the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
14th century in Europe
The Wars of the Roses (1455–1487) were a series of civil wars fought over the throne of England between supporters of the House of Lancaster, the Lancastrians, and supporters of the House of York, the Yorkists.
Both houses were branches of the Plantagenet royal house and were related through King Edward III.
The wars began for several reasons, and historians have debated the one that was most important.
King Henry VI was seen as a poor ruler by many of his people because of his lack of interest in politics and his mental illness (his French queen, Margaret of Anjou, often made key decisions instead).
Also, England's defeat in the Hundred Years' War in France, money problems after the war and problems with the feudal system of government were other causes.
The name of the Wars of the Roses, which was first used only in the 19th century, comes from the white rose symbol for the House of York and the red rose symbol for the House of Lancaster.
However, the red rose symbol was not used until after the wars had ended, and most soldiers fought under the symbol of their local nobleman.
At the time, they were called the "Civil Wars".
The houses were named after the cities of Lancaster and York, but neither city played a big role during the war, and both houses owned land all over England and Wales.
King Edward III had many sons, as is shown in the family tree below.
His oldest son, known by his nickname "The Black Prince" died first, and the throne passed to the Black Prince's son, Richard, who became King Richard II of England in 1377 although he was only ten.
He grew up to be a weak and unpopular king, and one of his actions was to send his cousin Henry into exile.
Henry later returned while Richard was away in Ireland and took over the country.
When Richard returned, Henry tricked him into giving himself up.
Richard was put into prison, where he died, and Henry became King Henry IV of England.
Henry IV reigned until his death and was followed by his son, King Henry V (in 1413).
Henry V died in 1422 and was followed by his son King Henry VI, who was only a baby.
Henry VI did not run the government until 1437.
He then ruled until 1461, six years after the Wars of the Roses began.
Henry VI was considered a poor ruler by some of his people for several reasons.
He was not interested in politics.
He was shy and did not like war.
He was easily led by a small number of friends, such as his French queen Margaret of Anjou and his advisor Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset.
Henry VI's reign also saw England's defeat in the Hundred Year's War.
England had done well in the war while he was still a child, and by 1428, they English appeared to be close to defeating their House of Valois enemies.
However, Joan of Arc's rebellions in 1429-1430 was one reason for Burgundy's decision to switch sides in 1435.
Several other problems made England's control in France to be already weakened when Henry VI started to run the government in 1437.
Henry VI tried to end the war by agreeing negotiating peace, but his French enemies realised thar they could win a complete victory.
In 1453, England had lost its last lands in France outside Calais.
Also in 1453, Henry VI was for the first time overcome with mental illness and could not run the country.
A powerful nobleman called Richard, Duke of York persuaded the other nobles to make him "Lord Protector".
That meant that he would run the country until the king recovered.
While York ran the country, he locked his enemy Somerset in the Tower of London.
Henry recovered in 1454 and began to run the country again.
He let Somerset out and gave him back his position.
York and his supporters then became afraid that the king and Somerset would have them executed.
Early fighting (1455)
York decided that he could protect himself was only by defeating the king in battle.
He raised an army of many people who were unhappy with Henry and Margaret, which led to the First Battle of St Albans in 1455.
That was the first to be fought between the Yorkists, who supported York, and the Lancastrians (who supported Henry).
York won with the help of the Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick.
Henry was found hiding in a leather shop, taken prisoner and was again overcome with mental illness.
Somerset and some of the king's other key supporters were killed in the battle.
York was again made Lord Protector.
The next year, Henry recovered.
York let him go back to running the country and was put in charge of running Ireland.
Henry and Margaret knew that they could not get rid of Richard easily.
For the next few years, both sides wanted to stop a war from breaking out but could not agree on several things.
York wanted to be the next king after Henry died, rather than Henry and Margaret's newborn son, Edward.
Margaret would not allow that and so Henry moved to Coventry, where he had more support.
Main fighting (1459-61)
A more serious war broke out in 1459 and started because Warwick had attacked other country's ships during his time in charge of Calais.
Henry asked Warwick to meet to explain what he doing, but Warwick refused.
Soon enough, York and Warwick started putting together an army.
They were stopped at the Battle of Ludford Bridge and fled England.
Henry and the Lancastrians now had control.
They ordered that York and Warwick were to be executed if they were found.
The peace did not last long.
York and Warwick returned and raised an army and won the Battle of Northampton.
For the second time, Henry was captured after he was overcome with mental illness.
York was made Lord Protector for the third time.
York then announced that he wanted to take the throne for himself.
Many of his supporters thought that was a step too far and so thet agreed that Henry would still be king, but York, not Henry's son, would be the next king.
York then travelled to the north of England to attack the remaining Lancastrians.
That led to a disaster, and York lost the Battle of Wakefield at the end of 1460 and was killed.
His son Edward the became leader of the Yorkists.
The next year saw mixed results for both sides.
Edward defeated a Lancastrian army at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross, but the Lancastrians won the Second Battle of St Albans where Henry escaped.
In London, Edward was met with a lot of support, announced that he wanted to take the throne ans defeated the Lancastrians at the Battle of Towton.
