the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
From 1795 to 1918, Poland was not an independent country.
The partitions of Poland divided it into three parts between Russia, Prussia (Germany) and Austria-Hungary.
Piłsudski was born in the Russian part.
The government tried to make Poles become Russian but Piłsudski was born in a noble family of patriots, that wanted Poland to be an own independent country.
In 1887 he got into trouble for helping people who tried to overthrow the Russian Tsar.
For that he was sent to Siberia.
When he came back from there he got more and more involved in politics.
Later Piłsudski became a soldier and wanted to make Poland independent again.
At the beginning of World War I, people who agreed with Pilsudski helped Austria-Hungary, because they preferred it to Russia.
Piłsudski created a Polish army in Austria called the Polish Legions.
Piłsudski is famous for leading the I. Brigade of the Polish Legions.
When they stopped helping Austria-Hungary and Germany, Piłsudski was arrested.
When the War was over, he was freed.
He came to Warsaw in November 1918 and helped to organize Poland, which now existed again after 123 of partition.
Then, for a short time, he became its leader (not president but head of state).
Gabriel Narutowicz became Poland's first president, but he was assassinated a few days later and Stanisław Wojciechowski became the next president.
Piłsudski was shocked and left politics for a few years.
Poland's situation was not good and the politicians argued a lot.
Many people, especially the soldiers, wanted Piłsudski back, so he told Wojciechowski to resign.
When Wojciechowski said no, Piłsudki took over with the help of the Army.
Parliament elected Ignacy Mościcki, Piłsudski's close friend to be the new president. .
Together, they changed the Polish constitution and made other changes which made Poland stronger in the 1920s and 30s.
Today, Piłsudski is remembered as a heroe.
He has many statues and streets named after him.
Childhood and youth
Joseph Piłsudski, was born in 5 December 1867 in Zułowo in Lithuania, into a patriotic family.
His father, Joseph Wincenty (1833-1902), had fought in the January 1863 Uprising against the Russian rule of Poland-Lithuania.
His mother - Maria (1842-1884) - came from a famous family.
He had a daughter, Jadwiga Piłsudska (1920-2014).
Piłsudski was a patriot since he was very young and often had problems with the Russian teachers in his school.
In his youth he got involved with Polish and Russian revolutionaries that planned to overthrow the Russian government and was sent to Siberia for helping them.
In Siberia he met many Polish Soldiers that fought for Independence in the 1863 uprising against Russia.
Early Political Life
After his return from Siberia, Piłsudski created the Polish Socialist Party, that wanted to bring Poland back.
They also wanted workers to be treated fairly.
He wrote newspapers for the party and reminded Polish workers of their old homeland.
His party had paramilitary organizations that made protests and uprisings against Russian officers and generals from time to time.
Piłsudski personally took part in the famous Bezdanny Raid, where Piłsudski and his friends took a lot of money from a train that belonged to the Tsar.
With the money Piłsudski bought weapons and started preparing for the coming World War.
Piłsudski hoped that during the war Russia and Germany would fight against each other, giving Poland a chance to return.
When World War 1 broke out, Piłsudski lead his armies on the side of Austria.
Piłsudski's Polish Legions won many battles for Austria and Germany against Russia and this made them respect Poland, allowing the existance of a Polish State in 1916.
Piłsudski's Brigade (I. Brigade) is also the subject of the famous Polish military song "My pierwsza brygada" which is the current anthem of the Polish military and very popular in Poland.
When Piłsudski decided that Poland must be indepenent from Germany too, he was arrested and brought to a fortress in Magdeburg, Germany in 1917.
He was released at the end of the war in November of 1918.
When Piłsudski returned to Poland, he was celebrated by masses of happy people.
He was and is loved as a heroe in Poland to this day.
On 11.
November Piłsudski declared that Poland is an independent country again, after 123 years of Poland not existing on the map.
Politics in Independent Poland
After Poland started to exist again, Piłsudski was the leader of Poland.
In Russia a revolution broke out during World War 1 that deposed the Tsar and later the government.
The new soviet Russia was communist and wanted to conquer Europe, included Poland.
When in the year 1920 the soviet red army was at the gates of Warsaw, Poland's capital, Piłsudski sent his soldiers to battle the red army and defeated them.
This battle is celebrated in Poland every year.
After the war with Russia was over, Piłsudski gave his power to the new democratic government of Poland in 1922.
Unfortunatly, the first president was killed only 2 days after he became President.
Piłsudski was very disappointed and sad, so he left politics and spent time with his family in their house in Sulejówek (a part of Warsaw).
The new governments of Poland were very weak and Poland was becoming pooerer and poorer.
Many people missed Piłsudski and wanted him to become the leader of Poland again.
When Piłsudski organized a demonstration in 1926 asking the President to resign, fights broke out between Piłsudski's supporters and the president's supporters.
Finally, Piłsudski won the fights and was the leader of Poland again.
His friend, Ignacy Mościcki was elected President by the Polish parlaiment.
Piłsudski's government was called "Sanacja" which means "healing", because they wanted to heal Poland of its problems and bad situation.
Under Piłsudski life became better in Poland and after some years, Poland was a strong country in Europe again.
Unfortuantly, Józef Piłsudski died in 1935 because of cancer.
He was suceeded by General Edward Rydz-Śmigły, a soldier that fought for Piłsudski during World War 1.
