the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
By July 1941, there were too many new prisoners to fit in the jails that existed.
The Ustaše government began building the Jasenovac concentration camp.
The Independent State of Croatia was created and supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.
Because of this, the ISC took on their ideas about race and politics.
Jasenovac had a role in the Nazis' "Final Solution."
However, the ISC also used the camp for the ethnic cleansing of Romani and Serbian people in Croatia.
The Office of Foreign Affairs, represented in Croatia by Siegfried Kasche.
The Schutzstaffel (SS), represented by a Gestapo official whose identity is not known, but whom Jewish witnesses knew as "Miller"
The Reichfuhrung and the Wehrmacht
The Nazis encouraged the Ustaše's anti-Jewish and anti-Roma actions and showed support for the anti-Serb policy.
Soon, it became clear that the Nazis wanted to commit genocide.
In a meeting on July 21, 1941, Hitler said to the Croatian military commander, Slavko Kvaternik:
The Jews are the bane of the human kind.
If the Jews will be allowed to do as they will, like they are permitted in their Soviet heaven, than they will fulfill their most insane plans.
And thus Russia became the center to the world's illness... if for any reason, one nation would endure the existence of a single Jewish family, that family would eventually become the center of a new plot.
If there are no more Jews in Europe, nothing will hold the unification of the European nations... this sort of people cannot be integrated in the social order or into an organized nation.
They are parasites on the body of a healthy society, that live off of expulsion of decent people.
One cannot expect them to fit into a state that requires order and discipline.
There is only one thing to be done with them: To exterminate them.
The state holds this right since, while precious men die on the battlefront, it would be nothing less than criminal to spare these bastards.
They must be expelled, or -- if they pose no threat to the public -- to be imprisoned inside concentration camps and never be released."
Creation of the camp
The Jasenovac complex was built between August 1941 and February 1942.
The first two camps, Krapje and Bročica, were closed in November 1941.
Ciglana (Jasenovac III)
Kozara (Jasenovac IV)
Stara Gradiška (Jasenovac V)
The camp was built, managed and supervised by Department III of the Ustaška Narodna Služba or UNS (lit. "
Ustaše People's Service"), a special police force of the ISC.
Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić was head of the UNS.
At different times, Miroslav Majstorović and Dinko Šakić managed the camp.
The Ustaše interned, tortured and executed men, women and children in Jasenovac.
The largest number of victims were Serbs, but other victims included Jews, Bosnian Muslims, Gypsies, and Croatian resistance members opposed to the ISC regime.
When they got to the camp, the prisoners were marked with colors: blue for Serbs, and red for "communists" (non-Serbian resistance members).
Gypsies had no marks (this was later changed).
Most people who were sent to Jasenovac were killed at execution sites near the camp: Granik, Gradina, and other places.
Prisoners who were kept alive were mostly people who had special skills (for example, doctors, pharmacists, electricians, shoemakers, and goldsmiths).
They were forced to work at Jasenovac.
Living conditions
The living conditions in the camp were terrible, as was usual for Nazi death camps.
Prisoners were fed very little, not given enough clothing or shelter to stay warm, had no health care, and were abused by the Ustaše guards.
Also, as in many camps, conditions would be improved temporarily when special groups visited.
For example, when members of the press visited in February 1942, and later when a Red Cross delegation visited in June 1944, the prisoners were treated better until the visitors left.
Then the living conditions would go back to usual.
Like at all Nazi death camps, the food given to prisoners at Jasenovac was not enough to keep them alive.
The kind of food they were given changed over time.
In camp Brocice, inmates were given a "soup" made of hot water with starch for breakfast, and beans for lunch and dinner.
(These "meals" were served at 6:00, 12:00 and 21:00.)
Food in Camp No.
III was better at first, with potatoes instead of beans.
However, in January, prisoners started getting only one daily serving of thin "turnip soup".
By the end of the year, the diet had been changed again, to three daily portions of thin gruel made of water and starch.
More changes were made, but prisoners never got enough food to keep them from starving.
The water at Jasenovac was even worse than at most death camps.
There was no clean water at the camp.
Prisoners were forced to drink water from the Sava River, which was contaminated with hren (horseradish).
In the first camps, Brocice and Krapje, inmates slept in regular concentration-camp barracks.
These were made of wood and had three tiers (levels) of bunks.
In Camp No.
III, which housed about 3,000 prisoners, there was not enough shelter for everyone.
At first, inmates slept in the attics of the camp's workshops, in an open depot used as a railway "tunnel", or simply outside in the open.
A short time later, eight barracks were built.
Inmates slept in six of these barracks.
The other two were used as a "clinic" and a "hospital."
These were not places where inmates could get medical treatment and get better.
They were places where sick inmates were put together to die or be killed.
As in all concentration camps, prisoners at Jasenovac had to work about 11 hours a day.
They did hard, forced labor, and were always watched by the Ustaše guards.
These guards would execute inmates even for small reasons, and say the inmates were "sabotaging labor."
Ustasas Hinko Dominik Picilli and Tihomir Kordić controlled the labor section.
Picilli would personally whip inmates to make them work harder.
He divided the "Jasenovac labor force" into 16 groups, including groups of construction workers, brick-workers, metal-works, and agricultural workers.
Many inmates died from the hard work.
Brick-working was especially hard and dangerous.
Inmates working as blacksmiths were forced to make knives and other weapons for the Ustaše.
Building dikes was the most feared job of all.
Inside the camp, there was no sanitation.
Prisoners had no way to keep things clean, and had to live in terrible conditions.