That was the bloodiest battle that was ever fought on British soil.
After Towton, Edward was in control of England and was crowned as Edward IV in June 1461.
Over the next few years, he and his allies put down small Lancastrian rebellions.
Henry was again captured in 1465.
Warwick changes sides (1469-71)
Fighting broke out again in 1469 when Edward's most powerful supporter, the Earl of Warwick, switched sides.
Warwick was furious that Edward had married Elizabeth Woodville, a common woman.
Many people also thought that was wrong since kings were then expected to marry the daughters of noblemen or other kings.
Warwick led a rebellion against the king.
The country was left in confusion.
At one point Warwick captured Edward and so he had captured two kings.
Warwick soon let Edward go and then supported making Henry king again.
Warwick believed that he could run the country while Henry was on the throne.
He also arranged for Henry's son to marry Warwick's daughter Anne Neville.
Edward could not raise an army to fight and so he fled the country in 1470.
Henry VI then became the ruler again.
Warwick's role in bringing Edward and then Henry to power led to him being nicknamed "Kingmaker".
Henry's return did not last long.
Warwick planned to help France invade Burgundy, which helped Edward find soldiers.
Edward returned in 1471 and won two grear victories over the Lancastrians.
The first was the Battle of Barnet in which Warwick was killed.
The second was the Battle of Tewksbury in which Margaret was taken prisoner and her son was killed.
Edward IV took the throne again and Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower of London.
He died one month later, and historians think Edward had him murdered since that left the Lancastrians without a leader.
There was little fighting for the next 12 years.
Margaret was released in 1475, went back to France and died in 1482.
Richard III (1483-85)
Edward IV ruled until his sudden death in 1483.
Just before dying, Edward had said that his 12-year-old son should become king as Edward V, and Edward's brother Richard would be "Lord Protector".
Richard would run the country until Edward V became an adult.
Edward V was the king for 78 days before Richard took the throne for himself.
He was crowned as Richard III.
The young Edward and his brother disappeared a few months later while they were living in the Tower of London.
Many people thought Richard had ordered the boys to be killed, and some historians agree.
That caused many Yorkists to turn against Richard III.
Richard managed to win against a rebellion by his old friend, the Duke of Buckingham.
Henry Tudor, a distant relative of Henry VI who returned to England, became the leader of the rebellions and created a new Lancastrian army.
In the Battle of Bosworth Field, Richard III was killed, and his army was defeated.
Henry took the throne as King Henry VII, the first king of the House of Tudor.
The Battle of Bosworth Field is often seen as the end of the war.
However, there was another great battle two years later, but Henry VII stopped a rebellion and brought peace to the country.
Henry told people that he was bringing the two houses together.
Thar made him marry Edward IV's daughter Elizabeth of York.
He also started the Tudor rose symbol, with a red rose and white rose joined.
The Wars of the Roses Chronology World History Database
The Wars of the Roses  Has a large article on 'Soldiers and Warfare during the Wars of the Roses' with interesting information on the fighting and tactics of the day, plus battles and people
warsoftheroses.com includes a map, timeline, info on major players and summaries of each battle
A complicated but comprehensive diagram of the Wars of the Roses  is at threetwoone.org
An extensive chronological account is at Wars Of The Roses .
The historical interpretation which accompanies it is the personal view of the author
A flap on the front is lifted to access the matches, which are attached to the interior base in a comb-like pattern and must be torn away before use. (
In the matchbox, by contrast, the matches are arranged loosely in the interior tray.)
The Diary of Friedrich Kellner is a journal written during the Second World War.
The author, August Friedrich Kellner, was a justice inspector in the courthouse in Mainz.
He was also a political activist for the Social Democratic Party of Germany between 1918 and 1933.
After Hitler banned the party, the family moved to Laubach.
When Hitler ordered the invasion of Poland in September 1939, Kellner began his secret diary.
He named his diary "Mein Widerstand," which means "My Opposition."
In the diary, he wrote down what he saw and heard about what happened in Nazi Germany.
He wrote it so that people later would know about it.
The diary has ten volumes, with a total of 861 pages.
There are 676 dated entries.
Included in the diary are more than 500 newspaper clippings.
The English translation of the diary was published in 2018 by Cambridge University Press under the title, My Opposition: The Diary of Friedrich Kellner -- A German against the Third Reich.
At the end of World War Two,  most Germans said they knew nothing about the mass murders of the Jews.
But as early as October 28, 1941, Kellner wrote the following entry in his diary:
A soldier on vacation here said he witnessed a terrible atrocity in the occupied parts of Poland.
He watched as naked Jewish men and women were placed in front of a long deep ditch and upon the order of the SS were shot by Ukrainians in the back of their heads and they fell into the ditch.
Then the ditch was filled with dirt even as he could still hear screams coming from people still alive in the ditch.
But because ninety percent of the German population is guilty, directly or indirectly, for the present situation, we can only say that those who travel together will hang together.
There is not much in the diary about the Kellners’ personal lives.
Instead, Friedrich Kellner wrote about the political atmosphere of a country run by terrorists.
He also wrote about the leaders and people in other nations who remained indifferent to what Hitler and Mussolini were planning.
