the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Or maybe they knew what to decide but did not want to be the ones to decide it.
So they asked three clever men to study the problem and tell them what would be best to do.
These three men said that the club should be allowed to move.
Some members of the Committee did not like this decision and tried to stop it.
But the owners of Wimbledon F.C. said that they would get a judge to decide (in a court) if anyone tried to stop them.
It costs a lot of money to go to court and whoever loses has to pay for everybody.
The other clubs would not agree to pay if this happened, so the FA had to disagree the move.
But it was already too late for the owners of Wimbledon F.C.  They had no money left.
They had borrowed money from the bank to keep going but now the bank wanted its money back.
When you cannot pay back what you borrow, this is called "going bankrupt" and that is what happened.
Luckily (or unluckily, depends on your point of view), the group in Milton Keynes that first wanted them to come, still wanted them.
So this group paid back some of the money and in 2002, the club moved to Milton Keynes.
They began playing in the National Hockey Stadium, beside Milton Keynes Central railway station and stayed there for two years until their new stadium was ready (2006).
Many football fans around England did not like the idea that a club could move.
They believe that a club belongs to a town and it is not like a furniture shop that closes down in one town and opens in another town.
Another reason that they did not like it is that they would love to see their own club get into the Football League.
The only way that they can do that is if they win their regional league, then win the Football Conference.
So they felt that Milton Keynes was "jumping the queue" to get into the League.
Because of this, many fans refused to attend ("boycotted") any games they played
In 2004, the new owners changed the name to 'Milton Keynes Dons F.C.' (usually just 'MK Dons'), which combined the name of their new home ('Milton Keynes') with the nickname ('Dons') from Wimbledon.
With this, Wimbledon FC ceased to exist.
But the boycott continued.
In 2006, the Football Fans Federation proposed a way forward.
The most important thing for the town of Wimbledon was the trophies (cups, shields) that the club had won when it was called Wimbledon F.C. The agreement was that Milton Keynes Dons F.C. would give these trophies to Merton Borough Council, which is the local government area that contains Wimbledon.
The league history of Milton Keynes Dons F.C. would start from 2004 which is when they changed their name.
The Fans Federation would ask fans to end the boycott.
Everybody agreed and this is what has happened.
1889 establishments in England
They were re-founded in 1968 after going bankrupt (having no money) in 1962.
They were first founded in 1921.
They are thought of as hard working but having no chance of success.
Their nickname is Stanley.
They play at the Interlink Express Stadium in Accrington in Lancashire, in England.
1921 establishments in Europe
1962 disestablishments
1968 establishments in England
1920s establishments in England
1960s disestablishments in England
A.F.C Telford United is a football club based in Telford, Shropshire, England.
They are currently a member of the National League North, the sixth tier of English football.
They were founded in 2004.
They are based off the original Telford United, which folded in 2004 after financial problems.
AFC Wimbledon is an English football club from London.
The club are currently in EFL League One.
AFC Wimbledon were formed in 2002 by fans angry at Wimbledon F.C. moving to Milton Keynes, 70 miles away from South London.
They play at Plough Lane in London.
Wimbledon AFC
2002 establishments in England
Sheffield F.C. is the oldest football club in the world.
It was set up in 1857 in the city of Sheffield.
Sheffield F.C. initially played games under the Sheffield rules and did not officially adopt the FA rules until 1878.
1857 establishments in Europe
1850s establishments in the United Kingdom
The asteroid belt or main belt is a ring of small and large rocks and dust between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
The biggest object in the asteroid belt is Ceres, a dwarf planet.
The Kirkwood gaps separate the asteroid belt into several groups.
Most asteroids orbit at 2 to 3 times the distance between Earth and the Sun.
Planets that are "inside" - or before - the asteroid belt (which means they are closer to the sun) are called inner planets.
Planets that are "outside" - that is, after - the asteroid belt are called outer planets: so Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are inner planets, while Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the outer planets.
In 1802, shortly after discovering 2 Pallas, Heinrich Olbers suggested to William Herschel that Ceres and Pallas were fragments of a much larger planet that once occupied the Mars–Jupiter region, this planet having suffered an internal explosion or a cometary impact many million years before.
This hypothesis has fallen from favor.
The large amount of energy needed to destroy a planet, and with the belt's low combined mass (only about 4% of the mass of the Moon) do not support the hypothesis.
Also, the significant chemical differences between the asteroids are difficult to explain if they come from the same planet.
Today, most scientists accept that the asteroids never formed a planet at all.
In general, the formation and evolution of the Solar System happened when a cloud of interstellar dust and gas collapsed under the influence of gravity to form the Sun and planetesimals, and eventually the planets.
This gravitational accretion led to the formation of the rocky planets and the gas giants.
Planetesimals in the region which would become the asteroid belt were too strongly disturbed by Jupiter's gravity to form a planet.
Instead they continued to orbit the Sun as before, while occasionally colliding.
In regions where the velocity of the collisions was too high, the shattering of planetesimals was more common than accretion, preventing the formation of planet-sized bodies.
Essen (; Low Franconian and Ripuarian: Esse, Latin: Assindia) is a German city in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia.
