the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
In many places, people cannot own a Taser.
There are special rules to follow to own a Taser.
This is because it is considered a weapon.
pt:Arma de eletrochoque#Taser
Wallpaper is a kind of paper used to cover walls inside of houses and buildings.
Wallpaper is used to decorate the inside of buildings instead of paint.
It is sold in rolls and are put onto a wall using wallpaper paste.
Wallpapers can come either plain (so that it can be painted), or with pictures or patterns.
Wallpaper was first used in Europe around the year 1500.
Wallpaper was made to look like rugs that hang on walls because they were like pictures.
Soon after people started making wallpaper, England and France started making a lot of wallpaper.
For a while in 1650, wallpaper was not used because the religious leader in England did not like it.
However, by 1750 people were using wallpaper all the time and more people got better at making wallpaper.
How to get rid of wallpaper
Water is the easiest way to get rid of wallpaper.
Water makes the wallpaper paste become not sticky, then the wallpaper falls off.
Sometimes the wallpaper paste is too strong for water, then special chemicals need to be used to make the paste not sticky.
Most of the time only new wallpaper has to be taken off with chemicals.
Hot water makes it easier to remove wallpaper.
There are special machines that people can use to make water into steam and use it to remove wallpaper.
Animal trapping, or simply trapping, is the use of a device to catch an animal.
Animals may be trapped for a variety of purposes, including food, wildlife management, hunting and pest control.
Each year, over 5 million wild animals, including coyotes, foxes and bobcats, are caught and killed in wild traps, mainly in the US, Canada and Russia, although trapping does occur in other countries too on a smaller scale.
Traps are indiscriminate, catching the first animal to step on them.
Countless dogs and cats, deer, birds and other animals—including threatened and endangered animals—are also injured and killed each year by the traps.
Trap checking times range from once every 24 hours to once every 14 days.
The regulations on trapping are weak and extremely difficult to enforce, which means untold amounts of animal suffering goes undocumented and uninvestigated.
Many animals die trying to free themselves, next to dehydration, blood loss and hypothermia.
Often animals become so desperate, they resort to chewing or wringing off their own trapped limb in order to escape, breaking teeth and bones in the process.
Some may die from blood loss or shock but most animals will be trapped for days before the trapper returns to kill them.
For a deadfall trap, a trapper digs a deep hole in the ground and hides it so the animal falls in the hole and can not get out.
A snare is a noose that tightens around the neck or other part of the animal.
Over 100 countries, including the EU and China, have prohibited the use of the steel-jaw leghold trap.
But in the United States, steel-jaw traps are not only legal, they are the go-to tool for trappers who capture and kill millions of wild animals a year for the global fur market.
In September 2019, California became the first state in the US to ban trapping for commercial and recreational purpose.
Minnetonka is the fourteenth largest city in Minnesota.
It has a population of 51,480 as of the 2000 census.
It is located in Hennepin County, eight miles west of Minneapolis.
Ecclesiastical polity is the operational and governance structure of a church or Christian denomination.
It also denotes the ministerial structure of the church and the authority relationships between churches.
Polity is closely related to Ecclesiology, the study of doctrine and theology relating to church organization.
Building material is any material which is used for a construction purpose.
Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood and rocks, even twigs and leaves have been used to construct buildings.
Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic.
Bricks are man-made, and so is plaster, concrete, stucco and many other materials.
However, they are usually still made out of natural materials, bricks being a good example.
They are based on clay.
Steel is based on natural types of iron.
Leon Battista Alberti (February 18, 1404 – April 25, 1472) was an Italian author, artist, architect, poet, priest, linguist, philosopher, and cryptographer, and general Renaissance humanist polymath.
In Italy, this first name is usually spelled "Leone", but Alberti is known as Leon.
Alberti's life was described in Giorgio Vasari's Vite.
1404 births
Bernardo di Matteo Gamberelli (1409–1464), better known as Bernardo Rossellino, was an Italian Florentine sculptor and architect, the elder brother of the sculptor Antonio Rossellino.
He was part of the second generation of Renaissance artists and had helped further define the new change in art style.
1409 births
1464 deaths
The Greek cross is a type of Christian cross that is used especially by Eastern Orthodoxy and Early Christianity.
It is also known as the crux immissa quadrata.
It has all arms of equal length.
Often the arms curve wider as they go out.
It is a solidified frothy lava, created when highly-heated, pressured molten rock is shot out from a volcano.
Its light weight is due to air spaces, which are caused by fast cooling and loss of pressure.
The loss of pressure makes bubbles by lowering the boiling point of the lava (like the bubble-creation when a carbonated drink is opened).
The  cooling then freezes the bubbles in the matrix.
Most famously, pumice stone has been used as a skin-scraper.
It is used in  pedicure to remove excess skin from the bottom of the foot, and on calluses (tough areas of skin).
Giuliano da Sangallo (c. 1443 – 1516) was an Italian sculptor, architect and military engineer active during the Italian Renaissance.
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, born Antonio Cordiani (April 12, 1484 - August 3, 1546) was an Italian architect active during the Italian Renaissance.