Kellner was very angry that millions of people had to die because a few politicians in the democracies failed to confront Hitler and his allies.
Kellner was also angry at the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh, and the car manufacturer Henry Ford, and at others who blindly expressed admiration for Adolf Hitler.
“The whole world let themselves be fooled by this man,” Kellner wrote on May 3, 1942.
Friedrich Kellner expected America and England to come to the rescue.
On June 25, 1941, he wrote:
When will this insanity be brought to an end?
When will the intoxication of victory turn into a terrible hangover?
Now is a unique chance for England and America to take the initiative, but not only with empty promises and insufficient measures.
If America had the will to throw its entire might into the fray, it could tip the balance for a return of peace.
Only a tremendous force and the commitment of all war material can bring the German wild steer to reason.
Up until now the statesmen–through unbelievable shortsightedness–have neglected or failed their duty.
Mankind awake!
Attack together with all your might against the destroyers of peace!
No reflections, no resolutions, no speeches, no neutrality.
Advance against the enemy of mankind!
Various entries from the diary
17 October 1940: England is able to defend itself.
It has a good defense against air raids.
England should follow the old proverb: “Invasion is the best defense."
Where is the British fleet?
12 Nov 1940: Chamberlain and the entire English government is to blame for not acting when they discovered Germany's war preparations.
A world power must always be prepared to successfully and energetically repulse any attack.
5 Dec 1940: No Italian soldier stands on Greek soil any longer.
Greece turned the tables and chased them out of Greece and into Albania.
Where is the celebrated fascist pluck?
Nothing is solved with bragging and the big mouth alone.
The spirit decides.
The Greeks defended their fatherland.
And the Italians?
They wanted to invade and plunder a small country.
Finally a light shows itself in the European chaos.
24 Dec 1940: Just one more day and the second Christmas of the war is here.
There is nothing to be felt of "Peace on Earth."
5 July 1941: In Giessen, Forester Ritter was arrested because he said the war would last another three years.
The truth may not be spoken.
7 July 1941: Today my father would have celebrated his 80th birthday.
What would he have said, this friend of peace, to these awful murderers of mankind?
Good-hearted and reasonable people in Germany are just speakers in the desert.
The scorners of mankind, the daredevils and uncompromising aggressors, those are the heroes of today’s Germany.
29 July 1941: The wounded soldiers in the hospital in Giessen tell about Russian prisoners-of-war being murdered.
Are the German people a people of culture?
A cultured people must be able to think as individuals and behave themselves properly.
But the German people have allowed themselves to be dictated to by their "infallible" Führer: “The Führer is always right,” “the Führer never errs.”
The German people have been taken in by this devil.
14 April 1943:  Ten years in prison for a "radio crime.”
But that punishment was too little for the judge.
He sent back the verdict to the original court and demanded the death penalty.
Just think:  the death sentence for listening to a foreign broadcast on the radio.
This terror regime has given itself a gruesome monument forever.
Purpose of the diary
Friedrich Kellner wrote the diary to expose the crimes of the Third Reich.
He believed his diary could serve as a warning for future generations to oppose dictatorships and their totalitarian ideology.
After the war, Friedrich Kellner helped to reestablish the Social Democratic Party.
He became chairman  of the Laubach branch.
He retired from politics in 1960, at the age of seventy-five.
In 1968, he gave his diary to his American grandson, Professor Robert Scott Kellner , to take to America for safekeeping.
He told him:
The day will come when the same kind of anti-democratic and anti-Semitic hatred will bring intense misery to the world.
Use the diary as a weapon against dictatorships and terrorism.
There will always be people of bad will, therefore people of good will must be prepared to oppose them.
In the spring of 2005, the diary was on exhibit at the George Bush Presidential Library and Museum in College Station, Texas.
It has also been exhibited in the Holocaust Museum in Houston, Texas.
And it was exhibited in the Heimat Museum in Laubach, Germany.
The Justus Liebig University of Giessen has established the Kellner Project and will publish the diary.
In 2007, a Canadian movie company made a documentary movie about both Friedrich Kellner and his grandson Robert Scott Kellner.
The movie is called, My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner.
My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner is a 2007 documentary movie by Abella Entertainment Ltd. of Toronto, Canada.
It is produced and directed by Fern Levitt and Arnie Zipursky.
Leonard Asper is an executive producer.
The movie is distributed by CCI Entertainment.
Subject matter
The documentary tells the story of Chief Justice Inspector Friedrich Kellner  ( ) who wrote a secret diary during World War II.
The diary records the crimes of the Nazis.
The movie uses interviews, historical footage, and re-enactments of events to tell how Friedrich Kellner risked his life to write the diary.
The story is also about Kellner’s American grandson, Robert Scott Kellner, who was abandoned as a child but later found his grandfather in Germany.
Part of the movie is about the grandson’s attempt to bring the Friedrich Kellner diary to the attention of the public.
The movie begins with Friedrich Kellner as a political activist for the Social Democratic Party of Germany before the war.
He campaigns against Adolf Hitler and the Nazis.
The re-enactments show Kellner trying to stop the riots against the Jews during Kristallnacht.