Blood, vomit and dead bodies filled the barracks.
The barracks were also full of pests like lice and rats, which spread disease.
The barracks smelled terrible because inmates had to use a bucket for a toilet during the evenings.
The bucket often spilled.
During breaks from work (from 5:00-6:00; 12:00-13:00, and 17:00-20:00), inmates were allowed to empty their bowels in public latrines.
These were big pits that lay bare in the open field, covered with planks of wood.
Inmates often fell inside and died.
The Ustaše encouraged this by having prisoners separate the planks.
Sometimes, the Ustaše would even drown inmates inside the pits.
When it rained, these pits would overflow and drain into the lake.
This meant that urine and feces would mix into the water which the prisoners had to drink.
Inmates were given rags and blankets, but they were very thin.
The barracks were also not enough to keep inmates warm from the cold.
Prisoners' clothes and blankets were rarely cleaned.
Inmates were allowed to wash them quickly in the lake once a month, except during the winter, when the lake froze.
Then, inmates were sometimes allowed to boil a few clothes, but not well enough to get them clean.
The Ustaše took away all of the inmates' clothes and other things.
They were given only prison uniforms, made out of rags.
In winter, inmates were given thin "rain-coats," and they were allowed to make light sandals.
Inmates were given a small personal food bowl, to hold the 0.4 litres of "soup" they were fed.
An inmate whose bowl was missing (because another inmate had stolen it to use it as a toilet) would get no food.
During delegation visits, inmates were given bowls twice as large as usual, with spoons.
Also, during these visits, inmates were given colored tags.
When they first arrived at the camp, inmates would be shocked by the terrible conditions on the trip to the camp, and in the camp itself.
The Ustaše would increase this shock by murdering a number of inmates as soon as they got to the camp, and by temporarily housing new-arrivals in warehouses, attics, in the train tunnel and outdoors.
After the inmates grew familiar with life in camp, they would have to get used to living through the hardships, abuse, torture, and deaths of other prisoners.
The danger of death was greatest during "public performances for public punishment," also called selections.
Inmates would be lined up in groups, and individuals would be randomly pointed out to be killed while facing the rest.
The Ustaše would make this worse by making the process take a long time.
They would walk around and ask questions; gaze at inmates; choose one person, then change their mind and choose another.
Inmates reacted to being in Jasenovac in two basic ways.
Some became activists.
They formed resistance movements (groups who tried to fight the Ustaše in different ways, like stealing food, planning escapes and revolts, and trying to get in touch with people outside the camp).
But most of the inmates reacted by just trying to survive, and get through the day unharmed.
This was not "going in line to slaughter," but rather another strategy to try to survive.
All inmates suffered from some kind of mental health problems.
Some could not stop thinking about food; others became paranoid; some had delusions; some lost control of themselves.
Others seemed to lose their sense of hope.
Some inmates reacted by trying to write about what was happening to them.
For example, Nikola Nikolić, Djuro Schwartz, and Ilija Ivanović all tried to memorize and even write about events, dates and details.
This was very dangerous, since writing was punishable by death and tracking dates was hard.
Most of the executions of Jews at Jasenovac occurred before August 1942.
After that, the ISC started to deport Jewish prisoners to the Auschwitz concentration camp.
In general, Jews were first sent to Jasenovac from all parts of Croatia after being gathered in Zagreb, and from Bosnia and Herzegovina after being gathered in Sarajevo.
Some, however, were sent directly to Jasenovac from other cities and smaller towns.
Systematic extermination of prisoners
Many inmates sent to Jasenovac were scheduled to be murdered.
Strong men who could do hard work, and were sentenced to less than 3 years in prison, were allowed to live.
However, anyone who was sentenced to 3 years in prison or longer was immediately scheduled for execution.
The Ustaše used many different kinds of systematic extermination (killing many people at once, using a system).
However, they liked using manual methods of killing - killing prisoners with their hands, using tools like knives, saws, and hammers.
The Ustaše cremated living inmates.
Some were given drugs, but others were fully awake.
They also cremated dead bodies.
When the Ustaše first started cremating people in January 1942, they used brick factory ovens.
An engineer named Hinko Dominik Picilli made cremation much easier for them by creating seven better-working crematories.
Crematories were also placed in Gradina, across the Sava River.
The State Commission says "there is no information that [the Gradina crematory] ever went into operation."
Later testimony, however, says this crematory was used.
Some bodies were buried rather than cremated.
Their bodies were dug up late in the war.
Gassing and poisoning
The Nazis had used poison gas to kill many prisoners in their concentration camps.
Following this example, the Ustaše tried to use poison gas to kill inmates that arrived in Stara-Gradiska.
At first, they tried to gas the women and children that arrived from camp Djakovo with gas-vans that Simo Klaić called "green Thomas".
Later, they built gas chambers and used Zyklon-B and sulphur monoxide to kill prisoners.
Granik
Granik was a ramp used to unload goods from boats on the Sava River.
In winter 1943-44, prisoners who did farming work had no jobs to do, since the ground was frozen.
Meanwhile, large numbers of new prisoners arrived.
By this time, the Axis powers were expected to lose World War II, and the Ustaše wanted to kill as many people as possible before that happened.
They decided to execute people on the ramp, so that after they were killed, their bodies could be dumped into the river.
Every night for about 20 days, Ustaše officers brought in lists of prisoners who they planned to execute.
They stripped, chained, and beat these prisoners.
Then they took them to the Granik.
There, weights were tied to them; their intestines and necks were cut; they were hit in the head; and then they were thrown into the river.
