the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
About seven percent of the people of the world are Buddhist.
Background and Buddhist concepts
Siddhartha Gautama (563483 BC) began life as the infant prince of a small kingdom in what is now the southern part of Nepal.
As an adult he left wealth and status behind to search for truth.
Enlightened at the age of 35, the Buddha spent the next 45 years of his life traveling and teaching in the northern part of India.
He died at the age of 80.
The Buddha focused much of his teaching on how to overcome suffering.
He saw that all living things suffer in being born, in getting sick, in growing old, and in facing death.
By overcoming suffering, he taught, a person will be truly happy.
Early teaching.
His first lesson after becoming enlightened was to other seekers who had also renounced the world.
This was a group of holy men or monks with whom the Buddha had studied for five or more years.
To them he first presented what he saw as the Four Noble Truths of life and the Eightfold Noble Path (see below).
These teachings identify the causes of suffering and their cure.
Three marks of existence.
The Buddha taught that life is best understood as being impermanent (everything changes), unsatisfactory (left on our own we are never truly happy), and interdependent (all things are linked, even to the degree that the self is better understood as an illusion).
The middle way.
Buddhism teaches non-harm and moderation or balance, not going too far one way or the other.
This is called the Middle Way, and encourages people to live in balance.
The Buddha recommended meditation as a way to discipline the mind and see the world as it is.
Buddhists may meditate while sitting in a special or specific way.
Standing and walking meditation are other styles.
Three poisons.
In discussing suffering, the Buddha identified the three poisons of desire, anger and stupidity, and he showed that we could end our suffering by letting go of desires and overcoming anger and stupidity.
Nirvana.
The complete letting go of negative influences is called Nirvana, meaning "to extinguish," like putting out the flame of a candle.
This end of suffering is also called Enlightenment.
In Buddhism, Enlightenment and Nirvana often mean the same thing.
Do Buddhists believe in god or gods?
The Buddha would not say if gods exist or not, although gods play a part in some Buddhist stories.
If someone asked the Buddha, "Do gods exist?"
he maintained a noble silence.
That is, he would not confirm or deny.
Buddhists do not believe that people should look to gods to save them or bring them enlightenment.
Rather individuals should work out their own path the best they can.
Other basic teachings.
Many of the Buddha's ideas are found in other Indian religions, especially Hinduism.
Karma refers to actions, and the Buddha taught that actions have consequences for good or ill.
If people make good decisions they will be happier and have more peace of mind.
"To avoid all evil
To do good.
To purify one's mind: This is the teaching of all the Buddhas."
Dhammapāda, XIV, 5
The Buddha taught about reincarnation, the idea that after we die we are likely to be reborn in this world and face the same kind of suffering as in the past life.
The ultimate goal of a Buddhist is to find enlightenment (Nirvana) which places us beyond endless reincarnation and suffering.
Some Buddhists understand the idea in a poetic way, and not a literal one.
Who is Buddha?
Buddha is a Pali word which means "The Enlightened one".
Someone who has woken up to the truth of the mind and suffering and teaches the truth to others is called a Buddha.
The word "Buddha" often means the historical Buddha named Buddha Shakyamuni (Siddhartha Gautama).
Buddhists do not believe that a Buddha is a god, but that he is a human being who has woken up and can see the true way the mind works.
They believe this knowledge totally changes the person.
This person can help others become enlightened too.
Enlightened people are beyond birth, death, and rebirth.
Who was the first Buddha?
In Pali texts, the first Buddha in Buddhavamsa sutta was Taṇhaṅkara Buddha.
The Mahapadana sutta says the earliest Buddha of the recent seven buddhas was Vipassi Buddha (But sutta is not saying that Vipassi is first Buddha).
Counting from the present kalpa (the beginning of our present world (Earth)) Gautama Buddha is considered the fourth Buddha.
In this telling, the first is Kakusandho Buddha, second Konakamano Buddha, and the third Kassapo Buddha.
The last Buddha of this kalpa will be Maitreya Buddha.
Then the world (Earth) will renew itself and from then begins a new kalpa.
Beliefs of Buddhism
The three jewels
Buddhists respect and treasure the Three Jewels, which are the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.
Buddhists say "I take refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha."
They find comfort in these jewels or treasures.
Four noble Truths
The reason for this suffering is that we want things to be a certain way.
The way to cure suffering is to rise above this desire.
The way to rise above desire is to follow the Noble Eightfold Path, practices which help us change our minds and understanding.
The Buddha told people to follow a special way of life called the Noble Eightfold Path if they want to understand the Four Noble Truths.
Appropriate views.
Know and understand the Four Noble Truths
Appropriate thought.
Turn your mind away from the world and towards the Dharma
Appropriate speech.
Tell the truth, don't gossip, and don't talk badly about others
Appropriate conduct.
Don't commit evil acts, like killing, stealing, or living an unclean life
Appropriate livelihood.
Earn your money in a way that doesn't harm anyone
Appropriate effort.
Work to make your mind more good and less evil
Appropriate mindfulness.
Remember the Dharma and apply it all the time
Appropriate meditation.