Kellner is brought before a tribunal, and he is threatened with imprisonment in a concentration camp.
The movie shows Kellner’s active and passive resistance against the Third Reich.
One scene shows him distributing leaflets that had been dropped from American planes.
When World War II comes to an end, Kellner helps to restore the SPD.
He  becomes the chairman of the party in his region.
Interwoven in the story about Friedrich Kellner is the story of his grandson.
The documentary was filmed on location in Mainz and in  Laubach, Germany, and in Texas.
The Kellner diary was on exhibit at the George Bush Presidential Library in College Station, Texas.
It was also exhibited in Germany.
The University of Giessen is the home of the Kellner Project.
My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner  at Telefilm Canada movie catalog.
University of Massachusetts, A Promise To Keep
2007 movies
Canadian movies
The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, informally called the Nobel Prize in Economics, is a prize awarded each year for outstanding contributions in the field of economics.
The prize was not one of the awards set out in the will of Alfred Nobel.
The winners of the prize receive their diploma and gold medal from the Swedish monarch at the same December 10 ceremony in Stockholm as the Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature.
The amount of money awarded to the economics laureates is also equal to that of the other prizes.
Laureates  at the Nobel foundation
Winners of the Prize in Economics
History of the prize and its controversy
Lindsey Jacobellis (born August 19, 1985 in Danbury, Connecticut) is an American snowboarder.
She competed in the 2006 Winter Olympics and won the silver medal.
Lindsey Jacobellis  at NBC Olympics
Lindsey Jacobellis at ESPN XGames
Sportspeople from Connecticut
Axis of Evil is a term first used by US President George W. Bush in his State of the Union speech on January 29, 2002 to describe the governments of Iraq, Iran, and North Korea and later Cuba, Libya, and Syria.
He used this term because he believed that they backed terrorism and were trying to buy weapons of mass destruction.
The State of the Union Address is a speech the president of the United States of America gives every year, usually in January.
In the speech the president talks about how the country is doing and what plans he will be proposing for that year.
According to tradition, president speaks with its appeal annual.
The US Constitution it does not set clear terms such appeals.
Article II, Section 3 of the US Constitution reads «He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient».
Ninja (or shinobi) were a mystery in the History of Japan.
The correct Japanese word for these warriors was shinobi-no-mono, which literally means "people who survive/endure".
Ninja is easier to say; this is why it is more widely used.
Shinobi-no-mono is the native Japanese word for ninja, while ninja is the Sino-Japanese word.
Ninja warriors created secret associations and took part in many political killings.
Their mystery comes from two ideas: 1) they always participated in secret spy operations and political killings; 2) ninja were hired by heads of armies as paid warriors (mercenaries).
The art of fighting which was used by ninja was called ninjitsu, which was a combination of shinobi-no-jitsu and shinobi-jitsu.
Many people thought ninja were not normal people.
People believed they could fly and had supernatural skills.
Ninja existed during the entire history of Japan, but ninja only became specially trained people at the beginning of the 15th century.
They mainly trained in the regions of Iga and Koga.
Ninja were involved in samurai wars and were hired by samurai for different missions, but at the same time samurai did not accept them as noble warriors because most of the ninja came from lower social classes.
They were dangerous and could not be controlled.
Their methods of fighting did not fit the samurai code.
The samurai code was a code of honor.
For example, the samurai warrior would show his rank and would only fight a samurai of equal or higher rank.
Japanese land lords (daimyo) widely used the services of the Iga and Koga ninja in the period of 1485-1581.
But in 1581, one of the three daimyo who united Japan – Oda Nobunaga attacked ninja from Iga province.
The ninja remained alive and ran to the provinces Kii and Mikawa, where Tokugawa Ieyasu protected them.
Later, Oda Nobunaga was killed by a samurai named Akechi Mitsuhide, who later became an enemy to Tokugawa Ieyasu.
The art of ninja fighting was passed down from father to son, or from master (sensei) to their best students.
But in the middle of 17th century, Nakagawa Sosuntzin created a ninja school in the Mutsu Province.
It was called Nakagawa-ryu and taught the ninjitsu method of fighting.
Nakagawa Sosuntzin himself trained a group of 10 men, which he called Hayamiti-no-mono (men of the short hit).
Ninja were taught many more things than a samurai.
They had to be skilled at handling swords, spears, bows and many other weapons; but also they had to know about explosive and poisonous substances, to be a good path finder and to survive in different situations.
Usually they were trained from young age and had to keep a very specific physical shape.
Ninja were not allowed to be too light or too heavy.
A ninja who could read and write was very appreciated.
Ninja clothing and equipment
It tends to be thought that a ninja usually wore black clothes which helped him to hide in the dark, however, they wore dark blue, red, or brown clothes, which are more quiet than black at night.
In usual days, a ninja never wore showy dress and pretended to be another job, for example, a merchant, a traveling monk, a monkey showman and so on.
If they had to fight on the battlefield, they put on a light armor, which protected them, but also allowed easy movement.
On their feet they wore Japanese socks which separated the big toe (the socks were called tabi).
The ninja outfit had many pockets for helpful gear.
Chain armor was normally beneath their cloak in-case danger came their way like an ambush.