Over time, the Ustaše changed this method, so that inmates were tied in pairs, back to back, and their bellies were cut open before they were tossed into the river alive.
Gradina and Ustice
Gradina and Ustice were villages around Jasenovac.
The Ustaše chose some empty areas near these villages, and used wire to mark off an area for a massacre and mass graves.
They gathered many prisoners there and killed them with knives or by smashing their skulls with hammers.
When Roma people (Gypsies) arrived in the camp, they did not undergo selection, because they were all scheduled to be killed.
They were taken to Gradina.
In between massacres, the men would be forced to work on the dike, and the women would be forced to work in the cornfields in Ustice.
Eventually, they would all be killed.
Thus Gradina and Ustice became Roma mass grave sites.
The Ustaše killed more and more people Gradina, until it became the main killing-ground in Jasenovac.
Grave-sites were also located in nearby Ustica and in Draksenic.
Mlaka and Jablanac
Mlaka and Jablanac were used as camps where women and children were held and forced to work.
However, many women, children, and other people were killed at the Sava River bank between the two camps.
Velika Kustarica
According to the State Commission, as many as 50,000 people were killed here in the winter of 1941 to 1942.
Evidence says that more people were also killed here after that winter.
August 29, 1942, mass murder
In the late summer of 1942, the ISC sent tens of thousands of Serbian villagers were to Jasenovac.
The villagers had lived in the Kozara mountain area (in Bosnia), where ISC soldiers were fighting against the Yugoslav Partisans.
The women villagers were sent to do forced labor in Germany.
Children were taken from their mothers and either killed or sent to Catholic orphanages.
However, most of the men were killed at Jasenovac.
On the night of August 29, 1942, the camp's guards made bets about who could kill the most prisoners.
One of the guards, Petar Brzica, reportedly cut the throats of about 1,360 of the new prisoners, using a butcher knife that became known as srbosjek ("Serb-cutter").
Other guards who admitted taking part in the bet included Ante Zrinušić, who killed about 600 inmates, and Mile Friganović, who gave a detailed and consistent report of what happened.
Friganović admitted to killing 1,100 inmates.
He specifically talked about how he tortured an old man named Vukasin.
He ordered the man to bless the Ustaše leader, Ante Pavelić.
The old man refused, even though Friganović cut off his ears, nose, and tongue every time he refused.
Eventually, he cut out the old man's eyes, tore out his heart, and cut his throat.
Dr. Nikola Nikolić saw this happen.
End of the camp
In April 1945, as Yugoslav Partisan units neared the camp, the Ustaše guards tried to get rid of evidence of their crimes and the people who knew what they had done.
They tried to kill as many prisoners as possible, as fast as they could.
On April 22, 600 prisoners revolted; 520 were killed and 80 escaped.
Not long after the prisoners revolted, the Ustaše abandoned the camp.
However, first, they killed the prisoners who were still alive.
They also blew up and destroyed the buildings, guardhouses, torture rooms, crematoriums, and other parts of the camp.
When they entered the camp, the Partisans found only ruins, soot, smoke, and dead bodies.
Historians have had difficulty figuring out exactly how many people died at Jasenovac.
Today, the most common estimate is that tens of thousands of people died at the camp.
Before the 1990s, the most common estimate was that hundreds of thousands had died.
These estimates are very different for many reasons.
The Ustaše did not keep accurate records.
Different people use different ways of estimating deaths.
Sometimes, the people making estimates have political biases.
In some cases, entire families were killed at the camp, leaving no one to submit their names to lists of the dead.
On the other hand, the lists sometimes include the names of people who died in other places; people who survived; or people who are on more than one list.
Victim lists
The Jasenovac Memorial Area keeps a list of the names of 69,842 Jasenovac victims, including 39,580 Serbs; 14,599 Roma (Gypsies); 10,700 Jews; 3,462 Croats; 1,128 Bosniaks; and people of other ethnicities.
The Memorial estimates that between 85,000 and 100,000 people died at the camp.
However, the Memorial's former director, Simo Brdar, estimated that there were at least 360,000 total deaths.
The Belgrade Museum of the Holocaust keeps a list of the names of 80,022 victims (mostly from Jasenovac), including approximately 52,000 Serbs; 16,000 Jews; 12,000 Croats; 12,000 Bosniaks; and 10,000 Roma.
Milan Bulajic, the Museum's former director, estimated total deaths at 500,000 to 700,000.
The Jasenovac Research Institute estimates that there were 300,000 to 700,000 deaths at the camp.
In 1998, the Bosniak Institute published SFR Yugoslavia's final List of war victims from the Jasenovac camp (created in 1992).
The list contained the names of 49,602 victims at Jasenovac, including 26,170 Serbs; 8,121 Jews; 5,900 Croats; 1471 Roma; 787 Muslims (whose nationalities are unknown); 6,792 people of unknown ethnicities; and some people listed simply as "others."
Estimates by Holocaust organizations
The Yad Vashem center claims that over 500,000 Serbs were killed in the Independent State of Croatia.
This includes Serbs who were killed at Jasenovac.
The Simon Wiesenthal Center estimates the same.
Historical documents
There are many different documents from the time that Jasenovac existed, written by many different people.
At the time, the Germans and Italians were fighting Yugoslav Partisans for control of Yugoslavia.
People from both sides of that fight wrote about Jasenovac.
The Ustaše themselves also wrote about the camp; so did the Vatican.
Comparing all of these different accounts can help with estimates of how many people died at the camp.
