the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Methodist Church in Kenya – 0.5 million
Wesleyan Church – 0.4 million
Methodist Church of Great Britain – 0.2 million
Methodist Church in Brazil – 0.2 million
Seventh-day Adventist Church – 21.4 million
Restoration Movement – 7 million
Churches of Christ – 5 million
Churches of Christ in Australia - 0.05 million
Christian churches and churches of Christ – 1.1 million
Community of Disciples of Christ in Congo – 0.7 million
Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) – 0.4 million
Anabaptism – 4 million
Mennonites – 2.1 million
Schwarzenau Brethren (German Baptists) – 1.5 million
Amish – 0.3 million
Hutterites – 0.05 million
Plymouth Brethren – 1 million
Hussites – 1 million
Moravians – 0.825 million
Czechoslovak Hussite Church – 0.14 million
Unity of the Brethren – 0.035 million
Quakers – 0.4 million
Modern Protestantism – 400–500 million
The denominations listed below did not emerge from the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century or its commonly acknowledged offshoots.
Instead, they are broadly linked to Pentecostalism or similar other independent evangelical and revivalistic movements that originated in the beginning of the 20th century.
For this reason, several sources tend to differentiate them from Protestants and classify them as together as Independents, Non-core Protestants etc.
Also included in this category are the numerous, yet very similar Nondenominational churches.
Nonetheless, sources eventually combine their numbers to the Protestant tally.
Despite the absence of centralized control or leadership, if considered as a single cohort, this will easily be the second largest Christian tradition after Roman Catholicism.
According to the Center for the Study of Global Christianity (CSGC), there are an estimated 450 million Independents world-wide, as of mid-2019.
Pentecostalism – 280 million
Assemblies of God – 67 million
Apostolic Church – 15 million
International Circle of Faith – 11 million
Fangcheng Fellowship – 10 million
China Gospel Fellowship - 10 million
Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) - 6 million
International Church of the Foursquare Gospel - 9 million
Church of God in Christ - 6.5 million
Jesus Is Lord Church Worldwide – 5 million
International Pentecostal Holiness Church – 4 million
The Pentecostal Mission – 2.5 million
Christian Congregation of Brazil – 2.5 million
True Jesus Church – 2.5 million
The Church of Pentecost – 2.1 million
Universal Church of the Kingdom of God – 2 million
Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa – 1.2 million
Church of God of Prophecy – 1.5 million
Association of Pentecostal Churches of Rwanda – 1 million
God is Love Pentecostal Church – 0.8 million
Association of Vineyard Churches – 0.3 million
Nondenominational Christianity – 80–100 million
Calvary Chapel – 25 million
Christian and Missionary Alliance – 6 million
Born Again Movement – 3 million
Church of God (Anderson, Indiana) – 1.2 million
African initiated churches – 60 million
Zion Christian Church – 15 million
Eternal Sacred Order of Cherubim and Seraphim – 10 million
Kimbanguist Church – 5.5 million
Redeemed Christian Church of God – 5 million
Church of the Lord (Aladura) – 3.6 million
Council of African Instituted Churches – 3 million
Church of Christ Light of the Holy Spirit – 1.4 million
African Church of the Holy Spirit – 0.7 million
African Israel Church Nineveh – 0.5 million
Chinese Patriotic Christian Churches - 38 million
New Apostolic Church – 10 million
Local churches - 1 to 10 million
Eastern Orthodoxy – 230 million
The best estimate of the number of Eastern Orthodox Christians is 210–230 million or 80% of all Orthodox Christians worldwide.
Its main body consists of the various autocephalous churches along with the autonomous and other churches canonically linked to them, for the most part form a single communion, making the Eastern Orthodox Church the second largest single denomination behind the Catholic Church.
In addition, there are several Eastern Orthodox splinter groups and non-universally recognized churches.
