the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Yin Yu Tang: A Chinese Home  Explore the historical contents of domestic architecture during the Qing dynasty and its pertinence to Chinese heritage and historical culture.
Early Medieval China  is a journal devoted to academic scholarship relating to the period roughly between the end of the Han and beginning of the Tang eras.
Cultural Revolution Propaganda Poster
China Rediscovers its Own History 100 minute lecture on Chinese history given by renowned scholar/author Yu Ying-shih, Emeritus Professor of East Asian Studies and History at Princeton University.
Resources for Middle School students Readable resources for students in grades 5-9 - more than 250 links.
China, history -Citizendium
Briefs are a type of short underwear for males or females.
They provide a close fit, and come in either white, or in other colors like blue, pink, or red.
For male briefs, before 2000s, briefs often came with hard elastic waistband.
This would cause stretch marks, and this was eventually replaced by the soft elastic waistband.
However, hard elastic waistbands are still found on generic store brand underwear (that save consumer and manufacturing costs by not being fashion forward).
Kayastha is one of the social groups of India.
They have a long history.
They number around 5–7 million people and most of them live in India.
Hindus believe that Lord Brahma created the world.
He then created 16 sons from different parts of his body.
His 17th son, Shree Chitraguptjee, was created from his mind and soul.
He is the only son to be made from the whole body, not just parts.
In human form he is called kayastha, kaya meaning whole.
Kayastha's have two roles in the caste system, as Kshatriya (a warrior) and Brahmin (a learned person or scribe).
The Kayastha caste is divided into 12 sub-castes.
Rainbow Brite and the Star Stealer is an animated movie from 1985.
It was produced by DiC Entertainment and Hallmark Cards, and released by Warner Bros.
Moria.co.nz review
Kiddie Matinee overview
Arctic Monkeys are an Indie rock band from Sheffield, England.
Arctic Monkeys' first album was Whatever People Say I am, That's What I'm Not.
It reached #1 in the United Kingdom album charts.
Over 300 thousand copies of the album were sold in the first week.
This makes it the fasting selling first album by a band in British music history.
It was nominated for Best Alternative Album at the 2006 Grammy Awards.
Their second album, Favourite Worst Nightmare was first released in Japan on April 18, 2007.
Their third album, Humbug was released in England on 24 August 2009.
In 2011 their fourth album Suck It and See was released.
AM, the Monkeys' fifth album, was released 6 September 2013.
The sixth Arctic Monkeys album, Tranquility Base Hotel and Casino was released in 2018.
Alex Turner (guitar and singing)
Jamie Cooke (guitar)
Nick O'Malley (bass guitar)
Matthew Helders (drums)
Andy Nicholson (bass guitar, left in 2006)
Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not (2006)
Favourite Worst Nightmare (2007)
Humbug (2009)
Suck It and See (2011)
AM (2013)
Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino (2018)
A swarm is a big group of animals.
The term is usually used for insects, but other animals such fish and birds can make a swarm also.
A good example of animals that swarm are locusts.
Mammals do not build swarms, but herds.
Queen's University is a public university in Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
Queen's University was started on October 16, 1841.
Colleges and universities in Canada
The four instruments in a string quartet are almost always 2 violins, 1 viola and 1 cello.
The reason that a double bass is not used is that it would sound too loud and heavy.
The balance between 2 violins, viola and cello is considered ideal.
String quartets are the most popular form of chamber music.
Many composers have written string quartets.
String quartet writing started in the 18th century.
Italian composers like Sammartini (1698-1775) wrote music for two violins, viola and continuo.
The continuo was either just a harpsichord or harpsichord with cello.
Gradually composers started to leave the harpsichord out.
The cello often played the same as the viola but one octave lower.
Composers of the Classical music period started writing cello parts which had an identity of their own.
Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) wrote many string quartets, making it a very popular form.
His quartets from op.33 were, he said, “written in a new and special way”.
All four parts were very clear and individual.
There were always four movements: a fast movement, a slow one, a Minuet and Trio and a fast Finale.
Haydn often played in a quartet with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) and two other players.
Mozart also wrote many string quartets and dedicated some of them to Haydn.
Three of Mozart’s later ones were written for the King of Prussia who played the cello well, so Mozart gave the cello lots of difficult music to play.
By the time Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) was growing up, string quartets treated each of the four instruments as important.
Beethoven wrote 16 string quartets.
The middle ones became particularly famous and later composers took ideas from them, for example the slow introductions, and the idea of having a fast scherzo instead of a minuet and trio for one of the middle movements.
Beethoven’s last quartets are very beautiful, but also very complicated and sometimes quite aggressive.
Beethoven was becoming very frustrated because he was deaf and could not hear his own music, but he could imagine it all in his head.
Franz Schubert (1797-1827) admired them and wrote several string quartets himself.
In the Romantic period many composers wrote string quartets: Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847), Robert Schumann (1810-1856), Johannes Brahms (1833-1897), Pyotr Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), Antonín Dvořák (1841-1904) and many others.
Some of them, like Dvořák, included folk song from their own country in their quartets.
In the 20th century, composers have continued to write string quartets.
Claude Debussy (1862-1918) and Maurice Ravel (1875-1934) each wrote one.
