the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
However, when one of these properties is measured it has only one specific value (which cannot be definitely predicted), and the wave function is therefore in just one specific state.
This is called wave function collapse and seems to be caused by the act of observation or measurement.
The exact cause and interpretation of wave function collapse is still widely debated in the scientific community.
where  is the square root of -1,  is the reduced Planck's constant,  is time,  is a position,  is the wave function, and  is the potential energy, an as yet not chosen function of position.
The left hand side is equivalent to the Hamiltonian energy operator acting on .
Time independent Version
Assuming that the wave function, , is separable, i.e. assuming the function of two variables can be written as the product of two different functions of a single variable:
where the first equation is solely dependent on time , and the second equation depends only on position , and where  is just a number.
The first equation can be solved immediately to give
where  is Euler's number.
Solutions of the second equation depend on the potential energy function, , and so cannot be solved until this function is given.
It can be shown using quantum mechanics that the number  is actually the energy of the system, so these separable wave functions describe systems of constant energy.
Since energy is constant in many important physical systems (for example: an electron in an atom), the second equation of the set of separated differential equations presented above is often used.
This equation is known as the Time independent Schrödinger Equation, as it does not involve .
Interpretations of the Wave function
Born Interpretation
There are many philosophical interpretations of the wave function, and a few of the leading ideas will be considered here.
The main idea, called the Born probability interpretation (named after physicist Max Born) comes from the simple idea that the wave function is square integrable; i.e.
This rather simple formula has great physical implications.
Born hypothesized that the above integral determines that the particle exists somewhere in space.
But how can we find it?
We use the integral
where  is the probability of finding the particle in the region from  to .
In other words, all that can be known in advance about a particle in general are probabilities, averages, and other statistical quantities associated with its physical quantities (position, momentum, etc.).
Basically, this is the Born interpretation.
Copenhagen Interpretation
An extension of the above ideas can be made.
Since the Born interpretation says that the actual position particle cannot be known, we can derive the following.
If  are solutions to the wave equation, then the superposition of those solutions, i.e.
is also a solution.
This implies, then, that the particle exists in every possible position.
When an observer comes and measures the position of the particle, then the superposition is reduced to a single possible wave function. (
i.e.,  → , where  is any of the possible wave function states.)
This idea that a particle's position cannot exactly be known, and that a particle exists in multiple positions simultaneously gives rise to the Uncertainty principle.
The mathematical formulation of this principle can be given by
Where  is the uncertainty in position, and  is the uncertainty in momentum.
This principle can be mathematically derived from the Fourier transforms between momentum and position as defined by quantum mechanics, but we will not derive it in this article.
Other Interpretations
Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) is a species of evergreen tree in the genus Myristica.
It is found in tropical Southeast Asia and Australia.
Nutmeg powder can  cause allergic reactions.
Pulau Run is an island in Indonesia.
It is one of the smallest Islands of the Banda Islands.
It is about 3 km long and less than 1 km wide.
It used to be of great importance, because of the value of the spices nutmeg and mace.
Both spices are from the same tree.
The trees were only grown on the Banda Islands.
During the history of the spice trade sailors of the British East India Company of the second expedition of James Lancaster, John Davis and John Middleton who stayed in Bantam on Java first reached the Island in 1603.
They made good contacts with the people who lived there.
The Treaty of Westminster ended the First Anglo-Dutch War of 1652–1654.
According to the treaty, Run should have been returned to England.
The first attempt in 1660 failed due to formal constraints by the Dutch; after the second in 1665 the English traders were expelled in the same year and the Dutch destroyed the nutmeg trees.
After the second Anglo-Dutch War of 1665–1667 England and the United Provinces of the Netherlands agreed in the Treaty of Breda to the status quo: The English kept the island of Manhattan which a fleet sent by the Duke of York (the future Charles II), had occupied illegally in 1664 and renamed from New Amsterdam to New York.
Run was officially given to the Dutch.
The Dutch monopoly on nutmeg and mace was destroyed by the transfer of nutmeg trees to Ceylon, Singapore and other British colonies in 1817 after the capture of the main Island Bandalontor in 1810 by Captain Cole.
This led to the decline of the Dutch supremacy in the spice trade, but there are still nutmeg trees growing on Run today.
Milton, Giles.
Nathaniel's Nutmeg: or the True and Incredible Adventures of the Spice Trader Who Changed the Course of History.
Penguin, 1999.
Shinty a traditional game now mainly played in the Scottish Highlands.
It involves 2 teams of twelve players using a stick (known as a "caman" from Scottish Gaelic) to put a ball in the opposing team's net.
It was once played over all Scotland but is now played mostly in the Scottish Highlands and Highland communities in the big Scottish cities.
It is also played in universities and in America by enthusiasts.
An Interesting Site about the Sport
The Camanachd Association website.
Sport in Scotland
February 18 – The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor signs a ten-year truce with al-Kamil, regaining Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem with neither military engagements nor support from the papacy.
March 18 – Sixth Crusade of Emperor Frederick II ends in truce with Sultan al-Kamil and coronation of Frederick as King of Jerusalem.
Catalans capture island of Majorca from Muslims.
University of Paris strike of 1229.
Foundation of the University of Toulouse in Toulouse, France.
Founding of the city of Turku, Finland.
January 17 – Albert of Buxhoeveden, German soldier
Yaqut al-Hamawi, Arab biographer and geographer (born 1179)
September 30 – Nurhaci, chieftain of the Jurchens and founder of the Qing Dynasty dies and is succeeded by his son Huang Taiji.