Giulio Romano (c. 1499 – November 1, 1546) was an Italian painter and architect.
He was a pupil of Raphael.
His differences from high Renaissance classicism help define the 16th century style known as Mannerism.
Carlo Maderno (1556 - January 30, 1629) was an Italian-Swiss architect, born in Ticino.
He is remembered as one of the fathers of Baroque architecture.
His façades of Santa Susanna, St. Peter's Basilica and Sant'Andrea della Valle were important in the evolution of the Italian Baroque.
He is often referred to as the brother of sculptor Stefano Maderno, but this is not universally agreed upon.
1629 deaths
Giacomo della Porta (1532 – 1602) was an Italian architect and sculptor, who worked for many important buildings in Rome, including St. Peter's Basilica.
1607 deaths
Travertine is a terrestrial sedimentary rock.
It is a natural chemical precipitate of carbonate minerals; aragonite or calcite.
This happens from solution in ground and surface waters, and/or  geothermally heated hot-springs.
Similar (but extremely porous) deposits formed from ambient-temperature water are known as tufa.
Agostino Cornacchini (August 27, 1686 – 1754) was an Italian sculptor and painter of the Rococo period, active mainly in Rome.
1686 births
Alabaster is a name applied to varieties of two distinct minerals.
Gypsum is a hydrous sulfate of calcium, and calcite is a carbonate of calcium.
Gypsum is the alabaster of the present day; calcite is generally the alabaster of the ancients.
Both are easy to work.
They are attractive to look at.
Both have been used for making a variety of artworks and objects, especially small carvings.
The two kinds are easy to tell apart.
One is harder than the other.
Calcite is hard (Mohs hardness 3).
Gypsum is soft (Mohs hardness 1.5 to 2).
It can be easily scratched by a fingernail.
Also, calcite effervesces when it is treated with hydrochloric acid.
Gypsum does not.
Information security is about protecting information so that people who should not have access to it cannot distribute, see, change, or delete it.
Although this has a lot in common with computer security, information risk management and information assurance, it is different from them.
For example, computer security can focus on making sure that the computer is available when it is needed and that it works correctly but may not have anything to do with the data that it stores.
Information security has to do with the confidentiality, integrity and availability of data in any form e.g. electronic, print, or other forms.
Organizations, including governments, private businesses and others have much information stored and processed on computers.
Data that is lost or released to the wrong people or that is not properly secured could lead to legal and ethical problems for the organization.
Information security -Citizendium
San Pietro in Montorio is a church in Rome, which includes in its courtyard The Tempietto (a small commemorative martyrium) built by Donato Bramante.
The Tempietto
The Tempietto of San Pietro in Montorio is a small commemorative martyrium built by Donato Bramante, possibly as early as 1502, in the courtyard of San Pietro in Montorio.
It is considered a masterpiece of High Renaissance architecture.
Churches in Rome
Flavia Julia Helena (; AD c. ), or Saint Helena was Constantine the Great's mother and a Roman empress ().
Helena was a wife or concubine of Constantius I before he became a Roman emperor.
In Christianity, Helena is a saint because Christian historians during Late Antiquity wrote that she found the relics of the True Cross in Jerusalem.
Helena's tomb was the Mausoleum of Helena outside Rome.
Longinus is the name given in medieval and modern Christian traditions to the Roman soldier who pierced Jesus in his side with a lance while he was on the Cross.
The Longinus legend further identifies this soldier as the centurion present at the Crucifixion, who testified, "In truth this man was son of God."
Longinus' legend grew over the years to the point that he was said to have converted to Christianity after the Crucifixion, and he is traditionally venerated as a saint in various Christian denominations.
Saint Veronica or Berenice, according to the "Acta Sanctorum" published by the Bollandists (under February 4), was a pious woman of Jerusalem.
She moved with pity as Jesus carried his cross to Golgotha, gave him her veil that he might wipe his forehead.
Jesus accepted the offering and after using it handed it back to her, the image of his face miraculously impressed upon it.
A cheesesteak is a sandwich made in Philadelphia.
It is made of a long hoagie roll, cut in half and filled with thin slices of steak and covered with melted cheese.
The cheese is either provolone or cheddar in the form of whiz.
Some cheesesteaks also have onions or green peppers.
Pat's King of Steaks and Geno's are two famous places in Philadelphia that make cheesesteaks.
Pat's is thought to be the place that popularized the cheesesteak.
Laminar flow is characterized by the smooth flow of a liquid.
This tends to happen at low velocities when there are few disturbances, such as in a straight, smooth pipe.
In laminar flow through a pipe, it is assumed that the velocity of the fluid is zero at the boundaries of the pipe and is at a maximum in the center; mathematically, the velocity profile is parabolic.
Microscopically, the particles or pieces of the liquid flow in a straight line along the direction of the pipe and do not mix with other layers of fluid.
The layers slide past one another like playing cards.
This is in contrast to turbulent flow, when a fluid swirls around.
Even though there is no mixing, there is still some friction in the flow.
This friction will cause a pressure drop and its numerical value is given by the Hagen-Poiseuille equation.
The Juglandaceae, also known as the Walnut Family, is a family of trees, or sometimes shrubs, in the order Fagales.
