the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
One of the new attractions of the city is das Tietz.
The former department store was constructed in 1912/1913.
Today the Museum for Natural History, the public library, an adult education centre, a gallery and the Petrified Forest are here.
Chemnitz had an ICE connection for a short time, until 2006.
Chemnitz is part of the railway line Dresden - Chemnitz - Hof - Nuremberg which is called 'Franken - Sachsen - Magistrale'.
Today an InterRegioExpress services Dresden, Nuremberg and Leipzig.
There are regional train (RegionalBahn) connections to the Ore Mountains and to Elsterwerda.
Main roads
A 4 : Highway, Frankfurt - Giessen - Erfurt - Chemnitz - Dresden - Görlitz - Wroclaw - Kraków
A 72: Highway, Hof - Zwickau - Chemnitz - Geithain ( - Leipzig)
B 95: federal highway, Annaberg-Buchholz - Chemnitz - Borna - Leipzig
B 107: federal highway, Pritzwalk - Dessau - Grimma - Chemnitz
B 169: federal highway, Neuensalz - Chemnitz - Riesa - Elsterwerda - Cottbus
B 173: federal highway, Bad Staffelstein - Hof - Chemnitz - Dresden
B 174: federal highway, Marienberg (Ore mountains) - Chemnitz
Chemnitz has got a big tram and a big bus network.
There are 6 tram lines and 25 (+1 at fair days) bus lines.
These networks belong to CVAG, the transport companies of Chemnitz.
List of clubs sorted by state
State championship: Campeonato Acreano
State championship: Campeonato Alagoano
Defunct clubs
State championship: Campeonato Amapaense
State championship: Campeonato Amazonense
State championship: Campeonato Baiano
State championship: Campeonato Cearense
State championship: Campeonato Brasiliense
State championship: Campeonato Capixaba
State championship: Campeonato Goiano
State championship: Campeonato Maranhense
State championship: Campeonato Matogrossense
State championship: Campeonato Sul-Matogrossense
State championship: Campeonato Mineiro
State championship: Campeonato Paraense
State championship: Campeonato Paraibano
State championship: Campeonato Paranaense
State championship: Campeonato Pernambucano
State championship: Campeonato Piauiense
State championship: Campeonato Carioca
State championship: Campeonato Potiguar
State championship: Campeonato Gaúcho
State championship: Campeonato Rondoniense
State championship: Campeonato Roraimense
State championship: Campeonato Catarinense
State championship: Campeonato Paulista
State championship: Campeonato Sergipano
State championship: Campeonato Tocantinense
The small intestine is between the stomach and the large intestine, and is where most of the digestion and absorption happen.
In humans over five years old, the small intestine is about 7.5 meters long.
The duodenum: receives bile and juice from the pancreas, and is where most digestion in the small intestine takes place.
Secretions limit, or neutralise, the stomach acidity, and enzymes help to digest the food.
The jejenum: the products of digestion (sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids) are absorbed into the bloodstream here.
The ileum: absorbs vitamin B12, bile salts, and any other products of digestion that were not absorbed by the jejunum.
A songwriter is a writer who creates songs.
A songwriter generally writes songs for popular music, rather than art songs or classical music.
Many songwriters are also singers, and perform the songs they write - they are called singer-songwriters.
Other songwriters have their songs performed by other singers.
The history of writing songs is thousands of years old.
Scholars believe that men and women may have created and sung songs even at the time of prehistory.
Many modern bands have one or two members who write songs for the band.
Others have more members contribute songs, or give the whole band credit for writing.
Others perform songs by outside writers.
Famous songwriters
John Lennon and Paul McCartney, members of The Beatles
Brian Wilson and Mike Love, members of The Beach Boys
Elton John and Bernie Taupin
Laura Nyro
Hezbollah (, meaning Party of God) is an Islamic political party and paramilitary organization in Lebanon.
It was formed in Lebanon in 1982, during the Lebanese Civil War.
The leader of Hezbollah is currently Hassan Nasrallah.
Hezbollah's main goals during the Civil War were to fight against Western influences and create an Islamic state in Lebanon .Its members are Shia Muslims which are the largest Islamic denomination in Lebanon.
It is also supports Arab nationalism.
It wants freedom for the Palestinian people in Palestine.
Because of this, it believes that the State of Israel should not exist, and fights against it.
Over the years, the Hezbollah militia has fought a guerrilla war against the Israeli Army along the border in southern Lebanon.
It often attacks Israel's military positions by firing rockets across Israel's northern border.
To destroy Hezbollah bases, Israel has responded in different ways; for example, air strikes on sites in Lebanon and sending ground troops into Southern Lebanon.
In 2000, Israel withdrew its troops from the "security zone" in Southern Lebanon, but not from a sliver of land called Shebba Farms.
This fertile area was kept under Israeli occupation.
The border stayed relatively quiet until July 2006, except for targeted assassinations and kidnappings by Israel.
In July, Hezbollah captured two Israeli soldiers.
This led to the 2006 Lebanon War, in which Hezbollah rockets reached deep into Israel.