November 18 – The new St Peter's Basilica in the Vatican is consecrated, the anniversary of that of the previous church in 326.
Spanish establish a trading colony on Taiwan.
Peter Minuit, director of the New Netherland colony, begins a policy of "purchasing" Manhattan from the Lenape.
Work begins on building the sailing ship Vasa.
The Duchy of Urbino is incorporated into the Papal States.
The English Parliament impeach George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, favorite of Charles I of England.
Charles I dissolves Parliament.
The Dutch settle Manhattan, founding the town of New Amsterdam.
The town would transform into a piece of what is now New York City.
In New England, the Town (later City) of Salem, Massachusetts is founded at Naumkeag
February 3 – death of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster
September 30 – Accession of Henry IV of England
October 13 – Coronation of Henry IV of England
November 1 – Accession of John VI, Duke of Brittany
October 13 – Roman Emperor Claudius dies after being poisoned by Agrippina, his wife and niece.
Nero succeeds Claudius as emperor of Roman Empire
Patriarch Onesimus succeeds Stachys the Apostle as Patriarch of Constantinople.
Judea is returned piecemeal to Agrippa I's son Marcus Julius Agrippa between 48 and 54.
Saint Paul begins his third mission.
Apollos, a later assistant of Paul, is converted to Christianity in  Ephesus
Maiden Castle, Dorset in Dorset was captured from the Celtic Durotriges by Vespasian.
48 is a year in the 1st century.
It was a leap year starting on Monday  of the Julian calendar.
At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Vitellius and Poplicola.
Roman Emperor Claudius makes Agrippa II superintendent of the Temple in Jerusalem
Probable date of the Apostolic Council
The Silures, with the help of Caratacus, revolt against the Romans in Britain.
The Hsiung-nu empire ends
Gallic nobles are admitted to the Roman Senate
Ts'ai Lun, inventor of paper (d. 121)
Ulpia Marciana, sister of emperor Trajan (d. 112)
Valeria Messalina, third wife of emperor Claudius
Pompey - military and political leader of Roman Republic
Dogen Zenji establishes the Eiheiji temple in Japan, in doing so founding the Soto sect of Zen Buddhism.
Sultan Malik al-Muattam razes city walls.
James I of Aragon reconquers Altea, Spain.
July 6 – Mindaugas is crowned as King of Lithuania.
July – William II, Count of Holland defeats the Flemish army at Westkapelle.
A series of naval wars begins between the Italian city-states of Genoa and Venice, which will continue sporadically until 1371.
King Henry III of England meets with English nobles and church leaders to reaffirm the validity of the Magna Carta.
Pope Innocent IV returns to Rome, having left nine years earlier in 1244 to depose Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, and being unable to return until after Frederick's death due to the agitation throughout Europe caused by that action.
Having rebuffed the armed forces of Conrad IV of Germany, Pope Innocent IV offers Sicily to Edmund, son of King Henry III of England.
Galicia becomes a vassal state to the expanding Mongol Empire.
January 19 – Dogen, Japanese founder of the Soto school of Zen Buddhism
August 11 – Clare of Assisi, Italian follower of Francis of Assisi (born 1194)
October 9 – Robert Grosseteste, English statesman and theologian
Theobald IV of Champagne (born 1201)
Saint Richard of Chichester
King Henry I of Cyprus (born 1217)
Amadeus IV of Savoy (born 1197)
July 22 – English under the Duke of Buckingham invade the Ré Island in support of the Huguenots in La Rochelle.
The invasion does not go well.
A Dutch ship makes the first recorded sighting of the coast of South Australia.
The aurochs are hunted to extinction, the last being killed by poachers in Poland.
England places the first European settlers on Barbados.
Siege of La Rochelle begins
Korea becomes a tributary state of China
January 10 – Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud executed for treason on Tower Hill, London.
January 14 – English Civil War: Fairfax appointed Commander-in-Chief.
January 29 – English Civil War: Armistice talks opened at Uxbridge.
February 2 – Covenanters defeated by Montrose at the Battle of Inverlochy
February 15 – English Civil War: New Model Army is founded officially
February 29 – English Civil War: Uxbridge armistice talks failed.
March 4 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert left Oxford for Bristol.
March 31 – Fearing the spread of the plague, Edinburgh Town Council bans all gatherings except weddings and funerals
April 3 – Lords pass Self-Denying Ordinance.
April 10 – Because of the plague, Edinburgh town council orders that the college graduation ceremony should be brought forward so that students can leave the city (in November 19, teaching continues in Linlithgow)
April 23 – English Civil War: 150 Irish soldiers bound for service with King Charles, were captured at sea by parliamentarians who celebrated St George's Day by joyfully killing them all at Pembroke.
May 9 – Covenanters defeated by Montrose at the Battle of Auldearn.
June 1 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert' army took sacked Leicester
June 10 – English Civil War: Cromwell confirmed as Lieutenant-General of Cavalry.
June 14 – English Civil War: Battle of Naseby – 12,000 Royalist forces are beaten by 15,000 Parliamentarian soldiers
June 28 – English Civil War – the Royalists lose Carlisle.
July 2: Fight at Alford, Aberdeenshire.
July 10 – English Civil War: Cromwell won the Battle of Langport, Somerset.
July 23 – Alexei Mikhailovich, Tsar of Russia came to the throne.