The leaves are pinnately compound, or ternate, and usually 20-100 cm long.
Farid Suleman has been the chairman (the person who leads the group of people that controls the company) and CEO of Citadel Broadcasting since 2002.
Before working at Citadel, he spent 16 years as CEO of Infinity Radio, owned by Viacom.
In 2007, he was put forward to get the Group Executive of the Year award by Radio & Records magazine.
Other people who were close to getting the award included John Hogan of Clear Channel, Peter Smyth of Greater Media, David Field of Entercom, Lew Dickey of Cumulus, and Don Benson of Lincoln Financial.
1950s births
The Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO) was a NASA satellite mission that was supposed to provide world-wide observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide from space. (
CO2).
It was lost in a launch failure on February 24, 2009, when the box of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to come off during launch.
The added weight of the box it was in prevented the satellite from reaching its intended speed and height.
After that it fell back into the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica.
The Bulgarian  Wikipedia () is the Bulgarian language edition of Wikipedia.
It was founded on 6 December 2003.
On 24 May 2010, it became the 32nd largest Wikipedia by size and it passed the "100,000" articles threshold.
As of October 2015, it is the 36th largest edition.
Rules in Bulgarian Wikipedia are not regarded as flexible in disputes as they are on the English project.
Difficult issues are resolved through the Arbitration Committee, which handles content disputes, blocks users or prohibit certain users from editing articles on certain topics.
Misuse of administrator privileges is typically appealed through the Arbitration Committee; only this authority and Wikimedia stewards have the power to remove administrator flags.
The Bulgarian Wikipedia was created on 6 December 2003.
On November 24, 2005, the Bulgarian language Wikipedia added its 20,000th article, and was the 21st largest Wikipedia at the time.
As of December 26, 2007 it is the 30th largest Wikipedia by article count, with over 50,000 articles.
On 03 October 2004,  the 10,000th article was created.
On 26 December 2007, the 50,000th article was created.
On 24 May 2010, the 100,000th article was created.
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Websites established in 2003
Similarity in the area of cognitive psychology refers to things or ideas that people put together in the same groups, or categories, in their minds.
Many psychologists try to find out what rules people use when they decide that two things are similar.
One important tool used by psychologists to look into similarity is computer modeling.
Scientists will, for example, ask people to rate a number of objects as more or less similar to each other.
Then they will write a computer program that tries to simulate the same answers that the humans gave.
For instance, a person might say that "cat" and "dog" are similar words, so a good computer model should be able to take the word "dog" and respond with the word "cat" in a list of similar words.
Computer models do this by applying some set of rules to a large collection of real world text (called a corpus).
Behavioral research
Another way that psychologists look into similarity is by putting people in special situations and watching what they do.
In other words, by using an experiment.
When it comes to similarity, this might include listing words, using categories as clues for learning new words, sorting objects into groups, or other tasks that have to do with comparing things to one another.
How do people decide that two things are similar?
Features - If something about two things are the same, people might say the things are similar. (
coins and wheels are similar, because they are both round.)
Similar features could include: shape, texture (what the surface looks like), material (what something is made out of), color, weight, size, temperature, and other features.
Functions - If two things are used for the same reasons, people might say the things are similar. (
cars and airplanes are similar.)
Hierarchy - If one thing is a small part of a larger thing, people might say the things are similar. (
A foot and a leg are similar)
Phonetics - If the words for two things sound the same, people might say the things are similar.
Also, if the first parts of the words for two things are the same, people might say the things are similar.
Transformation - If one thing can be changed into another thing easily, either in the real world or in a person's mind, people might say the things are similar (a seed is similar to a plant.
A toy car is similar to a real car.)
BIX is a rock group from Lithuania.
It was founded in 1987.
They are one of the most experienced Baltic bands and traveled on tours to United States.
1987 establishments in Europe
A cabinet is a type of furniture with enclosed shelves and sometimes a door in front.
It is usually made of wood.
Metal may be used in industrial or public areas.
Some cabinets stand alone; others are attached to a wall.
Most kitchens have cabinets for storage of cooking materials and utensils.
When liquid moves through thin tubes.
When liquid moves through something that is full of little holes (like a sponge).
An example of capillary action is what happens inside a drinking straw left in a cup of water.
The force of adhesion which holds the water together and to the straw is a little stronger than gravity, so the water will rise inside the straw a little higher than the rest of the water.
Another example is what happens when putting a sponge in a puddle of water.
The little bubbles in the sponge work like many straws gathered together.
When the sponge is dipped in water, the water starts to go into the holes, and the bubbles that are inside the sponge pull on the water that they touch.
Capillary action also takes place inside the human body.
For example, it removes tears from the eyes.
Capillaries
Liliales is an order of flowering plants.
This order of necessity includes the family Liliaceae, but both the family and the order have had a widely disputed history, with the circumscription varying greatly from one taxonomist to another.
The best known representative of the order is the lily.
A drill is a type of electrical tool that has a spinning tip.
It can be used for many different jobs depending on the attachment.
If a drill bit is attached, the drill can be used to make holes in material.