Arnold Schoenberg even added a voice to his first String Quartet.
Béla Bartók (1881-1945) wrote six string quartets which are very hard to play.
They have very exciting rhythms which often come from his native Hungarian folk music, as well as complex harmonies.
Dmitri Shostakovich (1906-1975) wrote fifteen and Benjamin Britten (1913-1976) wrote three.
String quartet groups
Playing in a string quartet is highly enjoyable.
There are many great works by famous composers, as well as some music which has been written for young players who are learning.
There are professional players who form string quartets and who play together for many years.
In the early part of the 20th century the Rosé Quartet was thought by many to be the best in Europe.
Later the Amadeus Quartet became very famous.
Opus or the shortened form op.
after the title of a piece of music means “work”.
It is followed by a number.
When a composer writes their first piece of music it is followed by the term “opus 1”.
The next composition would then be called “opus 2”, etc.
Giving pieces of music opus numbers helps us to identify which piece of music (from a certain composer) that composition is.
For example: Beethoven wrote lots of piano sonatas.
His first Piano sonata in A flat major has the opus number of op.26.
This shows that he wrote this sonata when he was young in his composing career.
Many years later, he wrote another piano sonata which is also in A flat major, and this piece one has the opus number of 110 (op.
You cannot always tell from a composer’s opus numbers the order in which the works were composed.
Until around the end of the 18th century, opus numbers were only given to pieces of music which were published.
Some musicologists (people who study and write about music) have studied all the works by a famous composer and have given them a catalogue number.
For example Mozart’s music does not have opus numbers.
Some of them are long operas, others are tiny little pieces for the piano he might have written in a hurry one day.
A man called Köchel made a list of every single work by Mozart and gave them K numbers (K for Köchel).
His numbering goes up to 622.
This is useful, for example, to tell the difference between his Symphony in G minor K183 and his Symphony in G minor K550.
The plural of “opus” is “opuses” in English.
This is because the Latin plural is opera which is rather confusing to English speakers as the word is already used in musical terminology.
The word "opus" can also refer to the "work" of an artist. (
For example: "This opus was composed by Chopin," or "This opus is the last Piano sonata that Beethoven composed")
In eukaryotes, there are 20 standard amino acids out of which almost all proteins are made.
In biochemistry, an amino acid is any molecule that has both amine (NH2+R) and carboxyl (C=O) functional groups.
In biochemistry, this term refers to alpha-amino acids with the general formula H2NCHRCOOH, where R is one of many side groups (see diagram).
About 500 amino acids are known.
For animals, the most important thing that amino acids do is to make proteins, which are very long chains of amino acids.
Every protein has its own sequence of amino acids, and that sequence makes the protein take different shapes, and have different functions.
Amino acids are like the alphabet for proteins; even though you only have a few letters, if you connect them, you can make many different sentences.
Nine of the 20 standard amino acids are "essential" amino acids for humans.
They cannot be built (synthesised) from other compounds by the human body, and so must be taken in as food.
Others may be essential for some ages or medical conditions.
Essential amino acids may also differ between species.
Herbivores have to get their essential amino acids from their diet, which for some is almost entirely grass.
Ruminants such as cows get some amino acids via microbes in the first two stomach chambers.
An amino acid is an organic chemical.
It consists of an α-carbon atom that is covalently bonded to four groups.
a hydrogen atom
an amino group (-NH2)
a carboxyl group (-COOH)
a variable R group
Every amino acid has at least one amino group (-NH2) and one carboxyl group (-COOH), except proline.
Gene expression and biochemistry
These are the proteinogenic amino acids, which are the building blocks for proteins.
They are produced by cellular machinery coded for in the genetic code of any organism.
* UAG is normally the amber stop codon, but encodes pyrrolysine if a PYLIS element is present.
** UGA is normally the opal (or umber) stop codon, but encodes selenocysteine if a SECIS element is present.
‡ An essential amino acid cannot be synthesized in humans.
It must be supplied in the diet.
Conditionally essential amino acids are not normally required in the diet, but must be supplied to populations which do not make enough of it.
├ H .. 🅖 Glycine
├ C .. 🅐 Alanine
│├ C .. 2-Aminobutanoic acid
││├ C .. Norvaline
│││├ –2H .. 🅟 Proline (Dehydronorvaline)
│││├ C .. Norleucine
││││└ N .. 🅚 Lysine
││││    └ C(=O)C1N=CCC1C .. 🅞 Pyrrolysine
│││└ NC(=N)N .. 🅡 Arginine
││├ C(=O)N .. 🅠 Glutamine
││├ C(=O)O .. 🅔 Glutamic acid
││├ O .. Homoserine
││└ S .. Homocysteine
││    └ C .. 🅜 Methionine
│├ C(C)C .. 🅛 Leucine
│├ C(=O)N .. 🅝 Asparagine
│├ C(=O)O .. 🅓 Aspartic acid
│├ C1=CNC=N1 .. 🅗 Histidine
│├ c1ccccc1 .. 🅕 Phenylalanine
│├ c1ccc(O)cc1 .. 🅨 Tyrosine
│├ C1=CNc2ccccc12 .. 🅦 Tryptophan
│├ C1=CNc2ccc(O)cc12 .. Oxitriptan
│├ c(cc1I)cc(I)c1-O-c2cc(I)c(O)c(I)c2 .. Thyroxine
│├ O .. 🅢 Serine
│├ S .. 🅒 Cysteine
│└ [SeH] .. 🅤 Selenocysteine
├ C(C)C .. 🅥 Valine
├ C(C)O .. 🅣 Threonine
└ C(C)CC .. 🅘 Isoleucine
Enlightenment has several meanings.