It is on the Ruhr River and it is near Cologne, Duisburg and Bochum.
585,000 people live in Essen.
Together with Dortmund, Essen is the biggest city of the Ruhr area with its 5,000,000 inhabitants.
Essen is often called the shopping city (Einkaufsstadt) because there are so many malls and shops in it.
Location of Essen
Essen is in North Rhine-Westphalia and part of the Ruhr area, where eleven cities and four districts are.
The rivers Ruhr and Emscher flow through the city.
The lake Baldeney is part of the Ruhr.
Essen's neighbour cities are Oberhausen, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Ratingen, Heiligenhaus and Velbert in the Rhineland; and Hattingen, Bochum, Gelsenkirchen, Gladbeck and Bottrop in Westphalia.
Other near cities are Duisburg, Düsseldorf, Cologne, Dortmund and Münster.
Because of the large number of coal mine workers in Essen, the SPD, the Social Democratic Party of Germany, always was very strong in Essen.
During the time of National Socialism, the Nazi Party installed the mayors.
But from 1999 to 2009, the Christian Democratic Party ruled the city with the mayor Dr.Wolfgang Reiniger.
At the local elections of 2009, the SPD's candidate Reinhard Paß became the new mayor.
Famous things in Essen
Villa Hügel (the villa of the family Krupp)
Cathedral (Münster) (head of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Essen.
In the Domschatzkammer, the dome treasure chamber, is the Golden Madonna of Essen)
Old Synagogue (Alte Synagoge)
Lichtburg (the oldest cinema of Germany)
Zeche Zollverein (Zollverein Coal Mine, part of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 2001)
Folkwang museum (a big musum with a famous music academy)
Werden abbey (a monastery from the Order of Saint Benedict, founded in 800)
Aalto theatre (the greatest theatre of Essen, built by the Finnish architect Alvar Aalto)
Essen philharmonic orchestra (this building, also known as Saalbau, is next to the Aalto theatre)
History of Essen
Around 850, Saint Altfrid founded the Damenstift, an abbey for women, ruled by a prince abbess.
In this time the cathedral of Essen was built.
In those days the name of the city was Assindia in Latin.
Later it changed over Essendia and Essend to Essen.
1377 Essen became a free imperial city.
At this time, Essen was just a small city in a region where few people lived.
The city became more important when the Industrial Revolution began.
In 1811, Friedrich Krupp founded a small steel factory in Essen which was fast growing.
The city population also grew, and 80 years after the foundation of Krupp's steel work, Essen was a big city with 100,000 inhabitants.
Because in the region of the Ruhr River much coal was found, many coal mines were founded in Essen and other near cities.
Great industrial families like the Krupps, the Haniels and the Grillos gave money for cultural buildings like the Grillo theatre and the Folkwang museum.
Because of its big industry, Essen was destroyed with bombs in the Second World War.
Many people gave their lives, and many buildings were destroyed.
Not all were rebuilt after WW2.
But because the coal mining industry ended mining in Essen in the 1970's (coal from abroad was getting cheaper), the city was getting poor.
The Strukturwandel (structural change) saved Essen.
Old collieries like Zeche Zollverein became museums or theatres.
In 2003, the universities of Essen and Duisburg joined together as the university Duisburg-Essen.
In 2010 Essen was Kulturhauptstadt Europas (European Capital of Culture) together with Istanbul and Pécs in Hungary.
Media in Essen
The WDR (Westdeutscher Rundfunk/Western German Broadcasting) has a TV-station in Essen.
The two biggest newspapers, the WAZ (Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung/Western German common newspaper) and the NRZ, the Neue Ruhr Zeitung/New Ruhr newspaper (at the lower Rhine regionNeue Rhein Zeitung/New Rhein newspaper) are in the city.
Both newspapers belong to the WAZ-media group.
Essen also has a radio station named Radio Essen.
Boroughs of Essen
Essen has nine districts (Bezirke) and 50 boroughs (Stadtteile).
The most famous and most known are Kettwig, until 1975 a separate town and not part of Essen, with the Altstadt of Kettwig, where many timber framing houses are (Fachwerkhäuser).
Also well-known is Werden.
It lays like Kettwig in the south of the city and is the oldest borough of Essen.
The Werden abbey stands here.
In Essen-Rüttenscheid there are many cultural buildings (like the Folkwang or the Ruhrland museum).
The WDR-studio and Essen's trade fair, the Gruga are also in Rüttenscheid.
In the north of Essen is Katernberg, where in the past the coal mine workers lived.
Here is Zeche Zollverein.
In Katernberg, many houses were built by the Krupp family for their workers.
Another big coal mine worker's borough, perhaps the biggest, is Margarethenhöhe near Rüttenscheid.
It is named after Margarethe Krupp, wife of Friedrich Alfred Krupp.
The Krupps wanted their workers to be absolutely dependent on them.
So they built houses and malls for them, where they should spend their money, what they got from Krupp, again to the industrials.
Today Margarethenhöhe is one of the most beautiful boroughs of Essen.
Another big borough of Essen is Steele in the east of the city, that was in the 19th and early 20th century a city as big as Essen.
