arising from surface tension.
For example, water striders use surface tension to walk on the surface of a pond.
The surface of the water behaves like an elastic film: the insect's feet cause indentations in the water's surface, increasing its surface area.
D. Separation of oil and water (in this case, water and liquid wax) is caused by a tension in the surface between dissimilar liquids.
This type of surface tension is called "interface tension", but its physics are the same.
E. Tears of wine is the formation of drops and rivulets on the side of a glass containing an alcoholic beverage.
Its cause is a complex interaction between the differing surface tensions of water and ethanol.
It is induced by a combination of surface tension modification of water by ethanol together with ethanol evaporating faster than water.
Surfactants
Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass.
Bubbles in pure water are unstable.
The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles (see Marangoni effect).
Notice that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more.
Emulsions are a type of solution in which surface tension plays a role.
Tiny fragments of oil suspended in pure water will spontaneously assemble themselves into much larger masses.
But the presence of a surfactant provides a decrease in surface tension, which permits stability of minute droplets of oil in the bulk of water (or vice versa).
Two definitions
Surface tension, represented by the symbol γ is defined as the force along a line of unit length, where the force is parallel to the surface but perpendicular to the line.
One way to picture this is to imagine a flat soap film bounded on one side by a taut thread of length, L. The thread will be pulled toward the interior of the film by a force equal to 2L (the factor of 2 is because the soap film has two sides, hence two surfaces).
Surface tension is therefore measured in forces per unit length.
Its SI unit is newton per meter but the cgs unit of dyne per cm is also used.
One dyn/cm corresponds to 0.001 N/m.
An equivalent definition, one that is useful in thermodynamics, is work done per unit area.
As such, in order to increase the surface area of a mass of liquid by an amount, δA, a quantity of work, δA, is needed.
This work is stored as potential energy.
Consequently surface tension can be also measured in SI system as joules per square meter and in the cgs system as ergs per cm2.
Since mechanical systems try to find a state of minimum potential energy, a free droplet of liquid naturally assumes a spherical shape, which has the minimum surface area for a given volume.
Surface curvature and pressure
If no force acts normal to a tensioned surface, the surface must remain flat.
But if the pressure on one side of the surface differs from pressure on the other side, the pressure difference times surface area results in a normal force.
In order for the surface tension forces to cancel the force due to pressure, the surface must be curved.
The diagram shows how surface curvature of a tiny patch of surface leads to a net component of surface tension forces acting normal to the center of the patch.
When all the forces are balanced, the resulting equation is known as the Young–Laplace equation:
Δp is the pressure difference.
is surface tension.
Rx and Ry are radii of curvature in each of the axes that are parallel to the surface.
Solutions to this equation determine the shape of water drops, puddles, menisci, soap bubbles, and all other shapes determined by surface tension. (
Another example is the shape of the impressions that a water strider's feet make on the surface of a pond).
The table below shows how the internal pressure of a water droplet increases with decreasing radius.
For not very small drops the effect is subtle, but the pressure difference becomes enormous when the drop sizes approach the molecular size. (
In the limit of a single molecule the concept becomes meaningless.)
Liquid surface
It is hard to find the shape of the minimal surface bounded by some arbitrary shaped frame using just mathematics.
Yet by fashioning the frame out of wire and dipping it in soap-solution, a locally minimal surface will appear in the resulting soap-film within seconds.
The reason for this is that the pressure difference across a fluid interface is proportional to the mean curvature, as seen in the Young-Laplace equation.
For an open soap film, the pressure difference is zero, hence the mean curvature is zero, and minimal surfaces have the property of zero mean curvature.
Contact angles
The surface of any liquid is an interface between that liquid and some other medium.
The top surface of a pond, for example, is an interface between the pond water and the air.
Surface tension, then, is not a property of the liquid alone, but a property of the liquid's interface with another medium.
If a liquid is in a container, then besides the liquid/air interface at its top surface, there is also an interface between the liquid and the walls of the container.
The surface tension between the liquid and air is usually different (greater than) its surface tension with the walls of a container.
Where the two surfaces meet, the geometry will balance all forces.
Where the two surfaces meet, they form a contact angle, , which is the angle the tangent to the surface makes with the solid surface.
The diagram to the right shows two examples.
Tension forces are shown for the liquid-air interface, the liquid-solid interface, and the solid-air interface.
The example on the left is where the difference between the liquid-solid and solid-air surface tension, , is less than the liquid-air surface tension, , but is still positive, that is
In the diagram, both the vertical and horizontal forces must cancel exactly at the contact point, known as equilibrium.
The horizontal component of  is canceled by the adhesive force, .
The more important balance of forces, though, is in the vertical direction.
The vertical component of  must exactly cancel the force, .
is the liquid-solid surface tension,
is the liquid-air surface tension,
is the solid-air surface tension,
is the contact angle, where a concave meniscus has contact angle less than 90° and a convex meniscus has contact angle of greater than 90°.
This means that although the difference between the liquid-solid and solid-air surface tension, , is difficult to measure directly, it can be inferred from the liquid-air surface tension, , and the equilibrium contact angle, , which is a function of the easily measurable advancing and receding contact angles (see main article contact angle).
This same relationship exists in the diagram on the right.
But in this case we see that because the contact angle is less than 90°, the liquid-solid/solid-air surface tension difference must be negative:
Special contact angles
Another special case is where the contact angle is exactly 180°.
Water with specially prepared Teflon approaches this.
Contact angle of 180° occurs when the liquid-solid surface tension is exactly equal to the liquid-air surface tension.
Methods of measurement
Because surface tension manifests itself in various effects, it offers a number of paths to its measurement.