A few governments consider Hezbollah a terrorist group.
The majority do not.
Among those who consider it to be a terrorist group are the United States, Bahrain, Canada, Japan, the Netherlands and Israel.
The European Union and the United Kingdom consider Hezbollah's military branch to be a terrorist group, but not the political party.
Lebanon considers Hezbollah to be a legitimate resistance movement.
This view is shared by Syria, Iran and all other countries in the Arab world.
Russia considers Hezbollah as a legitimate sociopolitical organization while China remains neutral, and maintains contacts with Hezbollah.
Other countries that do not consider Hezbollah a terror organization includes Cuba, Iran, Iraq, North Korea, and others.
Another official Hezbollah website
UN Press Release SC/8181 UN, September 2, 2004
Yahoo - Hezbollah  directory category
1985 establishments in Asia
Nationalist organizations in Asia
Shia organizations
20th-century establishments in Lebanon
Politics of Lebanon
Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras, usually called Palmeiras, is a Brazilian football team.
They are from São Paulo, Brazil.
The team was founded  by an Italian-speaking community on August 26, 1914, as Palestra Itália.
They changed to the name used now on September 14, 1942.
Palmeiras plays at the Palestra Itália stadium, which has seats for 32,000.
But in the past, local derbies against São Paulo or Corinthians were usually played in Morumbi stadium.
However, the Arena Palestra Itália is under construction with capacity for 45,000 people, expected to be finalized in 2013.
1914–1942 S.S. Palestra Italia
1942–present S.E. Palmeiras
Copa Rio: 1951
Libertadores Cup: 1999 and 2020
Copa Mercosul: 1998
Campeonato Brasileiro: 1960, 1967, 1967, 1969, 1972, 1973, 1993, 1994, 2016 and 2018 – greatest champion
Copa do Brasil: 1998, 2012, 2015 and 2020/21
Copa dos Campeões: 2000
Campeão do Século
Torneio Rio-SP: 1933, 1951, 1965, 1993 and 2000
Campeonato Paulista: 1920, 1926 (unbeaten), 1927, 1932 (unbeaten), 1933, 1934, 1936, 1940, 1942, 1944, 1947,1950, 1959 (super champions), 1963, 1966, 1972 (unbeaten), 1974, 1976, 1993, 1994, 1996, 2008 and 2020.
Campeonato Paulista Extra: 1926 (unbeaten) and 1938
Palmeiras official site
Football clubs in São Paulo (state)
1914 establishments in Brazil
According to Hindu mythology, Agastya was the name of a famous sage (rishi).
The Hindu tradition states that he brought the Vedic culture to the southern part of India.
He also helped in development of Tamil language.
According to traditional belief, he still lives in a mountain names Agasyta Malai in Tamil Nadu, India.
Scholars believe that Agastya wrote many hymns of Rigveda.
He also find mention many times in the Vedic mythology.
There are many stories about Agastya.
In the famous Hindu epic, the Ramayana, Rama (an avatar of god Vishnu) meets Agastya.
Agastya gives Rama many advices and his support.
There are two older stories about Agastya.
One story tells that he forced the Vindhya mountains to bow down.
The Vindhya Mountain is in middle of India, and divided the North India and the South India.
In the second story, he drank all the waters of the ocean.
This happened before the Churning of the Ocean.
Tamil culture
The International Criminal Court (ICC) was created on 1 July 2002.
It investigates and punishes people for genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes.
It is sometimes called the ICC or the ICCt.
The ICC's main office is in The Hague in The Netherlands.
It has smaller offices in New York City, Kampala, Kinshasa, Bunia, Abéché and Bangui.
The ICC is different from the International Court of Justice (ICJ).
The main difference is that ICJ settles arguments between countries, but the ICC punishes people.
On 1 January 2008, 105 countries were members of the ICC.
These countries have a duty to help the ICC.
Nearly all the countries in Europe and South America are members, and about half the countries in Africa are members.
Only a few countries in Asia have joined.
What kind of crimes does the ICC investigate?
Crimes that were committed in member-countries
Crimes that were committed by people from member-countries
Crimes that the United Nations Security Council wants the ICC to investigate
The ICC can only investigate crimes that happened after 1 July 2002.
It can only open a case when national courts are not able to or do not want to.
If a national court is investigating or prosecuting a case, the ICC is not allowed to.
Who does what?
There are 18 judges in the ICC.
They all come from member-countries of the ICC.
No two judges can come from the same country.
The prosecutor's job is to investigate crimes.
If he finds evidence that a person did something wrong, he asks the judges to start a trial.
The ICC is managed by an "Assembly of States Parties".
The Assembly elects the judges and the prosecutor.
Each ICC member-country has one vote in the Assembly.
The ICC has arrested three people.
They are all from the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Thomas Lubanga is accused of using children to make war.
Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui are both accused of murder, sexual slavery, using children to make war, and other crimes.
The ICC's website
According to Hinduism and Hindu mythology, Brahma is one of the three major gods of Hindus.
Brahma is said to be the creator of the whole universe.
The other two gods are Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer, all three of which make up the Trimurti.