1935 deaths
First battle of Panipat – Babur becomes Mughal emperor of India, captures Delhi, and invades Northern India.
Beginning of the Mughal Empire which would last until 1858.
26 September 1511
Sir Isaiah Berlin OM, FBA (6 June 1909 – 5 November 1997) was a British philosopher.
He was born in Riga, Latvia, which at the time was a part of the Russian Empire.
He was Jewish, and was the first Jew to win the prize of a fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford University.
Isaiah Berlin was an important person of the 20th century.
People see him as an important thinker of Liberalist ideas.
He was made a member of the Order of Merit and was a professor at the University of Oxford.
He made a distinction between positive liberty and negative liberty.
His most famous work is probably Two Concepts of Liberty (where he introduced this distinction.)
He died 5 November 1997.
Jewish British academics
Jewish British scientists
Latvian Jews
People from Riga
Latvian writers
Latvian scientists
The Guru Granth Sahib , also called Adi Granth, is the holy book of the religion Sikhism.
It contains prayers, and hymns of Sikh religion.
Sikhs believe the Guru Granth Sahib to be a living Guru, hence the Guru Granth Sahib has its own place also commonly known as 'Sach Khand' (the Heaven).
The name of the book is made up of three words.
The first word is Guru, and a Guru in Sanskrit language means a teacher.
Granth is a word of Hindi, and this means a book.
The third word Sahib is a word of Urdu language and it means master.
Thus, the Guru Granth Sahib means a Master Book by the Teacher.
The Guru Granth Sahib, is a collection of hymns of the first five "Sikh Gurus", the "Ninth Guru", and various saints, or bhagats Sikhs and others such as Baba Farid.
But what makes it so significant is that it has the solution to every problem in the World.
The Granth teaches us how we should live, and promotes a modern ideology.
This is why it makes it so important to Sikhs.
It is written in the language called Gurmukhi.
The first composition in the Guru Granth Sahib is Mool mantar by Guru Nanak Dev Ji.
Zeno of Elea was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher of southern Italy.
He was born about 490 BC and died about 430 BC: the exact dates are not known.
Zeno a member of the Eleatic School founded by Parmenides.
Aristotle called him the inventor of dialectic.
He is best known for his paradoxes, which Bertrand Russell has described as "immeasurably subtle and profound".
According to Proclus in his Commentary on Plato's Parmenides, Zeno produced "not less than forty arguments revealing contradictions", but only nine are now known.
Zeno's arguments are perhaps the first examples of a method of proof called reductio ad absurdum, literally meaning to reduce to the absurd.
This destructive method of argument was used by him to such an extent that he became famous for it.
490s BC births
Zeno of Citium (sometimes called Zeno Apathea) (333 BC264 BC) was a Syrian philosopher.
He was the student of Carates of Thebes, who was the most famous cynic at that time.
He started the Stoic school of philosophy.
333 BC births
264 BC deaths
The Iron Curtain is a term related to the Cold War.
It means the border between the states that were members of the Warsaw Pact (in Eastern Europe), and those that were not (then called The West).
At the end of World War II Austria, Germany and Berlin were divided into four zones.
In 1955, a treaty was signed.
The treaty said that the Allied forces must leave Austria.
In return, the Austrian government promised to do certain things, like not form a territorial union with Germany and recognise certain minorities, amongst others.
The whole of Europe was separated into a Soviet Union zone in the East and a neutral or US-dominated zone in the West.
The splitting of Europe, Germany and especially Berlin into two political blocks was part of the Cold War between the United States of America and other western countries on one side and the Soviet Union and its allies on the other.
The wartime Allied Forces split after their common enemy, Nazi Germany, was defeated in May 1945.
The idea of the Iron Curtain was referring to the separation of the communist Europe compared to the democratic west, it was the idea that what was happening in the satellite states and in Russia was secret to the rest of the world.
Satellite state refers to a country being controlled by another, in this case Russia was controlling countries such as Hungary, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and others which were previously controlled by Germany in WW2.
The idea of the Iron Curtain was made public by Winston Churchill, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, in 1946 when he was invited to speak at American University by Harry S. Truman (the American president at the time).
Churchill's speech was seen by Nikita Khrushchev; leader of the USSR from 1958 until 1964 as a declaration of war, as Churchill urged a struggle against the Soviet Union.
Homepage for Susanna Lapossy's book Life Behind the Iron Curtain (about Iron Curtain times in Hungary)
The civilization was in the subcontinent.
It was discovered by archaeologists in the 1880s.
It developed along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River and even  that areas are now in modern Pakistan, north-west India and Afghanistan.
The civilization started during the Bronze Age and the height of its development was between 2500 BC and 1500 BC.
Including the civilizations directly before and after, it may have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th century BC.
The Indus Valley civilization covered a large area  from Balochistan (Pakistan) to Gujarat (Republic of India).
The first city to be discovered by excavation (digging up) was Harappa and therefore this civilization is also known as 'Harappan Civilization'.
They were good builders.
The ruins of the site shows skillful design.
Their buildings had two or sometimes more stories.
The bathrooms were attached to the rooms.
One of the unique features of the city was its elaborate drainage system.
A brick-lined drainage channel flowed alongside every street.
Removable bricks were placed at regular intervals for easy cleaning and inspection.