Practice meditation as a way of understanding reality
Five precepts
Buddhists are encouraged to follow five precepts, or guidelines.
The Buddha taught that killing, stealing, having sex in a harmful way, and lying are not signs of skill.
I will not hurt a person or animal that is alive.
I will not take something if it was not given to me.
I will not engage in sexual misconduct.
I will not lie or say things that hurt people.
I will not take intoxicants, like alcohol or drugs, causing heedlessness.
If a person wants to be a monk or nun, he or she will follow other precepts as well.
World Buddhist Events Center
Critical Resources: Buddha & Buddhism
Buddhist Channel
ReligiousTolerance - Buddhism
A Study of Buddhism in Contrast to Christianity (From a Western Christian perspective)
What Buddhism taught
Modern Buddhism - A free eBook about Buddhism
Chinese Buddhist Encyclopedia
when we tell others about a thing that happened, or a thing we thought of: Bob read the children a story; Mary told John the story of her life.
a report in a newspaper or on the television news: Did you see the story about George Bush on page 12?
a thing we tell others that is not real: Little Johnny said he was a millionaire, but he's not, it was only a story.
See fiction
in US English, a level of a building: The house has eight stories. (
In British English this is a storey).
Governor General is a representative of a head of state.
The term is mostly used in Commonwealth countries, where the governor general is a representative of the monarch.
Sometimes the title is spelled as Governor General, which is used in Canada, but sometimes it is spelled with a hyphen "-", Governor-General, which is the spelling used in Australia.
Government occupations
A black hole is a region of space from which nothing, not even light, can escape.
According to the general theory of relativity, it starts existing when spacetime gets curved by a huge mass.
There is a sphere around the black hole.
If something goes inside the sphere, it can not leave.
This sphere is called the event horizon.
A black hole is black because it absorbs all the light that hits it.
It reflects nothing, just like a perfect black body in thermodynamics.
Under quantum mechanics, black holes have a temperature and emit Hawking radiation, which makes them slowly get smaller.
Because black holes are very hard to see, people trying to see them look for them by the way they affect other things near them.
The place where there is a black hole can be found by tracking the movement of stars that orbit somewhere in space.
Or people can find it when gas falls into a black hole, because the gas heats up and is very bright.
This can be found by Earth or Earth-orbiting telescopes.
Inside a black hole the rules of physics are very different.<ref>Wald, Robert M. 1992.
Space, time, and gravity: the theory of the Big Bang and black holes.
ISBN 978-0-226-87029-8</ref>
Astronomers have found evidence of supermassive black holes at the center of almost all galaxies.
In 2008 astronomers found evidence that a supermassive black hole of more than four million solar masses is near the Sagittarius A* part of the Milky Way galaxy.
In 1783, an English clergyman named John Michell wrote that it might be possible for something to be so heavy you would have to go at the speed of light to get away from its gravity.
Gravity gets stronger as something gets more massive.
For a small thing, like a rocket, to escape from a larger thing, like Earth, it has to escape the pull of the Earth's gravity or it will fall back.
The speed that it must travel  to get away is called escape velocity.
Bigger planets (like Jupiter) and stars have more mass, and have stronger gravity than Earth.
Therefore, the escape velocity would need to be much faster.
John Michell thought it was possible for something to be so big that the escape velocity would need to be faster than the speed of light, so even light could not escape.
In 1796, Pierre-Simon Laplace wrote about the same idea in the first and second editions of his book Exposition du système du Monde (it was removed from later editions).
Some scientists thought Michell might be right, but others thought that light had no mass and would not be pulled by gravity.
His theory was forgotten.
Mass causes space (and spacetime) to bend, or curve.
Moving things "fall along" or follow the curves in space.
This is what we call gravity.
Light always travels at the same speed, and is affected by gravity.
If it seems to change speed, it is really traveling along a curve in spacetime.
A few months later, while serving in World War I, the German physicist Karl Schwarzschild used Einstein's equations to show that a black hole could exist.
The Schwarzschild radius is the size of the event horizon of a non-rotating black hole.
This radius was the measurement where the escape velocity was equal to the speed of light.
If the radius of a star is smaller, then light is unable to escape, and it would be a dark star, or black hole.
In 1930, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar predicted that stars heavier than the sun could collapse when they ran out of hydrogen or other nuclear fuels to burn.
Penrose, Roger 1996.
Chandrasekhar, black holes and singularities.
Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy.
17 (3–4): 213–231.
Bibcode:1996JApA...17..213P. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.496.2529.
doi:10.1007/BF02702305.
S2CID 119807977.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2018.
Retrieved 4 September 2017.
In 1939, Robert Oppenheimer and H. Snyder calculated that a star would have to be at least three times as massive as the Sun to form a black hole.
In 1967, John Wheeler invented the name "black hole" for the first time.
Before that, they were called "dark stars".
In 1970, Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose showed that black holes must exist.
Although the black holes are invisible (they cannot be seen), some of the matter that is falling into them is very bright.
As of spring 2019, there was an image of a black hole, or rather, the things orbiting the black hole.
The image required many photos from different locations.