September 10 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert surrendered Bristol.
September 13 – Covenanters defeated Montrose at the Battle of Philiphaugh, Selkirk.
September 24 – English Civil War: Parliamentarians defeated Royalist cavalry at the Battle of Rowton Heath.
October 8 – English Civil War: Final crushing of Basing house begun.
October 8: Jeanne Mance founds the Hôtel-Dieu de Montréal, the first hospital in North America.
October 11 – English Civil War The re-fortification of Bourne, Lincolnshire castle against threatened Royalist attack, was begun.
Siege of Raglan Castle during the English Civil War
The Long Parliament outlaws the 1559 version of the Book of Common Prayer
Beginning of the Maunder Minimum, a time period when sunspots became exceedingly rare
Founding of the Stolberg-Wernigerode branch of the family of counts of Stolberg and Wernigerode in Germany
Wallpaper begins to replace tapestries as a wall decoration
Mechanical calculating machine invented by Blaise Pascal.
Year 1072 (MLXXII) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
William I of England invades Scotland, and also receives the submission of Hereward the Wake.
Osbern FitzOsbern becomes Bishop of Exeter.
January 10 – Normans conquer Palermo in Sicily.
October – King Alexander III of Scotland defeats the Viking armada of King Haakon IV of Norway in the Battle of Largs.
King James I of Aragon conquers Crevillente, Spain from the Moors during the Reconquista.
Mindaugas, the only Christian king of Lithuania, is assassinated by his cousin Treniota.
The chieftains of the eastern part of Iceland become the last to pledge fealty to the Norwegian king, bringing a more complete end to the Icelandic Commonwealth and the Icelandic civil war.
Genoa captures the city of Chania on Crete from the Venetians.
Hulagu Khan is defeated in an attempted invasion north of the Caucasus.
Based on Magdeburg Law Żnin (Poland) was given city rights
Before May – Second Barons' War, a civil war in England, begins.
May 12 to May 14 – The Battle of Lewes of the Second Barons' War is fought between Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester and King Henry III of England in Sussex.
By the end of the battle, de Montfort's forces capture both King Henry and his brother, future King Edward I, making de Montfort the "uncrowned king of England" for 15 months before Edward escapes captivity and recaptures the throne.
June 18 – The Parliament of Ireland meets at Castledermot in County Kildare, the first definitively known meeting of this Irish legislature.
In Spain, King James I of Aragon reconquers the cities of Orihuela in Alicante and Elx in Valencia from the Moors, ending over 500 years of Islamic rule.
The Thuringian War of Succession ends.
The state of Hesse gains its independence from Thuringia and becomes a free state of the Holy Roman Empire.
In the Peerage of England, the title Baron de Ros, the oldest continuously held peerage title in England, is created by writ of summons.
May 26 – Prince Koreyasu, Japanese shogun (died 1326)
Pope Clement V (died 1314)
The Long Parliament passes a series of laws written to help keep Charles I's absolutist policies.
August 10 – Charles I of England runs from London to the north
Irish Rebellion of 1641 – revolt of the Gaelic Irish in Ulster against the English settlers
The Dutch found a trading colony on Dejima, near Nagasaki, Japan.
Portugal is ousted from Malacca by the Dutch.
Claudio Monteverdi's opera Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria is first performed.
Moses Amyraut's De l'elevation de la foy et de l'abaissement de la raison en la creance des mysteres de la religion is published.
The Norwegian city of Kristiansand was founded by King Christian IV
February – the Reverend Ralph Davenant dies leaving £100 in his will to start up a new school for the poor boys of Whitechapel, in the East End.
May – an eruption occurs at the volcano Krakatoa, probably on a relatively small scale.
July 8 – The first documented tornado in America kills a servant at Cambridge, Massachusetts.
August 21 – Pueblo Indians capture Santa Fe (New Mexico) from Spanish during the Pueblo Revolt.
November 17 – Whigs organize pope-burning processions in London.
November 23 – Great Comet of 1680 first sighted.
Chambers of Reunion (French courts under Louis XIV): decide on complete annexation of Alsace.
First Portuguese governor is appointed to Macau.
The Swedish city Karlskrona founded as the Royal Swedish Navy relocates there.