The harappan traders used seals on the knots of the sacks to be transported to make sure that they were not opened during the journey.
Nobody knows how to read their writing system.
In 1842 Charles Masson wrote a book that mentioned the sites of Indus Valley Civilisation.
Few people paid attention.
Later, in 1921-22, John Marshall organised the first archaeological dig at Harappa.
Sumer is the earliest known civilization in southern Mesopotamia (in modern-day southern Iraq).
They may have been one of  the first civilizations in the world, as were Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley.
Sumer started around 3500 BC.
The Sumerian civilization grew along the Tigris and Euphrates.
This land was good for growing food.
Sumerian culture is famous for its written cuneiform script - where letters were formed by pressing a triangle shaped reed into wet-clay tiles.
They are also credited with creating the wheel, and dividing a day into 24 hours, and each hour into 60 minutes.
The earliest texts come from the cities of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr and date back to 3300 BC.
Early cuneiform script writing emerged in 3000 BC.
Sumerian communities were organized into city-states, each ruled by a priest or king, until Akkad conquered them in the third millennium BC.
One of the most famous Sumerian cities was Ur (not the same city as Uruk, but near it).
Relations with the Akkadians
The Sumerians lost their identity with their language around 2000 BC, because a large group of different people, the Amorites, moved into their region.
The Sumerian language continued as a religious language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, for as long as cuneiform was used.
The Sumerians made their clothing by using the natural resources that were available to them.
Clothing was made from wool or flax which Sumerians could raise and harvest.
How thick or how coarse the clothing was related to the season in which it was worn.
Heavier clothing was worn in the winter, lighter clothing in the summer.
Men were bare-chested and wore skirt-like clothes that tied at the waist.
Women usually wore dresses that covered them from their shoulders to their ankles.
The right arm and shoulder were left uncovered.
Men were either clean shaven or had long hair and beards.
Women wore their hair long, but they usually braided it and wrapped it around their heads.
When entertaining guests, women placed headdresses in their hair.
Although both rich and poor Sumerians wore the same style of clothing, the richer Sumerians wore clothing that was made out of expensive and luxurious materials.
Rich women and princesses also wore clothing that was colorful and bright.
Both men and women wore earrings and necklaces.
During celebrations, even more jewelry was worn.
The wealthier Sumerians often wore beautiful gold and silver bracelets and earrings.
Sumerians also wore necklaces with bright, precious stones.
Some of these stones were lapis lazuli and carnelian.
Cingular Wireless was a mobile phone company from United States.
Cingular is now  owned by AT&T.  AT&T Mobility LLC (usually called AT&T) is fully owned by AT&T and provides wireless service to more than 120 million users in the United States, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
AT&T Mobility is the second largest mobile phone company in the United States behind Verizon Wireless, which has more than 130 million users.
American telephone companies
Companies based in Atlanta, Georgia
Zeno (emperor) (c.425–491), Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire 474–491
Zeno of Citium (333–264 BC), Hellenistic philosopher of the Painted Porch, founder of Stoicism
Zeno of Elea (c.490–c.430 BC), Hellenic Eleatic philosopher, follower of Parmenides and famous for his paradoxes
Zeno of Sidon (first century BC), Epicurean philosopher
Zeno of Tarsus (third century BC), Middle Stoa philosopher
St. Zeno of Verona (c.300–c.380), Roman Catholic Saint and an early Christian Bishop or martyr
The Zeno brothers (fourteenth century), Antonio, Carlo, and Nicolò Zeno, Venetian navigators
Nicolò Zeno (younger), publisher of the Zeno map
Zeno's paradoxes, paradoxes by Zeno of Elea
Zeno (crater), a lunar impact crater
Zeno programming language, an imperative procedural programming language designed to be easy to learn and user friendly
Quantum Zeno effect, an effect in quantum mechanics which disallows certain conditions in the decaying of a quantum state
Diogenes (Διογένης) is a Greek name.
It can refer to different people:
Diogenes of Sinope (412-323 BC), better known as Diogenes the Cynic or simply Diogenes
Diogenes Apolloniates (about 460 BC), philosopher
Diogenes the Stoic (Diogenes of Seleucia on the Tigris) (c. 150 BC)
Diogenes Laertius (between 200-500 AD), historian
Diogenes of Oenoanda (2nd Century AD), Epicurean
Diogenes of Judea (about 100-76 BC), general and advisor for Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus
Diogenes of Babylon, Greek philosopher
Diogenes (duke of Syrmia), duke of Syrmia (11th century)
Mystery Science Theater 3000 (MST3K) was a comedy television series.
It was made in the U.S. state of Minnesota from 1988 to 1999.
The series was at first made for a local station in Minnesota.
It was later moved to Comedy Central, and then The Sci-Fi Channel.
The series was about a man (originally Joel Robinson, played by Joel Hodgson, the show's creator, and later Mike Nelson, played by Michael J. Nelson, the show's head writer), who is put in a spaceship by an evil scientist.
He was forced to watch some of the worst movies ever made.
Joel makes some robots to keep him company.
Two of the robots, named Crow T. Robot (played by Trace Beaulieu and, later Bill Corbett) and Tom Servo (played by Josh Weinstein and later Kevin Murphy), watch the movies with him.
While the movie is shown, the three make jokes and comments about the movie they watch.
