the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
This is about 6.7% of all adults in the United States.
Prince (1968) found virtually no depression in most Asian and African countries.
However, psychologists such as Zhang and Kleinman have found disorders with similar symptoms, but different names.
For example, in the 1980s, Zhang found that in China, there was little mention of depression.
However, instead, a disorder called Neurasthenia was far more common.
When interviewing Neurasthenia patients, Zhang found that their symptoms matched the symptoms of depression by over 80%.
While the term "depression" was practically unheard of in China, Neurasthenia could well have been a similar disorder – or the same thing.
It is also important to take in different cultures ways of classifying depression.
For example, in China, many people believe doctors solve physical symptoms, not mental problems.
This may have made it more likely for "depression" to be diagnosed as a medical condition like "Neurasthenia."
In men and women
Typically, in most Western cultures, women are diagnosed with depression twice as often as men.
However, men are often more likely than women to die by suicide.
In children
Depression in children can be harder to see.
Children who are depressed may have a loss of appetite, meaning that they do not want to eat.
They may also be clearly having more trouble in everyday life than before.
For example, they may have sleep problems like nightmares; new problems with behaviour or grades at school; or be more irritable than usual.
Types of depression
Major depressive disorder is also referred to as major, biochemical, clinical, endogenous, or biological depression.
It may also be called unipolar affective disorder.
Melancholia, or melancholic depression, is very severe (bad).
It can cause many physical changes, like sleep and appetite changes.
It can also cause a person to change their behavior - for example, by not wanting to be around other people.
Psychotic depression is much like melancholia, but with hallucinations or delusions.
Atypical depression causes anxiety and panic attacks.
Chronic dysthymic disorder is a long-term, mild depression that lasts for at least two years.
It often begins in adolescence and lasts for many years.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is when the depression seems to be related to the winter season.
It usually starts in the autumn and goes away in the spring every year.
It is common in Alaska, Canada, and Scandinavia (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland), but not in Iceland.
Causes of depression
As of 2016, scientists believe there is no one cause of depression.
There is a lot of argument over whether depression is caused by biological, cognitive, or sociocultural factors:
Biological explanations of depression focus on changes in brain chemicals (neurotransmitters).
Cognitive explanations of depression focus on how the way we think (cognition) affects our mood.
These explanations say that if a person thinks negatively, this thinking can make them feel negatively about themselves and the world around them.
Sociocultural explanations of depression blame stressful things like divorce, losing a job, bullying, and poverty for causing depression.
The United States National Institutes of Health say that depression comes from the brain.
However, scientists are still trying to find out exactly why it happens.
Possible causes
There are many theories about what causes depression.
These theories include:
Heredity (someone's genes): Depression often runs in families.
However, people can get depression even if they are not related to anyone else who has it.
Physiology: The amounts of some chemicals in the brain.
Serotonin is the main chemical in the brain that has to do with happiness.
Many antidepressant medications work by balancing the amount of serotonin in the brain.
Psychological factors: Low self-esteem and harmful thinking
Early experiences: Events such as the death of a parent or guardian, abandonment or rejection, neglect, chronic illness, and severe physical, psychological, or sexual abuse.
Life experiences: Losing a job, homelessness, problems with money, death of a loved one, relationship problems, separation from a partner, being a victim of crime, or other life problems can cause depression.
Medical conditions: Some illnesses, such as hypothyroidism, hepatitis, mononucleosis, or head injuries, may contribute to depression.
Alcohol and other drugs: Alcohol can make people depressed.
If a person abuses alcohol, benzodiazepine-based tranquillizers, sleeping medications, or narcotics, it can affect how long their depression lasts and how bad it is.
Some medicines like birth control pills and steroids may also contribute to depression.
Pesticides: Several scientific studies  have found statistical links between depression and some pesticides.
Depression is usually treated with a combination of medication and other therapy.
Good exercise helps deal with depression, since exercise releases chemicals that put a person in a better mood.
Having a supportive group of friends and doing outside activities can also help prevent or ease depression.
There are many medications that can help with depression.
Many of these are called antidepressants.
Examples of medications used to treat depression include:
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
These are now the most commonly used type of antidepressant medicine.
These drugs work by allowing the brain to have more serotonin.
They have fewer side effects than older antidepressants.
Examples include fluoxetine (Prozac), paroxetine (Paxil), and sertraline (Zoloft).
Tricyclic antidepressants.
These are an older type of antidepressant.
They are not used often today because they have many bad side effects and do not work as well as SSRIs.
An example is nortriptyline (Allegron).
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs).
They may be used if other antidepressant medications do not work well.
This kind of medicine cannot be taken with many different foods and other medications.
Sometimes, antidepressant medicine works better when it is used together with another drug that is not an antidepressant.
These "augmentor" drugs include:
Tranquillizers and sedatives.
These can help people sleep better and feel less anxious.
Antipsychotics.
These can help keep stop mood swings.
They can also make hallucinations better, or make them go away completely.
Lithium.
This is a mood stabilizer often used for bipolar disorder, but it can also help people with depression.
If people with depression do not take their medicine the right way, the depression can get worse.
A doctor must help when they want to change to another medication, or to take a different amount of a medication than before.
Psychotherapy is often a helpful treatment for depression.
In psychotherapy, a therapist helps a person to understand and solve problems which cause depression.