Some of them are given below:
A concept in philosophy and psychology.
Nirvana, the goal of Buddhism
Moksha, a religious concept of Hinduism
Age of Enlightenment, a period in European history
Enlightenment (Window Manager), A window manager for Linux distributions
A miscarriage is the natural death of an embryo or fetus in the womb, before it is old enough to live on its own, outside the mother.
The medical words for a miscarriage are spontaneous abortion.
("Spontaneous" means something that a person did not expect to happen.
An "abortion" is when a pregnancy ends early, before birth.)
Among women who know they are pregnant, about 15-20% have miscarriages.
(This means that up to 1 in every 5 women who know they are pregnant miscarries.)
It is the most common complication (serious problem) that happens in early pregnancy in humans.
Miscarriage vs. Stillbirth
In the United States, if a fetus dies after it is 20 weeks old, its death is no longer called a miscarriage.
Its death is called a stillbirth, a fetal demise, or a fetal death.
("Demise" means "death.")
Different countries have different ways of defining the difference between a miscarriage and a fetal death.
Causes of miscarriage
Nobody knows all of the reasons why a woman may miscarry.
However, some common causes include:
Genetic problems, like aneuploidy
Problems with the mother's uterus or hormones
An infection somewhere in the mother's reproductive system
Tissue rejection (where the mother's body reacts to the fetus like it is something that does not belong in her body)
Serious physical trauma (injury, like a bad car accident
Very rarely, medical procedures that are used to diagnose problems with the fetus can cause miscarriage.
This happens in only about 1% of cases (1 out of 100) when a woman has had chorionic villus sampling (CVS) or amniocentesis)
The most common causes of miscarriage change depending on what trimester the mother is in.
(Each trimester lasts about three months.)
First trimester (Weeks 1-12)
Most miscarriages happen during the first trimester.
Some studies say that two-thirds (two out of three) to three-quarters (three out of four) of all miscarriages happen during this trimester.
About 30% to 40% (3 to 4 in every 10) of all fertilized eggs miscarry, often before a woman knows she is pregnant.
In more than half of embryos miscarried in the first 13 weeks of pregnancy, the embryo has chromosomes that are not normal.
These chromosomal problems may happen because of problems as the embryo grows and its cells make copies of themselves.
It is also possible for chromosomal problems to happen because of a problem with a parent's genes.
However, this is more likely to happen in women who have had other miscarriages, or if one of the parents has a child or other relatives with birth defects.
Genetic problems are more likely to happen with older parents; this may be why miscarriages are more common in older women.
Another cause may be the mother not having enough progesterone.
If a woman is diagnosed with low progesterone levels in the second half of her menstrual cycle (the luteal phase), she may be prescribed progesterone, to take during the first trimester of her pregnancy.
However, when a woman might already be miscarrying, there is no evidence that first-trimester progesterone pills decrease the risk of having a miscarriage.
Scientists have even questioned whether problems with the luteal phase really can cause miscarriages.
Second trimester (Weeks 13-27)
Uterine malformation (when the mother's uterus is not shaped normally)
Growths in the mother's uterus (these are called fibroids)
Problems with the mother's cervix
These problems can also cause premature birth (when a baby is born earlier than expected).
One study found that 19% of second-trimester miscarriages were caused by problems with the umbilical cord.
The fetus gets blood and oxygen through the umbilical cord.
Every part of the body needs blood and oxygen to survive.
If the baby cannot get enough oxygen because of a problem with the cord, it can die.
Problems with the placenta may also cause second-trimester miscarriages.
Nutrients and blood pass through the placenta in order to get from the mother to the umbilical cord.
The placenta also helps filter out some things that could hurt the fetus.
If there is a problem with the placenta, the fetus could die because it did not get enough nutrients and oxygen, or because the placenta did not filter out harmful things.
How is miscarriage diagnosed?
Miscarriage is usually diagnosed when a pregnant woman notices that she is having certain symptoms and goes to see a doctor.
The most common symptom of a coming miscarriage is bleeding during early pregnancy.
The woman may not have any pain.
Usually, if a pregnant woman is bleeding or having pain, an ultrasound should be done.
The ultrasound can show that the fetus's heart is not beating, which means that the fetus has miscarried.
If this happens, special tests should be done to make sure the woman does not have an ectopic pregnancy, which can kill a woman.
Not all light bleeding during early pregnancy means a woman is having a miscarriage.
But any woman having light bleeding during pregnancy should see her doctor.
If the bleeding is heavy, the woman is having a lot of pain, or she has a fever, she should go to an Emergency Room or call an ambulance to take her to the hospital.
If a woman has bleeding during her pregnancy, she may be diagnosed with a "threatened miscarriage."