As the war went on, German generals wrote reports on the number of Serbs, Jews, and others killed in the Independent State of Croatia.
In 1943, three different generals estimated that 300,000 to 400,000 Serbs had been killed.
By March 1944, Ernst Fick wrote that 600,000 to 700,000 Serbs had been killed.
Hermann Neubacher wrote:
"When prominent Ustashi [Ustaše] leaders claimed that they slaughtered a million Serbs (including babies, children, women and old men), that is, in my opinion, a boastful exaggeration.
On the basis of the reports submitted to me, I believe that the number of defenseless victims slaughtered to be three quarters of a million. (
Neubacher, Dr. Hermann.
Special Assignment in the Southeast, p. 18-30.)
Italian generals reported similar figures to their commanders.
The Vatican's sources also wrote of similar figures.
For example, Eugen Tisserant reported that 350,000 Serbs had been killed by the end of 1942.
Godfried Danneels estimated that a total of "over 500,000 people" were killed.
The Ustaše themselves claimed that they had killed many more people.
Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić, commander-in-chief of all the Croatian camps, once bragged about Jasenovac's "efficiency."
At a ceremony on October 9, 1942 - just a year after the camp was created - he said: "We have slaughtered here at Jasenovac more people than the Ottoman Empire was able to do during its occupation of Europe."
The Ustaše general headquarters once published a pamphlet that said: "the concentration and labor camp in Jasenovac can receive an unlimited number of internees [prisoners]."
Finally, Miroslav Filipovic-Majstorovic, once captured by Yugoslav forces, tried to minimize the crimes committed in Jasenovac by saying that during the three months that he ran the camp, 20,000 to 30,000 people died.
In other sources, that three months' death toll is displayed as 40,000.
In 1945, the new Yugoslavian government, led by Tito, paid for a report by the National Committee of Croatia.
The report looked into the crimes committed by the Ustaše and their allies.
The report, dated November 15, 1945, stated that 500,000 to 600,000 people were killed at the Jasenovac complex.
These figures were used by researcher Israel Gutman in the Encyclopedia of the Holocaust; by the Simon Wiesenthal Center; and by others.
Qualities of the camp
The camp's size: Jasenovac was a complex of various camps, including Krapje and Brocice, Ciglana, Stara-Gradiska, Sisak, Djakovo, Jablanac, Mlaka, Draksenic, Gradina and Ustice, Dubica, Kosutarica, and Jasenovac's tannery.
These camps and mass graveyards covered 120 square miles.
In the list of names found in the Jasenovac memorial, only 4000 victims are from Stara-Gradiska, where inmates were killed with poison gas as early as 1942.
This suggests that the victim list may not be complete.
How long the camp existed: Jasenovac existed from mid-August 1941 to May 1945.
Mass extermination took place during all of 1941 and 1942, and again in the second half of 1944.
From March to December 1943, almost no mass atrocities took place.
However, deaths from illness and individual killings continued (any guard could still kill any inmate at any time).
The camp's classification: Besides being a concentration camp, Jasenovac was an extermination camp.
The Kulmhof and Bełżec extermination camps were both small, and both existed for a much shorter period of time.
However, at Bełżec, over 300,000 people were killed; at Kulmhof, 128,000 were killed.
The camp's population: Jasenovac was used as a death camp for Serbs, Jews, Roma, Sinti, Slovens, and people of other ethnicities.
In other death camps, only Jews and Roma were systematically exterminated.
Therefore, more people may have died at Jasenovac.
Also, crematories were built in Jasenovac as far back as January 1942, because the Ustaše were having trouble burying all of the camp's dead bodies.
This suggests that many people were already dying at the camp.
In addition, later that year, prisoners were being killed with poison gas in Stara-Gradiska, in both gas chambers and vans.
Camp officials and their fate
Miroslav Majstorović: An Ustaše who commanded Jasenovac and Stara-Gradiska at different times.
He was nicknamed Fra Sotona (brother devil) because he was very cruel and because his family was Christian.
He was captured by the Yugoslav communist forces, tried, and executed in 1946.
Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić: The commander of the Ustaska Obrana, or Ustaše defense.
This means he was responsible for all crimes committed under his supervision in Jasenovac, which he visited a few times a month.
He ran away to Spain, but was assassinated by a Yugoslav agent in 1969.
Dinko Šakić: He ran away to Argentina.
However, he was eventually extradited back to Croatia.
After a trial, in 1999 he was sentenced to 20 years in prison.
He died in prison in 2008.
Petar Brzica: An Ustaše officer who was accused of killing about 1,360 people on August 29, 1942.
He ran away to the United States.
His name was on a list of 59 Nazis living in the U.S., which a Jewish organization gave to the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service during the 1970s.
It is not clear what happened to him after that.
Later events
The Jasenovac Memorial Museum was temporarily abandoned during the Yugoslav wars.
In November 1991, Simo Brdar, a former associate director of the Memorial, collected the documentation from the museum and brought it to Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Brdar kept the documents until 2001, when he gave them to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, with the help of SFOR and the government of Republika Srpska.
With the help of former U.S. Congressman Anthony Weiner, the New York City Parks Department, the Holocaust Park Committee, and the Jasenovac Research Institute created a public monument to the victims of Jasenovac in April 2005 (on the sixtieth anniversary of the camp's liberation).
Ten Yugoslavian Holocaust survivors were there, along with diplomats from Serbia, Bosnia, and Israel.
It is the only public monument to Jasenovac victims outside of the Balkans.
Ceremonies are held there every April.