In the west of Essen is Borbeck, which was long separate from Essen.
In Borbeck is the great Borbeck Castle (Schloss Borbeck).
The people of Borbeck speak their own regional dialect, the Borbecker Platt.
Bezirk I (Stadtmitte/Frillendorf/Huttrop)
Bezirk II (Rüttenscheid/Bergerhausen/Rellinghausen/Stadtwald)
Bezirk III (Essen-West)
Bezirk IV (Borbeck)
Bezirk V (Altenessen/Karnap/Vogelheim)
Bezirk VI (Katernberg/Schonnebeck/Stoppenberg)
Bezirk VII (Steele/Kray)
Bezirk VIII (Ruhrhalbinsel)
Bezirk IX (Werden/Kettwig/Bredeney)
Famous people in Essen
The most known people from Essen are the actor Heinz Rühmann, whose parents were the owner of Essen's famous hotel Handelshof near the Central Station (Hauptbahnhof), Carl Humann, explorer of the Great Altar of Pergamon, Karl Baedeker, a publisher whose company made many books for tourists (Baedeker), Alfred Krupp and Franz Dinndendahl, who made the first steam machine in the Ruhr area.
These people were born in the city.
Other people who were not born in Essen but lived and worked there a long time are Berthold Beitz, who saved the Krupp company from the ruin, Wilhelm Busch, a famous poet and painter or Gustav Heinemann, a German politician who was mayor of Essen and federal president of Germany.
Other people like Otto von Bismarck and Paul von Hindenburg were honorary people in Essen.
The most popular sport in Germany is Association football or soccer.
The most important soccer clubs of Essen are Rot-Weiß Essen (RWE) and Schwarz-Weiß Essen.
They play in the 4th and the 5th league.
More successfully is the women's association football club SG Essen-Schönebeck that plays in the first Bundesliga.
The second big sport is team handball.
TUSEM Essen is the most important club in Essen.
The most popular ice hockey club is named ESC Moskitos Essen and the biggest basketball club ETB Wohnbau Baskets Essen.
Twin towns
- Sunderland, since 1949
- Tampere, since 1960
- Grenoble, since 1974
- Nizhny Novgorod, since 1991
- Tel Aviv-Yafo, since 1991
World Heritage Sites in Germany
Urban districts in Regierungsbezirk Düsseldorf
Gardening is the growing of plants such as flowers, shrubs and trees as a hobby or recreation.
Some people also grow vegetables or fruit in their gardens.
People do gardening outdoors in the soil in their backyard, or in pots or containers on their balcony or on their patio.
Some people do gardening on a roof.
People do indoor gardening inside their house or inside a building.
Sometimes indoor gardening is done in greenhouses, which are special buildings where plants are grown.
A greenhouse has a transparent glass or plastic roof and walls that let sunlight in.
Grow tent is also used for indoor plants.
Grow tent helps plant to grow in a more spectacular and develop a friendly environment.
Water gardening is growing plants in ornamental pools and ponds.
People doing water gardening plant water lilies and other aquatic plants.
Gardening can be done outside of the home, in city parks, botanical gardens, zoos, amusement parks, theme parks, and around tourist attractions.
These types of gardens are cared for by people called gardeners or groundskeepers.
Gardening compared with farming
Gardening is related to farming.
But farming is done on a much larger scale.
A farm may have hundreds of square kilometres of plants and crops.
A garden in a person's backyard usually only measures a few square meters.
As well, farming is done as a business, to sell the crops, fruit, and vegetables that are produced.
Gardening is done just to produce fruit or vegetables for the gardener's own family.
Gardening is done as a hobby or as a recreation, not as a business.
Gardening tools
Gardeners use tools to dig in the soil and water the crops.
These tools include a spade, a fork, a hoe, a basket, a watering can, a hose, a Sprinkler, a bucket, a trowel  and a wheelbarrow.
With growing, technology gardeners now have tech like Self-watering containers, Garden sensors, Hydroponic systems and Indoor lighting systems.
Gardens as art
In many countries and cultures, designing beautiful gardens is treated as a fine art.
In Japan, for instance, Zen monks created Japanese gardens.
In Europe in the 1700s, kings and queens had formal gardens built.
One example is the gardens at the Versailles palace in Paris, France.
Landscaping, the making of an artificial landscape, may include gardening and the designer may be a professional landscape architect.
Hydroculture
Democracy means rule by the people.
The name is used for different forms of government, where the people can take part in the decisions that affect the way their community is run.
Democracy is the opposite of a dictatorship, a type of government in which the power is centralized on the hands of a single person who rules the nation.
Dictatorship lacks political pluralism, and the people have no chance to join local politics.
Freedom of expression is also limited.
In modern times, there are different ways this can be done:
The people  meet to decide about new laws, and changes to existing ones.
This is usually called direct democracy.
The people elect their leaders.
These leaders take this decision about laws.
This is commonly called representative democracy.
Choosing is called an election.
Elections are either held periodically, or when an officeholder dies.
Sometimes people can propose new laws or changes to existing laws.
Usually, this is done using a referendum, which needs a certain number of supporters.
The people who make the decisions are chosen more or less at random.