A driver bit can also be attached, allowing the drill to put screws into the desired material.
A drill can run on a battery or be plugged into the wall, depending on the drill.
The Different Types of Drill
The Liliaceae, or the lily family, is a family of flowering plants in the order Liliales.
Since 1952, the list of IOC country codes has changed as new countries were added.
Sometimes the names of countries were changed.
Some countries have had as many as four different codes.
Historic NOCs and teams
Codes still in use
Obsolete codes
"Official abbreviations" at The Games of the XVIII Olympiad, Tokyo, 1964, [p. 9 of 409 PDF]
Charles Jules Henri Nicolle (September 21, 1866 - February 28, 1936) was a French doctor and microbiologist.
He won the 1928 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on the disease typhus.
Uma Karuna Thurman (born April 29, 1970 in Boston, Massachusetts) is an American movie actress.
She is famous for her role in many movies.
These include Quentin Tarantino's "Pulp Fiction" and "Kill Bill" Volume 1 and 2.
Thurman's mother, Nena von Schlebrügge, is a psychiatrist and former model.
Her father, Robert Thurman, is Professor of Buddhism.
Her father is of German, English, Irish and Scottish descent Her mother is of Swedish, Danish and German descent.
Before her parents' marriage, her mother was married to Timothy Leary.
One of her three brothers is Ganden Thurman, a Hollywood yoga guide.
Thurman has three children.
She has a daughter and son from her second husband, Ethan Hawke and a daughter from her partner, Swiss businessman Arpad Busson.
Jürgen Habermas (born June 18, 1929) is a German philosopher and sociologist, or someone who studies different societies.
He uses a type of theory called critical theory, where he studies how people use power.
He also uses the theory of American pragmatism, which studies if something is true or not by the effects of actions.
He is known for his work on the theory of the public sphere.
He studies power in democracy, and politics.
He also studies how people develop a society through language and communication, and tries to understand how that society and the government work together.
Habermas lived in Gummersbach, near the city of Cologne until his graduation from gymnasium.
Jürgen was raised in a Protestant religious family because his grandfather was in charge of the seminary, or religious school, in Gummersbach, Germany.
Jürgen Habermas went to the universities of Göttingen (1949/50), Zürich (1950/51), and Bonn (1951/54).
He earned a doctorate (PhD).
from Bonn in 1954 with his work  (The absolute and history: on the contradiction in Schelling's thought).
From 1956 on, he studied philosophy and sociology under the critical theorists Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main.
Because Horkheimer had asked Habermas to make some changes to his dissertation.
Habermas did not want to do this, and thought that the Frankfurt School was not correct in its views of modern culture.
Habermas left the Frankfurt School (a school of thought rather than one made of bricks and mortar).
He finished his habilitation, or highest academic degree, in political science at the University of Marburg under the Marxist Wolfgang Abendroth.
His habilitation work was entitled,  (published in English in 1989 titled The structural transformation of the public sphere: an inquiry into a category of bourgeois society).
In 1961, he became a privatdozent in Marburg.
He began working as a "extraordinary professor" (professor without a chair) of philosophy at the University of Heidelberg.
Hans-Georg Gadamer and Karl Löwith got him this job.
In 1964 Habermas returned to Frankfurt to take over Horkheimer's job in philosophy and sociology.
He was in charge of the Max Planck Institute in Starnberg (near Munich) in 1971, and worked there until 1983, two years after the publication of his main work, The Theory of Communicative Action.
Habermas then returned to his chair at Frankfurt as head of the Institute for Social Research.
After retiring from Frankfurt in 1993, Habermas wrote many books and articles.
In 1986, he received the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize of the , which is the highest honour awarded in German research.
He is a "Permanent Visiting" Professor at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, and "Theodor Heuss Professor" at The New School, New York.
Habermas was awarded The Prince of Asturias Award in Social Sciences for 2003.
Habermas was also the 2004 Kyoto Laureate in the Arts and Philosophy section.
He traveled to San Diego and on March 5, 2005, as part of the University of San Diego's Kyoto Symposium, gave a speech entitled The Public Role of Religion in Secular Context, about the separation of Church and State.
He received the 2005 Holberg International Memorial Prize (about € 520,000).
21st-century German philosophers
Martinsburg is a city in West Virginia.
It is the county seat of Berkeley County and with a 2000 population of 14,972, it is the ninth largest city in West Virginia as ranked by population.
Martinsburg was founded in 1778 by General Adam Stephen and named in honor of Colonel Thomas Bryan Martin.
It was incorporated by the West Virginia legislature on March 30, 1868.
Major employers in Martinsburg include Quad/Graphics, Ecolab, Orgill, Sino-Swearingin, FedEx, and Quebecor World.
Government employers include the Internal Revenue Service, the 167th Airlift Wing of the Air National Guard, and the BATF.
The now defunct Norwalk car company was located in Martinsburg.