The Yugoslav Auschwitz and the Vatican, Vladimir Dedijer (Editor), Harvey Kendall (Translator) Prometheus Books, 1992.
Witness to Jasenovac's Hell Ilija Ivanovic, Wanda Schindley (Editor), Aleksandra Lazic (Translator) Dallas Publishing, 2002
Crimes in the Jasenovac Camp, State Commission investigation of crimes of the occupiers and their collaborators in Croatia, Zagreb, 1946.
Ustasha Camps by Mirko Percen, Globus, Zagreb, 1966.
Second expanded printing 1990.
Ustashi and the Independent State of Croatia 1941-1945, by Fikreta Jelic-Butic, Liber, Zagreb, 1977.
Romans, J. Jews of Yugoslavia, 1941- 1945: Victims of Genocide and Freedom Fighters, Belgrade, 1982
Antisemitism in the anti-fascist Holocaust: a collection of works, The Jewish Center, Zagreb, 1996.
The Jasenovac Concentration Camp, by Antun Miletic, Volumes One and Two, Belgrade, 1986.
Volume Three, Belgrade, 1987.
Second edition, 1993.
Hell's Torture Chamber by Djordje Milica, Zagreb, 1945.
Die Besatzungszeit das Genozid in Jugoslawien 1941-1945 by Vladimir Umeljic, Graphics High Publishing, Los Angeles, 1994.
Srbi i genocidni XX vek (Serbs and XX century, Ages of Genocide) by Vladimir Umeljić, (vol 1, vol 2), Magne, Belgrade, 2004.
Magnum Crimen, by Viktor Novak, Zagreb, 1948.
Kaputt, by Curzio Malaparte, translated by Cesare Foligno, Northwestern University Press Evanston, Illinois, 1999.
Der kroatische Ustascha-Staat 1941-1945, by Ladislaus Hory and Martin Broszat, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1964.
World War II casualties
Holocaust Encyclopedia: Jasenovac, hosted at USHMM
US Holocaust Memorial Museum: Jasenovac
Spomen Područje Jasenovac
Jasenovac Memorial Museum
Jasenovac victims list
Balkan Repository Project - Jasenovac
Jasenovac commander Šakić trial documents by Republic of Croatia
Concentration camp Jasenovac, Archive of Republika Srpska
Jasenovac  at the Simon Wiesenthal Center Museum of Tolerance
Pavelic Papers' Documents on Jasenovac (includes "Encyclopedia of the Holocaust" quotes)
Jasenovac Committee of the Holy Assembly of Bishops of the Serbian Orthodox Church
Kosta Brandic Archives: Jasenovac
Jasenovac Research Institute
Eichmann Trial - Alexander Arnon testimony
Unscrambling the History of a Nazi Camp, The New York Times, 6 December 2006
New expanded Jasenovac Memorial opened
Geshe Sonam Rinchen was born in Kham in Eastern Tibet in 1933.
In 1945, he joined Dhargyey Monastery, and entered Sera monastery in Lhasa in 1952, where he studied until he was forced to leave Tibet in 1959.
In India he completed his studies for the degree of Geshe Lharampa which he received in 1980.
He also received the degree of Acarya from the Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies in Sarnath.
He was appointed resident teacher at the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives in Dharamsala, India in 1978, where he teaches Buddhist philosophy and practice, mainly to westerners.
He has also taught in Japan, Australia, Great Britain, South Korea, Ireland, New Zealand and Switzerland.
Atisha's Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment,
The Bodhisattva Vow,
Eight Verses for Training the Mind,
The Heart Sutra,
How Karma Works,
Nagarjuna's "Seventy Stanzas",
The Six Perfections,
The Thirty-seven Practices of Bodhisattvas,
The Three Principle Aspects of the Path,
Yogic Deeds of Bodhisattvas,
Aryadeva's Four Hundred Stanzas on the Middle Way
Buddha Nature, 2003 Library of Tibetan Works & Archives,
Library of Tibetan Works and Archives
Snow Lion Publications
Geshe Acharya Thubten Loden leads the Tibetan Buddhist Society in Australia.
Geshe Loden established the Peaceful Land of Joy Meditation Centre in Victoria, and has written many books.
In 2011, he was named Hume Citizen of the Year.
Born in 1924, Geshe Loden became a monk at the age of seven.
Completing his study of all divisions of Buddhist philosophy, he was awarded the Geshe Lharampa degree from Sera Monastery in Tibet, and an Acharya degree from Varanasi's Sanskrit university in India.
He also gained a Master's qualification in Vajrayana Buddhism after six years' study at Gyudmed Tantric College.
Geshe Loden originally came to Australia in 1976 as a Tibetan refugee.
Great Treasury of Mahamudra (2009)
Essence of the Path to Enlightenment (1997)
Meditations on the Path to Enlightenment (1996)
The Fundamental Potential for Enlightenment (1996)
Path to Enlightenment in Tibetan Buddhism (1993)
Lam rim
Tibetan Buddhist Society
Tushita Publications
Pursuit of happiness leads to Yuroke
The FPMT (Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition) is a group of Buddhist centers focusing on the Gelugpa tradition of Tibet.
Founded in 1975 by Lama Thubten Yeshe and Lama Thubten Zopa Rinpoche, who began teaching Buddhism to Western students in Nepal, the FPMT has grown to encompass 150 teaching centers, projects, and social services in 33 countries.
Since the death of Lama Yeshe in 1984, the FPMT's spiritual director has been Lama Zopa Rinpoche.
Gerhard Tremmel (born 16 November 1978 in Munich) is a German football goalkeeper.