January 23 – Joseph Ames, English writer (died 1759)
February 14 – John Sidney, 6th Earl of Leicester, English privy councillor (died 1737)
February 23 – Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, French colonizer and Governor of Louisiana (died 1767)
April 9 – Philippe Néricault Destouches, French dramatist (died 1754)
June 22 – Ebenezer Erskine, Scottish religious dissenter (died 1754)
September 22 – Barthold Heinrich Brockes, German poet (died 1747)
October 19 – John Abernethy, Irish Protestant minister (died 1740)
November 22 – Edward Teach (Blackbeard), pirate (died 1718)
date unknown – John Machin, English mathematician (died 1752)
February – Reverend Ralph Davenant, founder of Davenant Foundation School
Denzil Holles, 1st Baron Holles, English statesman and writer (born 1599)
Jan Swammerdam, Dutch scientist (born 1637)
February 22 – Catherine Monvoisin, French sorceress (born c.1607)
March 14 – René Le Bossu, French critic (born 1631)
March 17 – François de La Rochefoucauld, French writer (born 1613)
March 23 – Nicolas Fouquet, French statesman (born 1615)
march 4 – Shivaji, founder of the Maratha Empire (born 1630)
May 31 – Joachim Neander, German Calvinist clergyman (born 1650)
June 18 – Samuel Butler, English poet (born 1612)
June 10 – Johan Göransson Gyllenstierna, Swedish statesman (born 1635)
July 10 – Louis Moréri, French encylopedist (born 1643)
July 26 – John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, English poet (born 1647)
July 30 – Thomas Butler, Earl of Ossory, Irish naval commander (born 1634)
August 20 – William Bedloe, English informer (born 1650)
August 22 – John George II, Elector of Saxony (born 1613)
August 24 – Thomas Blood, thief of the English Crown Jewels (born 1618)
August 25 – Simeon of Polotsk, Belarusian churchman and poet (born 1629)
September 2 – Per Brahe (the younger), Swedish soldier and statesman (born 1602)
September 9 – Henry Marten, English regicide (born 1602)
September 10 – Baldassare Ferr, Italian castrato (born 1610)
Roger Crab, English Puritan political writer (born 1621)
Emperor Go-Mizunoo of Japan (born 1596)
October 4 – Pierre Paul Riquet, French engineer and canal builder (born c.1640)
October 30 – Antoinette Bourignon, Flemish mystic (born 1616)
November 27 – Athanasius Kircher, German Jesuit scholar (born 1602)
November 28 – Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Italian sculptor (born 1598)
November 28 – Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi, Italian architect and painter (born 1606)
December 4 – Thomas Bartholin, Danish physician, mathematician, and theologian (born 1616)
December 8 – Henry Pierrepont, 1st Marquess of Dorchester, English politician (born 1606)
January 28-Charlemagne, King of the Franks
The Manx language, also known as Manx or Manx Gaelic
The Manx people, an ethnic group in the Isle of Man
The Manx cat, a domestic cat breed
The Manx Shearwater, a seabird
The Manx Pound, the currency of the Isle of Man
Manx cattle, Manx horse, Manx pig and Manx sheepdog, some extinct animals from the Isle of Man
Manx Radio, the national radio station of the Isle of Man
A hierarchy (in ; this comes from -hieros, sacred, and -arkho, rule) is a way of ranking and organizing things or people.
Beneath the top of the hierarchy, each part of it is below some other part.
This turns out to be like a pyramid.
It is a system to decide who can make decisions, and who is forced to comply with those decisions.
An example with people would be the structure of a company.
There is the top manager, and there are a few levels of middle and lower management.
At the bottom are the common workers.
Another example would be an army that might have a general, followed by colonels, corporals, and sergeants, then privates.
In democracy this is done by educating people in the issues and then voting - in an election to choose leaders, or a referendum to actually choose one option from several.
Competing power networks each form a political party and each offers only one leader or one option to the public, to simplify the issues to make decisions possible.
After the decision, they typically do not fight it to the point of civil war, but wait for the next election.
In dictatorship this is done by asking one powerful person to make the decision and then agreeing to force everyone to follow it.
Any who will not are exiled, imprisoned, or killed, even if the decision is not very important, since the refusal to follow is taken as a challenge to the power structure itself.
There is only one power network and all others are forced to become part of it, or fight it.
Civil war is much more common in a dictatorship than in a democracy.
Sultan is a name for Islamic rulers.
The word sultan comes from the Arabic language.
It means "strength", "authority", or "rulership".
Later, it came to be used as the title of certain Muslim rulers who claimed full sovereignty.
They did not have to take orders from any higher monarch, without claiming the overall caliphate.
There is no specific word for a sultan's wife in Arabic.
The word, sultana began to be used (as the feminine version of the Italian word for sultano) in the 16th century in Italy, to describe the  wife, mother, daughter, or concubine of a sultan.
The Italian word also passed to other European languages.
The dynasty and lands ruled by the Sultan is called a sultanate.
During the 20th century, several Sultans in the Arab world changed their title to "Malik", which means "king" in Arabic.
The Republic of India is divided into twenty-eight States and eight union territories, including the National Capital Territory.
States and capitals
India-related lists
Finnish () is a Uralic language.
It is one of the two official languages of Finland.
It is also an official minority language in Sweden.
Finnish is one of the four national languages of Europe that is not an Indo-European language.
The other two are Estonian and Hungarian, which are also Uralic languages, and Basque.
The Finnish grammar and most Finnish words are very different from those in other European languages, because Finnish is not an Indo-European language.
The two other national languages that are Uralic languages as Finnish are  Estonian and  Hungarian.
Estonians and Finns usually may understand each other, but their languages are very different.
Even though Finnish and Hungarian are related languages, they do not look or sound similar.
The Finnish and Hungarian languages separated a long time ago, and each language developed its own vocabulary.
People who can speak Finnish cannot understand Hungarian without extra study, and Hungarians cannot understand Finnish.
However, there are some basic words that are very similar, for example: 'hand' (Finnish 'käsi' vs. Hungarian 'kéz') 'to go' (Finnish 'mennä' vs. Hungarian 'menni'), 'fish' (Finnish 'kala' vs. Hungarian 'hal').
Finnish is a synthetic and an agglutinative language.
This means that words in Finnish have a stem called "body", and other parts inside them which make up the meaning.
Finnish is similar in this respect to the Japanese language, Turkish language, and Latin language.
In Finnish, there are 17 cases/word types (sanatyypit).
You can think of a "case" as an ending added to a word that helps describe its purpose in the sentence.
Verbs have 5 tempora (present tense, past tense, perfect, pluperfect and future tense).