Notable Natives and Residents
Newton D. Baker, Secretary of War
Belle Boyd, Confederate Spy
Vicky Bullett, Olympic gold medalist in women's basketball
Harry F. Byrd, United States Senator and Governor of Virginia
Robert Lee Castleman,Grammy-winning singer/songwriter
Charles James Faulkner, United States Representative from Virginia
Shannon Larkin, drummer for Godsmack
Walter Dean Myers, author
John Quincy Adams Nadenbousch, colonel in the Confederate States Army
Cecil B. Perkins, former pitcher for the New York Yankees
Absalom Willis Robertson, United States Senator from Virginia
David Hunter Strother aka Porte Crayon, artist
Hack Wilson, Hall of Fame baseball player
Fulton Walker, former football player for the Miami Dolphins
Monflanquin is a commune in the Lot-et-Garonne department in southwestern France.
It used to be a bastide.
Hannah (meaning grace of God) is a woman in the Bible, in the book of 1 Samuel chapters 1 and 2.
She was the wife of Elkanah and the Mother of Samuel.
After she begged God for a child, she gave birth to Samuel.
Samuel became a prophet of God (a voice for God in Israel).
When Samuel was a young child, she took him to live in the temple (as she had promised God), to be an apprentice of Eli the priest.
Jacob is a figure in the Abrahamic religions.
He was a patriarch of the Hebrew people, as told in the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud, the New Testament and the Qur'an.
He was the ancestor of the tribes of Israel, which were named after his male children.
He had 13 children, 12 sons and a daughter.
Jacob had an older brother, Esau.
His mother was named Rebecca and his father named Isaac.
According to the Talmud, immediately after Abraham died, Jacob prepared a lentil stew as a traditional mourner's meal for his father.
The Hebrew Bible says that Esau, who was very hungry, begged Jacob to give him some of the stew. (
Esau called the dish, "that red, red stuff", which is why he is called Edom,  (`Edom, meaning "Red").)
Jacob said, "If you give me your birthright I will give you some stew."
Esau agreed.
Soon, Issac became almost blind.
Rebecca tricked Issac into giving Jacob the blessing.
Jacob's brother got angry, so Rebecca sent Jacob away.
Jacob works for his uncle Laban so he can marry his daughter Rachel.
But he is tricked into marrying Leah, her older sister as well.
He has children with both women, and with their concubines.
He is very upset when his son Joseph is sold into slavery in Egypt by his brothers.
Jacob moves to Egypt when there is a famine.
He dies and is buried in Canaan.
Companies of Spain
Media in Europe
The Bhopal disaster or Bhopal gas tragedy was an industrial accident.
It happened at a Union Carbide subsidiary pesticide plant in the city of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.
On the night of 2-3 December 1984, the plant released approximately 40 tons of toxic methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas, exposing more than 500,000 people to toxic gases.
The mixture of poisonous gases flooded the city, causing great panic as people woke up with a burning sensation in their lungs.
Thousands died immediately from the effects of the gas.
Many were trampled in the panic that followed.
The first official immediate death toll was 3,598 in 1989.
Another estimate is that 8,000 died within two weeks, that an additional 8,000 have since died from gas-related diseases.
The Bhopal disaster is frequently cited as the world's worst industrial disaster.
The International Medical Commission on Bhopal was established in 1993 to respond to the long term health effects of the disaster.
The owner of the factory, UCIL, was majority owned by UCC, with Indian Government-controlled banks and the Indian public holding a 49.1 percent stake.
In 1989, UCC paid $470 million ($929 million in 2017 dollars) to settle litigation stemming from the disaster.
In 1994, UCC sold its stake in UCIL to EverReady Industries India Limited  (EIIL), which subsequently merged with McLeod Russel (India) Ltd. Eveready ended clean-up on the site in 1998, when it terminated its 99-year lease and turned over control of the site to the state government of Madhya Pradesh.
Dow Chemical Company purchased UCC in 2001, seventeen years after the disaster.
Civil and criminal cases were filed in the District Court of Bhopal, India, involving UCC and Warren Anderson, UCC CEO at the time of the disaster.[7][8] In June 2010, seven former employees, including the former UCIL chairman, were convicted in Bhopal of causing death by negligence and sentenced to two years imprisonment and a fine of about $2,000 each, the maximum punishment allowed by Indian law.
An eighth former employee was also convicted but died before the judgment was passed.[2] Anderson died on 29 September 2014. (
In the 1970s, the Indian government initiated policies to encourage foreign companies to invest in the local industry.
Union Carbide Corporation (UCC) was asked to build a plant for the manufacture of Sevin, a pesticide commonly used throughout Asia.
As part of the deal, India's government insisted that a significant percentage of the investment come from local shareholders.
The government itself had a 22% stake in the company's subsidiary, Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) [1].
The company built the plant in Bhopal because of its central location and access to transport infrastructure.
The specific site within the city was zoned for light industrial and commercial use, not for hazardous industry.
The plant was initially approved only for formulation of pesticides from component chemicals, such as MIC imported from the parent company, in relatively small quantities.
However, pressure from competition in the chemical industry led UCIL to implement "backward integration" – the manufacture of raw materials and intermediate products for formulation of the final product within one facility.
This was inherently a more sophisticated and hazardous process [2].
In 1984, the plant was manufacturing Sevin at one quarter of its production capacity due to decreased demand for pesticides.