He plays for Swansea City in the Premier League.
He played in the youth teams of Bayern Munich and 1860 Munich and was transferred to SpVgg Unterhaching where he made his senior debut.
He left Bavaria in 2002 and played for Hannover 96, Hertha BSC Berlin (1st and 2nd team) and for Energie Cottbus.
After four seasons with Cottbus he intended to go back to Berlin, but finally he signed one year for FC Red Bull Salzburg to replace the injured goalkeeper Eddie Gustafsson.
He only got 13 goals in the 2010/11 season, this made him to the best goalkeeper in the Austrian Bundesliga.
Official Website(German)
Club profile(german)
Macropodiformes is one of the three suborders of the large marsupial order Diprotodontia.
Kangaroos, wallabies and allies, bettongs, potaroos and rat kangaroos are all in this suborder.
Smoke is an American independent movie released in 1995.
It was produced by Hisami Kuroiwa, Harvey Weinstein and Bob Weinstein.
It was directed by Wayne Wang and Paul Auster.
Auster also wrote the screenplay.
The movie follows the lives of several characters.
Their lives are connected because they are all customers at a small tobacco shop in  Brooklyn, New York.
The store manager is the main character, Auggie (Harvey Keitel).
In the movie, the Brooklyn Cigar Co. was on the corner of 16th Street and Prospect Park West.
Blue in the Face was the next movie by the same directors.
It follows the lives of some of the same characters and new characters join the story.
Silver Bear (Wayne Wang) Berlin International Film Festival, 1995
Danish Film Critics Bodil Award for Best American Film, 1995
German Film Award for Best Foreign Film, 1995
Independent Spirit Award for Best First Screenplay (Paul Auster), 1995
Stockard Channing – Best Supporting Actress – Screen Actors Guild
A Yew is a coniferous tree.
The name is most used for species of the genus Taxus, or for other members of the coniferous family Taxaceae.
All species of yew contain highly poisonous alkaloids known as taxanes.
All parts of the tree except the arils (red 'fruits') contain the alkaloid.
The arils are edible and sweet, but the seeds are dangerously poisonous.
Unlike birds, the human stomach can break down the seed coat and release the taxanes into the body.
This can have fatal results if yew 'berries' are eaten without removing the seeds first.
The seeds and leaves will kill cattle and horses, but deer can break down the poisons and will eat yew foliage freely.
In the wild, deer browsing of yews is often so extensive that wild yew trees are restricted to cliffs and steep slopes inaccessible to deer.
The foliage is also eaten by the larvae of some Lepidopteran insects including the willow beauty moth.
The male cones are round, 3-6 mm diameter, and shed their pollen in early spring.
Yews are mostly dioecious, but occasional individuals can be variably monoecious, or change sex with time.
All of the yews are very closely related to each other, and often described together as Taxus baccata.
Wichita Falls is a city in Wichita Couty, Texas, United States.
The population of Wichita Falls was 107,000 in 2006.
The mayors of Wichita Falls are Glenn Barham, Linda Ammons, Michael Smith, Dorothy Roberts Burns, Rick Hatcher, Tim Ingle and Mary Ward.
Wichita Falls was founded on Sept. 27, 1872 when the Choctaw Indians settled the area in the early 18th century and then white settlers arrived in the 1860s to form cattle ranches.
Official city of Wichita Falls website
Diastole () is the time during a heart beat when the heart fills with blood after a contraction.
The contraction of the heart is called systole and is the opposite of diastole.
The term diastole comes from the Greek word διαστολη.
This means expanding or opening.
Inside the heart
Ventricular diastole is the time when the two lower chambers of the heart called the ventricles are relaxing to let the blood to flow in.
Atrial diastole is the time when the two upper chambers of the heart called the atria are relaxing to allow the blood to flow in.
During ventricular diastole, the pressure in the (left and right) ventricles drops.
When the pressure in the left ventricle becomes lower than the pressure in the left atrium, the mitral valve opens.
The blood then flows from the atrium into the ventricle.
The speed at which the blood flows into the ventricles can be used to diagnose diastolic dysfunction.
Diastolic pressure
Because the heart relaxes during diastole, "diastolic pressure" is the lowest pressure within the arterial blood stream during each heart beat.
The highest arterial pressure happens when the heart muscle contracts, and is called systolic pressure.
Systole (medicine)
Wiggers diagram
Auscultation of Diastolic Murmurs
Audio Examples of Heart and Lung Sounds
Systole is the last stage of a heart beat.
It happens right after diastole, when the heart refills with blood.
During systole, the heart's two ventricles contract (squeeze).
(The ventricles are the largest parts of the heart, which pump blood to the body and lungs.)
During systole, the heart muscle gets an automatic electrical signal that tells the heart to contract (squeeze).
This makes the blood flow out of the heart.
Above the ventricles are smaller chambers (sections) of the heart called atria.
They contract (squeeze) during the last part of diastole, and send blood down to the larger, lower ventricles.
The atria have valves that close after this so blood cannot flow backward into the atria.
When the ventricles are filled and the valves to the atria are closed, the ventricles contract.
So, the atria and ventricles contract in sequence.
The left and right atria feed blood into the ventricles.
Then, the left and right ventricles contract.
The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps blood to the rest of the body.
This is why we have a pulse.
Systolic pressure
Because the heart muscle contracts during systole, "systolic pressure" is the highest pressure in the arterial blood stream during each heart beat. (
Blood causes the most pressure against the walls of the arteries when it is being pushed out during systole).
The lowest arterial pressure happens when the heart muscle relaxes, and is called "diastolic pressure".