In the past, if a doctor thought a pregnancy might miscarry in the future, they would suggest bed rest for the mother (lying in bed for most of the time).
Today, most doctors and scientists think that bed rest does not help.
How is miscarriage treated?
In a complete miscarriage, the fetus has totally left the mother's body.
So has the placenta.
There are no pieces of fetal or placental tissue left in the uterus.
In a missed miscarriage, the fetus has miscarried but is still inside the mother's body.
This often happens when the mother does not realize she had a miscarriage (which is common when the pregnancy is very early on).
In an incomplete miscarriage, parts of the fetus or the placenta are still in the uterus.
Complete miscarriage
Incomplete or missed miscarriage
Watchful Waiting means that a doctor will keep checking on the woman, but will not give any treatment unless a problem happens.
With watchful waiting, most of these miscarriages will pass naturally in two to six weeks.
This means that the tissue left in the woman will leave her body, through the vagina, without any treatment.
With no treatment (watchful waiting), most of these cases (65–80%) will pass naturally within two to six weeks.
This path avoids the side effects and complications possible from medications and surgery, but increases the risk of mild bleeding, need for unplanned surgical treatment, and incomplete miscarriage.
Medical Management means that medicine is given.
Usually, a medicine called misoprostol is given.
Misoprostol makes the uterus contract (get tighter) to push out whatever is inside.
In about 95% of cases (95 out of 100), the fetal or placental tissue that is left in the uterus will leave the woman's body within a few days.
Surgery is the fastest way to complete a miscarriage.
It also makes bleeding less heavy and makes it not last as long.
Also, the woman will not have to go through the physical pain of the miscarriage.
Most often, one of two surgeries are used to complete the miscarriage:
Vacuum aspiration, sometimes called dilation and evacuation (D&E).
In a D&E, a tube attached to a pump sucks the tissue left in the uterus out through the cervix.
Dilation and curettage (D&C).
In a D&C, the cervix is widened, and the tissue left in the uterus is scraped and scooped out ("curettage").
Compared to giving medications, D&C has a higher risk of causing problems.
For example, the cervix or uterus may be injured.
Because of this, some women prefer not to have a D&C because they want to have children in the future and want to lower the chances of problems during future pregnancies.
However, if a woman has had more than one miscarriage, D&C is the most convenient way to get tissue samples, which can be studied to see if a reason for the miscarriages can be found.
Which treatment should be used?
The choice of which treatment to use depends on many things, including what the mother wants.
However, there are guidelines that doctors use to suggest what treatment to use.
Missed Miscarriage
For embryos that were less than 7 weeks old, and the smallest gestational sacs, watchful waiting is the best choice, because the embryo will often leave the mother's body naturally.
For embryos that were 7–9 weeks old with larger sizes and gestational sacs, medicine is suggested, but either watchful waiting or surgery might be used depending on the situation.
For the embryos that were over 9 weeks old, with the largest gestational sacs, surgery is suggested because the mother is likely to have a lot of pain and bleeding when she miscarries.
Incomplete Miscarriages
For an incomplete miscarriage, the size of the tissue left in the uterus is the most important thing that helps doctors decide what to do.
Ultrasound is used to find out how large the tissue is.
If the tissue left is smaller than 15mm (millimeters): Watchful waiting is usually the best choice because it is likely that the tissue will leave the mother's body on its own.
If the tissue is between 15 and 20mm: Medical or expectant management is suggested.
Surgery is chosen only if there is a specific reason why the mother needs it.
If the tissue is over 35 to 50mm, these things are suggested:
Giving misoprostol to make the tissue left in the uterus leave the mother's body on its own more quickly.
Having the mother stay in the hospital to be watched for a few hours or overnight.
She should stay until most of the tissue left in her uterus has passed, and she has stopped bleeding.
If misoprostol has not worked, surgery may be needed.
A risk factor for miscarriage is something that makes a woman more likely to miscarry.
There are many risk factors for miscarriage.
The age of the mother.
Women older than age 35 have a higher risk of miscarriage than younger women.
At age 35, a woman has about a 20 percent risk.
At age 40, the risk is about 40 percent.
And at age 45, it's about 80 percent.
Multiple pregnancies (pregnancies with more than one fetus, like twins and triplets).
The more fetuses in the womb, the higher the risk.
If the mother has certain diseases, like:
Diabetes, especially the mother needs insulin and her diabetes is still not controlled well.
Hypothyroidism, especially when the hypothyroidism is very bad.
Some infections, like HIV, rubella, malaria, and some sexually transmitted diseases like chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis.
If the mother or father smokes tobacco (cigarettes).
If the mother drinks alcohol while she is pregnant, especially if she drinks often, or drinks a lot at once.
The United Kingdom's National Health Service says that drinking alcohol becomes a risk factor if a mother drinks more than one glass of wine, more than one shot of whiskey, or more than two-thirds of a pint of beer a week.
Most doctors say that no amount of alcohol during pregnancy is safe.
If the mother uses illegal drugs, like cocaine, while she is pregnant.
If the mother is injured, exposed to certain poisons, or is using an IUD when she gets pregnant.
Problems with the mother's uterus or cervix.
