the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The team with the highest score at the end of the match wins.
It combines the skills of soccer and basketball in a fast-paced, high-scoring contact sport.
A slightly different rule set is used for women's Gaelic football (officially called "ladies' Gaelic football").
The women's game also uses 15-player teams and H-shaped goals, but allows less physical contact.
Hurling is a stick-and-ball game played by teams of 15 on a rectangular grass pitch with H-shaped goals at each end.
The primary object is to score by driving the ball through the goals.
It is over three thousand years old, and is said to be the world's fastest field game, combining skills from lacrosse, field hockey, and baseball in a hard-hitting, highly skilled game.
Camogie is a game almost identical to hurling, but played only by women.
Like hurling, it is a stick-and-ball game played by teams of 15, with the pitch and goals the same as those in hurling.
Other rules are almost the same between the two sports, but camogie does not allow as much physical contact.
Rounders is a bat and ball game which is played in Ireland; a similar version is played in England.
Rounders is the least popular of the GAA gaelic games and is organised by a sub division of the GAA known as the Rounders Council of Ireland.
It is similar to baseball.
Gaelic handball is a game where two players use their hands to return a ball against a wall.
The game is similar to  American handball; Gaelic handballers play against their US counterparts.
Other Gaelic Games
Other Gaelic Games such as gaelic athletics have nearly or completely died out.
Pastimes such as Road bowling, a sport played in Ireland for a long time, could be considered Gaelic games.
THE SÉAMUS Ó CEALLAIGH COLLECTION - Limerick sports history and Gaelic Games
Sports competitions
Sport in Northern Ireland
The game is similar to American handball; Gaelic handballers play against their US counterparts.
HandballCity.com
Colorado Handball Association in USA
www.handball.ie
Irish Handball Results
www.gaa.ie
United States Handball Association
Collegiate Handball in Ireland
World Pro Handballl
handballvideo.com
Handball Social Network
It is a common belief that American handball was brought to the United States in the 1880s by Irish immigrants.
The Gaelic handball sport was played since the 15th century in Ireland and Scotland.
American handball is played on a court 12.2 meters long by 6.1 meters wide (40 feet long by 20 feet wide) with either a single (front) wall, three walls, or in a fully enclosed four-wall court (the most common).
The four-wall court is a rectangular box.
The front wall is 6.1 meters (20 feet) square, and the side walls are 12.2 meters (40 feet) long and 6.1 meters (20 feet) high.
In the middle of the floor of the court lies the short line, that divides the floor into two 6.1 meter (20 feet) squares.
Also along the floor is the service line, which is 1.5 meters (5 feet) in front of the short line.
The service zone is the area between these two lines.
The back wall of the court is usually 3.7 meters (12 feet) high, with an above gallery for the referee and scorer, and also spectators.
A few courts have a glass back wall and/or glass side walls to allow for a better view of the match. (
In three-wall court handball, the court often has a front wall and two full side walls, or the front wall is flanked by two triangular wings.)
Time magazine, May 11, 1942.
http://www.handballcity.com/Ervin%20Irizarry%20Interview.html
http://www.handball.ie/newsite/start.php?subaction=showfull&id=1161381646&archive=&start_from=&ucat=2&
http://www.jewsinsports.org/profile.asp?sport=boxing&ID=126
US Handball
Colorado Handball Association
Official rules of the USHA
Southern California Handball Association
Toledo Handball Club
Los Angeles Athletic Club - Handball
Nothingbuthandball.com Promoting the Sport of Handball
HandballCity.com Promoting the Sport of Handball
Social Network for the Sport of Handball
Fives is a British sport believed to come from the same origins as many racket sports.
In fives, a ball is propelled against the walls of a special court using gloved or bare hands as though they were a racquet.
The name may be derived from the slang expression "a bunch of fives" (meaning a fist).
The game has also been known as hand-tennis and historically was often played between the buttresses of church buildings in England.
There are links between Fives and the Irish and North American handball games and indeed, in recent years, British clubs have begun to establish ties with clubs in those countries.
Eton Fives
Rugby Fives Association (UK)
Cambridge University Rugby Fives Club
Executioners (A London Fives Club)
White Rose Fives Club (A Club based in West Yorkshire)
Old Merchant Taylors Rugby Fives Club
The Miami Heat are an American professional basketball team in the National Basketball Association in Miami, Florida.
It was started in 1988.
They play their home games at the FTX Arena.
They won the 2006 NBA Finals where they defeated the Dallas Mavericks 4 games to 2.
Dwyane Wade was the Finals MVP.
The two teams met again in the Finals in 2011 with the Mavericks winning the rematch 4 games to 2.
The Heat won again in the 2012 NBA Finals where they defeated the Oklahoma City Thunder 4 games to 1.
LeBron James was the Finals MVP for the first time in his career.
They also defeated the San Antonio Spurs in 2013 4 games to 3.
LeBron was the Finals MVP for the second straight year.
They lost to the Spurs in the 2014 rematch over five games.
The Heat became the first Eastern Conference team to reach four straight Finals.
After four years with the Heat, LeBron returned to the Cleveland Cavaliers and spent another four years there.
The Heat returned to the Finals in 2020, losing to the Los Angeles Lakers in six games.
A buttress is a structure placed against the walls of a building to give it more support, or to help it to hold the roofs.
Buttresses are common in ancient buildings, especially in Europe.
A buttress can be an inside or outside support.
Real tennis is the original racket sport from which the modern game of lawn tennis, or tennis, developed.