Widespread crop failures and famine on the subcontinent in the 1980s led to increased indebtedness and decreased capital for farmers to invest in pesticides.
Local managers were directed to close the plant and prepare it for sale in July 1984 due to decreased profitability [3].
When no ready buyer was found, UCIL made plans to dismantle key production units of the facility for shipment to another developing country.
In the meantime, the facility continued to operate with safety equipment and procedures far below the standards found in its sister plant in Institute, West Virginia.
The local government was aware of safety problems but was reticent to place heavy industrial safety and pollution control burdens on the struggling industry because it feared the economic effects of the loss of such a large employer [3].
At 11.00 PM on December 2 1984, while most of the one million residents of Bhopal slept, an operator at the plant noticed a small leak of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas and increasing pressure inside a storage tank.
The vent-gas scrubber, a safety device designer to neutralize toxic discharge from the MIC system, had been turned off three weeks prior [3].
Apparently a faulty valve had allowed one ton of water for cleaning internal pipes to mix with forty tons of MIC [1].
A 30 ton refrigeration unit that normally served as a safety component to cool the MIC storage tank had been drained of its coolant for use in another part of the plant [3].
Pressure and heat from the vigorous exothermic reaction in the tank continued to build.
The gas flare safety system was out of action and had been for three months.
At around 1.00 AM, December 3, loud rumbling reverberated around the plant as a safety valve gave way sending a plume of MIC gas into the early morning air [4].
Within hours, the streets of Bhopal were littered with human corpses and the carcasses of buffaloes, cows, dogs and birds.
An estimated 3,800 people died immediately, mostly in the poor slum colony adjacent to the UCC plant [1,5].
Local hospitals were soon overwhelmed with the injured, a crisis further compounded by a lack of knowledge of exactly what gas was involved and what its effects were [1].
It became one of the worst chemical disasters in history and the name Bhopal became synonymous with industrial catastrophe [5].
Estimates of the number of people killed in the first few days by the plume from the UCC plant run as high as 10,000, with 15,000 to 20,000 premature deaths reportedly occurring in the subsequent two decades [6].
The Indian government reported that more than half a million people were exposed to the gas [7].
Several epidemiological studies conducted soon after the accident showed significant morbidity and increased mortality in the exposed population.
Table Table1.1.
summarizes early and late effects on health.
These data are likely to under-represent the true extent of adverse health effects because many exposed individuals left Bhopal immediately following the disaster never to return and were therefore lost to follow-up [8].
The plant in Bhopal where the disaster happened started to produce 'Carbaryl' in 1977.
Carbaryl is mainly used as an insecticide.
At first, the production was 2,500 tons per year.
There was no problem, as the plant had been designed for an output of 5,000 tons.
At the beginning of the 1980s, Carbaryl did not sell very well.
For this reason, the owners of the plant started to cut the costs.
This included employing fewer people, doing maintenance less frequently, and using parts that were made of lower-grade steel.
Closing the plant was being considered as well.
When the disaster happened, there was no production at the plant because there was a surplus amount of material on the market.
There is also a theory related to this which says that the owner of the Union Carbide Company (UCC) did this on purpose to just challenge the government to punish him.
However, as we all know, he had escaped long ago using the corruption in the Indian government at that time to his advantage.
The disaster happened because water entered Methyl isocyanate.
The resulting reaction increased the temperature inside the tank to reach over .
The pressure was more than the tank.
The tank had two places to restore the gas.
As a result, large amounts of toxic gases were released into the environment.
The pipes were not well maintained.
All the contents of the tank were released within a period of about two hours.
The water had entered the tank because of a sequence of events.
The tank had been maintained badly.
When cleaning work was done, water entered the tank.
There are different theories on how water could enter the tank.
At the time, workers were cleaning pipes with water and according to some claims, because of poor maintenance of machines, leaking valves and use of inferior components for making machines made it possible for the water to leak into tank 610.
In the month of  December 1985, the New York Times reported that according to the plant managers the hypothesis of this route of entry of water was tested in the presence of official investigators and was found to be negative.
UCC also maintains that this route was not possible and that it was an act of sabotage by a "disgruntled worker" who introduced water directly into the tank.
See also,http://www.hindustantimes.com/bhopal/cbi-probe-into-gas-tragedy-baseless-and-malicious-says-counsel-of-indian-convict/story-cCzHAuxf6V6bA6vYFwFwPL.html
The 1985 reports give a picture of what led to the disaster and how it developed.
The reports differ in details, however.
Possible corroding material in pipelines
Poor maintenance after the plant ceased production in the early 1980s
Failure of several safety systems (due to poor maintenance and regulations).
Safety systems shut down to save money - including the MIC tank refrigeration system which alone would have prevented the disaster.
Plant design modifications by Indian engineers to abide by government regulations and economic pressures to reduce expenses.
The problem was then made worse by the plant's location near a densely populated area, non-existent catastrophe plans, and shortcomings in health care and socio-economic reh
Factors leading to this  gas leak include:
The use of hazardous chemicals (MIC) instead of less dangerous ones
Storing these chemicals in large tanks instead of over 200 steel drums.
abilitation.