In addition, verbs have two participle (active and passive) cases.
Gerunds, which are nouns made from verbs (for example: reading - to read) also exist in Finnish (lukeminen - lukea), are abundant in Finnish.
Finnish is a complex, self-morphing language.
It has been ranked as a highly difficult language for native speakers of English by the U.S. Department of State.
The difficulty is due not only to the grammatical structure of the language, but also pronunciation and intonation as compared to English.
Finnish spelling and pronunciation
Finnish is pronounced the way it is spelled.
The pronunciation of some letters is similar to English.
'j' is like English 'y' in 'yes'
's' is like English 's' in 'sad' (never like 'z')
'h' is always pronounced, even at the end of a syllable e.g. 'ahdas' ('narrow')
double vowels make the sound long
'ä' is similar to 'a' in English 'cat'
'ö' is almost like English article 'a'.
It is pronounced with rounded lips, like 'eu' in French 'peur' or German 'ö'
the letter 'c' is not used.
It is replaced either by 'k' or 's' to avoid confusion and make writing simple.
the letter 'q' is not used.
It is replaced by either 'k' or 'kv' to make writing simple.
the letter 'y' is pronounced like the 'u' in French language, or 'i' in 'in' but with rounded lips, very close to 'ö'.
the letter 'z' is pronounced 'ts' as in German language.
It is often written as "ts" to make writing simple.
the letter 'x' is usually written out as 'ks' to make writing simple, for example in the word "taksi" instead of "taxi".
English speakers often exhale when saying letters like "k", "p", and "t".
They don't do this in Finnish, and to "swallow the sound", as the old saying goes, takes a lot of practice.
The proper pronunciation for the Finnish diphthongs (öy, yö, äy, eu, etc.)
is difficult.
Examples of Finnish words
Basic Finnish expressions
English-Finnish-English and Swedish-Finnish-Swedish dictionary
Sleep is a state of resting, which happens in animals, including humans.
During deep sleep, most of the muscles that animals can otherwise control are not active, but regain the energy for the next time they wake up.
Animals during sleep are usually in an unconscious, relaxed state.
Like most animals, healthy sleep in humans takes place at night.
Asleep describes the condition where animals are in the process of sleeping.
During this time, they will not react as quickly (if at all) as they would if they were awake.
They can, however, wake up from sleep more easily than from hibernation or coma.
All mammals, birds, many reptiles, amphibians and fish have a sleep cycle.
In humans, other mammals, and most other animals that were studied, regular sleep is essential for survival.
Sleep is extremely important to human health and well-being.
Humans and animals need sleep in order for their bodies to be prepared for the next day.
Everyday activities, one’s appearance, and how one expresses oneself all rely on this necessity.
If one is tired (from not getting enough sleep), one will not be able to function properly in common activities.
Being sleep-deprived leads to struggling to remember information, altering one’s mood, energy, health, focus and a number of other effects.
Sleep deprivation (not allowing a person enough sleep) can even be used as torture.
Also, the immune system releases compounds known as cytokines which are used to help fight inflammation and infection.
If a person does not receive enough sleep, they will not have enough cytokines to protect them from getting sick.
The body may not have time to complete memory recollection, muscle repair, and release hormones that regulate growth and appetite.
During daytime, the sun is out and most people are awake.
They work, go to school, or complete daily errands and activities.
Many people sleep for a short time in the early afternoon for a quick rest—or because they are not able to sleep during the day.
This is called a nap.
A successful nap should run between 15-30 minutes, and longer naps taking 30-60 minutes will result in feeling dazed and less attentive.
In some countries, most notably where the weather is warm, there is a tradition to take a nap right after noon, or early in the afternoon.
This tradition is called siesta, and is most common in Spain and Latin America.
Some stores and services close while their owners and/or employees take their siesta.
The word "sleep" comes from the old Old Germanic verbs for sleep.
In Old and Middle High German, it was called "SLAF".
The original meaning of the word was "to slap", which was related to the word for "flabby" (not hard or firm).
Many words related to "sleep" have very different meanings.
For example, "sleep" may be used to mean death, so that "putting an animal to sleep" means to kill the animal without pain. "
Sleep with someone" can also have a sexual meaning.
What sleep is for
Generally, the reason for sleep is that the brain needs it.
The details are not fully understood, but it is important to get enough sleep for the body and the brain to be healthy and to work properly.
In general, animals (and people) sleep at periodic intervals, such as once a day.
Certain animals send out signals to the others that they will soon go to sleep.
Yawning is such a signal.
Both humans and many animals sleep about once a day.
Some animals, such as cats, sleep many times a day for short periods up to 15 hours a day (or even longer).
When people sleep, they often have dreams.
Probably some animals do, too.
Not only people sleep, but all mammals and birds, and most fish, reptiles and other animals also too.
Brief stages of sleep
Stage 1: The lightest sleep of NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep which is the process of falling asleep.
Stage 2: The first stage of NREM sleep; the beginning of falling asleep including regular breathing and heart rates, the body temperature dropping, and becoming disconnected with the environment.
Stages 3: Deep NREM sleep which involves delta waves or slow waves.
It is difficult to wake one up in the course of this stage as they are in deep sleep.
Common disorders that occur during this stage are sleepwalking and talking.
Stage 4: The dreaming stage in which brain waves are more vigorous with rapid eye movement.
Awakenings are more common in REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep as opposed to NREM.
Different types of sleep
REM sleep
In mammals and birds, sleep can be divided into two categories.