Satellite News - The Official Mystery Science Theater 3000 Web Site
Complete episodes on Google video
MST3K Wiki
1988 American television series debuts
1999 American television series endings
Netflix original shows
Blaze Starr (born Fannie Belle Fleming; 10 April 1932 – 15 June 2015) was an American stripper and burlesque star.
In the 1950s, she became well known in the United States.
Besides her burlesque dancing, her affair with Governor Earl Long of the state of Louisiana got her more popularity.
Starr was born in rural Wayne County, West Virginia.
She lived in Washington, D.C. and in Baltimore, Maryland during her youth.
Affair with the Governor
When Blaze Starr first met Governor Long in 1958, her first feeling was fear.
She was afraid she was going to jail when the Governor of Louisiana walked in with the police during a dance.
When the Governor and the police gave Blaze a standing ovation, she was dumbfounded.
Blaze had never known a politician who went to a show bar for any reason other than to cause the dancers trouble.
After her show, the Governor asked for her to come to his table.
They became friends.
Their relationship quickly grew into a love affair.
Soon coworkers, reporters, and voters all knew of the affair.
Mrs. Blanche Long, the Governor's wife, told hospital people that Earl was crazy and had him put away.
She thought this would make Earl end the affair with Blaze.
The affair continued until the day Earl died in 1960.
Her life was exciting and full of adventures.
In the 1950s, stripping was more of an art form.
It was not just women taking off their clothes to get men into bed.
Blaze was close to her family.
Blaze met her perfect match when she met Earl.
He accepted her life style and she accepted his.
They fulfilled each other's needs for companionship, compassion, and love.
Starr died on June 15, 2015 at her home in Wilsondale, West Virginia.
She was 83 years old.
She had been worried about the health of her dog, whom she adopted as a stray.
Her sister, Cathy Fleming, believed this stress, along with a "severe heart condition", killed her.
Her dog died hours later.
Blaze Star Gems  (official site)
American adult models
Comedians from West Virginia
American erotic dancers
The Zip drive is a data storage device.
The company Iomega introduced it in late 1994.
Originally it only supported 100 MB disks, but later versions began to support 250 MB and 750 MB disks.
Higher capacity Zip disks must be used in a drive with at least the same capacity ability.
Generally, higher capacity drives also handle all lower capacity media.
However, it is slower to write data on a 100 MB disk with a 250 MB Zip drive than with a 100 MB Zip drive.
Zip drives can transmit data to the computer in various ways.
Internal drives have been made with IDE and SCSI interfaces.
External drives can use SCSI, parallel port or USB interface.
Zip disks are thicker than 3.5" (9 cm) floppy disks.
Nevertheless, zip disks are quite similar in appearance to regular floppy disks.
This means the Zip drive slot is large enough to accept such a floppy disk.
However, they are not interchangeable.
storage devices
Cosmetics (also called makeup, make up, or make-up) are products used to make the human body look different.
Often cosmetics are used to make someone more attractive to one person, or to a culture or sub-culture.
In Western culture, women are the main users of cosmetics.
Their use by men is less frequent, except on stage, television and movies.
Cosmetics are widely used in the world of acting.
All cosmetics are temporary.
They need to be renewed after a certain time.
Cosmetics include lipstick, powders (e.g. blush, eyeshadow), and lotions as well as other things.
Facial cosmetics
Most cosmetic products and methods are intended to improve the look of the face.
There are two categories: those which improve the basic quality of the skin, and those which sit on the skin during active social life.
Skin care
The purpose here is to clean the skin, improve its basic quality, and prepare it for the application of make-up.
Products are of these types:
Cleansers, used to remove make-up and clean the skin.
Toners, used to remove oil from the skin and close the pores on the skin.
Moisturizers, used to make the skin soft and to reduce evaporation of water from the skin.
Primers, used to prepare the surface for the later application of make-up.
Concealers, to mask flaws or slightly modify the colour of the skin.
Foundation, a product which holds face-powder in place.
More generally, it create an even, uniform colour, covers flaws and adjusts the natural skintone.
These are the cosmetics which the viewer actually sees on the face (or other parts of the body).
They are some or all of these:
Rouge or blusher: talcum-based reddish powder, to give a more youthful appearance.
Used mainly to emphasize the cheekbones, sometimes to redden the cheeks.
Very ancient, used by the ancient Egyptians.
Face powder.
Or translucent powder applied with a powder puff, brush or sponge, it comes in all shades to match skin.
Eye make-up.
Hand care: manicure and nail polish
History of cosmetics
The word cosmetics comes from the Greek κοσμητικός (kosmētikos), "skilled in ordering or arranging".
Archaeological confirms use of cosmetics in ancient Egypt and Greece.
Cosmetics used included:
Castor oil used by ancient Egypt as a protection balm.
Skin creams made of beeswax, olive oil, and rosewater, used by Romans.
Vaseline and lanolin in the nineteenth century.
Nivea Creme was the first stable water-in-oil emulsion, 1911.
The Ancient Greeks also used cosmetics.
Cosmetics are mentioned also in the Old Testament.
Men who think makeup is dishonest sometimes call makeup fakeup.
The Napoleonic Wars were wars which were fought during the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte over France.
They started after the French Revolution ended and Napoleon Bonaparte became powerful in France in November 1799.
War began between the United Kingdom and France in 1803.
This happened when the Treaty of Amiens ended in 1803.
These wars changed European military systems.