It is also known as jeu de paume in France and as "court tennis" in some parts of United States.
Real tennis is still played at a small number of active courts in the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States, and France.
The sport is supported and governed by
Lord Aberdare (2001).
The J.T. Faber Book of Tennis and Rackets.
London: Quiller Press. .
Heiner Gillmeister (1997).
Tennis: A Cultural History.
London: Leicester University Press. .
Roman Krznaric (2006).
The First Beautiful Game: Stories of Obsession in Real Tennis.
Oxford: Ronaldson Publications. .
Kathryn McNicoll (2006) "Real Tennis".
UK: Shire Publications.
(Album 437).
Julian Marshall (1878).
The Annals of Tennis.
Facsimile reprinted 1973 by Racquet Sports Information & Services, Inc.: Baltimore.
Real Tennis Online, financially supported and officially endorsed by the governing bodies of real tennis in Australia, France, the UK and the USA
Jeu de paume was originally a French game similar to lawn tennis, but played without racquets.
The players hit the ball with their hands as in volleyball.
Jeu de paume literally means: game of palm (of the hand).
After some time gloves replaced bare hands.
But even when bats, and finally racquets, became standard equipment for the game, the name did not change.
It became known as "tennis" in English (see History of tennis), and later "real tennis" after lawn tennis became more popular than the parent game.
Some important buildings in France are known by the name jeu de paume, in general because they are near to tennis courts or to sites on which courts once stood.
Several works of art also bear this name, including the famous serment du jeu de paume ('the Tennis Court Oath') in the Palace of Versailles.
It depicts the formal announcement of the French revolution made in the Royal Tennis Court there on 20 June, 1789.
Sports that developed from jeu de paume
Fistball
Court tennis
Historical Picture: A Jeu de Paume Before a Country Palace
Oratory Real Tennis Club
Société Sportive du Jeu de Paume et de Racquets
The Palace of Versailles, or simply Versailles, is a royal castle in Versailles, France.
In French, it is often called the Château de Versailles.
When the castle was built, Versailles was a country village, but it is now a suburb of Paris.
From 1682, when King Louis XIV moved from Paris and lived in this palace, until the royal family was forced to return to the capital in 1789, the Court of Versailles was the centre of power in the Ancien Régime.
Versailles is therefore famous not only as a building, but as a symbol of absolute monarchy.
When Louis XIV became scared of the French population, he kept the rich ones in this palace, so they wouldn't get mad.
This helped but since there weren't many toiletts, they left their dump behind the curtains.
Fountain of Latona
Hameau de la reine
The Sun King's Garden: Louis XIV, André Le Nôtre And the Creation of the Gardens of Versailles.
London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006 (hardcover, ).
Reviewed  by Peter Parker in the Telegraph , October 1, 2006.
Reviewed  by John Adamson in the Telegraph , 2006.
The Hall of Mirrors Restoration
Pictures of : "Les Grandes Eaux Nocturnes"
Palace of Versailles photos
Visiting information Palace of Versailles
Former royal residences
A  (plural ) is a manor house or castle of the lord of the manor or a country house of nobility or gentry.
The term comes from French-speaking regions and is used most often for buildings in these regions.
Where clarification is needed, a fortified château (that is, a castle) is called a château fort.
But the word is not used in the same way as  "castle" is in English, and most châteaux are more appropriately described as "palaces" or "country houses" in English than as "castles".
For example, the Château de Versailles is so called because it was in the country when it was built, but it does not bear any resemblance to a castle, so it is usually known in English as the Palace of Versailles.
The Château de Montsoreau is the first Renaissance château to have been built in France, in the world famous Loire Valley.
The Château de Montsoreau is also the only one to have been built in the Loire riverbed.
Photos of Loire Châteaux
Château de l'Isle-Marie
Roquetaillade castle
Château de Ravignan
Château de Montreuil-Bellay
Château de Fontainebleau
Château de Bellocq Bearn (in french)
Château Saint-Aubin
Château of Gaston Phoebus at Morlanne in Bearn
château (French for castle; plural châteaux) - a manor house or residence of the lord of the manor or a country house of gentry, usually French, with or without fortifications
château fort - used in French and occasionally in English, where there is need of a distinction between a large post-medieval residence (château) and a medieval fortified residence (château fort).
Le Château - a clothing retailer
Chateau - a Canadian importer of dollar discount store electronics and accessories
Château Frontenac, Quebec City, Quebec
Château Montebello, Montebello, Quebec,
Château Champlain, Montreal, Quebec
Chateau Lake Louise, Lake Louise, Alberta
Château Laurier, Ottawa, Ontario
A positron (also called an antielectron) is the antimatter version of an electron.
It has the same mass and spin as an electron.
However, it has a positive electric charge, whereas an electron has a negative charge.
Like all antimatter, when it meets its so-called counterpartner, each are annihilated and turned into energy.
The electron and positron disappear, and the total mass decreases.
There is no name for this type of energy, as it is neither mechanical, radiation, chemical, electrical, nuclear, nor thermal.
Although the energy does emit light photons when annihilated, it is converted from some form of energy that has not been named.
A positron also very rarely makes a structure called positronium.
Positronium is like an atom in many ways, but is very unstable, and usually quickly annihilates.
What is Antimatter?
What is a Positron?
(from the Frequently Asked Questions :: Center for Antimatter-Matter Studies)
Positron information search at SLAC
Positron Annihilation as a method of experimental physics used in materials research.