Hindu tradition states that Brahma originally had five heads.
However, the mythological story tells that Shiva ordered Bherav to cut one of the heads of Brahma because Brahma lied, saying that he had found the finite source of the actually infinite Linga of light that was Shiva's manifestation.
He had not found it, but had come only to the highest heaven and not to the Transcendent, Shiva.
The tradition also states that the remaining four heads of Brahma represent many aspects of Hinduism.
The four heads represent four Vedas, which are very important Hindu scriptures.
It is said that the four heads of Brahma are eternally reciting the four Vedas in penance for having lied.
These four heads also represent four divisions of time of Hinduism, the Yugas.
They also represent four divisions of the Hindu society, the four Varnas.
www.gurjari.net
The Brahma-Samhita  (Brahmasamhita.com)
Brahma's Prayers for Creative Energy  (vedabase.net)
Brahma: The God with Only Three Temples  (boloji.com)
Indian Gods and Goddesses - Brahma  (indiayogi.com)
In this form of reproduction, a single organism or cell makes a copy of itself.
The genes of the original and its copy will be the same, except for rare mutations.
They are clones.
The main process of asexual reproduction is mitosis.
This type of reproduction is common among some single-cell organisms, for example, Amoeba.
Many plants also reproduce asexually, for example by means of runners.
The individual zooids in a particular coral  or bryozoan are usually genetically identical.
They are formed by asexual reproduction of the first individual to arrive in a place.
One whole order of the rotifers, the bdelloid rotifers, has no sexual reproduction.
Many types of living things have a double cycle.
At one stage they have sexual reproduction, at another they simply multiply by splitting, or producing eggs which develop without fertilisation (aphids).
All the daughters of the honey bee develop from unfertilised eggs.
So, asexual reproduction is common in many forms of life.
Types of asexual reproduction
Some organisms like bacteria reproduce using binary fission.
They split in two, so one bacterium becomes two bacteria.
This always leads to daughter cells, and the offspring will be identical to the parent.
Budding is similar to binary fission, but it is used by plants and some animals, which cannot simply split in half as bacteria can.
It is when a small part of a plant or animal breaks off and then, while they are separated from their "mother", they start to grow until both the "parent" and the "offspring" are the same size and both are capable of budding again.
This may happen many more times.
Parthenogenesis is found in both plants and animals.
Eggs develop without fertilisation.
Examples occur in water fleas, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, some ants, bees and parasitic wasps.
Parthenogenesis is very rare for vertebrates.
Vegetative propagation
Very common in some types of plants using rhizomes or stolons (for example in strawberry).
Other plants form bulbs or tubers (for example tulip bulbs and dahlia tubers).
Some plants may form a clonal colony, where all the individuals are clones, and the clones may cover a large area.
The asexual spores have the genetic material inside, which allows them to make a whole new organism identical to its parent.
They are produced by mitosis.
Different fungi make different kinds of asexual spores, conidia, oidia, and pycniospores.
The shape and colour of the spores can be helpful to identify the species of fungus.
Sexual vs asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction in animals and plants
Advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction
Revision site directed towards IGSCE students
This page deals with the Hindu concept of The Supreme Reality.
For other uses of this word and similar words, see Brahman (disambiguation).
Brahman is the Ultimate Reality of Universe in Hinduism.
It is a Sanskrit language word.
Brahman is said to be infinite, with no beginning or end.
Brahman is changeless and is the source of the universe in Hindu beliefs.
Atman
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization.
189 countries are members of the International Monetary Fund.
It has its headquarters in Washington, D.C., USA.
In the 1930s, many countries faced economic problems.
The standard of living declined, and a great many people were unemployed.
International trade became much smaller.
Some countries reduced the value of their currencies.
All these factors combined in the 1930s, and an economic depression resulted.
By late 1939, the Second World War had started.
As the Second World War ended, most countries found that international values faced many restrictions and were not smooth.
Leaders of many countries thought over these matters and discussed them in meetings and agreed on the Bretton Woods system.
Thus, after the Second World War, many countries felt the need to have an organization to get help in monetary matters between countries.
To begin with, 29 countries discussed the matter, and signed an agreement.
The agreement was the Articles of Association of the International Monetary Fund.
The International Monetary Fund came into being in 29th December 1945.
Any country may apply to become a member of the IMF.
When a country applies for membership, the IMF’s Executive Board examines the application.
If found suitable, the Executive Board gives its report to IMF’s Board of Governors.
After the Board of Governor clears the application, the country may join the IMF.
However, before joining, the country should fulfill legal requirements, if any, of its own country.
Every member has a different voting right.
Likewise, every country has a different right to draw funds.
This depends on many factors, including the member country’s first subscription to the IMF.
The IMF does a number of supervisory works relating to financial dealings between different countries.
Some of the works done by IMF are:
Helping in international trade, that is business between countries
Looking after exchange rates
Looking after balance of payments
Helping member countries in economic development
It also provides a machinery for international consultations.
A Board of Directors manages the IMF.
One tradition has governed the selection of two most senior posts of IMF.