The diversity of ninja weapons and attributes is much wider than that of the samurai.
The main weapon of ninja was the sword.
Ninja swords were usually shorter than samurai katana and had a straight blade.
When they climbed, the sword was put on the left shoulder, putting the handle of the sword was close to the left ear.
Ninja also used different types of throwing knives, and a weapon for their fists called tagaki.
They used metallic claws on their feet which helped them to climb and made their kicks more dangerous.
Methods of Fighting and Ninja Wearing Apparel
Hanami Web - Ninja
The USS Arizona Memorial is in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.
It is to remember the sailors killed when Pearl Harbor was attacked on December 7, 1941 by the Japanese.
During the attack 1,177 sailors were killed on the USS Arizona.
The memorial is located on top of the sunken USS Arizona.
People can walk over the ship to look at it.
Buildings and structures in Hawaii
The USS Arizona (BB-39) was an American battleship from the Pennsylvania Class.
The building of the ship was started in 1913 and it was commissioned in 1916.
It fought in World War I. The USS Arizona is best known for its sinking during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.
The attack was the event that caused the United States to join the fighting in World War II.
The wreck is still at the floor of the harbor.
It is the site of a memorial to those who died that day.
Other ships
USS Arizona (BB-39) was one of three ships in the history of the United States Navy to be named USS Arizona.
It was the only one of the three to be named that after Arizona became a U.S. state.
The first Arizona was built in 1858.
It was made of iron.
It served in the American Civil War.
The ship was destroyed when it caught on fire in 1865.
The second USS Arizona was a 3850 ton frigate.
It was built in 1865 and originally named the USS Neshamny.
The ship was renamed twice.
It used the name USS Arizona for less than three months during 1869 before becoming USS Nevada.
The Navy stopped using the ship in 1874.
Arizona (BB-39)
A war crime is a crime that happens in a war.
There are international laws of war that say what people can do during wars and what they cannot do.
A war crime breaks these rules.
The idea of what a "war crime" is has changed over time.
For example, during World War I, using poison gas in combat was not thought of as a war crime.
In 2002, the International Criminal Court (ICC) was created.
Its goal is to look into and, if possible, punish people for war crimes.
When the ICC was created, it came up with a longer list of war crimes.
For example, its list was the first one to include types of sexual abuse like forcing women into sexual slavery.pp.
8–10
Types of war crimes
General war crimes
Causing "great suffering" (severe physical or mental pain) on purpose
Doing medical experiments on a person that will hurt them
Destroying or stealing property
Taking hostages
Using chemical weapons, biological weapons, or other weapons that are illegal under international law
Keeping a person in jail, sentencing them, or executing them without a trial
Willful attacks on neutral persons, property, or territory
Sexual war crimes
Forcing a person to be a prostitute
Forcing a woman to get pregnant
Forcing a person to get sterilized
Sexual violence (which includes all other types of sexual abuse and sexual assault)
War crimes against civilians
Attacking civilians, killing them, or destroying their property
Making an attack that is obviously going to kill and injure many civilians
Forcing civilians to leave their home countries
Attacking places like religious buildings, schools, and hospitals, which have nothing to do with war
Starving civilians on purpose, as a way of making war
Forcing children to become soldiers
Mutilating a civilian (for example, by cutting off an arm or hurting them in other ways that will show forever)
War crimes against enemy soldiers
Hurting or killing a person who is unable to fight (for example, because they are injured or sick)
Hurting or killing a person who has surrendered
Hurting or killing a person who is clearly a military medic or a chaplain
Tricking enemy soldiers by using a flag to signal a truce, then attacking
Using flags, insignia, or uniforms worn by enemy soldiers or the United Nations as a disguise while attacking
Killing prisoners of war
War crimes against neutral persons
Hurting or killing a person who is a peacekeeper
Hurting or killing a person whose country is not participating in an armed conflict (for example, a neutral warship in belligerent waters)
Examples of war crimes
In a modern democracy, a senate is a group of people who are part of a legislature.
A legislature passes or changes laws for their country, state, or other area.
Members of a senate are called senators.
Some legislatures are bicameral, meaning they have two groups of people (working in separate places) called houses.
A senate can be called a House of Senators.
The senate of some such legislatures is weaker than the other house.
The other house is called a House of Representatives, House of Commons, or Assembly.
In bicameral legislatures, both houses must pass the same bill to make it a law.
Modern democratic systems having legislatures with senates include the United States of America (U. S.), Canada, Australia and many states in the United States.
The first ever senate was the Roman Senate.
The name comes from their word for "elder".
Senate chambers
Sometimes, the senators are split into different groups, who then have different responsibilities.
These groups  meet in different rooms; each group is called a chamber.
Kano is a city in Nigeria.
It is the center of the Kano State.
Kano is the third largest city in Nigeria, after Ibadan and Lagos.
About 3,626,204 people live in Kano.
It has long been the economic centre of northern Nigeria, and a centre for the sale of groundnuts.
Kano is known for the Bayero University and a railway station with trains to Lagos, moving through Kaduna, while Kano International Airport can be found nearby.
Kano has long been a centre for Nigeria's Islamic culture; one of the country's finest mosques lies in the city.