Original Publication by Anderson (DOI Link)
Pelota in Spanish, pilota in Basque and Catalan, or pelote in French (from Latin pila) is a name for several court sports played with a ball using one's hand, a racket, or a wooden bat (pala), against a wall (frontón in Spanish, frontoi in Basque, frontó in Catalan) or, more traditionally, with two teams face to face separated by a line on the ground or a net.
Their roots can be traced to the Greek and other ancient cultures, but in Europe they all come from real tennis (see Jeu de paume).
Today, Basque Pelota is widely played in several countries: in Spain and France, specially in the Basque Country and its neighbour areas.
Other modalities
Valencian frontó
International Federation of Basque Pelota
http://www.manista.com/
"The History of Basque Pelota in the Americas"  by Carmelo Urza
Pelota vasca in the Spanish-language Auñamendi Encyclopedia, with sections on the game and history.
1959's film Thunder in the Sun in IMDb
A pump-jet or water jet is a marine system that creates a jet of water for propulsion.
The mechanical arrangement may be a propeller with nozzle, or a centrifugal pump and nozzle.
Personal Watercraft Industry Association
American Watercraft Association
U.S. Coast Guard Boating Safety
A propulsor is a mechanical device that gives propulsion.
The pump-jet is an example.
Valencian (valencià) is the historical, traditional, and official name used in the Valencian Community (Spain) for the language spoken in this region, also known as Catalan (català) in the Spanish Autonomous Communities of Catalonia, Aragon and the Balearic Islands; in the country of Andorra; in the southern French region of the Roussillon; and in the Italian city of Alghero on the island of Sardinia.
Language or dialect?
The official authorities, which are the government of the Valencian Community and the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, accept Valencian as a dialect of Catalan.
The Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana and several associations disbelieve this opinion .
They believe Valencian is a language in its own.
They also accuse the official authorities of mixing Valencian with Catalan.
This is done by approaching the Valencian ortography and grammar to the Catalan one.
Pilota Valenciana or Valencian pilota (pilota means ball in Valencian) is a traditional handball sport played in the Valencian Community.
Its origins are not known, but seems to be related to the French Jeu de paume.
Rules vary from area to area but the common trait is that the ball is struck with a bare, or almost bare, hand (only some minimal protection is applied in some versions of the sport).
The general rule involves two teams made from two up to five players each (the numbers depend on the particular version played).
The second characteristic is that it is not played against a wall.
Instead, similarly to modern tennis, two individuals or teams are placed face to face separated either by a line on the ground or a net.
Valencian pilota origins are not known with certainty, but it's commonly supposed to be a variant from the middle-aged Jeu de paume, as many other European handball sports (Basque laxoa, French Longue paume, Frisian handball and Italian Pallone) similar to the actual Valencian llargues variant.
Jeu de paume is documented at Paris in 1292 since there were 13 ball workshops and many tripots (courtfields), it was first played with the hands, and the scoring system was very similar to the current Valencian one.
There were so many resemblances with the Valencian pilota sport that, in the 16th century Joan Lluís Vives compared both games in his Dialogues and claimed them to be exactly the same despite some minor differences.
Valencian pilota federation
News about Valencian pilota
News and shop about Valencian pilota
Online one-on-one Escala i corda game, videos and 3D views of a ''trinquet
Personal site of Pedro, a Valencian pilotari
II Handball World Meeting
History of the Pilota, PDF
Youtube: 7 videos featuring the 1993 Escala i Corda Individual final match, Genovés I vs. Sarasol I
Pilota valenciana: Joc i tradició.
15 minutes documentary
Sport in Spain
A trapezoid (in North America) or trapezium (in Britain and elsewhere) is a quadrilateral, which is defined as a shape with four sides, which has one set of parallel sides.
In North America, the term  "trapezium" is used for what is elsewhere called an irregular quadrilateral.
Calculating area
"Trapezoid" on MathWorld
Trapezoid definition   Area of a trapezoid   Median of a trapezoid With interactive animations
Trapezoid (North America) at elsy.at: Animated course (construction, circumference, area)
Frisian handball (Dutch: kaatsen, Frisian: Keatsen) is a traditional Frisian sport, related to American handball and fives, that is most commonly practiced by people from the northern province of Fryslân, or Friesland.
It is believed to be one of the oldest ballgames.
The first team that scores six games, wins the match.
It is played by the ethnic group of the Frisians.
In parts of Belgium, a similar game is played, there called Jeu de Pelote.
This game is played by teams of 5 players on a trapezium shaped field, mostly on marketplaces.
Belgian Federation
KNKB Dutch Federation
Walon amateur Federation
Franeker's Permanent Comity
Ath Handball Museum
1956, Balle Pelote final match, Braine-Gosseli
Video: Chris Wassenaar
Frisian culture
Gaelic Football (Irish: Peil, Peil Ghaelach or Caid ), commonly referred to as "football", or "Gaelic", is a form of football played mainly in Ireland.
It, along with Hurling, is the most popular spectator sport in Ireland.
Gaelic football is played by teams of 15 on a rectangular grass pitch with H-shaped goals at each end.
The object is to score by kicking/striking the ball with your hand and getting it through the goals.
Players advance the ball up the field with a combination of carrying, soloing (dropping and then toe-kicking the ball upward into the hands), kicking, and hand-passing to their team-mates.
Gaelic football is one of four Gaelic Games run by the Gaelic Athletic Association, the largest sporting organization in Ireland.