In one of them, the eyes move rapidly.
It is called REM-sleep (rapid eye movement).
Most dreams take place in this phase.
as the body becomes relaxed and the eyes move while sleeping.
This phase helps prepare one for the next day.
REM-sleep occurs normally at intervals throughout the night, and the periods of REM-sleep increase in length in the second half of the night.
It is often encountered 90 minutes after falling asleep, and continues to occur every 90 minutes.
REM-sleep was first discovered in 195253.
REM sleep is found in mammals and songbirds, but is "poorly established" in reptiles and fish.
According to a survey:
"This remarkable similarity of characteristics may have resulted from a convergent evolution in mammals and songbirds".
NREM sleep
The other category, where this movement of the eyes does not happen, is called NREM-sleep (Non-REM sleep).
In general, dreams do not occur during this time.
There are three or four stages of NREM-sleep.
Stage I is just barely sleeping, or dozing.
Stage II is also light sleep.
Normally, in adult humans, about half of the time spent asleep is spent in light sleep.
Stages III and IV are called deep sleep.
Deep sleep is necessary for growth and healing.
It can be quite difficult to awaken someone who is in stage III or stage IV sleep.
Sometimes, stages III and IV are combined and called stage III.
Adult humans normally sleep in cycles of 90 to 110 minutes each.
The night's sleep can be 4 or 5 of these cycles.
Each cycle includes, in this order: stage I, stage II, stage III (IV), and REM.
Getting enough sleep
People who regularly get less than 8 hours of sleep a night tend to complain more and feel very fatigued throughout the day.
Getting the appropriate amount of sleep is extremely important, as it could affect one’s body and increase the chances of serious health problems.
For each age group, there are different amounts of sleep that are recommended:
The timing of sleep and the amount of it are both important.
Both are different for different people.
Some adults sleep best from 22:00 to 05:00 or 06:00 or 07:00.
Some sleep best from midnight to seven or eight.
These variations are normal.
How much sleep is enough also depends on age.
Newborn babies sleep about 18 hours per day.
Small babies sleep many times a day; human babies do not develop circadian rhythms before they are 3 – 4 months old.
At the age of 1 year, they sleep for about 14 hours.
A nine-year-old should sleep about 9–10 hours per day and teenagers, too, also need that much sleep.
Adults who sleep less than about 8 hours a day perform worse than those who sleep that long.
Poor habits could affect one’s sleep schedule in many ways without taking notice.
A few habits that are very common and ruin sleep are:
Overeating or being too full (since the digestive system will not work to digest those foods processed)
Sitting in front of a TV (since powerful light source produced by TV can prevent sleep)
Drinking too much (since it will cause one to use the bathroom multiple times during the night)
Going on a phone or playing a video game (since the artificial light from the screen simulates the mind and body)
Not having a bedtime routine
Any type of pain such as back, joint and tooth pain (these can making sleeping difficult and should be addressed quickly)
Having cold feet (it is better to wear something to keep warm in this case)
Using caffeine (since this can result in “all-nighters”)
Having stress (since this can keep the brain active at night, thinking of all the things on one’s mind)
Snoring (since one can be awaken by it)
Sleeping problems
A good night’s sleep is extremely important for one’s quality of life.
People may have trouble going to sleep, staying asleep or getting enough sleep.
This usually means that they are too sleepy in the daytime.
There are many things that influence sleep.
Also some substances, called stimulants – coffee is an example – can cause poor sleep.
When people have just eaten something, the body is busy digesting what they have eaten.
This can cause poor sleep, too.
Worrying and stress can also cause poor sleep.
There are many diseases that cause poor sleep.
Fever can lead to bad dreams.
Poor sleep can be a side effect of some medications.
Sleep disorders directly influence how a person sleeps.
Examples of sleep disorders are narcolepsy, sleep apnea and circadian rhythm sleep disorders.
Insomnia which consists of difficulties going to sleep at night, having no energy, waking up often in the middle of the night, waking up earlier than planned, and changing mood behaviors.
Sleep apnea which is due to the lack of breathing for several seconds which results in the brain awakening and forcing a respiratory effect to breathe harder.
As a result of the multiple occurrences during the night, the body cannot go back to sleep, leading to fatigue.
Restless leg syndrome is a need to move one’s leg while resting.
Having the urge to move one's feet during the night may affect the ability to fall and stay asleep.
Narcolepsy, the inability to control the brain’s sleep/wakefulness cycle which leads to daytime sleepiness and falling asleep at unexpected times.
Sleep specialists - doctors specialized in sleeping problems - often suggest better sleep hygiene to people with sleeping problems.
Sleep hygiene means things people can try, such as:
get to sleep quick and early
avoid extreme emotion in the hours before sleep
try to get up at the same time every day (sticking to a routine)
sleep in a cool, quiet and very dark place with the right mattress, lighting, blanket, pillow and temperature.
avoid bright light the last hour before bedtime.
Eat dinner at least 3 hours before bedtime so the digestive system has time to break it down.
avoid a big meal just before bedtime
get enough exercise every day
sleep in varying positions.
However, avoid sleeping on the stomach as it starts to flatten the curve of the spine, which can lead to severe lower back pains
American Academy of Sleep Medicine
National Sleep Foundation
World Sleep Foundation
National Center on Sleep Disorders Research
North Macedonia (Macedonian: Северна Македонија - Severna Makedonija) officially the Republic of North Macedonia (Macedonian: Република Северна Македонија - Republika Severna Makedonija (Albanian: Republika e Maqedonisë së Veriut ) is a country located on the Balkan peninsula and in Southeastern Europe.