Firstly, IMF’s managing director is always European.
World Bank's president is always from the United States of America.
Current managing director is Bulgarian economist Kristalina Georgieva.
The major countries of Europe and America control the IMF.
This is because they have given more money to IMF by way of first subscriptions, and so have larger share of voting rights.
List of managing directors
Many people and countries have commented about IMF.
Some are good and some are bad comments about the work of IMF.
Despite many bad comments about IMF,  research shows that more than 60 percent of Asians and 70 percent of Africans feel that IMF has had a positive effect on their country.
International Monetary Fund website
Economics organizations
São Paulo Futebol Clube, usually called São Paulo FC or just São Paulo, is a very traditional Brazilian football team from São Paulo.
The team was founded on January 25, 1930, and re-founded on December 16, 1935.
It is often called Tricolor (meaning with three colours) by its supporters.
The prime footballer in the team is the goalkeeper called Rogério Ceni.
World championships
Winners (1): 2005
Winners (2): 1992, 1993
Continental championships
Winners (3): 1992, 1993, 2005
Runners-up (3): 1974, 1994, 2006
Winners (1): 1994
Winners (2): 1993, 1994
Runners-up (1): 2006
Winners (1): 1993
Winners (1): 1996
National competitions
Winners (6): 1977, 1986, 1991, 2006, 2007, 2008
Runners-up (5): 1971, 1973, 1981, 1989, 1990
Runners-up (1): 2000
Runners-up (1): 2001
Winners (1): 2001
Runners-up (5): 1933, 1962, 1966, 1998, 2002
Winners (21): 1931, 1943, 1945, 1946, 1948, 1949, 1953, 1957, 1970, 1971, 1975, 1980, 1981, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1998, 2000, 2005
Runners-up (19): 1938, 1941, 1944, 1950, 1952, 1956, 1958, 1962, 1963, 1967, 1972, 1978, 1982, 1983, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2006
Winners (1): 2002
1930 establishments in South America
1930s establishments in Brazil
The World Bank Group is a group of five international organizations.
The World Bank Group gives advice and finance to member countries for economic development and reducing poverty.
It is a non-profit-making international organization owned by member governments.
The Group has its headquarters in Washington, D.C.. It also has offices in 124 other member countries.
the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), established in 1945,
the International Finance Corporation (IFC), established in 1956,
the International Development Association (IDA), established in 1960,
the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), established in 1988 and
the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), established in 1966.
The World Bank Group originated at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire.
Many countries met and decided to start a Bretton Woods system including an international organization to provide finance to member countries.
The Bank came into existence on 27th December 1945.
Its name was the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
The Bank’s first loan was to France.
The loan was of 250 million US Dollars.
The purpose was to help France to again build industry and other important things like roads destroyed during the Second World War.
The activities
The activities of the World Bank Group cover many activities.
Some of these activities are as follows:
Development of health and education
Development of agriculture and rural development
Reduction of pollution
Development of infrastructure, for example, development of facilities likes roads and electricity
Development of system for good government
The World Bank Group gives loans at low rate of interest to member countries.
The member countries use the money received for any one of above or some other similar activity.
In short, the World Bank Group’s main mission is 1) to fight poverty and 2) to improve the living standards of people in the developing world.
Beside giving direct money and finance, the World Bank Group provides advice and assistance to developing countries on almost every aspect of economic development.
The management
In general, the World Bank Group is part of the United Nations system.
But, member countries govern it through a board.
The IBRD has 184 countries as its members.
Other four organizations of the Group have between 140 and 176 member countries.
A Board of 24 Executive Directors controls the activities of the World Bank Group.
A President heads the Board.
Its criticism
Many economists and people have criticized the World Bank Group for its style of functioning.
Before giving loans, the Bank sometimes requires many changes in the policies of a country.
This has attracted criticism as it reduces the country’s independence to run its economy in its own way.
The criticism is also on account of other factors.
One of them is that two or three countries have more power to decide matters.
As of November 1, 2004 the United States held 16.4% of total votes, Japan 7.9%, Germany 4.5%, and the United Kingdom and France each held 4.3%.
As major decisions require an 85% super-majority, the US can block any change.
World Bank Group (website)
The International Court of Justice (French La Cour internationale de justice (CIJ), is an international organization.
It is the main judicial organ or branch of the United Nations.
In short, International Court of Justice is ICJ; sometimes people call it the World Court.
In French language, it is Cour internationale de justice.
Established ICJ in 1945, ICJ has its headquarters at The Hague, Netherlands.
The ICJ began its working from 1946.
It replaced an earlier similar court named Permanent Court of International Justice.
The International Court of Justice is different from the International Criminal Court.
The ICJ uses two languages, the English language and the French language.
The International Court of Justice has two major functions.
Firstly, it settles disputes, which the member countries may bring before it.
Secondly, it may give its opinions on legal matters.
Since 1980s, many developing countries have been using the services of the ICJ.
But, in 1986, the United States of America did not accept the court’s views on all matters, but rather selectively, on a case-to-case basis.