One of the team members (Katie Bouman) made a compilation of all the images into one singular image.
Formation of black holes
The gravitational collapse of huge (high-mass) stars cause "stellar mass" black holes.
Star formation in the early universe may have created very massive stars.
When they collapsed they produced black holes of up to 103 solar masses.
These black holes may be the seeds of the supermassive black holes found in the centers of most galaxies.
Most of the energy released in gravitational collapse is given off very quickly.
A distant observer sees the material falling in slowly and then stop just above the event horizon because of gravitational time dilation.
The light given off just before the event horizon is delayed an infinite amount of time.
So the observer never sees the formation of the event horizon.
Instead, the collapsing material seems to become dimmer and increasingly red-shifted, eventually fading away.
Supermassive black holes
Black holes have also been found in the middle of almost every galaxy in the known universe.
These are called supermassive black holes (SBH), and are the biggest black holes of all.
They formed when the Universe was very young, and also helped to form all the galaxies.
Quasars are believed to be powered by gravity collecting material into supermassive black holes in the centers of distant galaxies.
Light cannot escape the SBHs at the center of quasars, so the escaping energy is made outside the event horizon by gravitational stresses and immense friction on the incoming material.
Huge central masses (106 to 109 solar masses) have been measured in quasars.
Several dozen nearby large galaxies, with no sign of a quasar nucleus, have a similar central black hole in their nuclei.
Therefore, it is thought that all large galaxies have one, but only a small fraction are active (with enough accretion to power radiation) and so are seen as quasars.
Effect on light
At the middle of a black hole, there is a gravitational center called a singularity.
It is impossible to see into it because the gravity prevents any light escaping.
Around the tiny singularity, there is a large area where light which would normally pass by gets sucked in as well.
The edge of this area is called the event horizon.
The area beyond the event horizon is the black hole.
The gravity of the black hole gets weaker at a distance.
The event horizon is the place farthest away from the middle where the gravity is still strong enough to trap light.
Outside the event horizon, light and matter will still be pulled toward the black hole.
If a black hole is surrounded by matter, the matter will form an "accretion disk" (accretion means "gathering") around the black hole.
An accretion disk looks something like the rings of Saturn.
As it gets sucked in, the matter gets very hot and shoots x-ray radiation into space.
Think of this as the water spinning around the hole before it falls in.
Most black holes are too far away for us to see the accretion disk and jet.
The only way to know a black hole is there is by seeing how stars, gas and light behave around it.
With a black hole nearby, even objects as big as a star move in a different way, usually faster than they would if the black hole was not there.
Since we cannot see black holes, they must be detected by other means.
When a black hole passes between us and a source of light, the light bends around the black hole creating a mirror image.
That effect is called gravitational lensing.
Dyson F.W; Eddington A.S. & Davidson C. 1920.
A determination of the deflection of light by the Sun's gravitational field, from observations made at the total eclipse of 29 May 1919.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.
220 (571–581): 291–333.
Hawking radiation is black body radiation which is emitted by black hole, due to quantum effects near the event horizon.
It is named after the physicist Stephen Hawking, who provided a theoretical argument for its existence in 1974.
Hawking radiation reduces the mass and the energy of the black hole and is therefore also known as black hole evaporation''.
This happens because of the virtual particle-antiparticle pairs.
Due to quantum fluctuations, this is when one of the particles falls in and the other gets away with the energy/mass.
Because of this, black holes that lose more mass than they gain through other means are expected to shrink and ultimately vanish.
Micro black holes (MBHs) are predicted to be larger net emitters of radiation than larger black holes and should shrink and dissipate faster.
Properties of black holes
The no hair theorem states that a stable black hole has only three independent physical properties: mass, charge, and angular momentum.
If this is true, then any two black holes that have the same values for these three properties will look the same.
As of 2020, it is unclear if the no hair theorem is true for real black holes.
The properties are special, because all three can be measured from outside the black hole.
For example, a charged black hole repels other like charges just like any other charged object.
Similarly, the total mass inside a sphere containing a black hole can be found by using the gravitational analog of Gauss's law, far away from the black hole.
The angular momentum or spin can also be measured from far away.
Good articles
Sheffield is a big city in a region called South Yorkshire in the North of England.
There are 534,500 people living there.
Sheffield is in the middle of lots of hills.
The city centre is where the River Sheaf meets the River Don, and Sheffield gets its name from the River Sheaf.
The city is east of the Peak District National Park.
It is estimated that Sheffield has over two million trees, which is more than any city in Europe per each person.
61% of the city is green space, such as parks and forests.
Sheffield is famous for making cutlery (like knives and spoons).
People in Sheffield have made cutlery for a very long time (a Sheffield-made knife is referred to in Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales", a book from the Middle Ages).
Sheffield is also famous for making steel.
Benjamin Huntsman discovered the crucible technique for making steel in 1740.
In 1856, Henry Bessemer invented the Bessemer converter steelmaking furnace.
Henry moved to Sheffield to make steel.
Later, in 1912, Harry Brearley invented stainless steel in Sheffield.
The first football team in the world is from Sheffield, Sheffield F.C., set up in 1857.