Autocephalous churches – 166 million
Russian Orthodox Church – 100 million
Romanian Orthodox Church – 17–18.8 million
Church of Greece – 10 million
Serbian Orthodox Church – 8-12 million
Bulgarian Orthodox Church – 8-10 million
Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople – 5.25 million
Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch – 4.3 million
Georgian Orthodox Church – 3.5 million
Church of Cyprus – 0.7 million
Polish Orthodox Church – 0.6 million
Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria – 0.5 million
Albanian Orthodox Church – 0.4 million
Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem – 0.4 million
Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church – 0.075 million
Autonomous churches – 13 million
Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) – 7.2 million
Metropolitan Church of Chișinău and All Moldova (Moscow Patriarchate) – 3.2 million
Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia – 0.4 million
Metropolitan Church of Bessarabia (Moldova) (Romanian Patriarchate) – 0.72 million
Orthodox Ohrid Archbishopric (North Macedonia) – 0.34 million
Estonian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) – 0.3 million
Finnish Orthodox Church (Ecumenical Patriarchate) – 0.06 million
Chinese Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) – 0.03 million
Japanese Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) – 0.03 million
Latvian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) – 0.02 million
Estonian Orthodox Church (Ecumenical Patriarchate) – 0.02 million
Churches in communion with the above Orthodox Churches but with disputed autocephaly – 1 million
Orthodox Church in America – 1 million
Non-universally recognized churches – 18-24.27 million
Orthodox Church of Ukraine – 12–18 million
Belarusian Autocephalous Orthodox Church – 2.4 million
Macedonian Orthodox Church – 2 million
Orthodox Church of Greece (Holy Synod in Resistance) – 0.75 million
Old Calendarist Romanian Orthodox Church – 0.50 million
Old Calendar Bulgarian Orthodox Church – 0.45 million
Orthodox Church in Italy – 0.12 million
Montenegrin Orthodox Church – 0.05 million
Other separated Orthodox groups – 6 million
Old Believers – 5.5 million
Greek Old Calendarists – 0.86 million
True Orthodox Church – 0.85 million
Evangelical Orthodox Church – 0.07 million
Oriental Orthodoxy – 62 million
The Oriental Orthodox Churches are those descended from those that rejected the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
Despite the similar name, they are therefore a different branch of Christianity from the Eastern Orthodox (see above).
There are an estimated 62 million Oriental Orthodox Christians, worldwide.
Autocephalous churches – 61.7 million
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church – 37 million
Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria – 10 million
Armenian Apostolic Church – 9 million
Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin – 6 million
Holy See of Cilicia – 1.5 million
Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople – 0.5–0.7 million
Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem – 0.34 million
Syriac Orthodox Church – 1.7 million
Jacobite Syrian Christian Church – 1.2 million
Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church - 2 million
Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church - 2 million
Autonomous churches – 0.01 million
French Coptic Orthodox Church – 0.01 million
Churches not in communion – 0.07 million
Malabar Independent Syrian Church – 0.06 million
British Orthodox Church – 0.01 million
Non-trinitarian Restorationism – 35 million
A sixth group is composed by Non-trinitarian Restorationists.
These groups are quite distinct from orthodox Trinitarian restorationist groups such as the Disciples of Christ, despite some shared history.
Latter Day Saint movement (Mormonism) – 16.7 million
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints – 16.5 million
Community of Christ – 0.25 million
Jehovah's Witnesses – 8.5 million
Oneness Pentecostalism – 6 million
United Pentecostal Church International – 4 million
Pentecostal Assemblies of the World – 1.5 million
Minor denominations – 4.4 million
Iglesia ni Cristo – 2.3 million
The Unification Church (aka Moonies) – 1–2 million
La Luz del Mundo – around million (See La Luz del Mundo#Statistics)
Unitarian Universalism – 0.6 million
Unitarian Universalist Association – 0.2 million(Unitarian Universalism developed out of Christian traditions but no longer identifies as a Christian denomination.)
Church of Christ, Scientist – 0.4 million
Friends of Man – 0.07 million
Christadelphians – 0.06 million
Family International – 0.01 million
Miscellaneous branches – 2 million
Protestant Eastern Christianity – 1.1 million
Mar Thoma Syrian Church – 1.1 million
Former Church of the East (Nestorianism) – 0.6 million
Assyrian Church of the East – 0.5 million
Ancient Church of the East – 0.1 million
Messianic Judaism – 0.3 million
Adherents.com
National Council of Churches USA
Christendom or the Christian world, in the widest sense, means Christianity as a territorial phenomenon.
That means: those countries where most people are Christians and because of that are part of Christendom.
People have used the term Christendom for the medieval and Renaissance understanding of the Christian world as one single Body of Christ with Christ as the head.
With the rise of Modernity and the Reformation during the early 16th century the understanding changed to a modern idea of a tolerant and diverse society that consists of many different communities.
Caliphate (an Islamic analog to the Medieval political concept)
Muslim World and Ummah
Catholic Encyclopedia: Christendom
A creed is a statement or confession of belief — usually religious belief — or faith.