It was part of Yugoslavia.
North Macedonia borders Serbia to the north, Albania to the west, Greece to the south, and Bulgaria to the east.
The country's currency is the Macedonian denar (MKD).
The capital and largest city is Skopje, with more than 500,000 residents.
It has many smaller cities.
Some important ones are Bitola, Prilep, Tetovo, Kumanovo, Ohrid, Veles, Stip, and Strumica.
North Macedonia is often called a land of lakes and mountains.
There are more than 50  lakes and sixteen mountains higher than 2000 meters above sea level.
North Macedonia is a member of the United Nations and World Trade Organization (WTO).
It joined NATO on 30 March 2020.
Since December 2005, it is a candidate for joining the European Union.
The language spoken by the majority of the population is Macedonian.
Albanian is also spoken by the Albanian minority (25%) living in the country.
North Macedonia has two official languages, Macedonian and Albanian (since 2019).
Ethnic Macedonians are Slavic peoples.
The Slavs invaded and settled the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries.
What is now North Macedonia used to be the Bulgarian occupation zone of Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
Vardarska Macedonia became a Communist state in 1945 and called itself the Socialist Republic of Macedonia in the southeastern part of the country of Yugoslavia.
When that country broke up in 1991, North Macedonia became independent.
In past centuries the territory which today is the Republic of North Macedonia was ruled by many different states such as Bulgaria and many other empires.
During the Yugoslav Wars, Macedonia was mostly peaceful.
However in 2001, fighting broke out between ethnic Albanians and Slavic Macedonians.
The fighting ended with the Ohrid Agreement.
Earliest Residents
People have been living in North Macedonia for over 1000 years[sic] (10,000 years).
The first people that lived in Macedonia were the Neolithic people.
They lived in Macedonia from 7000 to 3500 BCE.
From 1000 to 1 BCE, Dacians, Thracians,Illyrians, Celts, and Greeks inhabited Northern Macedonia.
Alexander the Great's Empire
The Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia was just hundreds of small, independent, city-states.
One example of a city state is Illyria.
They sometimes merged together, but not often.
One city-state that grew over time was the kingdom of Macedon.
The Greek kingdom of Macedon is best known for Alexander the Great.
He invaded and controlled the Middle East (excluding Arabia),Turkey, Greece, Egypt, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the Gujarat state of India.
However, when Alexander died in 323 BCE, at the age of 33, he lost his vast empire.
The empire was divided into 5 countries, Lysimachia (Macedon), Cassander (Northern Greece), the Antigonid Empire (Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Southern Greece), the Ptolemaic Empire (Egypt), and the Seleucid Empire (Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan).
Roman Rule
Towards the end of the 3rd century BCE, the Romans invaded the Balkan peninsula.
Illyria was taken over in 9 CE.
The North and East of Macedonia were taken over by the Roman Empire in the year 29 CE.
They became the Roman province of Moesia.
Starting in the 3rd century CE, the borders of Macedonia were being attacked by the Goths, Huns, Bulgars, Avars, and others.
In 395 AD, the Roman Empire split in two.
They were the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire).
Byzantine Rule
Although, Macedonia was part of the Byzantine Empire, there was little Byzantine influence.
In the mid-6th century, Slavic tribes started to settle in Macedonia.
From the 7th century to the 13th century, Byzantine Macedonia was governed by local princes and kings, allied with the Byzantine Empire.
In the 9th century, the Byzantine Empire brought Christianity to Macedonia.
The people who brought Christianity to Macedonia were saints Cyril and Methodius.
Their goal was to bring Christianity and the Cyrillic alphabet to Slavs in Europe.
Ottoman Rule
The Ottoman Empire was originally a small city-state in Turkey.
The city-state grew, and it invaded Adrianople in 1354.
From there, it expanded and took over Turkey.
Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, did not get invaded by the Ottomans until 1453.
After the Battle of the Maritsa River, the Ottomans conquered southern Serbia and Macedonia.
Macedonia was under Ottoman Rule until 1913.
Yugoslav Rule
After the Ottoman Empire dissolved, Macedonia became a part of the newly formed country Yugoslavia.
From 1914 to 1941, Yugoslavia was a monarchy.
During WW2, the Axis Powers took over Yugoslavia.
Macedonia was taken over by Bulgaria.
The Axis powers left Yugoslavia after WW2.
After WW2, Yugoslavia became a communist state.
Josip Broz Tito was the leader of Yugoslavia from 1944 to 1980.
In 8 September 1991, Macedonia became an independent state.
Naming dispute with Greece
Greece and the Republic of North Macedonia were arguing over the name Macedonia.
The United Nations calls the Republic of North Macedonia, "the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" (FYROM) (Macedonian: Поранешна Југословенска Република Македонија - ПЈРМ - Poranešna Jugoslovenska Republika Makedonija -PJRM).
The north and northeast part of Greece has been called Macedonia for ages and officially since 1912, just like Kent, the southeast county of England, has been called Kent for a long time. '
FYROM' is also used by NATO and many other international organisations.
But, many countries now call the country 'Republic of Macedonia'.
The United Kingdom, for example, uses Republic of Macedonia in the diplomatic list.
On 17 June 2018, North Macedonia and Greece agreed to the Prespa agreement which would see the country change its name to the Republic of North Macedonia.