It has strict rules on player amateurism.
The game is believed to have come from ancient Irish football known as caid which dates back to 1537, although the modern game took shape in 1887.
The grass pitch is rectangular, stretching 130–145 metres long and 80–90 metres wide.
There are H-shaped goalposts at each end with a net on the bottom section.
The same pitch is used for hurling; the GAA, which organizes both sports, decided this to facilitate dual usage.
Lines are marked at distances of 13m, 20m and 45m from each end-line.
Shorter pitches and smaller goals are used by under-12s and under 10s.
All Gaelic football matches last for 60 minutes, divided into two halves of thirty minutes, with the exception of senior inter-county games which last for 70 minutes (two halves of 35 minutes).
Draws are decided by replays or by playing 20 minutes of extra time (two halves of 10 minutes).
Teams consist of fifteen players (a goalkeeper, two corner backs, a full back, three half backs, two mid fielders, three half forwards, two corner forwards and a full forward) plus up to fifteen substitutes, of which five may be used.
Each player is numbered 1–15, starting with the goalkeeper, who must wear a different coloured jersey.
The ball
Official GAA website
An Fear Rua - The GAA Unplugged!
-GAA site with news, views, fun and chat...
Unofficial GAA Messageboard
Caid was the name given to several ancient and traditional Irish football games. "
Caid" is now used by some people for modern Gaelic football.
The word caid originally meant the ball which was used.
It was made out of animal skin, with a natural bladder inside.
Some people believe that caid has influenced the modern sport of Gaelic football the rules of which were officially published in 1887.
The first recorded mention of football in Ireland was in 1308, when John McCrocan, a spectator at a football game was charged with accidentally stabbing a player named William Bernard.
Football games are mentioned in the Statute of Galway, 1527, which allowed the playing of football and archery, but banned "hokie" – the hurling of a little ball with sticks or staves, as well as other sports.
Caid was especially popular in rural areas.
There is some evidence that caid was taken around the world by the Irish diaspora, and that it may have influenced the development of Australian rules football, although this is controversial.
By the late 19th century, caid, like many aspects of native Irish culture, was in steep decline.
Longue paume is an outdoor version of jeu de paume and therefore an ancestor of modern lawn tennis.
It was part of the Paris 1900 Summer Olympics, but not all think that the medals that were awarded  for longue paume at that Olympics have full value.
Today, the sport is played regionally in Picardie.
The governing body of the sport is the Fédération Française de Longue Paume with its headquarter in Amiens.
Connaissez-vous la Longue Paume?
Ligue de Picardie de Longue Paume
it:Pallacorda#Longue paume
Pallone (Italian for an inflated ball, similar to the word balloon) is the name of several traditional ball games, played in various regions of Italy, with minimal differences in regulations.
Pallone col bracciale
Pallone col bracciale was particularly popular throughout Italy in the 18th century then in 19th century and 20th century until 1930 was the most popular sport of ancient Italian national sports; its first official regulations date back to 1555.
The pallone col bracciale players are called pallonisti and during 19th century Italian professional pallonisti were richest and best rewarded sportsmen of all the world.
This sport and his champions were described by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Giacomo Leopardi, Edmondo de Amicis, Antonio Francesco Grazzini, Ottavio Rinuccini, Gabriello Chiabrera, Tommaso Grossi, Giuseppe Gioachino Belli.
Where Angels Fear to Tread (1991) includes a brief film depiction of this game.
Balls are struck back and forth with a wooden cylinder, called bracciale, worn over the forearm, if carelessly played, a broken arm can result: in fact bracciale weighs 2 or 1 kilogram.
Originally the ball of 934 grams was inflated, but now hard rubber ball of 350 grams is  used.
Scoring is by fifteens, as in tennis and the team which wins 12 games is final winner of the match.
A special feature is that the ball is put into play by a designated server, who otherwise is not part of the game.
Pallone is played on courts marked out on town streets.
Registered players of official championships dispute their matches in a kind of stadium named sferisterio or sferodromo in Italian language.
Nowadays they play two forms of this sport: 3 players a side with lateral wall and 4 players a side in open playing field without lateral wall.
Antonio Mariotti from Ancona
Antonio Gambero from Genova
Ubaldo Travagli
Pietro Orazietti
Pietro Tarini from Fano
Luigi Eredi from Ravenna
Lorenzo Pierotti from Firenze
Giovanni Contieri from Udine
Gaetano Trentin from Bassano del Grappa
Vettor Gasparini from Bassano del Grappa
Gaspare Socci from Firenze
Giuseppe Mariotti from Ancona
Pallapugno
Pallapugno, one time named pallone elastico, is a game from Piedmont and Liguria and it is played with a bandaged fist; rubber ball has diameter of 10,5
centimetres and weighs 190 grams.
Scoring is also by fifteens, but in this version a second bounce can result in a "chase" rather than an outright point, similar to real tennis.
Every team has 4 players and the team which wins 11 games is final winner of the match.
Professional players dispute their matches in sferisterio 90 metres long and 18 metres large with lateral wall.
Professional Italian pallapugno league is top level of competitions: in 2008 10 teams competed.
Pallapugno leggera
Pallapugno leggera is played in courtfield which has same size of volleyball's courtfield without net (device).
Each team has 4 players with 2 reserve players.
A match consisted of one set or three sets.
Pantalera
Pantalera or pallapugno alla pantalera is generally played on the urban streets.