It is also the site where the Kano river project was developed.
This is a large irrigation scheme.
The city of Kano was founded around A.D. 1000 as an Hausa city of its own.
Kano remained a big emirate, or Muslim kingdom, until the making of the country, Nigeria, in 1903.
Kano became known for its trade in gold, leather, ivory, salt and slaves within the area.
This perhaps is the reason for the city's wealth and power in the 14th century, when Islam gained a growing following.
By the 15th century, the first Central Mosque had been built in the city.
Kano Online
ha:Kano#Tarihin Kano
The Battle of Bosworth or Bosworth Field was an important battle during the Wars of the Roses in 15th century England.
It was fought on 22 August 1485 between the Yorkist King Richard III, the last of the Plantagenet dynasty, and the Lancastrian Henry Tudor, 2nd Earl of Richmond, who wanted to become king.
It ended in the defeat and death of Richard and the beginning of the Tudor dynasty.
Historically, the battle is thought to have marked the end of the Wars of the Roses, although smaller battles were fought in the years that followed as Yorkists unsuccessfully tried to become king again.
The place of the battle is not precisely known.
Memorials have been built in some of the possible locations.
Shakespearian dramatization
The Battle of Bosworth is an important part of William Shakespeare's play Richard III.
The action of the play ends with this battle.
Bosworth 1485: A Battlefield Rediscovered by Glenn Foard and Anne Curry (2013:  forthcoming) - The archaeology of the battle
Bosworth: The Birth of the Tudors by Chris Skidmore (2013) - Overview of the battle in its historical context
Battle Story: Bosworth 1485 by Mike Ingram (2011) - Analysis of the battle by a military expert
Bosworth Battlefield visitor info
Richard III Society, American Branch  with maps, photos, articles presenting several competing theories situating the battle
The Battle of Bosworth
Bosworth Roll Call  Officers there on the day.
Escherichia coli or E. coli is a bacterium that lives in the intestines of people and other warm-blooded animals.
Scientists have studied E. coli a lot, and know more about how E. coli cells work than any other organism.
E. coli is usually not harmful.
In fact, the only known harmful strain is O157.
E.coli is a prokaryotic organism.
E. coli normally grow in soil and in the large intestines of many mammals, including humans.
Most strains of E. coli do not cause disease, but instead help animals get vitamins and digest food.
Some strains of E. coli cause sickness in people.
E. coli are not usually in food or water.
When food has not been prepared with clean equipment, E. coli can grow in the food.
When E. coli are found in water, this may mean that the water has touched sewage.
It is named after Theodor Escherich, who discovered it in 1885.
It was officially named after him in 1919.
Signs and symptoms of E. coli infection
The following signs and symptoms of an E. coli infection normally happen within three days; however, some people may carry the infection and show no signs at all.
Pain in the abdomen
The best treatment for E. coli is plenty of fluids to avoid dehydration.
The Borg are a fictional race of cyborgs in the Star Trek universe.
The Borg use nanoprobes to assimilate others, like humans or vulcans, into their group consciousness.
The Borg's group consciousness is led by the Borg queen, who's role is similar to that of a queen bee in a bee hive.
Defeating the Borg
Despite their abilty to adapt to various attempts to destroy them, the Borg can be defeated several ways:
Commander Data linked with the assimilated "Loctus of Borg" (Jean-Luc Picard) and sends a command that starts the Borg regeneration sequence and effectively put them all to sleep;the command caused the Borg power net to feed back on itself and has triggered a self-destruct sequence in The Best of Both Worlds,
Data and La Forge came up with an invasive program designed as a geometric form that could not actually exist in physical space; the result of it in the Borg collective memory-which would continue to attempt to analyze the shape.
Each step taken by the Borg to understand the program would spawn a series of anomalous solutions that would interact with each other, resulting in an endless, unsolvable puzzle.
Eventually, the Borg neural network would collapse under the strain of attempting to solve the paradox, resulting in a total systems failure across the entire Collective in I Borg,
Species 6339 developed a synthetic pathogen so that when they were assimilated by the Borg, so that it would be spread to the Borg vinculum.
From there, it caused all drones within range to experience the Borg equivalent of multiple personality disorder, eventually leading to their self-destruction.
The process would be repeated when another Borg vessel retrieved the vinculum, and so on in Infinate Regress,
Future Admiral Kathryn Janeway had herself injected with a neurolytic pathogen and allowed herself to be assimilated by the Borg Queen who in turn selfdestruted " along with The Borg transwarp complex and many Borg Spheres.
Endgame",
How many Spieces assimiliated?
By the time of Voyeger  Borg have assimilated 10,026 Species
de:Völker und Gruppierungen im Star-Trek-Universum#Borg
sv:Lista över utomjordiska raser i Star Trek#Borgerna
It goes back to the Angevin counts (from 1360, dukes) of the western French province of Anjou.
Three dynasties belong to it: Angevins, House of Lancaster (Lancastrians) and House of York (Yorkists).
Lancastrians and Yorkists fought against each other the Wars of the Roses to get the crown for their dynasty alone.