Some types of food poisoning.
Congenital disabilities that can cause miscarriage
Ultrasound (used to diagnose miscarriage)
The Yuan dynasty was a Mongol dynasty that ruled Mongolia and China from 1271 to 1368.
Before this dynasty, China was ruled by the Song dynasty.
After the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty ruled China.
Genghis Khan and his army of Mongols conquered many parts of China.
His grandson Kublai Khan added more parts of China to his kingdom.
He founded the Yuan dynasty in 1271.
In the year of 1206, Genghis Khan ruled the Mobi tribes(a part of a country)  to establish the Mongol country at the Onon River.
Jin was the main race in Mongolia, but Jin and Xia were in decline, Mongolia had attacked the Western Xia and Jin in August 1227, and Jin lost, so Mongolia occupied the whole north of China in March 1234.
In 1259, Möngke Khan died after the Song Yuan dynasty war.
His brothers all wanted to be king.
His fourth brother, Kublai, and his seventh brother, Ali Khan, fought to rule the Mobi tribes.
And finally in 1264, Kublai won.
Kublai made the name "DaYuan" in 1271 and proclaimed the Yuan Dynasty and said its founder was his grandfather Genghis.
In 1276, Yuan ruled southern of Song, so yuan ruled the whole China in this year.
In 1279, the Kublai subdued southern Song dynasty.
The Yuan dynasty ruled China and brought different parts of China together that had been split since the late Tang dynasty.
They were the first foreign dynasty to rule just about all of China.
For centuries, most of what the West knew about China came from the book by Marco Polo about his visit to Kublai's empire.
The Yuan dynasty  ended in 1368 when the Ming dynasty took control.
1271 establishments
1368 disestablishments
13th-century establishments in Asia
The History of India covers thousands of years and discusses many diverse languages, cultures, periods, and dynasties.
Indian civilization began in the Indus Valley and some literature survives from that time.
More is known of the time after the Persian Empire conquered India.
Paleolithic era
Remains (stone tools and a skull) in central India show presence of an early species of humans, Homo erectus.
Archeologists think they lived in India between 200,000 and 500,000 years ago.
This period is known as the paleolithic era.
The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the paleolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley.
Soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across India, Pakistan and Nepal.
Modern humans (Homo sapiens) settled in the Indian subcontinent at least 70,000 years ago.
At that time the last ice age had just ended and climate became warm and dry.
First settlements of human beings in India are found in Bhimbetka, a place near Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh, India).
Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering.
Neolithic agriculture sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 7000 years ago, in the lower Gangetic valley around 5000 years ago.
Later, in South India, agriculture spread southwards and also into Malwa around 3800 years ago.
The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 5300 years ago with the early Indus Valley Civilisation, which included cities such as Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Lothal, and Kalibanga.
The civilization was based on the Indus River and its tributaries, extending into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley, the Ganges-Yamuna Doab, Gujarat, and southeastern Afghanistan.
Today, the civilization's old territory is split between India and Pakistan.
In Pakistan, the provinces of Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan overlap with ex-Indus Valley territory.
In India, the provinces Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan also share territory with the Indus Valley Civilization.
The first cities on the Indian subcontinent were part of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
They made the Indus Valley Civilization similar to early Mesopotamian civilisations and Ancient Egypt.
Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
The mature Indus civilization flourished from about 4600 to 3900 years ago.
The civilization included urban centers such as Dholavira, Kalibanga, Ropar, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day India, and Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan.
The cities were built of brick, with roadside drainage system and multistoried houses.
During the later period of this civilisation, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge.
By about 3700 years ago, most of the cities were abandoned.
However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly.
Some parts of the Indus Civilization may have survived in the smaller villages and isolated farms.
Vedic civilization
The Vedas are the oldest teachings of India, though the transmission of these teachings was mainly oral until around the 5th century.
There are four Vedas, and the first one is the Rigveda.
As per Rigveda the whole regions in which the Aryans were first settled in India was called as the Land of 7 Rivers or SaptaSindhawa .The other three are Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
The Vedas have verses in praise of gods and others.
They also have other information.
At that time, the society was pastoral.
After the Rigveda, society became more agricultural.
People became divided into four classes depending on the type of the work.
Brahmins were priests and teachers.
Kshatriyas were the warriors.
Vaishyas did agriculture, trading and commerce.
The shudras were the general working class.
A common misconception is that the Vaishyas and Shudras were generally looked down upon, and treated badly by Brahmins and Kshatriyas, which was true for the later part of the Vedic age.
But was untrue for the earlier part.
This type of social division is called the Varna system in Hinduism.
During the period of the Vedic civilization, there were many Aryan clans and tribes.
Some of them combined and became bigger like the kingdom of the Kurus.
Persian and Greek invasion
Around the 5th century BC, north-western parts of India faced invasion by the Achaemenid Empire and by the Greeks of Alexander the Great.
A Persian way of thinking, administration and lifestyle came to India.
This influence became bigger during the Mauryan dynasty.
Alexander later conquered these areas.
Achaemenid rule lasted about 186 years.
In modern times, there are still traces of this Greek heritage to be found in parts of northwestern India.