First action of every match consisted of shot pushing up the ball for rebound on a roof called pantalera in Piedmontese language.
Other rules are the same of pallapugno.
Pallonetto
Pallonetto or pallonetto ligure al lungo is generally played on the urban streets with tennis balls without covering felt.
Playing field is long between 60 and 90 metres and it's large 18 metres with or without lateral wall.
Players push the ball using one bandaged hand.
Italian variants
Similar ball games
Llargues
Morgan, Roger (1989). "
European Derivatives of Tennis" in The Royal Game, L. St J. Butler & P. J. Wordie, ed.
Stirling: Falkland Palace Real Tennis Club.
McNicoll, Kathryn (2005).
Real Tennis, pp.
Buckinghamshire: Shire Publications. .
Whitman, Malcolm D. (1932).
Tennis: Origins and Mysteries, p. 85.
Mineola, NY: Dover Publications (2004 reprint). .
Italian Pallapugno Federation
Italian Union of Pallone Elastico Players
Sport in Italy
For the article of ancient Roman clothing, see Palla (garment).
Palla, Italian language for ball, is the name of various traditional ball games of Italy.
In Italian they also call pallacanestro for basketball, pallavolo for volleyball, pallamano for handball and pallanuoto for water polo.
is an old Tuscan ball game from Maremma towns between Siena and Grosseto.
It has this name because players call out eh!
before serving.
Small hand-made balls contain a lead pellet wrapped in rubber and wool with a leather cover.
The game is played by facing teams who strike, not catch, the ball with either a bare or gloved hand: every team include 3, 4 or 5 athletes.
Courts are marked out with painted lines on town streets, but there is no net, and players can move between sides.
Adjacent buildings, objects, and sometimes spectators, are considered "in play."
Play does stop for oncoming automobiles.
Similar to real tennis, a second bounce can result in a "chase" rather than an outright point, marked in chalk where the ball stops rolling.
In one version of palla, scoring is identical to that of tennis: 15-30-40-game.
Palla 21
In a variant called palla 21 scoring is 7-14-21 or game.
In this form they use a rubber or plastic ball of 35-40 grams.
Firstly a palla 21 tournament was played in Chicago during 2007 with Italian national team.
Palla elastica
Palla elastica is a team game: every team include 5 athletes who catch a rubber ball,  similar to tennis ball, with either a bare hand.
The team which wins 11 games is final winner of the match: each game consists of 4 points.
Registered players of official championships dispute their matches in a kind of stadium, 75 metres long with lateral wall, named sferisterio or sferodromo in Italian language.
Pallamuro
Pallamuro is Italian name of American handball.
Palla prigioniera
Palla prigioniera is Italian name of prisoner ball.
Pallacorda
Pallacorda or palla della corda is the Italian name of ancient form of real tennis where a cord of rope was strung across the street and players used hands, racket or tamburello alias tambourine in English language.
Pisa, Prato, Rome, Siena, and various Tuscan towns still have streets named via Pallacorda or via Della Corda.
Pallamaglio
Pallamaglio is an other ancient game called pall mall in English language and his modern form named skittles is played in England, Germany, Austria and Switzerland currently.
Pallina
Pallina means small ball and it is a team game: every team include 4, 5 or 6 athletes who catch a rubber ball, of almost 50 grams, with either a bare hand.
Pellet is a term used for a small particle or grain, typically one created by compressing an original material.
The term is used in a variety of specific contexts.
Air gun pellets are non-spherical projectiles fired from air guns
Airsoft pellets are the spherical plastic projectiles used in Airsoft guns
The individual items of "shot" fired from a shotgun, are referred to as pellets
In centrifugation, a pellet is the concentrated component of a mixture that had been centrifuged
Animal feed pellets are feedstuffs produced from various raw materials and additives
Plastic resin pellet, or nurdle
Bird pellets are the round balls of undigested matter that some bird species occasionally regurgitate
Wood pellets or corn pellets are used in pellet stoves
Pelletizing is the industrial process used to create pellets - often using a pellet mill
Pellet  is an open source reasoner for OWL DL
The storm history of Hurricane Katrina started on August 23, 2005.
Hurricane Katrina was a highly destructive Category 5 hurricane which formed as Tropical Depression Twelve near the Bahamas.
The next day, the tropical depression strengthened to a tropical storm, and was named Katrina.
Katrina continued on to make landfall on the southern part of the U.S. state of Florida as a Category 1 hurricane.
While passing across Florida, Katrina weakened to a tropical storm.
However, the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico allowed it to rapidly intensify to the sixth strongest Atlantic hurricane in recorded history.
Afterwards, Katrina made landfall as a Category 3 hurricane near Buras-Triumph, Louisiana, and once more near the Mississippi/Louisiana border.
Katrina did not stop going northward through the central United States and finally dissipated near the Great Lakes, where it was absorbed by a cold front.
Tropical Depression Twelve formed over the southeastern Bahamas at 5:00 p.m. EDT (2100 UTC) on August 23, 2005, some of the tropical depression was from the remains of Tropical Depression Ten, which had dissipated from the effects of a nearby upper tropospheric trough.
While the normal standards for numbering tropical depressions in the Atlantic shows that the old name/number is kept when a depression dissipates and regenerates, satellite data indicated that a second tropical wave combined with Tropical Depression Ten north of Puerto Rico to form a new, much more advanced system, which was then named as Tropical Depression Twelve.
Simultaneously, the trough in the upper troposphere weakened, causing the wind shear in the area to decrease, also allowing the new tropical depression to develop.