The therapist also helps the person learn skills for dealing with their depression.
Psychotherapy can help a person make changes in the way they think, in order to help with life problems and understand what makes depression worse.
The most effective psychotherapy for depression is Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).
This teaches a person to think in a more rational, positive, realistic manner.
Surgeries and procedures
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), also called electroshock therapy or shock therapy, is used to treat a small percentage of severely depressed people.
ECT uses a small amount of electricity to cause an epileptic seizure while the patient is under anesthesia.
This may cause some memory loss (amnesia) or other side effects.
In the past, doctors used different ways of treating depression.
These are rarely used any more.
Insulin shock treatment.
The doctor would lower a patient's blood sugar so much that the patient would have a seizure.
Lobotomy.
This is a form of surgery.
The surgeon would use an ice pick or a surgical knife to cut nerves in the frontal lobe of the brain.
Pet therapy
Dysthymia, a long-lasting mild depression
Bipolar disorder, a mood disorder which involves both mania and depression
Cyclothymia, a mild form of bipolar disorder
Study showing genetic links between depression and four other major psychiatric disorders: autism ADHD, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia
5 Disorders Share Genetic Risk Factors, Study Finds (The New York Times, February 28, 2013)
Psychiatric Disorders Linked Genetically (The Wall Street Journal, February 27, 2013)
Books by psychologists/psychiatrists:
Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., Emery, G. (1987).
Cognitive therapy of depression.
Klein, D. F., & Wender, P. H. (1993).
Understanding depression: A complete guide to its diagnosis and treatment.
Weissman, M. M., Markowitz, J. C., & Klerman, G. L. (2000).
Comprehensive guide to interpersonal psychotherapy.
Books by persons suffering or having suffered from depression:
Smith, Jeffery (2001).
Where the roots reach for water: A personal and natural history of melancholia.
New York: North Point Press.
Solomon, Andrew (2001).
The noonday demon: An atlas of depression.
New York: Sribner.
Styron, William (1992).
Darkness visible: A memoir of madness.
New York: Vintage Books/Random House.
Wolpert, Lewis (2001).
Malignant sadness: The anatomy of depression.
London: Faber and Faber.
Self-help (bibliotherapeutic) books:
Lewinsohn, P. M., Munoz, R. F, Youngren, M. A., Zeiss, A. M. (1992).
Control your depression.
New York: Fireside/Simon&Schuster.
Clinical-Depression
Internet Mental Health: Major Depressive Disorder
Depression Alliance website (UK charity) [useful information]
Depression Fact Sheets [Facts about the causes, symptoms, and treatment of depressive disorders.]
Detailed information [concerning Emil Kraepelin, who identified Manic Depression]
Depression – A Silent Killer! [
Major Causes, Types of Depression, Treatment for Depression]
Mood disorders
The Qur'an () is the holy book of Islam.
The Qur'an is considered by Muslims to be "The Word of Allah (God)".
This book is different from other religious texts in that it is believed to be the literal words of God, through the prophet Muhammad.
Some Muslims call it the Final Testament.
It has been written and read only in Arabic for more than 1,400 years.
But, because many Muslims around the world do not understand Arabic, the meaning of the Qur'an is also given in other languages, so that readers can understand better what the Arabic words in the Qur'an mean.
These books are like dictionaries to the Qur'an - they are not read as part of the religion of Islam, to replace the Arabic Qur'an.
Muslims believe that these translations are not the true Qur'an; only the Arabic copy is the true Qur'an.
The Quran is used with the hadith to interpret sharia law.
The Qur'an was not written all together in book-form while Muhammad was alive; it was kept by oral communication and brief written records.
The prophet did not know how to read nor write, but according to Muslims, the prophet's cousin Ali ibn abi Talib, among others, used to write the texts on something when Muhammad was alive.
After prophet Muhammad died, Omar ibn Khattab, one of the khulafa u rashidan, compiled the quran into a single book.
The elements, suras, verses, revelations
There are 30 parts in the Qur'an, which make 114 "suras" (chapters).
Each sura has a different number of verses.
According to the Muslim teachings, 87 of these suras revealed in Mecca, 27 of these suras revealed in Medina.
The suras which took place in Medina are Al-Baqara, Al Imran, Al-Anfal, Al-Ahzab, Al-Ma'ida, An-Nisa, Al-Mumtahina, Az-Zalzala, Al-Hadid, Muhammad, Ar-Ra'd, Ar-Rahman, At-Talaq, Al-Bayyina, Al-Hashr, An-Nasr, An-Nur, Al-Hajj, Al-Munafiqun, Al-Mujadila, Al-Hujraat, At-Tahrim, At-Taghabun, Al-Jumua, As-Saff, Al-Fath, At-Tawba, Al-Insan.
The verses of the Quran speak about many different topics.
For example, the verses of chapter 80 (Abasa) speak about the evils of ableism, also called able-bodyism or ablecentrism.
Or verse 2:15 speaks about the evils of being two-faced.
The first and last verse
(5) اقرَأ بِاسمِ رَبِّكَ الَّذي خَلَقَ (1) خَلَقَ الإِنسانَ مِن عَلَقٍ (2)  اقرَأ وَرَبُّكَ الأَكرَمُ (3) الَّذي عَلَّمَ بِالقَلَمِ (4) عَلَّمَ الإِنسانَ ما لَم يَعلَم
Read (commencing) with the Name of Allah, Who has created (everything).