When blood pressure is measured for medical purposes, systolic pressure is the first number in the "ratio" of systolic to diastolic pressure.
For example, if a person's blood pressure is 120/80, 120 is the systolic pressure, and 80 is the diastolic pressure.
Cassini-Huygens spacecraft
Giovanni Domenico Cassini, astronomer
Cassini Division of the rings of Saturn
Halite is the mineral a lot of people call "rock salt".
It is a different form of sodium chloride (NaCl).
It looks like it is made out of cubes.
A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, or psychotropic is a chemical substance that crosses the blood-brain barrier.
Its action affects the central nervous system.
It can affect the brain and change perception, mood, consciousness, cognition and behaviour.
Hypnotics are often prescribed to help people sleep.
Sometimes they are also used in rituals, or as illegal drugs.
These drugs enable their users to change their consciousness.
This can also help students when they are preparing their examinations.
Certain therapies also use such substances.
Psychoactive substances change the consciousness and mood of their user.
The people using them may have pleasant feelings, such as euphoria or they may be more alert.
For this reason, many psychoactive substances are abused: They are used outside the aims of the treatment.
This may lead to the user developing a  psychological and physical dependence ("addiction").
It will get more difficult to interrupt the cycle of abuse.
Drug rehabilitation aims to break this cycle of dependency; this is done with psychotherapy, support groups and even other psychoactive substances: Acamprosate or naltrexone are examples of substances used to treat alcoholism, methadone or buprenorphine maintenance therapy in the case of opioid dependency.
However, the reverse is also true in some cases, that is certain experiences on drugs may be so unfriendly and uncomforting that the user may never want to try the substance again.
This is especially true of the deliriants (e.g. datura) and dissociatives (e.g. salvia divinorum).
In part because of this potential for abuse and dependency, the ethics of drug use are the subject of a continuing philosophical debate.
Many governments worldwide have placed restrictions on drug production and sales in an attempt to decrease drug abuse.
Ethical concerns have also been raised about over-use of these drugs clinically, and about their marketing by manufacturers.
Mangalore is a city in the state of Karnataka, India.
It is the capital city of Dakshina Kannada district.
It is a port city.
It is located on the Arabian Sea.
It is the largest city in the Tulu Nadu region.
The West Coast of the United States is a term that generally refers to the states of California, Oregon, Washington, and Alaska.
It also sometimes include the state of  Hawaii, even though it has little in common geologically with the continental states.
Almost 50 million people live in these states.
The region includes the cities of Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, Anchorage, Portland and San Diego.
Stryper is a Christian glam metal band from Orange County, California.
The group's lineup consists of Michael Sweet (lead vocals, guitar), Oz Fox (guitar), Tim Gaines (bass guitar), and Robert Sweet (drums).
In 2004 Gaines left the band and was replaced by Tracy Ferrie (bass guitar) but rejoined in 2009.
Formed in 1983 as Roxx Regime, they would change their message and name to Stryper to go on to be the first Christian rock band to be recognized by the mainstream.
In 1983 they were signed by Enigma Records and released their first album The Yellow and Black Attack.
By the mid-1980s, Stryper saw their most successful period starting with the release of To Hell with the Devil which achieved Platinum sales status.
Stryper would go on to release two more Gold albums before breaking up in 1992.
In 2003 Stryper came out of retirement for a reunion tour and subsequently signed a multi-album contract with Big3 Records in 2005.
The name "Stryper" derives from the King James Version of the Bible. "
But he was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for our iniquities:
the chastisement of our peace was upon him; and with his stripes we are healed."
The reference, Isaiah 53:5, is frequently included as part of their logo.
Stryper's drummer, Robert Sweet, also created a backronym for their name: "salvation through redemption, yielding peace, encouragement and righteousness".
The Yellow and Black Attack (1984)
Soldiers Under Command (1985)
The Yellow and Black Attack (Re-Issue) (1986)
To Hell with the Devil (1986)
In God We Trust (1988)
Against the Law (1990)
Reborn (2005)
Murder by Pride (2009)
The Covering (2011)
Michael Sweet's site
Stryper at Metal Archives
Stryper Expo 2001
Kingdom Extreme Magazine interview with guitarist Oz Fox 2009
Christian metal, also known as 'white metal',  is a form of heavy metal music which a Christian band makes to praise Jesus.
Christian metal is typically performed by professed Christians, sometimes principally for Christians who listen to heavy metal music.
It is often produced and distributed through various Christian networks.
Christian metal bands exist in all the subgenres of heavy metal music, and the only common link between most Christian metal bands are the lyrics.
The Christian themes are often melded with the subjects of the genre the band is rooted in, regularly providing a Christian take on the subject matter.
It has been argued that the marginal yet transnational Christian metal subculture provides its core members an alternative religious expression and Christian identity, and that the music serves the purpose of offering a positive alternative or counterbalance to secular metal music which is known for its generally dark and negative message.
Christian metal emerged in the late 1970s as a means of evangelism to the wider heavy metal music scene, and was pioneered by the American Resurrection Band and Swedish Jerusalem.
Los Angeles' Stryper achieved wide success in the 1980s, otherwise the genre was mostly ignored by the mainstream.
California's Tourniquet and Australia's Mortification led the movement in the 1990s.
The metalcore groups Underoath, Demon Hunter, As I Lay Dying, and Norma Jean (dubbed by Revolver Magazine as "The Holy Alliance") brought some mainstream attention to the movement in the first decade of the 21st century, achieving ranks in the Billboard 200.