In a later re-analysis, it was found that the low-level circulation of TD Ten had completely detached and dissipated, with only the remnant mid-level circulation moving on and merging with the second tropical wave mentioned before.
As a result, the criteria for keeping the same name and identity were not met.
First landfall
As the atmospheric conditions surrounding Tropical Depression Twelve were good for tropical development, the system began to strengthen, was upgraded to Tropical Storm status and given the name Katrina on the morning of August 24.
A burst of convection allowed Katrina to become the fifth hurricane of the 2005 season on August 25, only two hours before it made landfall around 6:30 p.m. EST (2230 UTC) between Hallandale Beach and Aventura, Florida.
Katrina struck the peninsula at a high speed with 80 mph (130 km/h) winds, and had a well-defined eye on Doppler radar, which managed to stay undisturbed throughout its passage over Florida.
The storm weakened over land on August 26 to a tropical storm, but regained its strength as a hurricane at 2:00 a.m. EDT (0600 UTC), about one hour after making landfall in Florida.
Parts of the Florida Keys experienced tropical storm force winds throughout August 26, with the Dry Tortugas briefly experiencing hurricane-force winds.
At first, the National Hurricane Center forecasts predicted that Katrina would begin turning northward after landfall, eventually to make its second landfall on the Florida Panhandle about three to four days later.
Katrina, however, continued a westerly and west-southwesterly track, which eventually made the forecasts change their predictions, and forecast Katrina to move westward into New Orleans.
Right after the storm entered the Gulf of Mexico, the low wind shear, good upper-level outflow, and the warm sea surface temperatures of the Gulf Loop Current caused Katrina to intensify rapidly.
On August 27, the storm was upgraded to Category 3 strength, becoming the third major hurricane of the season.
An eyewall replacement cycle inhibited strengthening of its maximum winds for about 18 hours, but nearly doubled the size of the storm as a result.
The storm then began a second period of rapid intensification starting at 7:00 p.m. CDT on August 27, and by 12:40 a.m. CDT on August 28, Katrina was upgraded to a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph (233 km/h).
It became a Category 5 storm by 7:00 a.m. CDT, twelve hours after the beginning of the second round of rapid intensification, and reached its peak intensity at 1:00 p.m. CDT with maximum sustained winds of 175 mph (280 km/h), gusts of 215 mph (344 km/h) and a central pressure of 902 mbar (26.64 inHg).
The minimum pressure made Katrina, at the time, the fourth most intense Atlantic hurricane on record (Hurricanes Rita and Wilma would later beat Katrina's record that same year).
As the hurricane came closer New Orleans, the Weather Forecast Office in Slidell, Louisiana gave out two strongly-worded warnings of the storm's danger.
By the afternoon of August 28, the storm was large enough that some areas of the Gulf Coast were already experiencing tropical storm-force winds.
The center of Katrina was about 180 statute miles (290 km) from the mouth of the Mississippi River, but tropical storm-force winds extended 230 mi (370 km) from the center of the storm, and hurricane-force winds extended about 105 miles (170 km) away.
Overnight on August 29, and into the morning of the next day, Katrina quickly weakened (in terms of maximum sustained winds) as it began to enter another eyewall replacement cycle.
The inner eyewall disappered before an outer eyewall had fully formed, which was one of the reasons of its rapid weakening.
In 18 hours, the hurricane's maximum sustained winds decreased from 170 mph (280 km/h) to 125 mph (205 km/h).
However, storm surges remained high at landfall because large waves greater than 30 feet (9.1 m) in height were generated beforehand (with a buoy recording a 55 ft/16.7 m wave at sea), when Katrina was at Categories 4 and 5 on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale.
The waves then combined with the storm surge of the large Category 3 hurricane.
Second and third landfalls
Katrina made its second landfall at 6:10 a.m. CDT on August 29 as a Category 3 hurricane with winds of 125 mph (205 km/h) near Buras-Triumph, Louisiana.
Because Katrina had just weakened from Category 4 strength, and also because of the shape of the coastline, Category 4-force winds are believed to have existed on land while the eye was over water.
At landfall, hurricane-force winds were recorded 120 miles (190 km) from the center, the storm's central pressure was 920 mbar (27.17 inHg), and its forward speed was 15 mph (10 km/h).
As it made its way up the eastern Louisiana coastline, most communities in Plaquemines, St. Bernard Parish, and Slidell in St. Tammany Parish were severely damaged by storm surge and the strong winds of the eyewall, which also swipped over eastern New Orleans, creating $1 billion worth of damage to the city from intense flooding and wind damage.
Original estimates recorded that Katrina had made this landfall as a Category 4 hurricane, with 135 mph (220 km/h) winds; however, as mentioned above, the storm weakened just before landfall to Category 3 intensity.
The reasons for this weakening are not completely understood yet; while the eye-wall replacement cycle played a part, slightly increasing shear, dropping sea surface temperatures, dry air on the western semicircle of the storm and interaction with the continental landmass also may have played a role in weakening the cyclone.
This follows the trend of previous strong cyclones in the Gulf of Mexico: all cyclones with minimum central pressures of 973 mbar (28.73 inHg) or less have weakened over the 12 hours before making landfall in the Gulf Coast of the United States.
A few hours later, after weakening slightly, Katrina made its third landfall near the Louisiana-Mississippi border with 120 mph (195 km/h) sustained winds and 928 mbar (27.37 inHg) pressure, still at Category 3 intensity.