He created man from a hanging mass (clinging) like a leech (in the mother’s womb).
Read and your Lord is Most Generous, Who taught man (reading and writing) by the pen, Who (besides that) taught man (all that) which he did not know.96:1
Who believe!
fulfil (all) obligations.
Lawful unto you (for food) are all four-footed animals.
Dead meat, blood, pig, any food which has been blessed by a (false) god other than Allah; an animal whose death resulted from strangulation, bludgeoning, arrows, falling, or bloodloss; an animal which was partly consumed by a wild animal or an animal which is sacrificed on a stone altar are forbidden.
However, if faced with starvation, exceptions are allowed.
Earliest surviving fragments
Probably the world's oldest fragments of the Koran have been found in the library of the University of Birmingham, in England.
Radiocarbon dating showed with a probability of more than 95%, the parchment was from between 568 and 645 AD.
So the manuscript is at least 1,370 years old.
It is the earliest, or among the earliest, in existence.
The fragments are written in ink on sheep or goat skin.
They are mounted on a modern paper to help preserve them.
They are going on display at the Barber Institute in Birmingham in October 2015.
Quran Archive - Texts and Studies on the Quran
Al-Quran project with more than 145 translations in 35 different languages
Quran Word by Word // QuranAcademy.org
Quran in audio wav format and books in English
Arabic words and phrases
Sir Anthony Charles Lynton "Tony" Blair (born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007.
He was Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007 and Member of Parliament (MP) for Sedgefield from 1983 to 2007.
On the day he stood down as Prime Minister and MP, he was made official Envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East on behalf of the United Nations, the European Union, the United States and Russia.
Blair was elected Leader of the Labour Party in the 1994 leadership election following the sudden death of his predecessor, John Smith.
Under Blair's leadership the party abandoned many policies it had held for decades.
Labour won a landslide victory in the 1997 general election, which ended 18 years of Conservative rule with the heaviest Conservative defeat since 1832.
Blair was born at Queen Mary Maternity Home in Edinburgh on 6 May 1953.
He was the second son of Leo and Hazel Blair.
Blair joined the Labour Party in 1975.
Blair was a lawyer before becoming a politician.
He married Cherie Booth, also a lawyer, who graduated from the London School of Economics with a first-class honours degree.
Blair himself left Oxford University with a second-class degree.
They have four children: Euan, Nicky, Kathryn, and Leo.
There was a controversy over Blair sending Euan to a grant-maintained school.
As a result of this, Alastair Campbell discovered Blair "standing stark naked reading the Daily Mail."
As Prime Minister
As Leader of the Labour Party, he won the 1997, 2001 and 2005 UK general elections.
Blair is the first and only Labour Party leader to have won three general elections in a row.
He attributes his success in politics to a pair of "lucky brogues", which he wore for every single Prime Minister's Questions of his leadership.
He claimed that "cheap shoes are a false economy".
After-PM
On the day of his resignation, Blair was made an official envoy in the Middle East.
In 2004, he started the Commission for Africa.
He continued work as a commissioner after his service as Prime Minister ended.
In December 2021, Queen Elizabeth II honored Blair with the Order of the Garter.
1953 births
Alumni of the University of Oxford
British Roman Catholics
British autobiographers
Former Labour Party (UK) MPs
Former members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Leaders of the Labour Party (UK)
Leaders of the Opposition (United Kingdom)
Politicians from Edinburgh
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
An accident is when something goes wrong when it is not meant to.
Physical accidents are things like collisions, injuries, and falling.
Non-physical accidents are things like accidentally telling someone a secret, forgetting something important, or deleting an important computer file.
Road accidents kill thousands of people each month in the United States, and thousands each week in the world.
They injure more thousands each week.
The majority involve a car but there are also many bus, truck and bicycle accidents.
Aircraft crashes, ship sinkings and other transport accidents also attract much attention.
Injuries from accidents, however, are more numerous at home than elsewhere.
They attract less attention because only a few people are hurt at a time.
Often, accidents are investigated so that we can learn how to avoid them in the future.
Sometimes by studying an accident we can discover new things, for example penicillin.
Most of the deaths resulting from injuries are caused by fire accidents.
Thus, accidental fires are one of the leading causes of unintentional deaths.
The main cause of death in fire incidents is burning, but inhalation of smoke and toxic gas causes death as well.
Often the cause of the fire is very simple and unexpected, such as forgetting a candle near something flammable, defect in the hardware, or old electrical wires.
So most of the large fires are caused by simple reasons.
Work accidents
Industrial accidents such as mine cave-ins and the West Gate Bridge collapse also kill and maim many workers.
The Bhopal disaster killed thousands, mostly not workers.
An accident at work is defined as an external, sudden and violent event.
Work accidents happen while an someone is working.
It may cause the injury or death of the worker or someone else.
For an accident to be a work accident, there must be a direct or indirect relationship of cause and effect between the accident and the work.
Many construction workers are injured.
There are multiple reasons for that, but the main  reason is working on the edge of high buildings without using a safety belt.
Thus, you have to follow the safety rules when you are working on these places.
Chemical accidents can happen in a laboratory.
Especially, some students make chemical mistakes that injure them seriously.
Acne is an infection of the skin, caused by changes in the sebaceous glands.