Cannons became lighter and moved faster.
Armies were much larger, yet had better food and supplies.
They were very big and destructive, mainly because of compulsory conscription.
The French became powerful very fast, and conquered most of Europe.
The French then lost quickly.
The French invasion of Russia failed.
The Napoleonic Wars ended with  the Second Treaty of Paris on 20 November 1815.
This was just after the Battle of Waterloo, a big battle that Napoleon lost.
Napoleon's empire lost the wars.
The Bourbon Dynasty ruled France again.
Some people call the time between 20 April 1792 and 20 November 1815 "the Great French War".
On one side was the First Empire of France, Kingdom of Italy, and others.
On the other side was Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Portugal, Spain, Sicily, and others.
1805-1812: Napoleonic Conquest of Europe
On 18 May 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned Emperor of the French at Notre Dame de Paris.
The following year, the Third Coalition started due to his self-proclaimed as emperor.
In response, Napoleon crowned himself King of Italy.
The Austrian Emperor, Franz I, angrily declared war on Napoleon, beginning the War of the Third Coalition.
The British destroyed the French navy at the Battle of Trafalgar in October.
In December the Austrians and the Russians allied, and fought the French at the Battle of Austerlitz.
The Russo-Austrian army suffered a devastating defeat and had to sign a treaty with Napoleon.
In 1806, the War of the Fourth Coalition started.
The Kingdom of Prussia declared war on France first but was crushed by Napoleon's troops at the Battle of Jena.
Napoleon captured Berlin before the Russians could help.
In 1807, Napoleon defeated the Russian army at the Battle of Friedland, ending the Fourth Coalition.
In 1809, the War of the Fifth Coalition began when Austria declared war on Napoleon.
In the early phases of the war, the Austrians had advantage of the war, but later the French captured Vienna, ending the Fifth Coalition.
At the height of his power in 1810, Napoleon had controlled France, Spain, northern Italy, Germany, all the way to Russia.
In 1808, the Peninsular War began when Napoleon crowned his brother Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain and fought British, Spanish, and Portuguese troops.
In 1809, the Finnish War began between Russia and Sweden when Sweden and Portugal did make peace with France.
This led to the annexation of Finland by Russia and decisive failure for Sweden.
In 1811, France and Russia made disagreements again and Napoleon allied with Prussia and Austria and invaded Russia.
1812: Invasion of Russia/The War of 1812
Napoleon staged a French invasion of Russia in 1812 just as the United States and Britain started the War of 1812.
It was in Russia that Napoleon was first checked in his conquest of Europe, at the huge Battle of Borodino.
However, the Russians had to retreat and abandon the capital, Moscow, to the advancing French troops.
Napoleon found Moscow empty and burning.
The cold winter along with starvation from scorched earth tactics devastated Napoleon's army.
Napoleon's weakened Grande Armee had to retreat to Paris through the Russian freezing winter, but was finally defeated by the Russians.
Prussia and Austria declared war after Napoleon's failure, beginning the War of the Sixth Coalition.
In the latter 19th century, Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace and Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky's music piece 1812 Overture depicted  the Patriotic war and celebrated the resistance and liberation of Russia.
Meanwhile, the much smaller War of 1812 started between Britain and the United States over maritime issues.
It continued until 1815, neither side gaining anything.
Revolutions in Latin America made independent states of most of the Spanish Empire in America.
1813-1814: Battle of Leipzig and First Restoration
The British, Spanish, and Portuguese had pushed Napoleon's forces out of Spain following the Battle of Vitoria.
The Allies (consisting of Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria) defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig and captured Paris in 1814.
The brother of King Louis XVI had already proclaimed himself French king, Louis XVIII, and was sent by the Prussian forces to Paris and crowned Bourbon king.
Napoleon was forced to abdicate.
1815: Battle of Waterloo and Hundred Days
Napoleon was later exiled to Elba and was nearly assassinated.
But then he and 200 other men escaped back to Paris and forced Louis XVIII off the throne, beginning Hundred Days.
The former Coalition members formed the Seventh Coalition and the Duke of Wellington of Great Britain defeated Napoleon again at the Battle of Waterloo with the help of the Prussians in 1815.
Louis XVIII was returned to the throne again, and the Second Restoration began.
A cantata is a type of singing which is done accompanied by an instrument(s).
By contrast, a cappella specifically refers to unaccompanied singing.
The word(cantata) etymologically comes from the Italian word “cantare” which meant “to sing”.
The word “cantata” was used mainly in the 17th and 18th century to describe music with religious words that were sung by a choir or by soloists or both, accompanied by instruments.
The most famous cantatas are those by Johann Sebastian Bach.
Nearly all his cantatas are sacred(written for church services).
Very often he used Lutheran hymn tunes (chorales) for the first and last movements.
In between there are movements for solo singers: recitatives and arias.
A famous example is Bach's cantata no 80 which is based on the chorale “Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott(“A safe stronghold our God is still”).
The whole work is about being safe in the hands of God.
This is what the sermon would have been about.
The congregation would join in singing the chorale towards the end of the cantata.
Other composers, such as Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725) wrote cantatas which were secular(not religious).
The word “cantata” has also been used in the 20th century by composers such as Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) and Benjamin Britten (1913-1976).
A clavichord is a musical instrument like a small keyboard.
It was very popular for many years, especially in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.