Greco-Buddhism (also spelled as Græco-Buddhism) is a combination of the cultures of Greece and Buddhism.
This mixture of cultures continued to develop for 800 years, from the 4th century BC until the 5th century AD.
The area where it happened is modern day’s Afghanistan and Pakistan.
This mixture of cultures influenced Mahayana Buddhism and spread of Buddhism to China, Korea, Japan and Tibet.
The Magadha empire
The Magadha formed one of the sixteen kingdoms in ancient India.
The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges.
Its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna).
Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal, followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Odhishaa.
The ancient kingdom of Magadha is mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts.
It was also mentioned in the Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, .
The state of Magadha, possibly a tribal kingdom, is recorded in Vedic texts much earlier than 600 BC.
These empires saw advances in ancient India's science, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy.
This was the Indian "Golden Age".
Early middle kingdoms
Satavahana empire
The Satavahanas came to power from around 230 BC.
They are also called Andhras.
For about 450 years, many Satavahanas kings ruled most parts of the southern and central India.
Western Kshatrapas
For about 350 years, from the years 35-405, Saka kings ruled India.
They ruled the western and central parts of India.
These areas are in today's states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh.
There were 27 independent rulers, collectively known as the Kshatrapas.
Saka kings ruled India along aside the Kushan kings and the Satvahana kings.
Kushan kings ruled the northern parts of India.
Satvahana kings ruled the central and some of the southern parts of India.
Indo-Scythians
Indo-Scythians came to India from Siberia passing through several places like Bactria, Sogdiana, Kashmir and Arachosia.
Their coming to India continued from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century BC.
They defeated the Indo-Greek rulers of India, and ruled India from Gandhara to Mathura.
Gupta dynasty
The Gupta dynasty reigned from around 320 to 550 AD.
The Gupta Empire covered most of North-central India, and what is now western India and Bangladesh.
Gupta society was ordered in accordance with Hindu beliefs.
The time of the Gupta Empire is seen as the Golden Age of India.
Historians place the Gupta dynasty alongside the Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty and Roman Empire as a model of a classical civilization.
Hun invasion
By the first half of the fifth century, a group of people known as Huns had settled in Afghanistan.
They became powerful.
They made Bamiyan as their capital city.
They started attacking northwestern parts of India.
Skandagupta, an emperor of the Gupta dynasty fought back and kept them away for some years.
At last the Huns won and could enter most parts of northern India.
With this the Gupta dynasty came to an end.
Most of north India became badly affected by this invasion.
However, Huns could not go up to the Deccan Plateau and the southern parts of India.
These parts remained peaceful.
No one knows definitely about the fate of Huns after the end of the sixth century.
Some historians believe that they mixed up fully with the Indian people of that time.
Late Middle Kingdoms
In the history of India, Middle kingdoms of India covers a period beginning from around the 6th-7th century.
In South India, Chola kings ruled Tamil Nadu, and Chera kings ruled Kerala.
They also had trading relationships with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east.
In north India, Rajputs ruled in many kingdoms.
Some of those kingdoms continued for hundreds of years.
Harsha's empire
After the collapse of the Gupta Empire, it was Harsha of Kanauj (a place now in Uttar Pradesh state of India) who united the northern parts of India in one kingdom.
After his death several dynasties tried to control north India and ruled from time to time from 7th century till the 9th century as described in some of the sections below.
Some of these dynasties were the Pratiharas of Malwa and later Kannauj; the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan.
The Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas
The Pratihara kings ruled kingdoms in Rajasthan and some other parts of northern India from the 6th century to the 11th century.
The Palas ruled the eastern part of India.
They ruled over areas which are now parts of the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, and the west Bengal, and of Bangladesh.
The Palas ruled from 8th century to the 12th century.
In the southern parts of India, Rashtrakutas of Malakheda (Karnataka) ruled the Deccan during the 8th-10th centuries after the end of Chalukya rule.
All these three dynasties always tried to control the entire north India.
During all this time lasting for three to four hundred years, the Chola kings were growing in power and influence.
The Rajputs
In the 6th century several Rajput kingdoms came into being in Rajasthan.
Many other Rajput kings ruled in different parts of north India.
Some of these kingdoms continue to survive for hundreds of years during different periods of the history of India.
Vijayanagar empire
In 1336, two brothers named Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijayanagara Empire in an area which is now in Karnataka state of India.
The most famous king of this empire was Krishnadevaraya.
In 1565, rulers of this empire were defeated in a battle.
But, the empire continued for about next one hundred years.
Islamic sultanates
Islam spread across the Indian subcontinent over a period of 500 years.
In the 10th and 11th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded India and established sultanates in Delhi.
In the early 16th century, descendants of Genghis Khan swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which lasted for 200 years.
From the 11th to the 15th centuries, southern India was dominated by Hindu Chola and Vijayanagar Dynasties.
During this time, the two systems—the prevailing Hindu and Muslim—mingled, left lasting cultural influences on each other.
Delhi sultanate.
The Delhi sultanate was a Muslim kingdom based mostly in Delhi.
It ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526) Five dynasties ruled over Delhi Sultanate.
They are the mamaluk, khilji, tughlaq, sayyid and the lodi dynasties.