Its minimum pressure at its second landfall was 920 mbar (27.17 inHg), making Katrina the third strongest hurricane on record to make landfall on the United States, behind Hurricane Camille's 909 mbar (26.85 inHg) reading in 1969, and the 1935 Labor Day Hurricane's 892 mbar (26.35 inHg) record.
Because the storm was so large, its highly destructive eye-wall winds and the strong northeastern quadrant of the storm pushed record storm surges onshore, smashing all of the Mississippi Gulf Coast, including towns in Mississippi such as Waveland, Bay St. Louis, Pass Christian, Long Beach, Gulfport, Biloxi, Ocean Springs, Gautier and Pascagoula, and, in Alabama, Bayou La Batre.
The surges at its peak were at 28 feet (8.5 m) in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, and at 13 feet (4.0 m) as far away as Mobile, Alabama, which saw its highest storm surge since 1917.
Storm surge was particularly high due to the hydrology of the region, the hurricane's extreme size, and the fact that it weakened only shortly before landfall.
As Katrina moved inland diagonally over Mississippi, high winds cut a swath of damage that affected almost the entire state.
Katrina stayed at hurricane strength in Mississippi, but it soon weakened.
It lost hurricane strength more than 150 miles (240 km) inland, near Meridian, Mississippi.
Katrina was then lowered into a tropical depression near Clarksville, Tennessee and broke in half.
One half of the storm continued to race northward, affecting the Central United States, and it was last noticeable in the eastern Great Lakes region.
On August 31, it was absorbed by a frontal boundary and became a powerful extratropical low, causing 1.97–6.69 inches (50–170 mm) of rain in 12 hours.
It also caused gale-force wind gusts from 31 to 61 mph (50 to 98 km/h) in southeastern Quebec and northern New Brunswick.
In the region of Saguenay and Côte-Nord, rain caused breakdowns and failure in roads.
The Côte-Nord region was isolated from the rest of Quebec for at least 1 week.
However, the other half of Katrina broke off in the eastern part of the Appalachians, which caused a major tornado outbreak in the area from central Georgia to central Pennsylvania.
The tornadoes were strong, killing two people and creating heavy damage.
Hydrometeorological Prediction Center's archive on Hurricane Katrina
Storm histories of tropical cyclones
Troposphere is the lowest layer of the Earth’s Atmosphere.
It extents up to 20 kilometers above the earth’s surface.
It contains 75% of the atmosphere's mass and 99% of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols.
This layer is rich in oxygen.
The temperature drops from an average around 62°F (17°C) to -60°F (-51°C) at the troposphere.
The transitional area between the troposphere and stratosphere is called the tropopause.
The troposphere is made up of approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases, which include carbon dioxide, methane, neon, krypton, argon, helium, and hydrogen.
The air in the troposphere is warmest closest to the earth and colder at higher elevations.
Most of the dust particles in the earth's atmosphere are found in the troposphere
Troposphere Citizendium
Rapid deepening is a condition that happens when the minimum sea-level atmospheric pressure of a tropical cyclone goes down at lot very quickly.
The National Weather Service describes rapid deepening as a decrease of 42 millibars in less than 24 hours.
However, this phrase is usually applied to most storms that are quickly becoming stronger.
Doppler radar uses the Doppler effect to measure the speed (radial velocity) of targets.
Radial velocity is how fast the target is coming towards, or going away from, the radar.
The Doppler effect will shift the received frequency up or down, based on the radial velocity of a target in the beam.
This gives a direct and highly accurate measurement of target velocity, but only the radial velocity.
Doppler radar by itself doesn't measure the azimuthal velocity (how fast it is going in other directions).
The horseshoe crab or king crab is a benthic or bottom-dwelling creature.
It is not a crab at all, but a relative of the arachnids.
Its main habitats are coastal areas and river estuaries.
Limulus polyphemus is the best-known of the four species.
On its dome-shaped carapace, the horseshoe crab has four small eyes.
It has two compound eyes at the sides of the carapace, and two simple eyes on the front.
A horseshoe crab has twelve legs: five pairs of walking legs and a set of tiny pincers.
The long, spiky tail is not used as a weapon or for defense; instead, it is just used for steering and flipping the body over if it gets turned upside down.
Atlantic horseshoe crabs, Limulus polyphemus, can be found all over the eastern coast of North America and Mexico.
Buried under mud or sand, they eat small clams, crustaceans, and worms.
All over the coast, you will find their shells washed up on shore.
Some of these shells are quite big, as the horseshoe crab can grow up to two feet long and a foot wide.
Horseshoe crabs go through moults to reach that size.
The horseshoe crab population ranges from the Yucatán Peninsula to northern Maine, but they are most commonly found in the mid-Atlantic region between Virginia and New Jersey.
Each major estuary along the coast has its own horseshoe crab population, distinguished from one another by size, colour and eye pigment.
The females lay about 100,000 eggs.
Other species
The other three species are also called horseshoe crabs.
The Japanese horseshoe crab (Tachypleus tridentatus) is found in the Seto Inland Sea, and is considered an endangered species because of loss of habitat.
Two other species occur along the east coast of India: Tachypleus gigas and Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda.
All four are quite similar in form and behavior.
Eaten as food
The horseshoe crab has an effective immune system.
Its brackish maritime environment is a perfect home for bacteria.
The blood of horseshoe crabs contains an enzyme that causes very rapid clotting in response to the presence of infectious bacteria.