The most common form of acne is called acne vulgaris, which means "common acne".
The redness comes from the inflammation of the skin in response to the infection.
Oils from the glands combine with dead skin cells to block hair follicles.
Under the blocked pore, oil builds up.
Skin bacteria can then grow very quickly.
This infection makes the skin become swollen and red, which becomes visible.
Acne is common during puberty, when a person is turning from a child into an adult, because of high levels of hormones.
Acne becomes less common as people reach adulthood.
Effects of acne
People of all ages can get acne, although it occurs more commonly in adolescents.
Acne can affect people physically, psychologically, and socially.
Physical effects
Psychological effects
Social effects
Low self-esteem issues can make a person suffering from acne withdraw from many social events.
It makes developing new personal relationships (especially love relationships) more difficult.
Low self-esteem can also cause problems with career advancement as the person may find it difficult to present a positive attitude.
This may sometimes even lead to suicidal thoughts.
Some of the treatments for acne have also shown a link with more suicide attempts.
Causes of acne
Exactly why some people get acne and some do not is not completely known.
These can cause acne, or make it worse:
Hormonal fluctuation
Hyperactive sebaceous glands
Many dead skin cells staying on the skin
Bacteria in the pores
Treatments
Many things are sold to treat acne, the most popular being benzoyl peroxide.
Many of these things have not been scientifically proven to help acne.
However, a mix of commercial and homemade treatments can help with acne for various reasons.
Killing the bacteria that grow in the blocked follicles.
This can be done by ingesting antibiotic medication, or by putting antibiotics on the skin.
Antibiotics act quickly and are a powerful way of temporarily getting rid of acne.
When the body develops a resistance to the antibiotics, the bacteria returns stronger than before.
Removing oil on the skin can be done by taking drugs that contain Vitamin A. Accutane is the name of the most famous treatment using massive quantities of Vitamin A.
Removing dead skin cells can be done by treatment with salicylic acid.
This encourages the skin to peel away the top layer of cells.
Diet: studies have shown that acne is quite rare in areas with different diets, and particular food items have been shown to exacerbate acne.
Popping a pimple should not be done by anyone but a qualified dermatologist.
Pimple popping irritates skin, can make the bacteria spread, and can cause scars.
If you must pop a pimple yourself, it is advised to apply warm water to the area before popping it and to wash your hand thoroughly before beginning so as to avoid spreading bacteria via the hands.
Applying hot water will open up the pores and reduce the damage because it will require less force to pop it.
There are 650 million people in the world with acne, which is around 9.4% of the global population.
More females are getting acne than males (9.8% versus 9.0%).
Acne affects 40 to 50 million people in the United States (16%) and approximately 3 to 5 million in Australia (23%).
Acne affects people of all ethnic groups.
Acne scars
Bad acne often leads to bad scars where the skin has the shape of a volcano.
It is difficult and expensive to treat  acne scars.
The top layer of the skin is taken away to make the scar look less deep.
It makes the scar less visible, but does not remove it completely.
Many treatments may be needed.
Laser resurfacing.
A laser is used to burn off the top layer of the skin.
Deep penetrating light therapy.
A non-laser, non-ultraviolet light therapy that can be used to improve mild to moderate acne.
A blue light causes the breakdown of certain chemicals within the acne bacteria, destroying the cell walls.
Punch excision.
The scar is raised with a punch tool and the edges are smoothed together.
Chemical peels.
Different types of acid are put on the skin so that a smoother layer can form.
Subcision.
A hole is made between the scar and the skin under the scar.
Blood can pool under the scar, and raise it to the surface of the skin.
Common Myths About Acne
Myth: Only teenagers get acne.
Although acne appears most often in teenagers, it also appears first in people in their 20s and 30s.
People of all ages get acne.
Myth: Popping pimples makes them go away sooner.
Quite the contrary: squeezing pimples and blackheads can lead to additional inflammation, infection, and scarring.
Wash your face frequently
This may be the most common myth, which is not true.
Washing your face twice a day can be effective and beneficial, but too much can dry out your skin, which can lead to other skin problems.
Myth: Eating chocolate and greasy foods causes acne.
There is no proven link between chocolate, pizza, potato chips, french fries, cheeseburgers, etc.,
and acne outbreaks.
Recent research has indicated a link between acne and non-organic dairy products.
Questions and Answers About Acne, from the U.S. National Institutes of Health
Diseases caused by bacteria
Dinosaurs (meaning "big lizard ") are a varied group of Archosaur reptiles.
They were the dominant land animals of the Mesozoic era.
Over 500 different genera of dinosaurs are known.
Fossils of dinosaurs have been found on every continent, and there are still frequent new discoveries.
Dinosaurs appeared in the Upper Triassic, about 230 million years ago.
The earliest date of a dinosaur fossil is that of Eoraptor and Herrerasaurus from the Argentine, and Saturnalia from Brazil, 237 to 228 mya.
By the early Jurassic they were the top land vertebrates, and dominated most environments on land.
They continued until the sudden K/T extinction event 66 million years ago.
From the fossil record, we know that birds are living feathered dinosaurs.
They evolved from the earliest theropods during the Jurassic.
They were the only line of dinosaurs to survive to the present day.
Dinosaurs had adaptations which helped make them successful.
The first known dinosaurs were small predators that walked on two legs.