The mamluk dynasty was started by Qutbuddin Aibak.
He was a slave and thus this dynasty is also called Slave Dynasty.
Qutubuddin Aibak also made Qutub minar.
His son in law, Iltutmish became the ruler after Qutubuddin aibak.
He completed the qutub minar.
The Kingdom of Mysore
The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom of southern India.
People known as Wodeyars founded this kingdom in the year 1400.
Later on, Hyder Ali and his son, Tipu Sultan, fought with the Wodeyar rulers.
They also fought with the forces of the British Raj, but were defeated.
Under the British Raj, Wodeyar kings continued to rule a large part of Karnataka.
When India became independent on 15th August 1947, Wodeyars’ kingdom chose to become a part of India.
The Punjab
Guru Nanak founded Sikhism and his followers were called Sikhs.
The power of Sikhs continued to increase in the northwestern part of India.
The Sikhs became rulers of large part of the northwestern India.
This is called the Sikh Kingdom or Empire.
Ranjit Singh was the most famous ruler of the Sikh Empire.
He expanded the borders of the Sikh Empire and at the time of his death, this empire covered areas of Punjab, and present day Kashmir and parts of Pakistan.
The Sikhs and forces of the British Raj fought many wars.
Till Maharaja Ranjit Singh was alive, Britishers were not able to cross the Sutlej river.
After his death, the they took over the entire Punjab after battles with disorganised Sikh troops.
For a short period, a person named Ahmed Shah Durrani the founder of Afghanistan ruled some parts of northwestern India.
Historians have named his rule as the Durrani Empire.
In 1748, he crossed the Indus River and attacked Lahore, now a part of Pakistan.
He also attacked many parts of Punjab.
Then, he attacked Delhi.
At that time, Delhi was the capital of the Mughal Empire.
He took many valuable things from India.
This included the Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan and the famous diamond named Kohinoor.
Colonial era
Colonial period means the time when Western countries ruled India.
Western countries also ruled many other countries of Asia, Africa, and South America.
Company Raj
Starting in the 1600s the British East India Company began a very profitable trading empire in India, centered in Bengal.
In the mid-1700s Robert Clive (1725-1774) led the Company to an expanded influence in India with victories over the French, the Bengalis, and the Mughals.
With a victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 Clive became the first British Governor of Bengal.
In the hundred years after the battle, the East India Company conquered the entire subcontinent of India.
They did this by trade, political intrigue, and direct military action.
The British were very efficient administrators of their domains.
But in 1857 the Indian Mutiny almost destroyed the Company's rule of India.
Afterward the British government took control away from the Company.
In 1858, India became a part of the British Empire and Queen Victoria became the empress of India.
For ninety years the British ruled India and Burma as a unified territory under the British king or queen.
It was divided into eight provinces each with a governor.
These provinces were Burma, Bengal, Madras, Bombay, UP, Central Provinces, Punjab, and Assam.
A Governor-General (Viceroy) in Calcutta was head of the government.
The way the British conquered India was often divide and rule.
In the end, many kingdoms were defeated by the British and the riches taken.
For example, many of the Royal Crown Jewels were taken from previous kingdoms in India- including the Koh-I-Noor diamond (one of the worlds largest diamonds) and also stole many other large diamonds and gold.
During famines and floods many people died because the government did not help enough.
Any Indian not able to pay the British taxes could be forced into prison and/or publicly beaten.
Political opponents were jailed and sometimes killed for speaking out against colonial rule.
After taking much of India's natural resources for hundreds of years, England was criticized for not protecting Indians during the partition of India and Pakistan.
During the partition of India and Pakistan, millions of Indians and Pakistanis died.
The British also did good things.
They built railroads, telegraphs and telephones, improved trade, standardized laws, and water supplies.
Many of these things were done to help improve commerce in India and taxes provided to England.
They created the Indian Civil Service for administering rules and regulations.
They also tried to eliminate practices like burning widows.
The British ruled India primarily for the economic benefit of Britain.
India produced cheap raw materials for British industry.
Indians had to buy British manufactured goods and profits went back to Britain.
Many people in India wanted to be free from British rule.
The struggle for independence was long and difficult.
Many people protested against the British, and the British tortured many.
They had long promoted divisions among the various Indian rulers and religions.
The most important leader of the Hindu majority was Mohandas K. Gandhi.
Gandhi believed in a non-violent opposition towards the British.
Because Hindus and Muslims fought each other, India was divided into two countries: Pakistan and India.
Pakistan was also divided, decades later.
India won its independence, along with Muslim Pakistan, and became a free country on August 15, 1947.
Pakistan won independence on 14 August, some hours before India.
Republic of India
On 15 August 1947, British Indian Empire was partitioned into two countries, India (Hindustan) and Pakistan.
With this the British Raj in the Indian subcontinent ended.
On 26 January 1950, Hindustan adopted a constitution.
From that day, Hindustanis became the Republic of India or Indians.
During last 60 years, Republic of India has seen different stages in its national life.
Some of them are as follows:
It fought three wars against Pakistan, and one war against China.
Wars with Pakistan were fought in 1947, 1965, and 1971.
In 1999, it had a limited skirmish in Kargil.
The war with China was fought in 1962.