This is common, for example when choosing a jury for a trial.
This method is known as sortition or allotment.
In  a trial, the jury will have to decide the question whether the person is guilty or not.
In Europe, trials with a jury are only used for serious crimes, such as murder, hostage taking or arson.
Types of government
After people hold an election, the candidates that won are determined.
The way this is done can be simple: The candidate with the most votes gets elected.
Very often, the politicians being elected belong to a political party.
Instead of choosing a person, people vote for a party.
The party with the most votes then picks the candidates.
Not everyone can vote in an election.
Suffrage is only given to people who are citizens.
Some groups may be excluded, for example prisoners.
For some elections, a country may make voting compulsory.
Someone who does not vote, and who does not give a good reason usually has to pay a fine
Kinds of democracy
In a direct democracy, everyone has the right to make laws together.
One modern example of direct democracy is a referendum, which is the name for the kind of way to pass a law where everyone in the community votes on it.
Direct democracies are not usually used to run countries, because it is hard to get millions of people to get together all the time to make laws and other decisions.
There is not enough time.
In an indirect, or representative democracy, people choose representatives to make laws for them.
These people can be mayors, councilmen, members of Parliament, or other government officials.
This is a much more common kind of democracy.
Large communities like cities and countries use this method, but it may not be needed for a small group.
Ancient origins
This kind of government was developed long ago by the ancient Greeks in classical Athens.
They had everyone who was a citizen (not slaves, women, foreigners, and children) get together in one area.
The assembly would talk about what kinds of laws they wanted and voted on them.
The Council would suggest the laws.
All citizens were allowed in the assembly.
The Council were picked by draws (lottery).
The participants in the Council would change every year and the number of people in the Council was at the most 500.
For some offices the Athenian citizens would pick a leader by writing the name of their favorite candidate on a piece of stone or wood.
The person with the most votes became the leader.
In the Middle Ages, there were many systems, although only a few people could join in at this time.
The Parliament of England began from the Magna Carta, a document which said that the King's power was limited, and protected certain rights of the people.
The first elected parliament was De Montfort's Parliament in England in 1265.
However, only a few people could actually join in.
Parliament was chosen by only a few percent of the people (in 1780, fewer than 3% of people joined in).
The ruler also had the power to call parliaments.
After a long time, the power of Parliament began to grow.
After the Glorious Revolution in 1688, the English Bill of Rights 1689 made Parliament more powerful.
Later, the ruler became a symbol instead of having real power.
Democratic consolidation
Democratic consolidation is how a new democracy matures.
Once mature, it is unlikely to revert to dictatorship rule without an external shock.
The idea is that unconsolidated democracies suffer from intermittent elections which are not free and fair.
In other words, powerful groups are able to prevent the system working fairly.
A game is something that people often do for fun.
If so, it is different from work.
Many sports are games, and there are many professional sports.
In those cases, there is money to be made, because it is a type of entertainment.
There are different kinds of games using many kinds of equipment.
For example, in video games, people often use controllers or their keyboard to control what happens on a screen, such as a television screens and computers ones too.
In card games, players use playing cards.
There are also games that use your body, such as the Kinect.
Most games need equipment, but not always.
Children's street games often need no equipment.
In board games, players may move pieces on a flat surface called a board.
The object of the game varies.
In race-type games like ludo, the object is to reach the end first.
In go the object is to surround more space.
In soccer it is to score more goals.
Some games have complicated rules, some have simple rules.
Ludwig Wittgenstein was probably the first academic philosopher to address the definition of the word game.
In his Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein demonstrated that the elements (parts) of games, such as play, rules, and competition, all fail to correctly define what games are.
He concluded that people apply the term game to a range of different human activities that are related, but not closely related.
Homo Ludens (Playing Man) is a book written in 1938 by Dutch historian Johan Huizinga.
It discusses the importance of the play element in culture and society.
Huizinga suggests that play is a  condition for the generation of culture.
Roger Caillois
French sociologist Roger Caillois, in his book Les jeux et les hommes (Games and Men), said that a game is an activity which is these things:
free: the activity is voluntary
separate: the activity cannot happen everywhere or, all the time
uncertain: the people doing the activity do not know how it will end
non-productive: doing the activity does not make or do anything useful
governed by rules: the activity has rules that are different from everyday life
fictitious: the people doing the activity know that the game is not reality
Computer game designer Chris Crawford tried to define the word game using a series of comparisons:
Something creative is art if it was made because it is beautiful, and entertainment if it was made for money.
Something that is entertainment is a plaything if it is interactive.
Movies and books are entertainment, but not interactive.
If a plaything does not have any goals to complete, it is a 'toy.
If a plaything has goals, it is a challenge.
If a challenge does not have an opponent, it is a puzzle.
If it has an opponent, it is a conflict.
If the player can do better at something than an opponent but cannot affect the opponent, the conflict is a competition.
Racing and figure skating are competitions.
However, if attacks are allowed, then the conflict qualifies as a game.
History of Games
The first writer of history was Herodotus, an ancient Greek.
He wrote a book called “The Histories” around 440 BC, which is nearly 2500 years ago.