This response is used by medical and pharmaceutical companies to detect those kinds of bacteria in products, before the products are sold.
Horseshoe crabs are relatives of the Eurypterids (sea scorpions), whose first fossils appeared at the same time.
They are quite ancient.
They were definitely present in the early Ordovician, 450 million years ago, in a Burgess Shale-type environment.
Their body shape has not changed much since then, though fossils in this group are scarce.
The Atlantic horseshoe crab itself has no fossil record at all, and the genus Limulus goes back only some 20 million years, not 200 million.
The order they belong to, the Xiphosura, are basal to a clade of the Eurypterida and the Arachnida.
It is estimated that the Xiphosura diverged from the Arachnida 480 million years ago.
It is clear that there has been evolution and adaptation within the general body form.
From about 200 million years ago, little visible change took place. "
Limulus... is morphologically very similar to forms that lived about 200 million years ago". "
The living species in the genus Limulus, are virtually identical to fossil species in a different family that existed 150 mya".
Genetic and molecular analysis of Limulus makes it clear that the animal has just as much genetic variability as any normal species.
An Atlantic hurricane is a tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean, usually in the Northern Hemisphere during the summer or autumn, with one-minute maximum sustained winds of at least 74 mph (64 knots, 33 m/s, 119 km/h).
When applied to hurricanes, "Atlantic" generally refers to the entire "Atlantic basin", which includes the North Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.
Most Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanes form between June 1 and November 30.
The United States National Hurricane Center monitors the basin and gives out reports, watches and warnings about tropical weather systems for the Atlantic Basin as one of the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers for tropical cyclones as defined by the World Meteorological Organization.
On average, 10.1 named storms form each season, with an average of 5.9 becoming hurricanes and 2.5 becoming major hurricanes (Category 3 or greater).
The climatological peak of activity is around September 10 every season.
Hurricane Wilma of 2005 was the most powerful hurricane ever recorded in history.
Tropical Cyclone Forecasters' Reference Guide
NHC Tropical Cyclone Climatology
Monthly Mean Sea Surface Temperatures
Hurricane Preparation Guide
The population was 3,358 at the 2000 census.
On the peninsula, Buras is higher, with Triumph southeast of Buras.
Buras-Triumph has become famous as the location where, on August 29, 2005, at 6:10 AM CDT, the eye of Hurricane Katrina made its strongest landfall.
However, the storm surge and high winds began on the previous day, August 28, 2005.
During those 2 days, the area was destroyed as a result.
Unincorporated communities in Louisiana
The Dry Tortugas are a small group of islands.
They are at the end of the Florida Keys, United States.
They are about  west of Key West, and  west of the Marquesas Keys, at , the closest islands.
Still farther west is the Tortugas Bank, which is now underwater.
The islands were discovered in 1513 by Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León.
They are an unincorporated area of Monroe County, Florida and belong to the Lower Keys Census County Division.
With their surrounding waters they make up the Dry Tortugas National Park.
Topographic and Floristic Change of the Dry Tortugas Keys, with description and areas of keys
Dry Tortugas National Park by Park Vision  A Photographic Guide to the Park.
Dry Tortugas Satellite View Google Maps
History and Ecology of Mangroves in the Dry Tortugas
Aventura is a city found in the northeastern part of Miami-Dade County, Florida.
The city name is from the Spanish word for "adventure," and was named "Aventura" because that was the name of the original group of condominium developments in the area.
The name predates the well known mall (Aventura Mall) built near the condominium developments.
According to the U.S Census estimates of 2006, the city had a population of 30,027.
The Florida Keys is an archipelago of about 1700 islands in the southeast United States.
They begin at the southeastern tip of the Florida peninsula, about 15 miles south of Miami, and extend in a gentle arc south-southwest and then westward to Key West, the westernmost of the inhabited islands, and on to the uninhabited Dry Tortugas.
The islands lie along the Florida Straits, dividing the Atlantic Ocean to the east from the Gulf of Mexico to the west, and defining one edge of Florida Bay.
At the nearest point, the southern tip of Key West is just 98 miles (157 km) from Cuba.
The Florida Keys are between about 23.5 and 25.5 degrees North latitude, in the subtropics.
The climate of the Keys however, is defined as tropical according to Köppen climate classification.
More than 95 percent of the land area is in Monroe County, but a small portion extends northeast into Miami-Dade County, primarily in the city of Islandia, Florida.
The total land area is 355.6 km² (137.3 sq mi).
As of the 2000 census the population was 79,535, with an average density of 223.66/km² (579.27/sq mi), although much of the population is concentrated in a few areas of much higher density, such as the city of Key West, which has 32% of the entire population of the Keys.
Rattlesnake Key
Tavernier
Matecumbe Key
Craig Key
Fiesta Key
Long Key
Conch Key
Duck Key
Grassy Key
Deer Key
Vaca Key
Boot Key
Bahia Honda
West Summer land Key
Ohio Key
Big Pine Key
Torch Key
Ramrod Key
Summerland Key
Cudjoe Key
Sugarloaf Key
Saddlebunch Keys
Big Coppitt Key
Boca Chica
A Gazetteer of the Florida Keys
City of Key West
Historical photographs of the Florida Keys
History of the Conch Republic
National Park Service: Dry Tortugas
NOAA Marine Sanctuary
Crane Point Museum & Nature Center
The Reporter newspaper
The Keynoter newspaper
The Key West Citizen
Climatology is the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time, and is a branch of the atmospheric sciences.