Sheffield currently has two big professional football teams, Sheffield Wednesday and Sheffield United.
There are lots of famous bands from Sheffield.
Some of them are Pulp, the Human League, Def Leppard and the Arctic Monkeys.
Michael Palin is also from Sheffield.
There is a big arena called the Motorpoint Arena in Sheffield.
WWE have visited this arena to do live shows.
Metropolitan boroughs
A fertilizer is a chemical that helps plants to grow.
It is used to replace the mineral salts taken by plants or removed/washed away by rain.
Manure (Animal waste) which was the first fertilizer.
Nitrogen (N)
Phosphorus (P)
Potash (K)
E.g.:9-23-30 which means:    9% N, 23%P2O5 and 30%K2O.
In the UK, the elemental composition (in percentages) may also be shown alongside the mandatory  traditional system, provided the numbers are put inside square brackets.
Leafy plants need lots of N.  Flowering plants need lots of P and K.
The military is the group or groups of people that are given power to defend something (mostly a country).
They are armed, so they are called the armed forces.
The military protects its country by defending it from the armed forces of enemies, if there is a war.
The military can also be ordered by the government of the country to attack another country.
The word "military" comes from Latin miles, warrior.
There are many jobs to do in a military.
Some jobs are for fighting and some are for other work to support the military.
Some things people do in the military are use weapons, drive vehicles, and repair weapons.
Other people in the military learn how to fly aircraft, pilot ships, or repair engines.
People in the military usually wear clothes called a uniform.
In some places, especially where there may be combat, a uniform often comes in a camouflage pattern which is designed to make the person hard to see in the forest or desert.
There are two ways to join the military.
In many countries, people join the military because they want to.
In other countries, there are laws that some people have to be in the military, even if they do not want to be.
This is called the draft or conscription.
It usually depends on age and physical fitness.
Old military people or former military people are called "veterans".
Some are members of a military reserve force.
The military of a country is usually divided into different branches organizations that do different kinds of work.
These branches usually are:
Army (land) – A military force of soldiers mainly on land or driving in land vehicles.
They also use helicopters.
Navy (sea) – A military force that uses ships and boats.
They also sometimes have planes.
People in a navy are called sailors
Air force (air) – A military force that uses mainly airplane
Marines – Military forces that serve on ships, but are also trained to fight on land when needed.
Their main job is to attack by landing on enemy beaches.
They work closely with a navy, but are not sailors.
They may also have their own boats, planes, and helicopters.
Some big countries even have small units which perform special actions which are very difficult.
They are called special forces.
There are also mercenaries, soldiers who fight just for pay and have little loyalty to whomever might hire them, and private military contractors (PMC), which are under the command of a company (civilian company).
The Medieval Italian condottieri were a historical example of PMCs.
A warlord may have a private army, which are often no more trustworthy than common gangsters or criminals.
Joining up and training
In most countries of the world, young men and (in a few countries) women between 17 and 18 and of good health may be forced by the government of their country to join the military and have military training.
This is called "conscription".
The countries that do not have conscription include Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, France, Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, Malta, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, and the United Kingdom.
In some countries, such as Argentina and United States, conscription is legal but is not used, at the present time.
When a person wants to join the military as a volunteer, they "enlist". (
This means simply that they put their name on a list.)
They have to be above a certain age, 17 or 18 in most countries.
They have to pass physical fitness tests to show that they are well enough to do the jobs that they will have to do.
They must also have good enough hearing, to hear orders, and good enough sight to use a rifle.
New people in the military are often called “recruits”.
They have training at a special camp, sometimes called “boot camp" or "basic training".
During this training, the recruits usually have very little free time.
They learn to understand the "orders" or "commands" that are given by the officers to the "troops". (
The troops are the military people in a group.)
They learn the right ways to obey the orders.
They do a lot of exercise to improve their fitness and strength.
They learn about weapons, first aid, and their uniforms and "kit". (
Their kit is their equipment.)
Recruits also learn how to march. (
This is the way to walk together, keeping "in step".)
Learning to march is sometimes called “drill”.
By the time soldiers finish "boot camp", they should know enough to be a helpful person in their group.
The camp usually finishes with a parade in which the newly trained recruits show off their marching and other skills they have learned in front of important visitors.
Once the recruits are fully trained, they are ready to defend (protect) their country from attack, or to go to [war], if necessary.
Largest armed forces (2002 estimate)
*includes 169,800 Marine Corps
**includes Strategic Deterrent Forces, Paramilitary, National Guard, etc.
***includes 125,000 Revolutionary Guards
Photosynthesis is how plants and some microorganisms make substances like carbohydrates.
It is an endothermic (takes in heat) chemical process that uses sunlight to turn carbon dioxide into sugars.
The sugars are used by the cell as energy, and to build other kinds of molecules.
Photosynthesis is vital for life on Earth.
Green plants build themselves using photosynthesis.
Algae, protists and some bacteria also use it.
Some exceptions are organisms that directly get their energy from chemical reactions; these organisms are called chemoautotrophs.