Which method is optimal depends upon the nature of the liquid being measured, the conditions under which its tension is to be measured, and the stability of its surface when it is deformed.
Du Noüy Ring method: The traditional method used to measure surface or interfacial tension.
Wetting properties of the surface or interface have little influence on this measuring technique.
Maximum pull exerted on the ring by the surface is measured.
Du Noüy-Padday method: A minimized version of Du Noüy method uses a small diameter metal needle instead of a ring, in combination with a high sensitivity microbalance to record maximum pull.
The advantage of this method is that very small sample volumes (down to few tens of microliters) can be measured with very high precision, without the need to correct for buoyancy (for a needle or rather, rod, with proper geometry).
Further, the measurement can be performed very quickly, minimally in about 20 seconds.
First commercial multichannel tensiometers [CMCeeker] were recently built based on this principle.
Wilhelmy plate method: A universal method especially suited to check surface tension over long time intervals.
A vertical plate of known perimeter is attached to a balance, and the force due to wetting is measured.
Spinning drop method: This technique is ideal for measuring low interfacial tensions.
The diameter of a drop within a heavy phase is measured while both are rotated.
Pendant drop method: Surface and interfacial tension can be measured by this technique, even at elevated temperatures and pressures.
Geometry of a drop is analyzed optically.
For details, see Drop.
Bubble pressure method (Jaeger's method): A measurement technique for determining surface tension at short surface ages.
Maximum pressure of each bubble is measured.
Drop volume method: A method for determining interfacial tension as a function of interface age.
Liquid of one density is pumped into a second liquid of a different density and time between drops produced is measured.
Capillary rise method: The end of a capillary is immersed into the solution.
The height at which the solution reaches inside the capillary is related to the surface tension by the equation discussed below.
Stalagmometric method: A method of weighting and reading a drop of liquid.
Sessile drop method: A method for determining surface tension and density by placing a drop on a substrate and measuring the contact angle (see Sessile drop technique).
Vibrational frequency of levitated drops: The surface tension of superfluid 4He has been measured by studying the natural frequency of vibrational oscillations of drops held in the air by magnetics.
This value is estimated to be 0.375 dyn/cm at T = 0° K.
Liquid in a vertical tube
An old style mercury barometer consists of a vertical glass tube about 1 cm in diameter partially filled with mercury, and with a vacuum (called Torricelli's vacuum) in the unfilled volume (see diagram to the right).
Notice that the mercury level at the center of the tube is higher than at the edges, making the upper surface of the mercury dome-shaped.
The center of mass of the entire column of mercury would be slightly lower if the top surface of the mercury were flat over the entire crossection of the tube.
But the dome-shaped top gives slightly less surface area to the entire mass of mercury.
Again the two effects combine to minimize the total potential energy.
Such a surface shape is known as a convex meniscus.
We consider the surface area of the entire mass of mercury, including the part of the surface that is in contact with the glass, because mercury does not adhere at all to glass.
So the surface tension of the mercury acts over its entire surface area, including where it is in contact with the glass.
If instead of glass, the tube were made out of copper, the situation would be very different.
Mercury aggressively adheres to copper.
So in a copper tube, the level of mercury at the center of the tube will be lower than at the edges (that is, it would be a concave meniscus).
In a situation where the liquid adheres to the walls of its container, we consider the part of the fluid's surface area that is in contact with the container to have negative surface tension.
The fluid then works to maximize the contact surface area.
So in this case increasing the area in contact with the container decreases rather than increases the potential energy.
That decrease is enough to compensate for the increased potential energy associated with lifting the fluid near the walls of the container.
If a tube is sufficiently narrow and the liquid adhesion to its walls is sufficiently strong, surface tension can draw liquid up the tube in a phenomenon known as capillary action.
The height the column is lifted to is given by:
is the height the liquid is lifted,
is the density of the liquid,
is the radius of the capillary,
is the acceleration due to gravity,
is the angle of contact described above.
If  is greater than 90°, as with mercury in a glass container, the liquid will be depressed rather than lifted.
Puddles on a surface
Pouring mercury onto a horizontal flat sheet of glass results in a puddle that has a perceptible thickness.
The puddle will spread out only to the point where it is a little under half a centimeter thick, and no thinner.
Again this is due to the action of mercury's strong surface tension.
The liquid mass flattens out because that brings as much of the mercury to as low a level as possible, but the surface tension, at the same time, is acting to reduce the total surface area.
The result is the compromise of a puddle of a nearly fixed thickness.
The same surface tension demonstration can be done with water, lime water or even saline, but only if the liquid does not adhere to the flat surface material.
Wax is such a substance.
Water poured onto a smooth, flat, horizontal wax surface, say a waxed sheet of glass, will behave similarly to the mercury poured onto glass.
|  is the depth of the puddle in centimeters or meters.
|  is the surface tension of the liquid in dynes per centimeter or newtons per meter.
|  is the acceleration due to gravity and is equal to 980 cm/s2 or 9.8 m/s2
|  is the density of the liquid in grams per cubic centimeter or kilograms per cubic meter
In reality, the thicknesses of the puddles will be slightly less than what is predicted by the above formula because very few surfaces have a contact angle of 180° with any liquid.
When the contact angle is less than 180°, the thickness is given by:
For mercury on glass, γHg = 487 dyn/cm, ρHg = 13.5 g/cm3 and θ = 140°, which gives hHg = 0.36 cm.
For water on paraffin at 25 °C, γ = 72 dyn/cm, ρ = 1.0 g/cm3, and θ = 107° which gives hH2O = 0.44 cm.
The formula also predicts that when the contact angle is 0°, the liquid will spread out into a micro-thin layer over the surface.
Such a surface is said to be fully wettable by the liquid.
The breakup of streams into drops