Since the year 2000 the docket went down from 23 to 12 cases.
In the meantime the staff tripled.
The ICJ has fifteen permanent judges.
The UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council elects the judges.
A judge serves for a nine-year period and may be re-elected if necessary.
If a serving judge dies, another judge, from the same country he or she belonged to is generally elected to fill the vacant position.
Elections are staggered, thus five judges (one-third of the Court) come up for election every three years.
The fifteen permanent judges are elected from a list of persons nominated by the national groups in the Permanent Court of Arbitration.
The election process is set out in Articles 4-12 of the ICJ statute Generally, five members of the Security Council of the United Nations always have a judge from their country.
These countries are China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, and the United States of America.
In some case, the ICJ allows Ad hoc judges.
Thus, the countries in dispute have a right to nominate one judge each for that particular case, if desired.
This right is not available if that country already has a judge of its nationality in the ICJ.
Thus, sometimes, instead of fifteen, seventeen judges may be deciding a case.
Generally, all the judges of the ICJ sit together to hear and decide any matter.
However, sometimes smaller chambers of three to five judges hear and decide a case.
Such chambers may be for special types of cases.
Sometimes, the ICJ sets up ad hoc chambers to hear and decide particular disputes.
While deciding the case, the ICJ applies the principles of international law.
It also uses the laws of the civilized world.
This may be the civil and criminal law of major countries.
It may also refer to legal writings, law books, and earlier decisions while deciding any matter.
Rosenne S, Rosenne's the world court: what it is and how it works 6th ed (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2003).
International Court of Justice, Official site
European Rule
Vasco da Gama of Portugal had discovered a sea route to India.
He had reached Kozhikode (Calicut, Kerala) in 1498.
After this, many Europeans started coming to India for trading.
They made their offices and forts in various parts of India.
The British East India Company became the major force in India.
The Company's troops led by Robert Clive defeated the rulers of Bengal in 1757.
This battle became famous as the Battle of Plassey.
That was the beginning of British rule, known as the British Raj, in India.
In 1764, the Battle of Buxar was won by the English forces.
After this, the British got control over Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
The Parliament of the United Kingdom passed many laws to help the British East India Company.
The Regulating Act of 1773, the India Act of 1784, and the Charter Act of 1813 were designed to help trade with India.
Before the First War of Independence (1857), Indians in different parts of India had revolted against the British.
Many such of the revolts and armed struggles had taken place in this Some examples include:
Revolts by many local rulers of Tamil people in southern India like Dheeran Chinnamalai, Veerapandiya Kattabomman ...etc.
In 1825 in Karnataka kittur Chennamma rejected Doctrine of Lapsi and refused British rulers any royalty.
She defeated British in the war.
Kittur was defeated by British army in the second war.
Her lieutenant Sangolli Rayanna continued the revolt until he was killed.
A revolt in 1787 took place in Goa against the rule of Portugal.
The histo call this revolt as the Conspiracy of the Pintos.
A rebellion by tribes of Jharkhand in India.
Historians call this Santal Rebellion
Rebellion under the leadership of Titumir in Bengal.
Revolt of 1857
India's First War of Independence (by this name later a book was published by V.D Savarkar) was a revolt of Indian soldiers and people (rulers and peasants) against British rule.
Historians had used the terms like the Indian Mutiny or the Sepoy Mutiny to describe this event.
The rebellion by Indian troops of the British Raj started in May 1857 and continued until December 1858.
Many reasons had combined to result in this rebellion.
The British rulers continued to forcibly take regions ruled by Indians and made these regions part of the British Raj.
They did not give any respect to old royal houses of India like the Mughals and the Peshwa.
They also made the Indian soldiers of their army use a special type of cartridge (immediate cause of the rebel).
The soldiers had to open the cartridges with their teeth before loading them into their guns.
The cartridges supposedly used cow and pig fat.
For Hindus the cow is a sacred animal and they do not eat beef.
Similarly, Muslims do not eat pork.
Thus, the use of these cartridges made soldiers of both the religions turn against the British.
Although the British tried to replace the cartridges, the feelings against them stayed.
Rebellion broke out when a soldier called Mangal Pandey attacked a British sergeant and wounded an adjutant.
General Hearsey ordered another Indian soldier to arrest Mangal Pandey but he refused.
Later the British arrested Mangal Pandey and the other Indian soldier.
The British killed both by hanging them.
At the beginning the British were slow to respond.
Then they took very quick action with heavy forces.
They brought their regiments from the Crimean War to India.
They also redirected many regiments that were going to China from India.
The British forces reached Delhi, and they surrounded the city from 1st July 1857 until 31st August 1857.
Street-to-street fights broke out between the British troops and the Indians.
Ultimately, they took control of Delhi.
The massacre at Kanpur (July 1857) and the siege of Lucknow (June to November 1857) were also important.
The last important battle was at Gwalior in June 1858 in which the Rani of Jhansi was killed.
With this, the British had practically suppressed the rebellion.
However, some guerrilla fighting in many places continued until early in 1859 and Tantia Tope was captured and executed until April 1859.