6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O + photons → C6H12O6(aq) + 6 O2(g)
carbon dioxide + water + light energy → glucose + oxygen
The carbon dioxide enters the leaf through the stomata by Diffusion from the atmosphere.
The water is absorbed from the soil by root hair cells, which have an increased surface area for an increased uptake of water.
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts in leaves (or other green tissues).
They contain chlorophyll, the green pigment that absorbs light energy.
In leaves, palisade cells have chloroplasts to capture light.
Oxygen is produced as a result of photosynthesis and released into the atmosphere through respiration.
All the oxygen in the atmosphere has its origin in plants (including those microorganisms which do photosynthesis)
Glucose is used in respiration (to release energy in cells).
It is stored in the form of starch (which is converted back to glucose for respiration in the dark).
Glucose can also be converted into other compounds for growth and reproduction e.g. cellulose, nectar, fructose, amino acids and fats.
The process
Photosynthesis has two main sets of reactions (phases).
Light-dependent reactions which need light to do work; and light-independent reactions which do not need light to do work.
Light-dependent phase
Light energy from the sun is used to split water molecules (photolysis).
The sunlight hits chloroplasts in the plant.
This causes an enzyme to split the water.
Water, when split, gives oxygen, hydrogen, and electrons.
Hydrogen, along with electrons energized by light, converts NADP into NADPH which is then used in the light-independent reactions.
Oxygen gas diffuses out of the plant as a waste product of photosynthesis, and ATP is synthesized from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
This all happens in the grana of chloroplasts.
Dark phase
During this reaction, sugars are built up using carbon dioxide and the products of the light-dependent reactions (ATP and NADPH) and various other chemicals found in the plant in the Calvin Cycle.
Therefore, the light-independent reaction cannot happen without the light-dependent reaction.
Carbon dioxide diffuses into the plant and along with chemicals in the chloroplast, ATP, and NADPH, glucose is made and finally, transported around the plant by translocation.
Factors affecting photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide concentration
If there is little light shining on a plant, the light-dependent reactions will not work efficiently.
This means that photolysis (breakdown of water by light) will not happen quickly, and therefore little NADPH and ATP will be made.
This shortage of NADPH and ATP will lead to the light-independent reactions not working as NADPH and ATP are needed for the light-independent reactions to work.
The light intensity required is easily investigated in an aquatic plant such as pondweed.
The oxygen bubbles given off can be counted or the volume measured.
By changing the distance between light and plant, the light intensity is made to vary.
Change in light intensity will affect the change in rate of photosynthesis .
Artificial lighting can be used in the dark to maximise the photosynthetic rate.
Carbon dioxide levels
Carbon dioxide is used in the light-independent reactions.
It combines with NADPH and ATP and various other chemicals (such as Ribulose Bisphosphate) to form glucose.
Therefore, if there is not enough carbon dioxide, then there will be a buildup of NADPH and ATP and not enough glucose will be formed.
There are many enzymes working in photosynthetic reactions – such as the enzyme in photolysis.
All enzymes work best at their optimum temperature.
All light-dependent and light-independent reactions will occur normally at average or optimum temperatures.
Tropical plants have a higher temperature optimum than the plants adapted to temperate climates.
When the temperatures are too low, there is little kinetic energy, so the reaction rate decreases.
If the temperatures are too high, the enzymes become denatured and the catalysis of photosynthesis reaction stops.
Greenhouses must keep an optimum temperature for normal functioning of plants.
Early evolution
The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the history of life.
They may have used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water.
Cyanobacteria appeared later, and the excess oxygen they produced contributed to the oxygen catastrophe.
After this, the evolution of complex life was possible.
Root pressure
A casserole is a baked dish for many different types of food, mixed together in a fluid based on liquid.
The start ingredient is often a roux.
Often, one of the ingredients is a can of soup.
The whole point of a casserole is that it cooks material slowly.
That means it can use ingredients which would not be edible if fried or roasted.
The casserole needs to simmer below boiling point for hours, depending on the ingredients.
That way tough meat and vegetables become soft and edible.
It is a simple way to cook a nutritional meal.
Casserole is from a French word meaning "sauce-pan"; a large, deep dish used either to cook something in an oven or to serve the food cooked in it.
The French word  "casserole"  had been derived from the old Provencal word, "cassa" and the Medieval Latin word, "cattia", both of these words meaning "ladle".
Casseroles are usually cooked slowly in the oven, usually covered.
They may be served as a main course or a side dish, and may be served in the vessel in which they were cooked.
A popular type of casserole is green bean casserole, which has green beans, milk or cream, and fried onions.
It was first cooked in Berlin, New Hampshire in 1866 by  Elmire Jolicoeur.
The second illustration proves how old the idea is.
That casserole dish has a lid, and a spout for steam to escape.
The heat is applied from below as it is with a stew.
Early casserole dishes were rice-based that were pounded and pressed and then filled with meat.
The first popular meals included French cassoulet, British pot pies, Italian lasagna, and Greek moussaka.
Macaroni and cheese is the oldest written casserole recipe found in 1250.
Baked foods
A plate is a type of dish where food can be placed after being cooked for eating.
Sometimes they are called dishes.