In 1971, the Republic of India also helped Bangladesh in its freedom struggle.
Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru (the first Prime Minister of India), India had adopted a socialist economy.
Some economists think it was a mixed economy.
In a mixed economy, socialism and capitalism continue together.
During this period, lasting for several years up to end-1980s, India could rapidly develop its infrastructure, science and technology.
By the early 1990s, India had changed its economic policies.
It started several reforms to attract more capital from other countries.
Local businessmen and industrialists also got more freedom to carry out their activities.
In 1974, India had already detonated its first nuclear bomb.
It repeated the same in 1998.
With this, it became a nuclear power.
Presently (), India is currently the fifth largest economy in terms of gross GDP.
It is the 4th largest economy of the world when accounting for purchasing power parity.
Some economists think that in coming decades, India’s economy will become still larger.
Allan, J. T. Wolseley Haig, and H. H. Dodwell, The Cambridge Shorter History of India (1934)
Majumdar, R. C., H.C. Raychaudhuri, and Kaukinkar Datta.
An Advanced History of India London: Macmillan.
Smith, Vincent.
The Oxford History of India in(1981)
A Concise History of India
A Timeline of Indian History
Indian History Timeline
1254 – Marco Polo
1250 – Fibonacci
Life and Times of Michael K is a novel written by J. M. Coetzee in 1983.
It won a Booker Prize.
Some people think there is a link between Michael K and Josef K. in The Trial by Franz Kafka.
1983 books
Tort law is the part of law for most harms that are not either criminal or based on a contract.
For example, a car accident where one driver hurts another driver because he or she was not paying attention might be a tort.
If a person is hurt by someone else, he or she can sue in court.
Many torts are accidents, like car accidents or slippery floors that make people fall down and get hurt.
These are called negligent torts.
But some torts are done on purpose.
These are called intentional torts.
For example, if one person punches another person in the nose, it might be an intentional tort called battery.
Many torts cause physical harm to people.
Some torts cause damage to property, like a broken window.
Some torts can harm other things, like someone's reputation or a business.
The kinds of torts this article talks about are a part of the common law.
The common law is found in England and former British colonies, such as the United States of America.
Different laws are found in civil law countries such as France or Germany.
In those countries people usually use the word delict instead of tort, but they mean very similar things.
Torts are what happens when one person (or organization) injures another.
The person or organization that causes the injury is known as a tortfeasor.
The person who is injured is often called the victim.
The victim may sue the tortfeasor.
The people or organizations on each side of a lawsuit are called the parties.
In a lawsuit, the victim is called the plaintiff.
The tortfeasor is called the defendant.
Usually, the plaintiff in a lawsuit is asking the court to make the defendant pay money to make up for the harm that the defendant caused.
For example, the money that the plaintiff asks for might pay for the plaintiff's medical bills if he or she was hurt in an accident.
Money that the court orders the defendant to pay is called damages.
For some torts, especially ones done on purpose (intentional torts), the plaintiff might also ask the court to punish the defendant by making him or her pay extra money.
That extra money is sometimes called punitive damages.
Sometimes a plaintiff also asks the court to order the defendant to stop doing something, like polluting the air or water.
An order to stop doing something is called an injunction (in the United States it is sometimes called a restraining order).
Sometimes the same act can be both a tort and a crime.
For instance, stealing someone else's property might be a criminal offense, but it is also a tort against the person who owns the property.
Similarly, punching somebody in the nose can constitute both the crime and tort of battery.
Kinds of torts
Intentional torts
When a defendant causes an injury on purpose, that injury is an intentional tort.
Sometimes, an injury can be an intentional tort if the defendant knows it will happen, even if the defendant does not want it to happen.
Intentional torts include hitting people and saying things about them that are not true.
Unintentional torts
Unintentional torts are accidents.
They usually happen because someone was not being careful.
When someone is not careful, it is called negligence or recklessness.
An example of negligence is driving a car while not paying attention to the road.
In a case of negligence, the court figures out what happened and decides whether the defendant was careful enough.
It orders the defendant to pay money only if the defendant was not careful enough.
Recklessness occurs when somebody knows that a substantial risk may result to the lives and safety of others as a result of his or her actions, but acts with indifference to the safety of others.
An example of a reckless act is shooting a gun randomly toward an occupied building.
Although there is no intent to hurt anybody inside of the building, the action creates a significant risk that somebody could be injured or killed.
Strict liability
In some kinds of cases, it does not matter whether the defendant was careful or not.
This is called strict liability or absolute liability.
For example, in the United States, if someone buys a soda can and it explodes because it was manufactured badly, the manufacturer will probably have to pay the victim money even if the court finds that the defendant was as careful as it could be.
Physical torts
Abstract torts
Abstract torts are injuries to a person's mind, reputation, or property.
A person's mind or reputation can be injured by saying things about them that are not true.
A person's property can be injured by taking it from them without permission or saying that it belongs to someone else.
Torts involving people
Torts that involve people include hitting them, saying things about them that are not true, and making them stay in one place when they want to leave.
Hitting someone is called battery.
Saying things about someone that are not true is called slander, and writing things about someone that are not true is called libel, both of which are forms of defamation.