All their descendants had an upright posture, with the legs underneath the body.
This transformed their whole life-style.
There were other features.
Most of the smaller dinosaurs had feathers, and were probably warm-blooded.
This would make them active, with a higher metabolism than modern reptiles.
Social interaction, with living in herds and co-operation seems very likely for some types.
The first fossils were recognised as dinosaurs in the early 19th century.
Some of their bones were found much earlier, but were not understood.
William Buckland, Gideon Mantell and Richard Owen saw these bones were a special group of animals.
Dinosaurs are now major attractions at museums around the world.
They have become part of popular culture.
There have been many best-selling books and movies.
New discoveries are reported in the media.
Types of dinosaurs
Dinosaurs are united by at least 21 traits in their skulls and skeletons.
These common characters (called 'synapomorphies') are the reason palaeontologists are sure dinosaurs had a common origin.
However, when definite dinosaur fossils appear (early in the Upper Triassic), the group had already split into two great orders, the Saurischia, and the Ornithischia.
The Saurischia keep the ancestral hip arrangement inherited from their Archosaur ancestors, and the Ornithischia have a modified hip structure.
A. Eoraptor, an early saurischian, B Lesothosaurus, a primitive ornithischian, C A saurischian pelvis (Staurikosaurus) D Lesothosaurus pelvis
Dinosaur classification
The following is a simplified list of dinosaur groups based on their evolution.
Groups with a dagger (†) next to them don't have any living members.
Saurischia ("lizard-hipped"; includes Theropoda and Sauropodomorpha)
Theropoda (all bipedal; most were carnivorous)
†Herrerasauria (early bipedal carnivores)
†Coelophysoidea (small, early theropods; includes Coelophysis and its close relatives)
†Dilophosauridae (early crested and carnivorous theropods)
†Ceratosauria (generally elaborately horned, the dominant southern carnivores of the Cretaceous)
Tetanurae (meaning "stiff tails"; includes most theropods)
†Megalosauroidea (early group of large carnivores including the semiaquatic spinosaurids)
†Carnosauria (Allosaurus and close relatives, like Carcharodontosaurus)
Coelurosauria (feathered theropods, with a range of body sizes and niches)
†Compsognathidae (common early coelurosaurs with smaller legs)
†Tyrannosauridae (Tyrannosaurus and its close relatives; had smaller legs)
†Ornithomimosauria (meaning "ostrich-mimics"; mostly toothless; carnivores to possible herbivores)
†Alvarezsauroidea (small insectivores with short arms that each had one large claw)
Maniraptora (meaning "hand snatchers"; had long, slender arms and fingers)
†Therizinosauria (bipedal herbivores with large hand claws and small heads)
†Oviraptorosauria (mostly toothless; their diet and lifestyle are uncertain)
†Archaeopterygidae (small, winged theropods or primitive birds)
†Deinonychosauria (small to medium-sized, bird-like, with a distinctive toe claw.)
Avialae (modern birds and their extinct relatives)
†Scansoriopterygidae (small primitive avialans with long third fingers)
†Omnivoropterygidae (large, early short-tailed avialans)
†Confuciusornithidae (small toothless avialans)
†Enantiornithes (primitive flying avialans that lived in trees)
Euornithes (advanced flying birds)
†Yanornithiformes (toothed Cretaceous Chinese birds)
†Hesperornithes (specialized aquatic diving birds)
Aves (modern, beaked birds and their extinct relatives)
†Sauropodomorpha (herbivores with small heads, long necks, long tails)
†Guaibasauridae (small, primitive, omnivorous sauropodomorphs)
†Plateosauridae (primitive, bipedal "prosauropods")
†Riojasauridae (small, primitive sauropodomorphs)
†Massospondylidae (small, primitive sauropodomorphs)
†Sauropoda (very large and heavy, usually over  long; quadrupedal)
†Vulcanodontidae (primitive sauropods with pillar-like arms and legs)
†Eusauropoda ("true sauropods")
†Cetiosauridae ("whale reptiles")
†Turiasauria (European group of Jurassic and Cretaceous sauropods)
†Neosauropoda ("new sauropods")
†Diplodocoidea (skulls and tails elongated; teeth typically narrow and pencil-like)
†Macronaria (boxy skulls; spoon- or pencil-shaped teeth)
†Brachiosauridae (long-necked, long-armed macronarians)
†Titanosauria (diverse; stocky, with wide hips; most common in the late Cretaceous of southern continents)
†Ornithischia ("bird-hipped"; diverse bipedal and quadrupedal herbivores)
†Heterodontosauridae (small basal ornithopod herbivores/omnivores with prominent canine-like teeth)
†Thyreophora (armored dinosaurs; mostly quadrupeds)
†Ankylosauria (scutes as primary armor; some had club-like tails)
†Stegosauria (spikes and plates as primary armor)
†Neornithischia ("new ornithischians")
†Ornithopoda (various sizes; bipeds and quadrupeds; evolved a method of chewing using flexible skulls and many teeth)
†Marginocephalia (Had dome-like growths on their skulls made of bone)
†Pachycephalosauria (bipedal with domed or knobby growth on skulls)
†Ceratopsia (quadrupeds with frills; many also had horns)
Dinosaur origins and evolution
Archosaurs
Pseudosuchia: clade of the crocodiles and their relatives.