They may be made out of ceramic, plastic, paper, or styrofoam.
All plates have irregular shapes.
They lie and float on the upper mantle.
They move very slowly in different directions.
Their movement is driven by the convection currents in the magma.
A plate can contain both oceanic and continental crusts.
Some contain oceanic crust only.
The flea (Siphonaptera) is an insect which lives on many animals and sometimes humans.
Fleas are ectoparasites and drink the blood of the animal they bite.
Fleas live outdoors in sand or tall grass, and jump to any passing animal and lay eggs.
Flea bites are usually red bumps and they itch.
There are many species of flea such as dog fleas, cat fleas, human fleas, northern rat fleas, and the oriental rat flea.
During the Middle Ages, the oriental rat flea spread a bacteria that caused the bubonic plague, also known as the Black Death or Black Plague.
This was a huge epidemic much more severe than today's bird flu.
The oriental rat flea was infected by the bacteria Yersinia pestis.
Terrorism is the use of fear and acts of violence in order to intimidate societies, governments or against an ideology.
Many different types of social or political organizations might use terrorism to try to achieve their goals.
People who do the terrorism are called Terrorists.
The foundation of modern terrorism is the work of Sergey Nechayev, a Russian radical who developed strategies for carrying out terrorism.
It also include politics.
It is difficult to explain terrorism.
Terrorism has no official criminal law definition at the international level.
Common definitions of terrorism refer to the violent acts which are intended to create fear (terror).
They may be done for a religious, political, or ideological goal, and uses illegal violence.
Some definitions now include acts of unlawful violence and war.
The use of similar tactics by criminal gangs is not usually called terrorism.
The same actions may be called terrorism when done by a politically motivated group.
There are over 10000 definitions of "terrorism".
In some cases, the same group may be described as "freedom fighters" by its supporters and "terrorists" by its opponents.
The term 'terrorism' is often used by states to criticize political opponents.
According to Memorial Institute for Prevention of Terrorism, terrorists killed 20,498 people in 2006.
The major effect of terrorism comes from the fear which generates.
Counter-terrorism is broad in scope.
Specific types of counter-terrorism include:
Preemptive or reactive military action.
Fortification and other technical means.
Increased intelligence and surveillance activities.
Preemptive humanitarian activities.
More permissive interrogation and detention policies for the suspected terrorists.
Video of the ship MV Francop in the Israeli port of Ashdod: behind the bags of flour are boxes of heavy weapons and ammunition to be directed to Hezbollah.
The Republic of South Africa is a country in the southern region of Africa.
About fifty-seven million people live there.
South Africa is next to Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Lesotho and Swaziland.
The biggest city of South Africa is Johannesburg.
The country has three capitals for different purposes.
They are Cape Town, Pretoria, and Bloemfontein.
This is because the government is based in Pretoria, the parliament is in Cape Town and the Supreme Court is in Bloemfontein.
There are 11 national languages.
They are Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Xhosa, Zulu, Swati, Setswana, Sesotho, Sesotho sa Leboa, Venda and Tsonga.
They are also known as National Lexicography Units (NLUs).
Because of all the languages, the country has an official name in each language.
One of South Africa's most well known people is Nelson Mandela.
He was its president from 1994 until 1999.
He died in 2013 at the age of 95.
The current president is Cyril Ramaphosa.
The first European people to come to South Africa were Portuguese explorers.
In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias found what he called the "Cape of Storms".
The king of Portugal changed it to "Cape of Good Hope".
He called it this because the cape gave the Portuguese a new chance to find a sea route to India.
In 1652, Jan van Riebeeck colonized the Cape.
He started the camp for the Dutch East India Company.
This was so that they could give fresh food to ships on their way to the south of Asia.
There were very few native people living in the Cape.
Because of this, slaves were brought from Indonesia, Madagascar and India to work at the colony.
In 1795, Great Britain took the Cape from the Dutch East India Company, to stop France from taking it.
The British gave it back in 1803 but then annexed the Cape in 1807 when the Dutch East India Company went bankrupt.
Diamonds were found in South Africa in 1867.
Gold was found in 1884.
This made a great number of people to come to South Africa from Europe.
They were hoping to make money.
The First Boer War happened in 1880-1881.
The war was between the British and the Boers Republics.
At that time, the British had the Cape.
The Boer Republics were established when Dutch settlers moved north in the Great Trek.
The British lost the war and came back 8 years later in 1899.
They won this Second Boer War in 1902.
The British had brought many more soldiers the second time.
The Boers had no chance of winning.
On 31 May 1910 the Union of South Africa was made from the Cape and Natal colonies.
It was also made from Orange Free State and the Transvaal.
These were two Boer Republics.
South Africa is found at the southernmost region of Africa, with a long coastline that reaches more than  and along two oceans (the South Atlantic and the Indian).
At , South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world and is almost the size of Colombia.
Njesuthi in the Drakensberg at  is the highest part in South Africa.
The back of South Africa is a big and flat.
It is a very populated scrubland, the Karoo, which is drier towards the northwest along the Namib desert.
The eastern coastline however, is well-watered, which makes a climate kind of like the tropics.