The Results
India's First War of Independence was a major event in the history of modern India.
The Parliament of the United Kingdom withdrew the right of the British East India Company to rule India in November 1858.
The United Kingdom started ruling India directly through its representative called the Viceroy of India(earlier governor-general of India).
It made India a part of the British Empire.
They promised "the Princes, Chiefs, and People of India," equal treatment under the British law.
The British sent Bahadur Shah II, the last Mughal Emperor, out of India, and kept him in Rangoon (now called Yangon in Burmese), Burma where he died in 1862.
The Mughal dynasty, which had ruled India for about four hundred years, ended with his death.
The British also took many steps to employ Indian higher castes and rulers into the government.
They stopped taking the lands of the remaining princes and rulers of India.
They stopped interference in religious matters.
They started employing Indians in the civil services but at lower levels.
They increased the number of British soldiers, and allowed only British soldiers to handle artillery.
Organised movements
The period following India's First War of Independence was an important period in the Indian independence movement.
Many leaders emerged at the national and provincial levels, and the Indians became more aware of their rights.
Social movements also helped in shaping people's outlook, tried for social changes, and tried to remove bad social practices and evils like illiteracy and caste system.
During this period, many social and religious leaders worked to inspire the Indian society.
They included men like Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna , Sri Aurobindo, Subramanya Bharathy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Rabindranath Tagore and Dadabhai Naoroji.
They spread the message of self-confidence, removing of social evils, and making India free from domination of foreign power.
Lokmanya Tilak was one such leader who was not very modest in his views.
The British arrested him.
In the court he declared: "Swaraj (independence) is my birthright".
This concept of Swaraj later became a main policy and philosophy of India's independence movement in the following decades until India became independent.
In 1885, at the suggestion of Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, seventy-three Indian delegates met in Bombay.
They founded the Indian National Congress.
The delegates represented educated Indians in professions such as law, teaching, and journalism.
A few years before, Dadabhai Naoroji had already formed the East India Association.
It merged with the Indian National Congress to form a bigger party.
To begin with, the Indian National Congress was not a very active political party.
It met annually and gave some suggestions to the rulers of the British Raj.
The suggestions generally related to civil rights and opportunities for Indians in the government jobs.
Despite its claim to represent all Indians, it represented only the educated and higher class of the society.
But, it failed to attract all Muslims.
Many Muslims had become distrustful of Hindu reformers who raised their voice against matters like religious conversion and killing of cows for their meat.
For Hindus, the cow is a sacred animal not to be killed.
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan launched a separate movement for Muslims, and founded in 1875 a college in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh state, India.
Later, this college became Aligarh University in 1921.
The objective of the college was to give modern education to India's Muslims.
By 1900, the Indian National Congress had become a national party, but did not represent all groups of Indian society, particularly the Muslims.
Partition of Bengal
In 1905, Lord Curzon (George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston), the Viceroy and Governor-General (1899-1905) of India divided Bengal province into two provinces: Eastern Bengal & Assam, with its capital at Dhaka, and West Bengal, with its capital at Calcutta (Kolkata).
At that time Calcutta was the capital city of the British Raj.
The people became very angry at that partition (division), and created the phrase "divide and rule" for the policy followed by the British Empire.
The leading intellectual figures of India at that time expressed their unhappiness at this partition.
For example, Rabindranath Tagore, the most famous Indian poet (originally from Bengal) composed a poem against this partition.
During the First World War, Indians gave support to the United Kingdom.
About 1.3 million Indian soldiers went to many parts of Europe, Africa, and the Middle East to fight.
Many Indians, including the princes and rich people of India, contributed money and materials to the war funds of the United Kingdom.
However, many Indian soldiers died in foreign lands.
In India, flu called Spanish flu spread like an epidemic killing many people.
The tax rates increased in India, and prices also increased.
The Indians became restless.
In August 1917, Edwin Samuel Montagu, the Secretary of State for India, announced in the British Parliament about many steps to give more rights to Indians.
A new law named the Government of India Act of 1919 gave many rights to the Indians in the provincial government.
These rights related to farming, local government, health, education, and public works.
The British administrators kept matters like taxation, finance, and law and order under their control.
The Rowlatt Act
In 1919 the British made a new law named the Rowlatt Act.
Under this law, the government got many powers, including the ability to arrest people and keep them in prisons without a trial.
They also obtained the power to stop newspapers from reporting and printing news.
The people called this act the Black Act.
Indians protested against this law in many places.
The positive impact of reform was seriously undermined in 1919 by the Rowlatt Act, named after the recommendations made the previous year to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Commission, which had been appointed to investigate "seditious conspiracy."
The Rowlatt Act, also known as the Black Act, vested the Viceroy's government with extraordinary powers to quell sedition by silencing the press, detaining political activists without trial, and arresting any individuals suspected of sedition or treason without a warrant.
In protest, a nationwide cessation of work (hartal) was called, marking the beginning of widespread, although not nationwide, popular discontent.
The agitation reached a peak in Amritsar (Punjab, India).
In Amritsar, on 13th April 1919, about 10,000 Indians had assembled at Jallianwala Bagh.