The clavichord is a very quiet instrument.
It is not suitable for playing with other instruments because it is so quiet.
But it sounds very beautiful in slow, expressive music.
It is used as a practice instrument by harpsichord players, or by organists who wanted to practice at home instead of in a (often very cold) church.
They were so small that they could be lifted up and put on a table.
They could be put one on top of another so that an organist could practise music written for a two-manual organ.
Sometimes, they even had pedals for organists to practice this skill.
Many German composers like Johann Sebastian Bach wrote music for the “Clavier”.
This meant any keyboard instrument: harpsichord, clavichord or organ.
The player could choose which they wanted to use.
When the piano suddenly became popular – in the 1760s and 1770s – people started to forget about harpsichords and clavichords.
Today a few people make harpsichords and clavichords again so that people can play Renaissance and Baroque music - the music from when the clavichord was popular.
Harmony means playing several notes together to make “chords”.
The word comes from the Greek harmonia meaning "to join things up" .
A tune by itself can sound nice, but it can be “harmonized” by adding an accompaniment of chords.
Studying how to do this is called harmonization.
Music students learn which chords sound nice after one another.
These are called “chord progressions”.
Many music theorists have written books about harmony.
Music which is made of a tune with harmony underneath is called “homophonic”.
In a way it is the opposite of polyphonic which means that each part (each voice) is a tune in itself.
However, even polyphony needs to make pleasant harmony.
Harmony as we know it in European music had become fully developed by the Baroque period (17th century).
One can play a chord with three notes using the 1st, 3rd and 5th notes of the scale of whatever key the music is in.
This gives a chord which sounds like the “home chord”.
This means that at least three notes are needed for harmony.
In most homophonic music there are four: for example a choir will normally divide into soprano, alto, tenor and bass, or a string quartet will divide into violin 1, violin 2, viola and cello.
If music is not in any key at all, like in some music by Arnold Schoenberg, it is “atonal”.
Harmony can be atonal.
This article is about the weapon.
For other meanings, see Bow (disambiguation).
A bow is a weapon used to shoot arrows.
It is used in hunting, sport, and a long time ago, war.
Using a bow is called archery.
A person who uses a bow is an archer and a person who makes bows is a bowyer.
A bow is  a long curved stick and a string which is tied to both ends.
Ancient bows were made of natural materials like wood or bone and sinew, but today they are often made of plastic and similar materials.
To shoot a bow, the arrow is put on the bow, with one end to the string, which is pulled back.
When the string is let loose, it throws the arrow forwards.
There are many different ways that people protect themselves from arrow attacks.
The Roman Army, for instance, had the testudo formate, or tortoise formation.
They first made the shields lock into a somewhat tortoise like formation, which provide a shell that was make out of shields.
The arrows would eventually run out, and the Romans would charge.
Nuclear physics is the part of physics that studies the nucleus of the atom.
Everything on the earth is made up of atoms; they are the smallest part of a chemical element that still has the properties of that specific element.
When two or more atoms combine they create what we know as the molecule, which is the smallest part of a chemical compound which still has the properties of that specific compound.
Understanding the structure of atoms is key in studies such as physics, chemistry, biology, etc.
Atoms are made up of electrons, neutrons, and protons.
The protons and neutrons are in the center of the atom, which is called the nucleus.
The protons and neutrons are the heaviest part of the atom and make up most of its mass.
The electrons move around the nucleus very quickly, making what is called an electron cloud.
The electron cloud has a very small mass, but it makes up most of the space of the atom.
The electrons have a negative charge, and the protons have a positive charge.
Due to the charges in the atom, that is how the atom stays together, by attraction of the electric charges present in the atom.
Atoms have different features that single out one atom from another, and show how each atom can change in different conditions.
These properties include atomic number, mass number, atomic mass and weight, and isotopes.
Forces acting
In an atom there are three fundamental forces that keep atoms together.
electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force.
The electromagnetic force keeps the electrons attached to the atom.
The strong nuclear  force keeps the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus.
The weak nuclear force controls how the atom decays.
In the early 20th century, scientists had trouble explaining the behavior of atoms using their current knowledge of matter.
So to deal with this they made a brand new way to view matter and energy, and they called it quantum theory.
Quantum theory explains how matter acts both as a particle and a wave.
Atoms emit radiation when their electrons lose energy and drop down to lower orbitals.
The difference in energy between the orbitals determines the wavelength of the given radiation.
This radiation can be shown by visible light or shorter wavelengths.
The Seljuk Empire was an empire of the Seljuk Turks and a Muslim dynasty.
It ruled parts of Central Asia and the Middle East from the 11th to the 14th centuries.
It was founded by Tughril Beg in 1037.
The Seljuk Empire stretched from Anatolia to Pakistan.
It was replaced by the Khwarezmian Empire in 1194.
The Seljuk Empire united the eastern Islamic world, and fought in the Second Crusade.
The Seljuk Empire made several long lasting changes.
These affected the region even after the empire was gone.
Among them was making Farsi the language for history and events.
They also shifted the center for the Arabic language culture from Baghdad to Cairo.
Former empires
Medieval Azerbaijan
11th-century establishments in Asia
14th-century disestablishments in Asia
Central Asia is a region in Asia.
The countries in Central Asia are Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan (which are mainly Turkic states) but also includes Tajikistan, and parts of China and Mongolia.