To the north of Johannesburg, the altitude drops beyond the  of the Highveld.
It then turns into the lower lying Bushveld, an area of mixed dry forest and a lot of wildlife.
East of the Highveld, beyond the eastern escarpment, the Lowveld reaches towards the Indian Ocean.
It has mostly high temperatures, and is also the location of subtropical agriculture.
South Africa has a mostly temperate climate.
It is surrounded by the Atlantic and Indian Oceans on three sides, and is located in the climatically milder southern hemisphere.
Average elevation is higher towards the north (towards the equator) and further inland.
Because of this varied topography and oceanic influence, different parts of South Africa have different climates.
There is a desert in the southern Namib in the farthest northwest and subtropical climate in the east along the Mozambique border and the Indian ocean.
From the east, the land quickly rises over mountains towards the back plateau known as the Highveld.
Even though South Africa is thought as semi-arid, there is a difference in climate as well as topography.
The southwest has a climate similar to that of the Mediterranean with mild, moderately wet winters and hot, dry summers.
This area also makes much of the wine in South Africa.
This region is also mostly known for its wind, which blows almost all year.
The wind can sometimes be severe when passing around the Cape of Good Hope mostly gets bad for sailors, making many shipwrecks.
Further east on the south coast, rainfall falls more evenly throughout the year, making a green landscape.
This area is popularly known as the Garden Route.
The Orange Free State is mostly flat, because it lies in the center of the high plateau.
North of the Vaal River, the Highveld becomes better watered and does not get subtropical heat.
Johannesburg, in the center of the Highveld, is at 1,740 m (5,709 ft) and gets a yearly rainfall of 740 mm (29.9 in).
Winters in this region are cold, although snow is rare.
Plants and wildlife
The most common biome in South Africa is the grassland, mostly on the Highveld.
This is where grasses, low shrubs, and acacia trees, mostly camel-thorn and whitethorn are more common then plants.
Plants become even more less common towards the northwest.
This is because of low rainfall.
There are many species of water-storing plants like aloes and euphorbias in the very hot and dry Namaqualand area.
The grass and thorn savanna turns slowly into a bush savanna towards the north-east of the country, with more thick growth.
There are many numbers of baobab trees in this area, near the northern end of Kruger National Park.
South Africa's economy is divided.
It is divided between First World and Third World standards.
The developed part of the economy is similar to that of most nations with wealth (for example, Britain or Australia).
The rest of the economy is closer to that of poor nations, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The main companies in South Africa are mining (mostly for gold and diamonds), car making, and service industries, such as insurance.
Unemployment is very high.
Income inequality is about the same as Brazil.
During 1995–2003, the number of older jobs went down.
Informal jobs went up.
Overall unemployment got worse.
The average South African household income went down a lot between 1995 and 2000.
As for racial inequality, Statistics South Africa said that in 1995 the average white household earned four times as much as the average black household.
In 2000 the average white family was earning six times more than the average black household.
The action policies have seen a rise in black economic wealth.
There is a developing black middle class.
Other problems are crime, corruption, and HIV/AIDS.
South Africa suffers from mostly heavy overall regulation compared to developed countries.
labor rules have added to the unemployment weakness.
South Africa is a nation of about 50 million people of diverse origins, cultures, languages, and religions.
The last census was held in 2001 and the next will be in 2011.
Statistics South Africa had five racial categories by which people could classify themselves, the last of which, "unspecified/other" drew "not needed" responses, and these results were not counted.
The 2009 middle-year estimated figures for the other categories were Black African at 79.3%, White at 9.1%, Colored at 9.0%, and Asian at 2.6%.
Even though the population of South Africa has grown in the past decade (mostly because of immigration), the country had an yearly population growth rate of −0.501% in 2008 (CIA est.),
counting immigration.
The CIA thinks that in 2009 South Africa's population started to grow again, at a rate of 0.281%.
South Africa is home to an estimated 5 million illegal immigrants, counting about 3 million Zimbabweans.
A series of anti-immigrant riots happened in South Africa beginning on 11 May 2008.
South Africa is divided into 9 provinces.
The provinces are in turn divided into 52 districts: 8 metropolitan and 44 district municipalities.
The district municipalities are further divided into 226 local municipalities.
Major Cities
It may be suggested that there is no single South African culture because of its ethnic diversity.
Today, the diversity in foods from many cultures is enjoyed by all and marketed to tourists who wish to taste South African food.
Food is not the only thing, music and dance is there too.
South African food is mostly meat-based and has spawned the South African social gathering known as a braai, or barbecue.
South Africa has also developed into a big wine maker.
It has some of the best vineyards lying in valleys around Stellenbosch, Franschoek, Paarl and Barrydale.
Most South African blacks still have poor lives.
It is among these people, however, that cultural traditions live most strongly.
This is because blacks have become urbanised and Westernised, much parts of traditional culture have fallen.
Urban blacks normally speak English or Afrikaans in addition to their native tongue.
There are smaller but still important groups of speakers of Khoisan languages who are not in the eleven official languages, but are one of the eight other officially recognized languages.