Avemetatarsalia: clade of the dinosaurs, pterosaurs, birds and relatives.
Aphanosauria
Ornithodira: clade of the pterosaurs and dinosaurs.
Pterosaurs
Earliest dinosaurs
The earliest confirmed dinosaur fossils include the saurischian ('lizard-hipped') dinosaurs Herrerasaurus 230–220 mya, Staurikosaurus possibly 230–225 mya, Eoraptor 231.4 mya, and Alwalkeria 230–220 mya.
Saturnalia, 232–225 mya, may be a basal saurischian or a prosauropod.
The others are basal saurischians.
Among the earliest ornithischian ('bird-hipped') dinosaurs is Pisanosaurus 230–220 mya.
Although Lesothosaurus comes from 199–189 mya, skeletal features suggest that it branched from the main Ornithischia line at least as early as Pisanosaurus.
Early saurischians were similar to early ornithischians, but different from modern crocodiles.
Saurischians differ from ornithischians by keeping the ancestral configuration of bones in the pelvis (shown in a diagram above).
Another difference is in the skull: the upper skull of the Ornithischia is more solid, and the joint connecting the lower jaw is more flexible.
These features are adaptations to herbivory; in other words, it helped them grind vegetable food.
Dinosaurs were a varied group of animals.
Adaptive radiation let them live in many ecological niches.
Paleontologists have identified over 500 different genera and 1,000 species of non-avian dinosaurs.
Their descendants, the birds, number 9,000 living species, and are the most diverse group of land vertebrates.
The largest dinosaurs were herbivores (plant-eaters), such as Apatosaurus and Brachiosaurus.
They were the largest animals to ever walk on dry land.
Other plant-eaters such as Iguanodon had special weapons, to help them fight off the meat-eaters.
For example, Triceratops had three horns on its head shield, Ankylosaurus was covered in boney plates, and Stegosaurus had spikes on its tail.
The carnivores were bipedal (walked on their back legs), though not as we do.
Their body was more towards the horizontal, balanced at the back by their tail.
Some were very large, like Tyrannosaurus, Allosaurus and Spinosaurus, but some were small, like Compsognathus.
It was the smaller sized meat-eaters that may have evolved into birds.
The first fossil bird, Archaeopteryx, had a skeleton which looked much like that of a dinosaur.
Dinosaurs were primitively bipedal: their probable ancestors were small bipedal Archosaurs.
The date of the early dinosaur genus Eoraptor at 231.4 million years ago is important.
Eoraptor probably resembles the common ancestor of all dinosaurs; its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small, bipedal predators.
The discovery of primitive, pre-dinosaur, types in Middle Triassic strata supports this view.
Analysis of their fossils suggests that the animals were indeed small, bipedal predators.
Those dinosaurs which returned to four-legged stance kept all four legs under their body.
This is much more efficient than the sprawling legs of a lizard.
The big sauropods could never have reached so large a size without their pillar-like legs.
A review surveys what we know about the mechanics of dinosaur movement.
Warm blooded
A major change in outlook came in the 1960s, when it was realised that small theropods were probably warm-blooded.
The question of whether all theropods or even all dinosaurs were warm blooded is still undecided.
It is now certain (from fossils discovered in China: see Jehol biota) that small theropods had feathers.
This fits well with the idea that they were warm-blooded, and that the origin of birds can be traced to a line of small theropods.
Warm blooded animals have a high metabolic rate (use up food faster).
They can be more active, and for longer, than animals who depend on the environment for heating.
Therefore, the idea of warm-blooded dinosaurs insulated by feathers led to the idea that they were more active, intelligent and faster runners than previously thought.
Main-stream palaeontologists have followed this view for small theropods, but not for larger herbivores.
Since we know that the size of a Stegosaur'''s brain was about the size of a walnut, there is good reason to think its intelligence was limited.
Despite their great success over a long period, there were life-styles which the dinosaurs never evolved.
None ever evolved to live entirely in water, as many mammals do, though Spinosaurus was semi-aquatic.
They never dominated the small terrestrial niche.
All through the Mesozoic most small vertebrates were mammals and lizards.
Several impact craters and massive volcanic activity, such as that in the Deccan Traps in India, have been dated to the approximate time of the extinction event.
These geological events may have reduced sunlight and hindered photosynthesis, leading to a massive disruption in Earth's ecology.
Did any terrestrial dinosaurs survive the great extinction event?
Several fossils have been found in the Hell Creek Formation about 40,000 years later than the K/T extinction event.
Many scientists dismiss the "Paleocene dinosaurs" as re-worked, that is, washed out of their original places and then re-buried in much later sediments.
An associated skeleton (e.g. more than one bone from the same individual) found above the K/T boundary would be convincing, but no such finds have been reported.
Dinosaurs in fiction
"...Dragons of the prime,that tare each other in their slime".
Tennyson, In Memoriam,1849.
Books about dinosaurs have been popular, especially with children, but adults have also enjoyed these kinds of books.
In Edwardian times, Arthur Conan Doyle wrote a novel about a plateau filled with dinosaurs which he called The Lost World.
Jurassic Park in 1990 started a new phase in dinosaur popular culture when it was followed by the movie of the same name in 1993.
For "dinobirds", see Origin of birds
Bakker, Robert T. 1986.
The Dinosaur Heresies: new theories unlocking the mystery of the dinosaurs and their extinction.