Caucasia is also part of Central Asia.
The United Nations also includes Afghanistan as part of Central Asia.
People have lived in the region of Central Asia since prehistoric times.
Most of the region was part of the Silk Road.
It was a part of the Persian Empire until Alexander The Great captured it.
When he died, the land was given to his general Seleucus.
Seleucus slowly lost it to the Parthians.
When the Parthians (the Parthians were Persians) lost power, the Sassanids added it to their own Persian empire.
However, a couple years later, during about the 600's A.D, Arab armies spreading the faith of Islam quickly captured it.
A while later, an Iranian dynasty got semi- autonomy under the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad.
They were known as the Samanids.
The Samanids controlled most of Central Asia and Northwestern Iran.
They had power over this area during the 10th century.
With them, Central Asian cities, such as Bukhara and Samarkand, grew in culture.
However, Turkic armies from this area took the region away from them.
They were known as the Seljuk Turks.
At the same time, Timur captured it.
After his death, the Timurids ( the name of the people of the dynasty Timur founded) could not hold unto their empire.
They lost it to the Mongols.
When the Mongols captured it, burned it to the ground.
A while later, some rulers decided to make their own empires under that of the Mongols.
These empires were known as Khanates.
During the 19th century the Russian Empire conquered these lands.
Many years later in 1991, all of the countries of Central Asia declared independence.
Uzbekistan has much cotton.
Kazakhstan is rich because it has sold oil, gas and metals to Europe and China.
Turkmenistan has adjusted better to independence from the Soviet Union than the other Central Asian countries, but it has been run by a dictatorship.
Other than Kazakhstan, most of Central Asia are mostly underdeveloped.
East Turkestan (Xinjiang, China)
Kashmir (Northern Pakistan and India)
Tajikistan (South-central Asia)
Turkmenistan (South-central Asia)
Mongolia (and Inner Mongolia, China)
Soviet Central Asia
General Map of Central Asia: I from 1874
Turkestan (Turkish: Türkistan, Kazakh: Түркістан, Uzbek: Turkiston, Turkmen: Türküstan, , Chinese: 突厥斯坦, literally "Land of Turks") is a region of Central Asia around the Caspian Sea and Aral Sea.
Much of it is currently in China.
During the 20th century, much of it was in the Soviet Union.
Welcome to Turkistan
Regions of Asia
Mesoamerica (literally, "central  America") is a geographical region.
It begins from around the Tropic of Cancer in central Mexico and ends near Costa Rica.
The term is especially used to mean the native peoples and cultures that were there before the Spanish took over that region.
The cacao tree is native to this area.
The cathode ray tube or CRT was invented by Karl Ferdinand Braun.
It was the most common type of display for many years.
It was used in almost all computer monitors and televisions until LCD and plasma screens started being used.
A cathode ray tube has an electron gun.
The cathode is an electrode (a metal that can send out electrons when heated).
The cathode is inside a glass tube.
Also inside the glass tube is an anode that attracts electrons.
This is used to pull the electrons toward the front of the glass tube, so the electrons shoot out in one direction, making a cathode ray.
To better control the direction of the ray, the air is taken out of the tube, making a vacuum.
The electrons hit the front of the tube, where a phosphor screen is.
The electrons make the phosphor light up.
The electrons can be aimed by creating a magnetic field.
By carefully controlling which bits of phosphor light up, a bright picture can be made on the front of the vacuum tube.
Changing this picture 30 times every second will make it look like the picture is moving.
Because there is a vacuum inside the tube (which has to be strong enough to hold out the air), and the tube must be glass for the phosphor to be visible, the tube must be made of thick glass.
For a large television, this vacuum tube can be quite heavy.
The cathode ray tube was invented in 1897, and used as an oscilloscope (a machine to show waves).
Later, along with other inventions and improvements, it was used for the first modern electronic television by Philo T. Farnsworth in the 1920s.
The CRT was the main type of television screen until the liquid crystal display became popular in the early 2000s.
Recitative (Italian: “recitativo”) is music which is telling a story quite quickly, as if it were being spoken, "talky".
The word means: “to recite” i.e. to tell a story.
Recitative is used in opera, oratorio and cantatas.
When opera was invented around 1600 the composers needed to tell the story in music.
In recitative the story is sung quickly, with maybe just a harpsichord playing a few chords.
After a while, the situation in the story has changed, and the singer can sing an aria which is more interesting musically.
When recitative is just accompanied by a keyboard instrument it is called “recitativo secco” (dry recitative).
Sometimes the orchestra joins this.
This is called “recitativo accompagnato” (accompanied recitative).
There are no bar lines in recitative because there is no regular beat.
Recitative is simple musically, it can sometimes describe the words being sung in quite interesting or amusing ways.
Sometimes this might be improvised by the harpsichordist.
In the 19th century the difference between aria and recitative gradually disappeared.
Wagner wrote operas where everything had musical interest and the various sections flowed into one another.
Ancient India had a long-lived civilization and culture.
It covered several countries including modern-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
The Indus Valley Civilization flourished from about 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE.
It marked the beginning of the urban civilization on the subcontinent.
It was centred on the Indus River and its tributaries.
During the Maurya Empire, founded in 321 BCE, most of the Indian subcontinent was united under a single government for the first time.