Some of the stories he wrote were not true, and we don't know if this is one of those.
Herodotus tells us about king Atys; he ruled about 5,500 [five thousand five hundred] years ago in a country called Lydia.
His country was in western Asia Minor, near modern Greece.
Atys had a serious problem; his lands had very little food because the climate was not good for agriculture.
The people of Lydia demonstrated patience and hoped that the good times of plenty would return.
But when things failed to get better, the people of Lydia thought up a strange solution for their problem.
The path they took to fight their natural need to eat – the hungry times caused by the unusually hard climate - was to play games for one entire day so that they would not think about food.
On the next day they would eat, so eating occurred every second day.
In this way they passed 18 years, and in that time they invented dice, balls, and all the games commonly played today.
Games appear in all cultures all over the world, an ancient custom that brings people together for social opportunities.
Games allow people to go beyond the limit of the immediate physical experience, to use their imagination.
Common features of games include a finish that you cannot forecast, agreed upon rules, competition, separate place and time, imaginary elements, elements of chance, established goals and personal enjoyment.
Games are used to teach, to build friendships, and to indicate status.
In his 1938 history book the Dutch writer Johan Huizinga says that games are older than human culture.
He sees games as the beginning of complex human activities such as language, law, war, philosophy and art.
Ancient people used bones to make the first games.
Dice are very early game pieces.
Games began as part of ancient religions.
The oldest gaming pieces ever found – 49 [forty nine] small painted stones with pictures cut into them from 5,000 [five thousand] years ago – come from Turkey, so perhaps the history of Herodotus is true.
One of the first board games, Senet, appears in ancient Egypt around 3,500 [three thousand five hundred] years ago.
The ancient Greeks had a board game similar to checkers, and also many ball games.
The first reference to the game of Go occurs in Chinese records from around 2,400 [two thousand four hundred] years ago.
Originally the game Go was used by political leaders to develop skill in strategy and mental skill.
Knowing how to play Go was required by a Chinese gentleman, along with the skills of artistic writing or calligraphy, painting and the ability to play a musical instrument.
These were regarded as the four most important skills.
In ancient China, a gentleman had to pass a test in these four key skills in order to get a good paying job in the government.
The Chinese brought Go to Korea, and it entered Japan around 1,500 [one thousand five hundred] years ago, and it has been popular ever since.
In March 2016 a Google computer program beat the best Go players in the world.
Go is believed to be the most complex board game ever created.
Is this computer program smarter than a person?
Well, it did beat the South Korean Go master Lee Se-dol, and Lee was surprised by the result.
He acknowledged defeat after three and a half hours of play.
Demis Hassabis, who made the Google program, called it an important moment in history, because a machine beat the best person in the world in an intelligent game.
Such computer programs rely on what is called artificial intelligence.
Go is a two-player game of strategy said to have had an origin in China perhaps around 3,000 [three thousand] years ago.
Players compete to win more territory by placing black and white “stones” on a board made up of 19 [nineteen] lines by 19 [nineteen] lines.
The first computer game that was ever created was probably the game OXO by Alexander Douglas in 1952.
It was a version of tic-tac-toe.
But most people consider the first true computer game where players actually participate to be Tennis for Two developed in 1958 by the physics scientist William Higginbotham.
He wanted to teach about gravity, the force of attraction between masses.
These men who created the early computer games did not forecast the potential for the popular use of games, because at that period in modern history it took a small room full of computers to make these games work!
Another early game was Spacewar!
developed in 1961 by MIT university student Steve Russell.
In 1972 the company Atari produced the Pong game which was a huge commercial success; being a commercial success means that it made a lot of money.
This was the true beginning of computer games that could be played at home.
Today, all around the world people spend more the 3,000,000,000 [three billion] hours a week playing computer games.
This is equivalent to more than 342,000 [three hundred and forty two hundred thousand] years!
Other definitions
"A game is a system in which players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome".
"A game is a form of art in which participants, termed players, make decisions in order to manage resources through game tokens in the pursuit of a goal". (
Greg Costikyan)
"A game is an activity among two or more independent decision-makers seeking to achieve their objectives in some limiting context''".
"At its most elementary level then we can define game as an exercise of voluntary control systems in which there is an opposition between forces, confined by a procedure and rules in order to produce a disequilibrial outcome".
"A game is a form of play with goals and structure".
Nebraska is a state near to the center of the United States.
Its capital is Lincoln and the largest city is Omaha.
It touches the states of Wyoming, South Dakota, Iowa, Missouri, Colorado and Kansas.
Nebraska has hot summers and cold winters.
A temperature of 30 °C (which is about 86 °F) is common in the summer, and in the winter it can be -20 °C (which is about -4 °F) or colder at night.
Native American tribes, including the Omaha, Oto, Missouri, Pawnee, Arapaho and Cheyenne, all ceded land in Nebraska to the U.S. government.
On May 30, 1854, the United States government made a law called the Kansas-Nebraska Act.
It made two territories called Kansas Territory and Nebraska Territory.
In the 1860s, many people moved there to take free land from the government.
Nebraska became a state on March 1, 1867.
1867 establishments in the United States
Time is the never-ending continued progress of existence and events.