They had no idea of the law that they couldn't gather.
The British military commander, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to fire at the civilians without any warning.
The troops fired 1,650 times.
Some historians estimate that the troops killed 379 and injured about 1,137 people.
This incident came to be known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
With this killing of innocent people, the British lost the trust of the Indian people.
Congress forced Britishers to investigate massacre of jallianwala later, a tehkikat committee was made by congress.
Gandhi's way
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (also known as Mahatma Gandhi) had received his education at London.
He was a barrister (lawyer).
In 1893, he went to South Africa.
After Gandhi was thrown off a train because he was a colored person sitting in a first-class seat, he took that emotion and used it to begin to fight the injustices that many people of color faced at the time.
He became successful and the government of South Africa removed most of such rules and restrictions.
Gandhi led the Salt March, an act of protest.
When Gandhi returned to India in 1915, few people knew him.
Under the leadership of Gandhi, Indians began to use a different method to get freedom over the next few years.
In December 1929, the Indian National Congress Party agreed to start a movement for complete independence from British rule.
The Party decided to start a movement named to disobey the British rule.
It became the civil disobedience movement.
They decided to observe 26th January 1930 as the complete Independence Day (this is the reason why India celebrate republic day on 26 January).
Many other political parties and revolutionaries came together to support this movement.
Gandhi started this movement, leading 72 people on a 400 kilometer route from Ahmedabad to Dandi (both in the Indian state of Gujarat), on the coast of the Arabian Sea.
There they made salt from the seawater and broke a law of British India prohibiting making salt without paying taxes, so this event is referred to as the Salt March.
Thus the civil disobedience movement began, and it soon spread throughout India.
Indians started to break unfair laws in a peaceful manner in protest against the British rule.
The effect of civil disobedience movement in Kerala was at Payannur and Beypore.
Revolutionary activities
Many Indians did not believe in such peaceful protests, claiming that the British would not give independence to Indians so easily.
They believed in armed struggle was necessary to oust the British from India.
In some way, this had continued for years after the partition of Bengal in 1905.
Many revolutionaries and leaders emerged from time to time.
Bhagat Singh was one of them.
The elections
The rulers of the British Raj made a new law to govern India, named the Government of India Act 1935.
This law aimed at constitutional process to govern India.
It had three major aims: to establish a federal system with many provinces, to give self-ruling position (autonomy) to the provinces, and to give the Muslim minority protection through giving them some separate electorates.
In such separate electorates only Muslims could stand for elections.
In February 1937, elections took place for the provincial assemblies.
The members of the Indian National Congress won in five provinces, and held upper position in two more provinces.
The Muslim League's performance in the election was not good.
The Indian move to freedom
During the Second World War, the rulers of the British Raj declared India to be a party to the war.
They did not discuss the matter with Indians and their leaders.
The Indians and their leaders became divided over this matter.
Some supported the British, while many did not.
British rulers of India wanted the Indians to fight and die in the name of freedom, yet they had denied this freedom to India and the Indians for more than a hundred years.
This created a lot of dissatisfaction among Indians, and two big movements for India's independence took shape.
The first was the Indian National Army of Subhas Chandra Bose.
The second was Quit India Movement of Mohandas Gandhi.
The Indian National Army
Subhas Chandra Bose and many leaders did not like the British decision to drag India into the Second World War.
He had twice (in 1937 and 1939) become president of the Indian National Congress Party, the leading Indian political party of that time.
However, he and many other leaders of the Indian National Congress Party differed on many matters.
He resigned and formed a new party named All India Forward Bloc.
The British government of India put him under house arrest, but he escaped in 1941.
He reached Germany and secured the support of Germany and Japan to fight the British in India.
In 1943, he traveled in submarines of Germany and Japan, and reached Japan.
He organised the Indian National Army.
The INA fought the troops of the British Raj in northeastern India.
Despite many difficulties, INA recorded many victories.
However, with the surrender of Japan in 1945, INA's operations stopped.
Bose died in a plane crash, but circumstances of his death are not clear.
The British government of India put on trial three Indian National Army officers at the Red Fort in Delhi.
The British had chosen for this trial one Hindu, one Sikh, and one Muslim of the INA.
This made many Indians of all religions very angry.
A naval mutiny also broke out in Bombay.
Ultimately, the British ruled that these officers were guilty, but they set them free seeing the public anger.
When India became independent, the government of India did not allow the former officers and soldiers of the INA to join the armed forces of the independent India.
However, the government granted them very good pensions and other facilities.
The Indian public also gave them much respect.
Many consider Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose a controversial figure due to his association with the Axis Powers.
But, in India, people consider him a patriotic hero of the Indian independence movement.
Quit India
On 8th August 1942, the leaders of the Indian National Congress Party met in Bombay (Mumbai).
The leaders adopted a policy to force the British out of India.
Gandhi's slogan "Do or Die" became a national slogan, and the movement became the Quit India Movement.
At the beginning of the Second World War, the Indian National Congress Party had supported the British, but they had demanded freedom for India after the war.