New York: Morrow.
Farlow J.O. and Brett-Surman M.K. (eds) 1997.
The Complete Dinosaur.
Indiana University Press.
Holtz, Thomas R. Jr. 2007.
Dinosaurs: the most complete, up-to-date encyclopedia for dinosaur lovers of all ages.
New York: Random House.
Paul, Gregory S. 2000.
The Scientific American book of dinosaurs.
New York: St. Martin's Press.
Weishampel, David B; Dodson, Peter and Osmólska, Halszka (eds) 2004.
The Dinosauria''.
2nd ed, Berkeley: University of California Press.
The Stone Age was a prehistoric time when people made tools from stone.
It began when people created the first stone tools about 3.3 million years ago.
About 99% of human history happened during the Stone Age.
It lasted for about 3.4 million years, and ended between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC.
Stone Age people also made tools out of wood and bone.
However, these materials do not last as long as stone.
For this reason, most of the Stone Age tools archaeologists have found are made of stone.
Archaeologists divide the Stone Age into three sections: Paleolithic ("old stone"), Mesolithic ("middle stone"), and Neolithic ("new stone").
During the Neolithic period, people invented farming and pottery, and started to care for animals like cows and pigs.
Sometime between 3000 BC and 2000 BC, people discovered the art of smelting (making metals).
This probably happened in the Middle East.
People used copper first, then learned how to make bronze.
When people started using these metals instead of stone, the Stone Age ended and the Bronze Age began.
Some groups of people in Papua New Guinea continued to use Stone Age technology into the 20th century.
They used stone-tipped weapons to kill animals for food and clothing.
They made shelters using animal skin.
Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of Nazi Germany.
He became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, after a democratic election in 1932.
He became Führer (leader) of Nazi Germany in 1934.
Hitler led the NSDAP, or the Nazi Party from 1921.
When in power, the Nazis created a dictatorship called the Third Reich.
In 1933, they blocked out all other political parties.
This gave Hitler absolute power.
Hitler ordered the invasion of Poland in 1939, and this started World War II.
Because of Hitler, at least 50 million people died.
During World War II, Hitler was the Commander-in-Chief of the German Armed Forces and made all the important decisions.
This was part of the so-called Führerprinzip.
He shot himself on 30 April 1945, as the Soviet Army got to Berlin, because he did not want to be captured alive by the Soviet Union.
Hitler and the Nazi regime were responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war.
In addition, 28.7 million soldiers and people died as a result of military action in Europe.
Nazi forces committed many war crimes during the war.
They were doing what Hitler told them to do.
They killed their enemies or put them in concentration camps and death camps.
Hitler and his men persecuted and killed Jews and other ethnic, religious, and political minorities.
In what is called the Holocaust, the Nazis killed six million Jews, Roma people, homosexuals, Slavs, and many other groups of people.
Family background
Hitler's family was born in Waldviertel, in Lower Austria.
At the time, the name Hitler changed in this region several times between Hüttler, Hiedler, Hittler and Hitler.
The name was commonly in the German-speaking area of Europe in the 19th century.
The literature says that this name is descended from the Czech name Hidlar or Hidlarcek.
Childhood and early adulthood
Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889, as the fourth child of six in Braunau am Inn.
This is a small town near Linz in the province of Upper Austria.
It is close to the German border, in what was then Austria-Hungary.
His parents were Klara Pölzl and Alois Hitler.
Because of his father's job, Hitler moved from Braunau to Passau, later to Lambach and finally to Leonding.
He attended several Volksschule's.
Hitler's mother, Klara Pölzl, was his father's third wife and also his cousin.
Hitler's father died in 1903.
Hitler failed high school exams in Linz twice.
In 1905, he left school.
He became interested in the anti-Semitic (anti-Jewish), Pan-German teachings of Professor Leopold Poetsch.
In September 1907, he went to Vienna and took an entrance examination.
On 1 and 2 October, he failed the second examination.
Hitler went back to Linz at the end of October.
In December 1907, Hitler's mother died and, because of that, he was depressed.
Hitler's mother was Catholic, but Hitler hated Christianity.
He also hated Jews.
In 1909, Hitler again went to Vienna to study art.
He tried to become a student at the Academy of Arts, but failed the first entrance examination.
Hitler said he first became an anti-Semite in Vienna.
This city had a large Jewish community.
In 1913, Hitler was 24 years old.
At that time, all young Austrian men had to join the army.
Hitler did not like the Austrian army, so he left Austria for Germany.
He lived in the German city of Munich.
On 16 August 1914, Hitler joined the Bavarian army.
He fought for Germany in World War I. Hitler served in Belgium and France in the 16th Bavarian Reserve Regiment.
He spent nearly the whole time on the Western Front.
He was a runner, one of the most dangerous jobs on the Front.
That means he ran from one position to another one to carry messages.
On 1 November 1914, Hitler became a Gefreiter (which was like being a private first class in the United States Army, or a lance corporal in the British Army).
The government awarded him the Iron Cross Second Class on 2 December 1914.
On 5 October 1916, Hitler was hurt by a bullet shell.
Between 9 October and 1 December, he was in the military hospital Belitz.
In March 1917, he went back to the front.
There, he fought in a battle and was awarded with the Militärverdienstkreuz Third Class with swords.