It happens in an apparently irreversible way from the past, through the present and to the future.
To measure time, we can use anything that repeats itself regularly.
One example is the start of a new day (as Earth rotates on its axis).
Two more are the phases of the moon (as it orbits the Earth), and the seasons of the year (as the Earth orbits the Sun).
Even in ancient times, people developed calendars to keep track of the number of days in a year.
They also developed sundials that used the moving shadows cast by the sun through the day to measure times smaller than a day.
Today, highly accurate clocks can measure time in  less than a billionth of a second.
The study of time measurement is known as  horology.
The SI (International Systems of Units) unit of time is one second, written as s. When used as a variable in mathematics, time is often represented by the symbol .
In Einsteinian physics, time and space can be combined into a single concept.
For more on the topic, see space-time continuum.
1 millennium = 10 centuries = 100 decades = 200 lustrums = 250 quadrenniums = 333.33 trienniums = 500 bienniums = 1,000 years
1 century = 10 decades = 20 lustrums = 25 quadrenniums = 33.33 trienniums = 50 bienniums = 100 years
1 decade = 2 lustrums = 2.5 quadrenniums = 3.33 trienniums = 5 bienniums = 10 years
1 year = 12 months = 52 weeks = 365 days (366 days in leap years)
1 month = 4 weeks = 2 fortnights = 28 to 31 days
1 fortnight = 2 weeks = 14 days
1 week = 7 days
1 day = 24 hours
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds
1 second = SI base unit of time
1 millisecond = 1/1,000 second
1 microsecond = 1/1,000,000 second
1 nanosecond = 1/1,000,000,000 second
1 picosecond = 1/1,000,000,000,000 of a second
1 femtosecond = 1/1,000,000,000,000,000 of a second
1 attosecond = 1/1,000,000,000,000,000,000 of a second
1 Planck time = smallest measurable unit of time
Things used to measure time
Time of day
U.S. Naval Observatory
Time in   Hexadecimal numeral system
In physics, a force is an interaction between objects.
It is called an interaction because if one object acts on another, its action  is matched by a reaction from the other object.
This idea is known as Newton's third law, where action and reaction are "equal and opposite"  (matched).
The objects are just the things the force acts between.
Different forces act between different sorts of object.
For example, gravity acts between objects with mass, like the sun and the earth.
Another example is electromagnetic force, which acts between objects with charge, like an electron and the nucleus of an atom.
Gravity and electromagnetic force are two examples of forces.
A force changes the state of an object (some physical quantity changes) or, strictly, the states of two objects, since the force is an interaction.
For example, a force causes an affected object to be pushed or pulled in a certain direction.
This  changes the object's momentum.
Forces cause objects to accelerate, add to the object's overall pressure, change direction, or change shape.
The strength of a force is measured in Newtons (N).
There are four fundamental forces in physics.
Newton's Second Law
where  is the force,
is the mass of an object,
and  is the acceleration of the object.
Gravity is an acceleration.
Everything that has a mass is being pulled toward the Earth because of that acceleration.
This pull is a force called weight.
One can take the equation above and change  to the standard gravity g, then a formula about the gravity on earth can be found:
where  is the weight of an object,
and  is the acceleration due to gravity at sea level.
It is about .
You must be on earth to use this formula.
If you are on the moon or another planet, then you can use the formula but g will be different.
Gravitational force
is force;  is the gravitational constant, which is used to show how gravity accelerates an object;  is the mass of one object;  is the mass of the second object; and  is the distance between the objects.
This equation is used to calculate how the earth moves around the sun and how the moon moves around the earth.
It is also used to calculate how other planets, stars and objects in space move around.
gd:Neart
Basic techniques
Handling of chemicals
Shake the test tube gently
Stir with a glass rod
Tap the bottom of the test tube with your finger
Pour the contents to and fro between two test tubes
Stopper the test tube and shake
Heating techniques
Hold the material over a naked flame
Put the material in a water bath
Use a type of hairdryer called a "heat gun" to blow hot air at the material.
Collecting gases
Upward and downward delivery
Over water
Drying substances
Leave the mixture at room temperature to evaporate on its own.
Put the substance in an "oven" which heats it gently and removes water vapour.
Smelling gases
Never smell a gas directly.
Waft a gas towards yourself if it is reasonably safe to smell it.
Never smell a gas that is toxic or otherwise dangerous.
The International System of Units is the standard modern form of the metric system.
The name of this system can be shortened or abbreviated to SI, from the French name Système International d'unités.
The International System of Units is a system of measurement based on 7 base units: the metre (length), kilogram (mass), second (time), ampere (electric current), Kelvin (temperature), mole (quantity), and candela (brightness).
These base units can be used in combination with each other.
This creates SI derived units, which can be used to describe other quantities, such as volume, energy, pressure, and velocity.
The system is used almost globally.
Only Myanmar, Liberia, and the United States do not use SI as their official system of measurement.
In these countries, though, SI is commonly used in science and medicine.
History and use
The metric system was created in France after the French Revolution in 1789.
The original system only had two standard units, the kilogram and the metre.
The metric system became popular amongst scientists.