The British did not agree to this proposal.
On 14th July 1942, the Indian National Congress Party passed a resolution demanding complete independence from the British rule.
However, this did not have support of some other political parties.
Gandhi had asked the people to keep the Quit India Movement as a peaceful movement.
Many people started the movement in many places of India.
But at some places, the movements turned violent.
Gandhi refused to eat until the violence stopped.
He was successful in ending the violence.
The British action was very quick.
They arrested over 100,000 people.
They levied fines on many people.
They dropped bombs on the people who demonstrated against the British Raj.
The troops of the British Raj even beat people with sticks and caned them.
The British arrested all the leaders of the Congress Party.
Gandhi's wife, Kasturba Gandhi, died during detention, as well as his secretary Mahadev Desai.
Gandhi's health had also become very bad.
In 1944, the British set him free fearing that Gandhi's death might result in a very large protest by Indians.
Gandhi continued to oppose the British, and demanded that all other leaders be set free.
The Second World War had reduced the economic, political, and military strength of the British Empire.
They were also aware that after the war Indians would begin a larger movement for independence.
The mood of the British people and the British Army had also changed.
After the Second World War, most of them were no longer willing to support the British ruling class in India.
That position was now clear to the leaders of the United Kingdom.
By early 1946, those leaders set free all the political prisoners held in India and opened independence discussions with the Indian National Congress Party.
On the 14th of August 1947 Pakistan gained independence and a day later on the 15th of August India gained its independence as well.
India's independence (1947 to 1950)
On midnight of 15th August 1947, Britain handed India its formal political Independence.
A short time after that, Gandhi, who was aging and ill, died from a bullet fired by a Hindu extremist named Nathuram Godse.
The national leadership was then passed to his chief lieutenant, Jawaharlal Nehru.
On 3rd June 1947, the Viceroy Lord Mountbatten announced partition of India into two countries: union of India, and an Islamic Pakistan.
In this partition, many people died while others were separated from their families.
On 26th January 1950, India adopted their constitution, the longest constitution in the world.
History of the Freedom movement in India  by R. C. Majumdar
The term
This term describes the announcement of establishment of a Jewish state, named State of Israel.
This State of Israel was established on 14th May 1948.
In Hebrew language,  means the State of Israel.
The British Mandate of Palestine was a part of the British Empire.
This was the land where the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah had once been.
The State of Israel covered more or less the same land.
Some persons call this as the beginning of "Third Jewish Commonwealth".
The "First Jewish Commonwealth" ended with the destruction of Solomon's Temple, and the second with the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem two thousand years ago.
The declaration
On November 29th 1947, the United Nations had adopted a resolution.
The resolution recommended the establishment of an Arab State and a  Jewish State in Palestine.
The resolution recommended taking steps to establish such a state.
On May 12th 1948, the Jewish national administration met at Tel Aviv Museum of Art.
They had gathered to decide acceptance of an American proposal for a truce or to declare a new state of Israel.
Six of the ten voting members supported declaration of a state of Israel.
Two days later, on May 14th 1948, the Jewish National Council (Vaad Leumi) met at Tel Aviv.
At mid night of May 14th, 1948, a member of the Council read the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel.
The declaration followed a style generally seen in the United Nations documents.
First few sentences stated the reasons for the declaration and the right of the Jews for an independent country.
Then, the sentences gave the features and characteristics of the new Jewish state.
...the Land of Israel, was the birthplace of the Jewish people.
Here their spiritual, religious and political identity was shaped.
Here they first attained to statehood, created cultural values of national and universal significance and gave to the world the eternal Book of Books.
After being forcibly exiled from their land, the people kept faith with it throughout their Dispersion and never ceased to pray and hope for their return to it and for the restoration in it of their political freedom.
Impelled by this historic and traditional attachment, Jews strove in every successive generation to re-establish themselves in their ancient homeland.
In recent decades they returned in their masses.
The recognition
The United States, the Soviet Union, and many other major countries of the world accepted the state of Israel.
Using terms of international law, these countries recognized the state of Israel.
However, many Arab countries and countries of the Middle East opposed the establishment of Israel.
They did not recognize the state of Israel as a sovereign state, that is, an independent country.
Many countries of the world did not recognize Israel, but establish trading and other relations with it.
1940s in Israel
1948 in Asia
According to Hinduism and Hindu mythology, Parvati is considered to be a mother goddess by many people.
Parvati is a word in the Sanskrit language that means "daughter of the mountain".
Hindu teachings call Parvati the daughter of the Himalayas Mountains, where she is said to live.
She has two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya with her husband Shiva.
Shiva is one of the main gods of the Hindu religion.
Parvati has four arms.
In her arms she carries prayer beads, a mirror, a bell and citron.
But when she sits by the side of her husband Shiva, Parvati has only two arms.
In her form with two arms, Parvati holds her right hand up in blessing and holds a lotus flower in her left hand.
Parvati's conveyance (vahana) is a lion or tiger.
This means that Parvati rides a lion or a tiger.
In Hindu scriptures, Parvati is mentioned many times.