Analysis shows that the parties responsible for the magnitude of the disaster are the two owners, Union Carbide Corporation and the Government of India, and to some extent, the Government of Madhya Pradesh.
Between 3,500 and 25,000 people died as a result of contact with the cloud of toxic gas.
Up to 500,000 people were injured.
Many of the injuries are permanent.
Some of the chemicals led to birth defects.
The numbers vary so vastly because there are no exact figures about how many people lived in the neighborhood of the plant.
About 100.000 people were living in a radius of 1 km around the plant where the disaster happened.
The owner of the factory, UCIL, was majority-owned by UCC, with Indian Government-controlled banks and the Indian public holding a 49.1 percent stake.
In 1994, UCC sold its stake in UCIL to EverReady Industries India Limited (EIIL), which subsequently merged with McLeod Russel (India) Ltd. EverReady ended clean-up on the site in 1998, when it terminated its 99-year lease and turned over control of the site to the state government of Madhya Pradesh.
An eighth former employee was also convicted, but died before the judgement was passed.[2] Anderson died on 29 September 2014.[9]
In 1998, the Supreme Court of India reached a settlement with Union Carbide: They had to pay 470 million US dollars to the Indian state.
At that time Union Carbide made a turnover of about 9.5 billion dollars, 20 times that amount.
In return, there would be no further prosecution.
Only very little money actually reached the victims.
The terrain where the plant stands is still contaminated with mercury and other carcinogenic substances.
Dow Chemical who owns Union Carbide refuses to decontaminate the soil.
Greenpeace has estimated that decontamination would only cost around 30 million USD.
On December 3, 1984, more than 40 tons of methyl isocyanate gas leaked from a pesticide plant in Bhopal, India, immediately killing at least 3,800 people and causing significant morbidity and premature death for many thousands more.
The company involved in what became the worst industrial accident in history immediately tried to dissociate itself from legal responsibility.
Eventually, it reached a settlement with the Indian Government through the mediation of that country's Supreme Court and accepted moral responsibility.
It paid $470 million in compensation, a relatively small amount of based on significant underestimations of the long-term health consequences of exposure and the number of people exposed.
The disaster indicated a need for enforceable international standards for environmental safety, preventative strategies to avoid similar accidents, and industrial disaster preparedness.
Since the disaster, India has experienced rapid industrialization.
While some positive changes in government policy and behavior of a few industries have taken place, major threats to the environment from rapid and poorly regulated industrial growth remain.
Widespread environmental degradation with significant adverse human health consequences continues to occur throughout India.
December 2004 marked the twentieth anniversary of the massive toxic gas leak from Union Carbide Corporation's chemical plant in Bhopal in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India that killed more than 3,800 people.
This review examines the health effects of exposure to the disaster, the legal response, the lessons learned, and whether or not these are put into practice in India in terms of industrial development, environmental management, and public health.
1984 in Asia
Disasters in India
Disasters in the 1980s
A Backronym is the same as an acronym, except that the meaning was created after the abbreviation.
For example, SOS.
Pay per click advertising on search engines such as Google and Bing.
On Google the adverts are displayed either at the very top of the search results with an orange background, on the right hand side or in both these places.
Advertisers pay Google each time someone clicks on their advert.
It is often referred to by the letters PPC.
Many pay per click providers exist, Google AdWords, Yahoo!
Search Marketing, and Microsoft adCenter are the three largest operators.
Tristan Tzara (; ; born Samuel or Samy Rosenstock, also known as S. Samyro;  – 25 December 1963) was an artist from Romania and France who was known for starting the Dadaist movement.
He was interested in symbolism and was more on the nihilistic side of Dada than others.
French art critics
French essayists
Jewish French musicians
Romanian movie directors
Dadaism is an avant-garde intellectual movement.
It started around World War 1.
Although not at first an art movement,p60/61 it did influence art greatly for a time.
The movement, formed in Zurich, Switzerland, was heavily influenced by the war in Europe.
Its artists rejected modern capitalist society.
They used nonsense and protest in their works.
Dadaist artists expressed their discontent with violence, war, and nationalism, and were close to the radical far-left.
The whole point behind Dadaism was to prove that anything could be art if the artist declared it to be.
This was to prove that if everything could be art, then nothing could be art.
This outraged many artists as Dadaism deemed their labour intensive artworks meaningless.
Its peak was 1916 to 1922, and it influenced surrealism, pop art, and punk rock.
It went  against the standards of society.
Followers of Dadaism included Antonin Artaud, Max Ernst, and Salvador Dali.
A later version, called Neo-Dada, arose in the 1960s.
Dadaism began in central Europe, in Berlin and Zurich.
Dadaism moved to Paris with Tristan Tzara.
Tzara would go on to 'lead' the dadaists of Paris such as as Man Ray, Jean Cocteau, and Marcel Duchamp.
Dadaism is also closely associated with the concepts of the grotesque, the absurd, and the macabre.
The idea of ridiculing the absurdity of existence has its expression in the dramatic art of Samuel Beckett and the so called school of Paris, which included Arthur Adamov, Jean Genet, and Eugene O'Neill.