In the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell and William Thomson (later known as Lord Kelvin) suggested a system with three base units - length, mass, and time.
Other units would be derived from those three base units.
Later, this suggestion would be used to create the centimetre-gram-second system of units (CGS), which used the centimetre as the base unit for length, the gram as the base unit for mass, and the second as the base unit for time.
It also added the dyne as the base unit for force and the erg as the base unit for energy.
As scientists studied electricity and magnetism, they realized other base units were needed to describe these subjects.
By the middle of the 20th century, many different versions of the metric system were being used.
This was very confusing.
In 1954, the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) created the first version of the International System of Units.
The six base units that they used were the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, Kelvin, and candela.
The seventh base unit, the mole, was added in 1971.
SI is now used almost everywhere in the world, except in the United States, Liberia and Myanmar, where the older imperial units are still widely used.
Other countries, most of them historically related to the British Empire, are slowly replacing the old imperial system with the metric system or using both systems at the same time.
Base units
The SI base units are measurements used by scientists and other people around the world.
All the other units can be written by combining these seven base units in different ways.
These other units are called "derived units".
{| class="wikitable floatleft" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ SI base units
Unitname
Unitsymbol
Dimensionsymbol
Quantityname
|style="text-align:center" |s
|style="text-align:center" |T
|time
Prior:  of a day of 24 hours of 60 minutes of 60 seconds
Interim (1956):  of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time.
Current (1967): The duration of  periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.
|style="text-align:center" |m
|style="text-align:center" |L
Prior (1793):  of the meridian through Paris between the North Pole and the Equator.
Interim (1960):  wavelengths in a vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the 2p and 5d quantum levels of the krypton-86 atom.
Current (1983): The distance travelled by light in vacuum in  second.
|style="text-align:center" |kg
|style="text-align:center" |M
|mass
Prior (1793): The grave was defined as being the mass (then called weight) of one litre of pure water at its freezing point.
Interim (1889): The mass of a small squat cylinder of ~47 cubic centimetres of platinum-iridium alloy kept in the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Paris, France.
Current (2019): The kilogram is defined by setting the Planck constant h exactly to  (), given the definitions of the metre and the second.
Then the formula would be 1 kg =
|style="text-align:center" |A
|style="text-align:center" |I
|electric current
Prior (1881): A tenth of the electromagnetic CGS unit of current.
The [CGS] electromagnetic unit of current is that current, flowing in an arc 1 cm long of a circle 1 cm in radius, that creates a field of one oersted at the centre.
IEC
Interim (1946): The constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 m apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to  newtons per metre of length.
Current (2019): The flow of  times the elementary charge e per second.
|style="text-align:center" |K
|style="text-align:center" |Θ
|thermodynamictemperature
Prior (1743): The centigrade scale is obtained by assigning 0 °C to the freezing point of water and 100 °C to the boiling point of water.
Interim (1954): The triple point of water (0.01 °C) defined to be exactly 273.16 K.
Previous (1967):  of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
Current (2019): The kelvin is defined by setting the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant k to , (J = kg⋅m2⋅s−2), given the definition of the kilogram, the metre and the second.
|style="text-align:center" |mol
|style="text-align:center" |N
|amount ofsubstance
Prior (1900): A stoichiometric quantity which is the equivalent mass in grams of Avogadro's number of molecules of a substance.
ICAW
Interim (1967): The amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12.
Current (2019): The amount of substance of exactly  elementary entities.
This number is the fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant, NA, when expressed in the unit mol−1 and is called the Avogadro number.
candela
|style="text-align:center" |cd
|style="text-align:center" |J
|luminousintensity
Prior (1946): The value of the new candle (early name for the candela) is such that the brightness of the full radiator at the temperature of solidification of platinum is 60 new candles per square centimetre.
Current (1979): The luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency  hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of  watt per steradian.
Note: both old and new definitions are approximately the luminous intensity of a whale blubber candle burning modestly bright, in the late 19th century called a "candlepower" or a "candle".
|colspan=5|
The Prior definitions of the various base units in the above table were made by the following authorities:
FG = French Government
IEC = International Electrotechnical Commission
ICAW = International Committee on Atomic Weights
All other definitions result from resolutions by either CGPM or the CIPM and are catalogued in the SI Brochure.
Derived units
Derived units are created by combining the base units.
The base units can be divided, multiplied, or raised to powers.
Some derived units have special names.
Usually these were created to make calculations simpler.
Very large or very small measurements can be written using prefixes.
Prefixes are added to the beginning of the unit to make a new unit.
For example, the prefix kilo- means "1000" times the original unit and the prefix milli- means "0.001" times the original unit.
So one kilometre is 1000 metres and one milligram is a 1000th of a gram.
Lake Michigan is one of the five Great Lakes in North America.
It has a surface area of .
It is  wide.
Lake Michigan is the 5th largest lake in the world.
Lake Michigan is surrounded by the U.S. states of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan.
It is the only Great Lake that is not partly in Canada.
The largest city on the shore of Lake Michigan is Chicago.
The earliest time that people lived near the lake was 800 CE.
The word "Michigan" originally meant the lake itself.