Ashoka the Great who in the beginning sought to expand his kingdom, then followed a policy of ahimsa (non-violence) after converting to Buddhism.
The Edicts of Ashoka are the oldest preserved historical documents of India, and under Ashoka Buddhist ideals spread across the whole of East Asia and South-East Asia.
Main events
1500 BC – 600 BC: Composition of the Vedas and the Brahmana
700 BC – 300 BC: Composition of the Upanishads
527 or 526 BC: Death of Mahavira, the historical founder of Jainism
Late 6th century: Darius (King of summoners rift), the Persian king, conquers parts of Ancient Pakistan
486 BC: Death of Buddha; Chinese tradition records 483 BC
400 BC: Panini composes first Sanskrit grammar
4th century BC – 4th century BC: Composition of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata
327 BC – 25 BC: Alexander the Great invades Indus valley region (now Pakistan).
321 BC – 181 BC: Chandragupta Maurya founded Maurya Empire
300 BC: Megasthenes (Greek) visits the Maurya king
300 BC: Composition of the Arthashastra, though some scholars date the work to 100 AD
268 BC – 233: BC Reign of Ashoka the Great
185 BC – 75 BC: Sunga dynasty reigns over central Republic of India
2nd century BC – 3rd century BC: Buddhism and Jainism influences in India at its peak
1st Century BC – 1st century AD: Shakas, Parthians and Kushana invade Indus valley region
1st Century BC – 2nd Century AD: Satavahana rule
58 BC – 57 BC: Vikrama Samvat era begins
Chera, Chola & Pandiya Kingdoms in South
78 AD: Beginning of the Shaka era
1st – 3rd century: Reign of the Kushan dynasty; first depiction of Jaina tirthankara and muti-armed Hindu deities
4th-5th century: Vaktaka rule over central India and the Deccan
4th - 6th century: Gupta period in most part and central modern present Republic of India (never included the Pakistan regions), however this was the Golden Age of India era of the Gangetic valley
500 AD: Ajanta completed
5th – 7th century: Spread of Vaishnavism, especially Krishan cult; emergence of worship of local deities; emergence of Tantrism
5th – 6th century: Invasion of Huns in ancient Pakistan regions
6th - 17th century: Rule of the Rajputs in different regions of West India.
6th century: Kalachuri dynasty rules the western coast of modern India
6th - 8th century: Pallava dynasty in southern India; rock-cut architecture begins in the south; temple building flourishes at Mamallapurama and Kanchipuram
6th-10th century: Tamil devotional poetry
7th – 8th century: Decline of Buddhism in ancient Pakistan and the northern Republic of India; revival of Hinduism
7th – 10th century: Rashtrakuta dynasty rules over northern part of the Deccan
Early 8th century: Arab merchants settle on the coast of Sindh (now a part of Pakistan) and the Indian state of Gujarat
8th – 12th century: Pala dynasty rules in Bihar, Bengal and large part of eastern India
10th - 17th century: Rule of the Rajputs in different regions of West India.
788 – 820 AD: Life of Adi Shankaracharya
1018 AD : First Muslim ruler - Mahmud Ghazni raids India.
1947 - The Dominion of India becomes independent
1950 - The modern Republic of India is established
The partition of India divided British India into the countries of India and Pakistan (East and West Pakistan) in 1947.
That was part of the end of British Raj, British rule in the Indian subcontinent.
One reason for partition was the two-nation theory, which was presented by Syed Ahmed Khan and stated that Muslims and Hindus were too different to be in one country.
Pakistan became a Muslim country, and India became a majority-Hindu but officially-secular country.
The main supporter for partition was Muhammad Ali Jinnah; he became the first Governor-General of Pakistan.
Millions of people moved across the new Radcliffe Line between the two newly-formed states.
The population of British India in 1947 was about 570 million.
After partition, there were 370 million people in India, 170 million in West Pakistan and 30 million people in East Pakistan.
Once the lines had been established, about 14.5 million people crossed the borders to what they hoped was the safety of their religious majority.
The 1951 Pakistani Census showed the number of displaced there at 7,226,600.
They were presumably Muslims who had entered Pakistan from India.
Similarly, the 1951 Indian Census showed 7,295,870 displaced people, apparently Hindus and Sikhs who had moved to India from Pakistan.
Both numbers add up to 14.5 million.
Other people came from China to take advantage of the open border.
The newly-formed governments were unable to deal with the forced migration of such huge numbers.
Massive violence occurred on both sides of the new border.
Hundreds of thousands died; some estimates are in the millions.
The partition caused a lot of uncertainty in many parts of the new nations, especially in the region of Jammu and Kashmi, parts of which went to both countries, which went to war several times to try to take the whole region.
20th century in Bangladesh
World Heritage Sites are places in the world which are very important from a cultural or natural point of view.
A part of the United Nations called UNESCO selects these sites.
The World Heritage Convention ("Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage") is a United Nations treaty.
It governs how World Heritage Sites are selected and protected.
Nations that have agreed to the treaty elect 21 countries to the UNESCO World Heritage Committee.
That committee sets the list of sites.
Each site is a place or a thing (such as a forest, mountain, lake, desert, monument, building, complex, or city). ,
there were 1007 sites in 161 different countries.
These included 779 cultural sites, 197 natural sites, and 31 mixed properties (which are both naturally and culturally important).
Italy has 50 World Heritage Sites - more than any other country.