Henry II (1154-1189)
Richard I, the Lionheart (1189-1199)
John (1199-1216)
Henry III (1216-1272)
Edward I (1272-1307)
Edward II (1307-1327) (deposed, died 1327)
Edward III (1327-1377)
Richard II (1377-1399) (deposed, died 1400)
Henry IV (1399-1413)
Henry V (1413-1422)
Henry VI (1422-1461 and 1470-1471)
Edward IV (1461-1470 and 1471-1483)
Edward V (uncrowned) (1483) (deposed 1483, most likely assassinated)
Richard III (1483-1485)
Angevin is the name of the residents of Anjou, a former province of the Kingdom of France, as well as to the residents of Angers.
It is also used for three different medieval dynasties which go back to counts (from 1360, dukes) of the western French province of Anjou (of which angevin is the adjectival form), but later came to rule far greater areas including England, Ireland, Hungary, Croatia, Poland, Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, and Kingdom of Jerusalem (see Angevin Empire).
A count is a nobleman in most of European countries, equivalent in rank to a British earl, whose wife is also still a "countess" (for lack of an Anglo-Saxon term).
The word count comes from French comte which in turn comes from the Latin comitas, "companion" (of the emperor).
In feudalism the territory ruled by a count was a county.
Heraldica.org - here the French peerage
Italian Titles of Nobility
Webster's 1828 Dictionary
The budgerigar (nicknamed budgie) is a small parrot.
It belongs to the family of old-world parrots and parakeets (Psittaculidae).
Budgerigars are often called parakeets, especially in American English.
The term Parakeet refers to many types of small parrots with long flat tails.
The budgerigar is found in the drier parts of Australia.
It has lived there for over 5 million years.
It is commonly kept as a pet.
Budgies are intelligent birds and can be taught to mimic human speech.
A True Ambassador: the Budgerigar  Referenced article on budgerigars
List of Plants & Branches Hazardous to Birds Referenced list oriented toward pet birds
Budgies Information about the budgerigar as a pet supplies
Endocarditis is an inflammation of the inner layer of the heart.
Endocarditis most often affects the heart valves.
The heart valves are a part of the human body that does not get blood.
This is odd because they are a part of the heart itself.
Because of this, if one of the valves gets infected with bacteria or protozoa, the body can not defend itself against those bacteria.
This can cause the valve to not work the way it should.
Tetracycline is a family of antibiotics discovered as natural products  in 1945.
It is a broad-spectrum antibiotic because it works against a range of bacteria.
Tetracyclines was first prescribed in 1948.
It is produced naturally by the Streptomyces genus of Actinobacteria.
It is a protein synthesis inhibitor.
In 1950, Harvard University professor Robert Burns Woodward worked out the chemical structure of the related  oxytetracycline (Terramycin).
The patent protection for its production was also first issued in 1950.
Tetracycline is an antibiotic used to treat a number of bacterial infections.
It is commonly used to treat acne and rosacea.
Historically it was important in reducing the number of deaths from cholera.
It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
Hemoglobin (or haemoglobin) is a protein in red blood cells which contains iron.
It is used to transport oxygen around the human body.
Hemoglobin is found in the red blood cells of all vertebrates apart from white-blooded fish.
It also occurs in some invertebrates.
Some invertebrates use other chemicals, such as hemocyanin.
Hemoglobin is involved in the transport of other gases.
It carries some of the body's respiratory carbon dioxide (about 20-25% of the total).
Red blood cells get their colour from hemoglobin, which is red.
There are millions of hemoglobin molecules in each red blood cell and millions of red blood cells in the human body.
When hemoglobin has oxygen attached, it is called oxyhemoglobin.
The most common type of hemoglobin in mammals contains four such subunits.
Each subunit of hemoglobin is a globular protein (globin) with a heme group inside it.
Each heme group has one iron atom.
This binds one oxygen molecule.
So the complete hemoglobin molecule has four globin chains, four heme molecules, and four iron atoms.
When hemoglobin is in the lungs, it picks up oxygen in its hemes, and carries it to the rest of the body.
Its structure took years to work out.
Max Perutz and John Kendrew worked out the structure of myoglobin first.
That muscle globin is smaller, with only one heme group.
The cornea is the front part of the eye.
It is the clear transparent section of the eye.
The cornea covers the iris, pupil, and the eye chamber.
It is a special form of tissue.
The cornea is clear and has no blood vessels.
It has nerves, but with no myelin sheaths on them.
The cornea, with the lens, refracts light.
The cornea and the lens bend light so the image strikes the retina.
The cornea does about two-thirds of this refraction.
Dua's layer is a newly discovered layer of the cornea.
It was described in June 2013.
It is the sixth layer of the cornea to be discovered.
Despite its thinness, the layer is very strong, and air does not get through it.
The West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) is a type of exam in West Africa.
It is made by the West African Examinations Council (WAEC).
It is only given to students who live in the five English-speaking West African countries: Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, The Gambia and Liberia
The exams
The WASSCE (November/December): students from government and private schools are able to take this exam.
Uniforms are not needed, but other rules must be obeyed by the students.
This exam is only taken in the fall season(November/December), and the grades are available by December.
Its old name is the G.C.E. (General Certificate Examinations).