The government started completing the constitutional change needed to change the country's name, which was completed on 12 February 2019.
North Macedonia is a democratic country with a parliament.
360° Virtual tour of North Macedonia
People with anorexia think that they are fat, or desperately fear becoming fat even if they are very skinny.
To try to lose weight, anorexics do not eat enough.
When they do eat, they do not eat the amount of food their body needs, in an effort to avoid gaining weight.
This causes them to lose too much weight too quickly.
This is very harmful to a person's body.
There are various treatments for anorexia.
One example is the Maudsley Method.
This type of treatment is for patients who are 18 or younger.
Two thirds of adolescent anorexia patients are 'recovered' at the end of this treatment.
People with anorexia are more likely to die than people with any other mental illness.
Doctors use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders to make a medical diagnosis and decide if a person has anorexia or not.
Four signs of anorexia are listed in the manual.
People do not have to show all four signs for the doctor to decide that they have anorexia.
Signs of anorexia
People with anorexia do not want to keep a body weight and BMI that is normal for their age and height.
People with anorexia think that they are fat.
They are afraid of gaining weight.
People with anorexia have low self-esteem because of the shape or weight of their body.
Also, they do not think that low body weight is a problem.
A woman with anorexia might not have their period multiple months in a row (one period is sometimes called a menstrual cycle).
They also must make sure the woman is not pregnant and has not had their periods stop permanently due to their age, which is called menopause.
Symptoms of anorexia
Rapid, unexplained weight loss
Refusal to maintain a healthy weight
Low self-esteem and distorted self-image
Frequent weighing, "body-checking", or negative comments on appearance
Amenorrhoea, the loss of menstrual periods
Low pulse, blood sugar and blood pressure
Dangers of anorexia
Total self-starvation
Heart attack or heart failure
Electrolyte imbalance
Muscle and organ damage (when the body has no fat to live off of, it begins to digest muscle and tissue)
There is no single cause of anorexia.
Researchers believe that it is caused by a combination of biological and environmental factors.
It has been linked to the media.
Many people think that anorexia is caused by wanting to be thin like models in magazines.
However, it is not that simple.
People who develop anorexia tend to be perfectionistic.
They are also more likely to have problems socializing.
There has been research about the link between anorexia and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), a disorder that involves problems with socializing.
Another symptom of autism spectrum disorder is OCD, which has also been linked to anorexia.
Starvation is known to create antisocial behavior so there needs to be research that compares those traits in anorexics with people who have recovered.
Madness (or Insanity)  is a word that can have different meanings:
Up to about the 19th century someone who acted strangely, or outside the socially accepted norms was called mad or insane.
This could range from having bizarre ideas to someone having delusions or hallucinations, as they are common in some mental illnesses, such as psychosis.
Today, those having delusions or hallucinations (or other mental illnesses) are sometimes called mad or insane by people who are not doctors.
Doctors say they have "mental disorders
Certain diseases, such as rabies, lead to a markable change in behaviour.
An animal that suffers from rabies is sometimes called rabid or mad.
Usually, people (and animals) die from it (it is fatal).
There is no cure for it.
People who are treated soon after becoming infected have a chance to survive.
The disease is transmitted through the saliva and the blood.
The usual form of getting it is a bite of a rabid mammal.
Pets, like dogs need to be vaccinated against it, in most countries.
There is no cure for Rabies.
There is a vaccine (medicine to try to prevent rabies) against it.
The vaccine was first developed by Louis Pasteur and Pierre Paul Émile Roux in 1885.
This vaccine used a live virus grown in rabbits, and weakened (through drying it).
The first person to be vaccinated was Joseph Meister (a 9-year-old boy who had been bitten by a dog).
Vaccines similar to this are still used today, but other vaccines (growing the virus using cell cultures) are more used.
There is also a form of treatment that can be done once a person has been bitten.
It needs to be done within 6 days of being bitten.
There is no way to know whether someone is infected, until it's too late.
Treatment starts with washing the wound.
This is done to reduce the number of virus particles that enter the body.
Often patients are given one dose of immunoglobulin and a certain number of vaccines, over a determined period of time, usually a month.
History of Rabies in Los Angeles
Human-to-human transmission of rabies via a corneal transplant -- France.
MMWR 1980;29:25-6
Javadi MA, Fayaz A, Mirdehghan SA, Ainollahi B. Transmission of rabies by corneal graft.
Cornea.
1996 Jul;15(4):431-3.
Manbir Online
CNN News report of CDC news release - July 1, 2004.
Associated Press report: Families of rabies transplant victims react to deaths - July 3, 2004
BBC News Europe Report: Romanian killer bear had rabies - 19 October, 2004.
First Unvaccinated Rabies Survivor Goes Home - January 3, 2005
Rabies Information
Rabies - A Comprehensive Guide
World Health Organization factsheet on Rabies
World Health Organization factsheet on Rabies vaccine
Rules for importing pets to the United Kingdom
A Rabies-Free World, Inc.  - NPO dedicated to fighting rabies worldwide
Rules for importing pets to the European Union
Rules for importing pets to the European Union Q&A
Aspen Skunk Rabies Research
"When Raccoons Attack" from Field & Stream Online
“Only Known Unvaccinated Rabies Survivor Thrives” (USA Today) Progress report on the one known survivor of rabies
Tirana ( or Tirana) is the capital city of Republic of Albania.
It is the largest city in that country.