Members of middle class, who are mostly white but whose ranks are growing numbers of black, colored and Indian people, have lifestyles similar in many ways to that of people found in Western Europe, North America and Australasia.
Members of the middle class often study and work from foreign countries for greater exposure to the markets of the world.
According to the 2001 national census, Christians accounted for 79.7% of the population.
This has Zion Christian (11.1%), Pentecostal (Charismatic) (8.2%), Roman Catholic (7.1%), Methodist (6.8%), Dutch Reformed (6.7%), Anglican (3.8%); members of other Christian churches accounted for another 36% of the population.
Muslims accounted for 1.5% of the population, Hinduism about 1.3%, and Judaism 0.2%.
15.1% had no religious affiliation, 2.3% were other and 1.4% were unspecified.
South Africa's most liked sports are soccer, rugby union and cricket.
Other sports that are popular are swimming, athletics, golf, boxing, tennis and netball.
Soccer is the most liked among youth.
There are other sports like basketball, surfing and skateboarding that are becoming more liked.
Famous boxers from South Africa are Baby Jake Jacob Matlala, Vuyani Bungu, Welcome Ncita, Dingaan Thobela, Gerrie Coetzee and Brian Mitchell.
There are football players who have played for major foreign clubs.
Some of them are Lucas Radebe and Philemon Masinga (both were of Leeds United), Quinton Fortune (Atletico Madrid and Manchester United), Benni McCarthy (Ajax Amsterdam, F.C. Porto and Blackburn Rovers), Aaron Mokoena (Ajax Amsterdam, Blackburn Rovers and Portsmouth), Delron Buckley (Borussia Dortmund) and Steven Pienaar (Ajax Amsterdam and Everton).
South Africa made Formula One motor racing's 1979 world champion Jody Scheckter.
Famous current cricket players are Herschelle Gibbs, Graeme Smith, Jacques Kallis, JP Duminy and more.
Most of them also participate in the Indian Premier League.
South Africa has also made many world class rugby players.
Some of them are Francois Pienaar, Joost van der Westhuizen, Danie Craven, Frik du Preez, Naas Botha, and Bryan Habana.
South Africa hosted and won the 1995 Rugby World Cup at their first try.
They won the 2007 Rugby World Cup in France.
South Africa was only allowed to participate from 1995 since the end of Apartheid.
It followed the 1995 Rugby World Cup by hosting the 1996 African Cup of Nations.
It had the national team, 'Bafana Bafana,' going on to win the tournament.
It also hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup.
and the 2007 World Twenty20 Championship.
Both of them were a great success.
In 2010, South Africa became the first African nation to host the FIFA World Cup.
The national team has competed in three World Cups.
It bid for the right to stage the 2004 Olympic Games, but finished third to Athens.
South Africa is also well known for their cricket team.
They are right now the world's number one in test match cricket.
The main schools span the first seven years of schooling.
In the age of Apartheid, schools for blacks were subject to judgment through  funding and so forth.
Instruction can take place in Afrikaans as well.
Public payment on education was at 5.4% of the 2002-05 GDP.
South Africa's military is the most powerful in southern Africa.
South Africa spends more on its military than any of its neighboring countries do.
They have very advanced weapons as a result.
South Africa used to have nuclear weapons, but they were taken apart in 1993.
Official government site
1910 establishments
1910s establishments in Africa
Andorra (), officially the Principality of Andorra, is a landlocked sovereign country located in the eastern Pyrenees Mountains of Southern Europe and bordered by Spain and France.
There are about 84,000 people living in the country.
The capital is Andorra la Vella.
It is ruled by a Spanish Bishop and the French President.
Andorra's government is a parliamentary democracy.
Andorra is a rich country mostly because of tourism.
There are about 10.2 million visitors each year.
It is not a member of the European Union.
The euro is the money used.
Before 1095, Andorra did not have any type of military protection.
The Lord of Caboet and the Bishop of Urgell decided to rule Andorra together.
In 1607 Henry IV of France said the head of the French state and the Bishop of Urgell would be co-princes of Andorra.
Andorra declared war on Imperial Germany during World War I.  It did not do any fighting.
They stayed against Germany until 1957 because they were not in the Treaty of Versailles.
Andorra doesn't have an Army.
France and Spain help to defend Andorra.
The country has a police force of 295.
Andorra is in the Pyrenees mountain range.
The highest mountain is Coma Pedrosa.
The population of Andorra is mostly (90%) Roman Catholic.
Their patron saint is Our Lady of Meritxell.
Children between the ages of 6 and 16 must have full-time education.
Education up to secondary level is paid by the government.
The University of Andorra (UdA) is the state public university.
It is the only university in Andorra.
List of rivers of Andorra
Hiroshima (広島) is the capital city of Hiroshima Prefecture.
It is the largest city in the Chugoku region of western Japan.
About a million people live in Hiroshima.
Atomic bombing
At the time of the attack, Hiroshima was the headquarters of the 2nd General Army and 5th Division.
It contained 40,000 Japanese soldiers within the city's limit, and was a beehive (or center) of war industry.
The industry manufactured parts for planes and boats, bombs, rifles, and handguns.