It is believed to come from the Ojibwa word mishigami meaning "great water".
The first person to reach the deepest part of Lake Michigan was J. Val Klump.
Klump reached the bottom with a submarine as part of a 1985 research expedition.
Twelve million people live along Lake Michigan's shores.
They are mainly in the Chicago and Milwaukee areas.
A gas syringe is a tool used in a laboratory.
It is used to collect a gas or to measure the volume of a gas.
Simple systems can be settled in the laboratory to collect gas or to compress it.
It is usually used to explain Gas Law.
Measuring tools
In chemistry, a mixture is a substance that is made up of two or more simpler substances.
These substances can be chemical elements or compounds.
A mixture can be made of liquids, solids, or gases.
A mixture is not the same as a compound which is made of two or more atoms connected together.
For instance, a mixture of the gases hydrogen and nitrogen contains hydrogen and nitrogen, not the compound ammonia which is made of hydrogen and nitrogen atoms.
A mixture where the different parts can be distinguished easily is called heterogenous, one where this is not the case is called homogeneous.
A third form is called colloid.
If one substance in a mixture dissolves in the other, it is called a solution.
For example, if sugar is put in water it forms a mixture, then dissolves to make a solution.
If it does not dissolve, it would be called a suspension.
Solids can be mixtures also.
Alloys are mixtures.
Many kinds of soil and rock are mixtures of different minerals.
Thus, a mixture is made of two or more elements and/or compounds which are not chemically combined.
Language families are groups of languages that are related to each other because they come from a common older language.
The languages in such a family are similar in their vocabulary or structure.
For example, French and Spanish both come from Latin.
Latin was spoken a long time ago, and some of the people who spoke it started to speak one way, saying, for example, for good: "bueno" while another group started saying "bon."
Most words are said a little differently in Spanish and French, so the two are called different languages.
Most languages belong to a language family, but some languages do not.
These languages are called Language isolates.
There also are constructed languages, like for example Esperanto.
Constructed languages are made for different reasons: making a 'world language', for fun, for use in fiction, etc.
Major language families
By number of languages
Ethnologue 22 (2019) lists these language families as "major".
Each has at least 1% of all languages on Earth:
Niger–Congo (1,542 languages) (21.7%)
Austronesian (1,257 languages) (17.7%)
Trans–New Guinea (482 languages) (6.8%)
Sino-Tibetan (455 languages) (6.4%)
Indo-European (448 languages) (6.3%)
Australian [dubious] (381 languages) (5.4%)
Afro-Asiatic (377 languages) (5.3%)
Nilo-Saharan [dubious] (206 languages) (2.9%)
Oto-Manguean (178 languages) (2.5%)
Austroasiatic (167 languages) (2.3%)
Tai–Kadai (91 languages) (1.3%)
Dravidian (86 languages) (1.2%)
Tupian (76 languages) (1.1%)
Glottolog 4.0 (2019) lists the following as the largest families, of 8494 languages:
Atlantic–Congo (1,432 languages)
Austronesian (1,275 languages)
Indo-European (588 languages)
Sino-Tibetan (494 languages)
Afro-Asiatic (373 languages)
Nuclear Trans–New Guinea (314 languages)
Pama–Nyungan (248 languages)
Oto-Manguean (180 languages)
Austroasiatic (159 languages)
Tai–Kadai (94 languages)
Dravidian (81 languages)
Arawakan (78 languages)
Mande (75 languages)
Tupian (71 languages)
Language-related lists
Chess is a board game for two players.
It is played in a square board, made of 64 smaller squares, with eight squares on each side.
Each player starts with sixteen pieces: eight pawns, two knights, two bishops, two rooks, one queen and one king.
The goal of the game is for each player to try and checkmate the king of the opponent.
Checkmate is a threat ('check') to the opposing king which no move can stop.
It ends the game.
During the game the two opponents take turns to move one of their pieces to a different square of the board.
One player ('White') has pieces of a light color; the other player ('Black') has pieces of a dark color.
There are rules about how pieces move, and about taking the opponent's pieces off the board.
The player with white pieces always makes the first move.
Because of this, White has a small advantage, and wins more often than Black in tournament games.
Chess is popular and is often played in competitions called chess tournaments.
It is enjoyed in many countries, and is a national hobby in Russia.
Most historians agree that the game of chess was first played in northern India during the Gupta Empire in the 6th century AD.
This early type of chess was known as Chaturanga, a Sanskrit word for the military.
The Gupta chess pieces were divided like their military into the infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots.
In time, these pieces became the pawn, knight, bishop, and rook.
The English words chess and check both come from the Persian word shāh meaning king.
The earliest written evidence of chess is found in three romances (epic stories) written in Sassanid Persia around 600AD.
The game was known as chatrang or shatranj.
When Persia was taken over by Muslims (633–644) the game was spread to all parts of the Muslim world.
Muslim traders carried the game to Russia and to Western Europe.
By the year 1000 it had spread all over Europe.
In the 13th century a Spanish manuscript called Libro de los Juegos describes the games of shatranj (chess), backgammon, and dice.
The game changed greatly between about 1470 to 1495.