The WASSCE (May/June): This exam is ideally made for students who go to government schools.
Students from private schools, that are well known in the country, can only sit for this exam in any government schools.
They must also wear a type of uniforms as the teachers want them to wear.
This exam is only taken in the spring season, and the grades are usually  available on or before August of the same year.
Its old name is the S.S.C.E. (Senior School Certificate Examinations).
The grades
The grades below are given on the WASSCE certificates for the students who finished their exams.
They also depend on how well the students did in their exams.
Sergei Sergeyevich Prokofiev () (born Sontsovka, Ukraine 23 April 1891; died Moscow 5 March 1953) was a Russian composer and pianist who came from  Ukraine.
During his lifetime, Ukraine was part of Russia.
Together with Dmitri Shostakovich he is one of the greatest Russian composers of the 20th century.
Children all over the world love to listen to his musical story Peter and the Wolf and the music for Lieutenant Kije, but he wrote many other great works including symphonies, concertos, piano sonatas, ballets and operas.
Prokofiev was born into an educated family, and his mother recognized very early her son's musical gifts.
His father was a college-educated agronomist who managed the farm-site of his employer in the Ukrainian steppe.
His mother played the piano reasonably well in her son's opinion.
The young Sergei started composing at a very early age.
By the time he was eleven he had written two operas and a series of small piano pieces he would later call "little puppies".
Soon he was writing music with unusual time signatures and in unusual changes of key.
Prokofiev's formal musical education began when, as a young boy, he started taking lessons from Reinhold Glière.
In 1904 he went to study at the Conservatory in St Petersburg.
He was a brilliant student, but he often disagreed with the way the professors were teaching.
He was bored with the lessons in orchestration from Rimsky-Korsakov and the counterpoint lessons from Liadov although he could have learned more from these great men.
His main friends were the composers Nikolai Myaskovsky and Boris Asafiev.
He often showed them his latest piano compositions which sounded very modern.
Many of St. Petersburg's newspaper critics did not like his music, while others felt he showed great promise and was sure to be a "futurist".
Prokofiev spent the summer of 1909 back at home in the small Russian farming village of Sontsovka in what is now Ukraine where his father was an estate manager.
He worked in a way that was to be typical of him all his life: he carefully kept a diary until the middle 1930s, was an excellent chess player and writer, kept making changes to a number of his earlier works.
He often borrowed music from one composition and put it in another, or used unfinished works in new compositions.
When he returned to St Petersburg he took piano lessons from a teacher at the St. Petersburg Conservatory called Anna Esipova.
She worked hard to discipline him in his playing although he did not appreciate her efforts.
He also took conducting lessons from Nikolai Tcherepnin who taught him to like late-Romantic composers such as Scriabin and Debussy.
He wrote some music himself in this style, but most of the music he wrote at this time sounded very harsh and dissonant and, although he was becoming quite famous, many people hated it.
When he finished his studies at the Conservatoire he won its top prize (the Rubinstein Prize) with his First Piano Concerto, although the examiners had found it hard to agree and Rimsky-Korsakov said that Prokofiev was "gifted but immature".
Prokofiev travelled to London where he met many famous people including Diaghilev who had a very skilled ballet group called Ballets Russes.
The composer Igor Stravinsky had been writing ballet music for Diaghilev’s dancers.
Prokofiev particularly loved Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring and it influenced his music.
He wrote an opera The Gambler based on the novel by Brusilov but the singers and the orchestra did not understand his music and refused to perform it.
One of the first works of Prokofiev to become known all over the world was his First Symphony known as the Classical Symphony.
He made the music sound like that of composers from the Classical period such as Haydn.
This symphony is still very popular today.
America and Europe (1918-1936)
In 1917 the Russian Revolution took place.
The country was in a chaotic state so Prokofiev went to the United States.
After a journey which took four months via the Transsiberian railway, Tokyo and San Francisco, he arrived in New York.
His first real success came from his connections with Cyrus McCormik in Chicago.
His first major commission was the opera The Love for Three Oranges for the Chicago Lyric Opera.
It was popular in Chicago but not in New York City where he really wanted to make his reputation.
He soon traveled to Paris to see Diagalev again whom he had met earlier in London.
His first ballet for him was Ala and Lolly which Diagalev did not like and would not perform.
This ballet later became Prokofiev's Scythian Suite.
His next ballet was more successful, The Tale of the Buffoon.
He also wrote his Third Piano Concerto which is his most popular concerto for piano.
Prokofiev lived off and on in Paris for fourteen years, but he often went on tour, performing his works on the piano.
In 1928 his Third Symphony was first performed, much of which was based on music from his opera  The Fiery Angel which was never performed completely in his lifetime.
In the late-1920s he was invited back to Russia.
Although many Soviet people tried to persuade him to stay there he decided to remain in the West where he was starting to have a very successful career.
It was not until 1936 that he finally decided to move back to Russia.
Life was not easy in the Soviet Union for all types of creative people such as musicians, poets, writers and film makers.
Composers were expected to write music which would make ordinary people happy and make them feel proud of their country and of the communist revolution.
Any music that did not do this was called “decadent” or “formalist”.