The word "Dada" may be an allusion to an infant's first words, such as "Mama".
No-one knows who invented the name, but there is some historical evidence which says that Tzara picked it out at random from a German-French dictionary, since "Dada" means "hobbyhorse" in French.
A hobbyhorse is a long stick with a toy horse head attached which a child can hold in front of them to pretend they are riding a horse.
Still, the source of the name is not widely agreed upon.
Rutaceae is a commonly known as the Rue or Citrus family, is a family of flowering plants, usually placed in the order Sapindales.
Symbolism was a late 19th-century art movement of French, Russian and Belgian origin.
The movement rejected realism and naturalism, and included poetry and other arts.
Symbolists believed that art should represent absolute truths that could only be described indirectly.
Thus a symbolist painting may look realistic, but actually it represents a non-visual idea.
In literature, the style started with the publication Les Fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil, 1857) by Charles Baudelaire.
The works of Edgar Allan Poe, which Baudelaire admired greatly and translated into French, were a significant influence and the source of many stock tropes and images.
The name "symbolist" itself was first used by the critic Jean Moréas, who invented it to distinguish the symbolists from similar styles of literature and art.
Symbolism in art is related to the gothic component of Romanticism.
There were several groups of Symbolist painters and visual artists, including Gustave Moreau, Gustav Klimt, Odilon Redon, Henri Fantin-Latour, Gaston Bussière, Edvard Munch, Félicien Rops, and Jan Toorop.
Symbolism in painting was even more widespread geographically than symbolism in poetry.
Its ideas affected Mikhail Vrubel, Nicholas Roerich, Martiros Saryan, Mikhail Nesterov, Léon Bakst, Elena Gorokhova in Russia, as well as Frida Kahlo in Mexico and David Chetlahe Paladin in the United States.
Auguste Rodin is sometimes considered a symbolist sculptor.
The symbolist painters used mythological and dream imagery.
The symbols used by symbolism are not the familiar emblems of mainstream iconography but intensely personal, private, obscure and ambiguous references.
More a philosophy than an actual style of art, symbolism in painting influenced the contemporary Art Nouveau style and Les Nabis.
de:Symbolik
Alliaceae is a family of herbaceous perennial flowering plants.
They are part of order Asparagales.
Metalogic is the science of reasoning about the arguments that are in logic itself.
While logic deals with external truths, metalogic deals with truths that lie while using logic.
Rationality is the state that exists when reason is used.
It's also related to moderation in some contexts and sensibility in others.
When a person is reasonable or rational they are using all available information to make a decision, and whether their decision can be judged as rational or reasonable depends on the reasons they made it.
If they believe that the most important factor in any decision is how they will personally benefit, then self-interested or even selfish behavior would be rational.
But if they believe that benefiting a group of people is more important than benefiting just one person, then purely selfish behavior is irrational.
Determinations of rationality depend on context, the background information and assumptions.
Universal reason is something that philosophers think is at the bottom of a thinking system that allows it to understand certain natural things that are generally complex.
Corruption is a system that starts out good but somehow goes wrong.
The word comes from a Latin word meaning "Rotting".
Corruption could be a government doing what they say is good, but instead oppress people, or an official doing something wrong.
It can also mean a computer file or computer program which malfunctions or becomes infected with a computer virus.
It may also mean an abuse of power, usually for a personal benefit.
Oppression is when a person or group of people who have power use it in a way that is not fair, unjust or cruel.
It can also describe the feeling of people who are oppressed.
Oppressive governments can lead to a rebellion.
Anarchists say that all government, police and laws are oppressive.
This is because they stop people from doing whatever they want to.
A meritocracy is the condition where people who deserve to can go up in rank, as opposed to a system like nepotism.
It applies generally to all positions to which people may be appointed.
It is often reinforced by laws, such as that women should have equal opportunities to men in employment.
The philosopher Plato thought that a government based on merit was better than democracy.
In democracy, there is no guarantee that you will get the best person, the most qualified person, ruling the state.
His criticisms were really of Athenian (or direct) democracy, where anyone could be selected to rule.
In a meritocracy, the people are chosen who are thought to be the best.
Some have accused it of being elitist, saying that government by the best will mean that only those who have had the right opportunities will have a chance to govern, creating in effect a ruling class.
It is worth pointing out that Plato did not see it this way.
He believed that philosophers were the best people to rule because they were disinterested, meaning they only had the interests of the state in mind, not their own interest.
Plato's point was this: if you want to rule, then it will go wrong, because power will corrupt you.
If you are a philosopher, you don't care about power  all you care about is truth, so you will rule well, without being interested in your power or status.
Nepotism is when a person in authority gives jobs to their relatives.
It comes from the practice of mediaeval Popes, appointing their nephews to important positions.
Nepote is Italian for 'nephew'.
For instance, Pope Callixtus III, head of the Borgia family, made two of his nephews cardinals; one of them, Rodrigo, later used his position as a cardinal as a stepping stone to the papacy, becoming Pope Alexander VI.
Alexander then elevated Alessandro Farnese, his mistress's brother, to cardinal; Farnese would later go on to become Pope Paul III.
Paul III was a notorious nepotist.