In March 1918, Hitler participated in the Spring Offensive.
On 4 August 1918, Hitler was awarded the Iron Cross First Class by the Jewish Hugo Gutmann.
After Germany surrendered, Hitler was shocked, because the German army still held enemy area in November 1918.
Entry into politics
After World War I, Hitler stayed in the army and returned to Munich.
There he attended the funeral march of the Bavarian prime minister Kurt Eisner, who had been killed.
In 1919, he participated in a training programme for propaganda speakers from 5 to 12 June and 26 June to 5 July.
Later that year, Hitler joined a small political party called the German Workers Party.
He became member number 555.
He soon won the support of the party's members.
Two years later, he became the party's leader.
He renamed the party the National Socialist German Workers Party.
It became known as the Nazi Party.
During the Weimar Republic
In 1923, Hitler got together several hundred other members of the Nazi Party and tried to take over the Weimar Republic government (1918–34) in the Beer Hall Putsch.
The coup failed.
The government killed 13 of his men (the 13 dead men were later declared saints in Nazi ideology).
They also put Hitler in the Landsberg Prison.
They said that he would stay in prison for five years, but they let him leave after nine months.
While Hitler was in prison, he wrote a book with the help of his close friend Rudolf Hess.
At first, Hitler wanted to call the book Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity and Cowardice.
In the end, he called the book "Mein Kampf" ("My Struggle").
Mein Kampf brought together some of Hitler's different ideas and explains where they came from:
His idea that the "Aryan race" was better than everybody else: This came from Arthur de Gobineau's book called The Inequality of the Human Races.
His plans for an Empire in the East: These plans came from the way Germany had captured farming land in the First World War.
His idea that democracy (rule by governments vote in elections) should be replaced by dictatorship (rule by one man)
The idea that Judaism and communism were connected: He got this idea from the Nazi writer Alfred Rosenberg.
His anger against the Jews.
He suggests that they should be killed, though he is not clear about how this should be done.
Hitler may also have been influenced by Martin Luther's On the Jews and their Lies.
In Mein Kampf, Hitler says Martin Luther was "a great warrior, a true statesman and a great reformer."
Start of the dictatorship
In January 1933, Hitler was elected into the German government and became a dictator in the next months.
He ended freedom of speech, and put his enemies in prisons and concentration camps or killed them.
He did not allow any other political party except the Nazi party by the summer of 1933.
Hitler and his propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, spread extreme nationalism within Germany.
All media had to praise the Nazis.
Also, more people were born because Hitler wanted more people of the "master race" (those he called "Aryans").
After the death of Paul von Hindenburg in 1934, Hitler declared the office of President vacant and made himself Führer (both Head of State and Head of Government) and became a full dictator with no checks and balances.
He made Germany a totalitarian Nazi state.
World War II and the Holocaust
Despite Poland being carved out of former German territory, Hitler is credited with starting World War II by ordering the German Army to invade Poland.
His army took over Poland and most of Europe, including France and a large part of the Soviet Union.
During the war, Hitler ordered the Nazis to kill many people, including women and children.
The Nazis killed around six million Jews in the Holocaust.
Other people that the Nazis killed were Roma (Gypsies), homosexuals, Slavs such as Russians and Poles, and his political opponents.
Finally, some of the other countries in the world worked together to defeat Germany.
Hitler lost all of the lands that he had taken.
Millions of Germans were killed in the war.
At the end of World War II, Hitler gave all people in the Führerbunker permission to leave it.
Many people did and moved to the region of Berchtesgaden.
They used planes and truck convoys.
Hitler, the Göbbels family, Martin Bormann, Eva Braun and some other staff remained in the bunker.
Hitler married to Eva Braun on 29 April 1945.
Forty hours after Hitler and Eva Braun got married in Berlin Germany, both of them committed suicide by poisoning themselves with cyanide, then Hitler shot himself in the head with his gun.
Before this, Hitler ordered that their bodies be burned.
This prevented him from being captured alive by soldiers of the Red Army, who were closing in on him.
Hitler in history
Ian Kershaw, a historian who wrote a biography (life story) of Hitler, describes him as a modern symbol of evil. "
Never in history has such [ruin] ... been associated with the name of one man."
However, Kershaw and some other historians believe that it is more important to look at the wider problems in Germany at the time, rather than at Hitler himself, when they explain why the war and the Holocaust happened.
Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei
Mondo Politico Library's presentation of Adolf Hitler's book, Mein Kampf (full text, formatted for easy on-screen reading)
1889 births
1945 deaths
Anti-Communists
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Former dictators
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German military personnel of World War I
German military personnel of World War II
German painters
Hitler family
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Members of the Reichstag (Nazi Germany)
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Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 70 BC21 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was a poet in the Latin language.
His poems are about gods and their mythology.
Virgil's most famous epic poem is called the Aeneid.
Tradition is that Virgil was born in the village of Andes, near Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul.
Scholars looking at the way he used words think that he may have Etruscan, Umbrian or even a Celtic background.
Study of his name has led to beliefs that his family may have been earlier Roman settlers.
These modern beliefs are not supported by evidence from his own writings or from writers of his biographies.
Some scholars have noted that his nickname, MARO, is an anagram of the two main themes in the Aeneid: AMOR (love) and ROMA (Rome).
70 BC births
19 BC deaths
Ancient Roman writers