Jerusalem is a Swedish Christian rock band, founded in 1975 by Ulf Christiansson.
It was one of the first bands to combine Christian lyrics with a hard rock sound.
Jerusalem's message was primarily aimed at youth, with their lyrics describing the band's relationship to God in an ordinary, but radical way.
Their concerts have been described as a series of revival meetings which often included altar calls and occasionally exorcisms.¡When the band first toured in the mid-1970s in Sweden, their combination of Christian lyrics with a hard rock sound was very controversial.
The band was only permitted to perform at a few churches.
For albums released in both Swedish and English versions, the English titles are in parentheses.
Jerusalem (Volume 1) (1978/1980)
Volym 2 (Volume 2) (1980/1981)
Krigsman (Warrior) (1981/1982)
Vi Kan Inte Stoppas (Can't Stop Us Now) (1983/1984)
Dancing on the Head of the Serpent (1987/1988)
Prophet (1994)
Volym Tre (Those Were the Days) (1996/1997)
Volüm Fyra (R.A.D.) (1997/1998)
She (2010)
In His Majesty's Service - Live in USA (1985)
Live - På Ren Svenska (1998)
10 Years After (1988)
Klassiker 1 (Classics 1) (1993/1996)
Klassiker 2 (Classics 2) (1993/1996)
Classics 3 (1995)
Tretti (2006)
Greatest Hits (2006)
Jerusalem - Official Site
Neobatrachia is a suborder of the Anura, which contains all frogs and toads.
It is the most advanced (derived or apomorphic) and by far the largest of the three suborders.
Its over 5,000 species make up over 96% of all living anurans.
The hydrosphere is the total mass of water on, under, and over the surface of a planet.
It is part of physical geography.
The oceans, rivers, and lakes are all part of the hydrosphere.
Some electricity is made by the hydrosphere.
The total mass of the Earth’s hydrosphere is about 1.4 × 1024 grams, which is about 0.023% of the Earth’s total mass.
Around 2 × 1019 grams of this is the Earth’s atmosphere.
In addition, 71% of the Earth’s surface, an area of 361 million square kilometers, is covered by ocean.
Bohuslav Martinů (born Polička, Bohemia, 8 December 1890; died Liestal, Switzerland, 28 August 1959) was a Czech composer.
He wrote an enormous amount of music, including six symphonies, 15 operas, 14 ballet scores and many orchestral, chamber, vocal and instrumental works.
His music is often inspired by his native country.
Martinů was born in the tower of a town church and that is where he spent the first seven years of his life, away from the rest of the world.
When he was old enough to go to school he had to climb the 193 steps down to the street every day.
He started to have violin lessons from the local tailor.
He was very shy because he was used to being all by himself with his family in the tower, but he made good progress and in 1905 gave his first violin recital.
Martinů soon started to compose music and nothing else interested him very much.
He went to the Prague Conservatory to study the violin but he preferred going to the theatre and reading.
In 1909 he changed to the organ school but he did no work and was expelled from school.
He managed to avoid fighting in the World War I by composing.
After the war he became a member of the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra, playing second violin.
In 1923 he moved to Paris where he stayed for 17 years.
He had some lessons with Albert Roussel and soon became known as a composer.
He married in 1931 and his wife worked hard to earn money so that he could spend his time composing.
He liked to use Czech folk stories and literature as inspiration for his music.
In 1940 he had to leave Paris to escape from the Nazis.
He spent several months living rough, often sleeping on stationplatforms.
In March 1941 he and his wife managed to get to New York.
Life in the United States was hard for him.
He spoke no English and people there did not know his music.
He had left all his scores behind.
However, he worked hard and the famous conductor Sergei Koussevitsky asked him to write a symphony.
His music still sounded very Czech.
After World War II he very much wanted to go back to his own country, but the communist government made that impossible.
He had a bad fall and it took him years to recover properly.
He taught at Princeton University, then he retired to Nice in France.
He died of cancer in Basle.
Bohuslav Martinů wrote a lot of music.
He loved sitting down and writing music.
Once he had finished a composition he was never very interested in hearing it performed or what happened to it.
As a result, some of his music is very good but some of it is less interesting.
One of his last works was called Řecké Pašije (The Greek Passion) which uses Greek folk melody and church chant.
He was never influenced by American music, he preferred the modes, folktunes, bagpipe drones and mountain calls of his native country.
His music can often be described as neoclassical in style.
Bohuslav Martinů Foundation in Prague
Catalogue of Martinů Works
Bohuslav Martinu Centre in Policka
The Gallipoli Campaign  was an Allied attack on the Gallipoli peninsula during World War I. The campaign took place between April 25, 1915 and January 9, 1916.
The Allied forces of the British Empire and of French fought the Ottoman Empire.
The reasons that the campaign happened were to break the stalemate on the Western and the Eastern Front and to help Russia.
The campaign started with a naval attack along the Dardanelles.
Naval mines sank or damaged several ships, and the Ottomans fought back and stopped the Allies from entering the Sea of Marmara.
It was decided that if the Russians were to receive any British help, a land invasion was necessary.
On April 25, 1915, Allied forces landed at various locations along the Gallipoli Peninsula.
Many British soldiers were landed in the wrong places, which caused heavy casualties.
The British landed at Cape Helles and the ANZACs landed at a place that was later known as Anzac Cove.
However, the Allies did not push on.
Instead, they were told to dig trenches and wait for an Ottoman attack.
There was trench warfare until the evacuation of all Allied troops was finally ordered.
The campaign is widely viewed as an Allied failure.