The word comes from the Latin credo for I believe.
It is  called symbol (Greek, συμβολον), that means a "token" by which persons of like beliefs might recognize each other.
It is likely that the earliest creed of Christianity that deserves the title in full is the Apostles' Creed.
The Apostles' Creed seems to have been formulated to resist Gnosticism; it emphasizes the birth, physical death, and bodily Resurrection of Jesus Christ.
It reads:
He suffered under Pontius Pilate,
The Nicene Creed is clearly derived from the Apostles' Creed, and represents an elaboration of its basic themes.
The most important additions to this creed are much more elaborate statements concerning Christology and the Trinity.
Jewish Creed: the "Shmah"
The Jewish faith recognizes a single creed called the Shmah or Shema Yisrael, a statement of faith in strict unitarian monotheism, the belief in one God.
This creed is embodied in a single prayer recited twice a day: "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One", also translated as "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is unique [or alone]."
In Hebrew:  שמע ישראל אדני אלהינו אדני אחד
This is pronounced phonetically in Hebrew: Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad.
Islamic creeds
Belief in God (Allah), the one and only one worthy of all worship (tawhid).
Belief in all the Prophets (nabi) and Messengers (rusul) sent by God.
Belief in the Books (kutub) sent by God (including the Qur'an).
Belief in the Angels (mala'ika).
Belief in the Day of Judgement (qiyama) and in the Resurrection (life after death).
Belief in Predestination (qadar).
Also from the Aqidah of the Salaf is the belief that the faith (i.e. Eemaan) consists of (both) speech and action and that it increases and decreases.
This differs from the Murji’ah a sect who uphold the belief of “Irjaa’”-to hold that sins major and minor, do not affect the faith and that faith neither increases nor decreases.
And they uphold the belief that the Quran is the Speech of Allah, His Revelation and Light.
It is not created, since the Quran is from Allah and that which is from Allah is not created.
One of the attributes of Allah is his Speech.
Since His attributes have been with Him eternally, His Speech cannot be created and therefore, the Quran is not created.
According to the Salaf, debating about it is disbelief.
It is not denied except by a Jahmee.
A Jahmee is one who denies Allah’s attributes.
Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition .
Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss.
Published by Yale University Press in 2003.
The Creeds of Christendom - A website linking to many formal Christian declarations of faith.
www.iclnet.org
Apostles' Creed, an early statement of Christian belief
Nicene Creed, the most widespread or ecumenical Christian statement of faith
Athanasian Creed, a statement of Christian Trinitarian doctrine
Chalcedonian Creed, adopted at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 in Asia Minor
Social Creed (Methodist), a social creed of the American Methodist Episcopal Church
Masai Creed, a creed composed in about 1960 by Western Christian missionaries for the Masai people of East Africa
A New Creed, an affirmation of faith used widely in the worship services of the United Church of Canada
Islamic Creed, see Shahada or Aqidah
American's Creed, a forerunner to the Pledge of Allegiance
United States Postal Service creed (unofficial)
Rifleman's Creed, also known as "the Creed of the United States Marine," though unofficial
Ranger Creed, official creed of the US Army Rangers
U.S. Soldier's Creed, a set of values and morals that all U.S. Army personnel are encouraged to live by
Creed Bratton, American singer and actor
Frederick G. Creed, Canadian inventor, founder of Creed & Company
Helios Creed, American musician, guitarist of Chrome
Linda Creed, Philadelphia songwriter
Percy Redfern Creed
Martin Creed, British artist
Michael Creed, Irish politician
Creed Taylor, American record producer
Creed Bratton (The Office character), a character from the U.S. television series, The Office
Graydon Creed, a character in Marvel Comics
Ursarkar E. Creed, a character from Warhammer 40,000 universe
Apollo Creed, a boxer
Creed Diskenth, the antagonist in anime and manga series Black Cat (manga)
Assassin's Creed, a video game
Creed (perfume), a perfume manufacturer
Creed & Company, a British telecommunications company
Creed, a poem by Steve Turner (writer)
Creed (comics), a Lightning Comics series
Creed (band), a post-grunge rock band
Creed, one of the most popular songs from Christian rock group, Petra on their album, Beyond Belief
Creed, Cornwall, a village in Cornwall, England
Creede, Colorado
Credo, a musical setting of the Nicene Creed
The Shahadah (, ) is the first pillar of Islam.
The saying is "Lā ʾIlāha ʾIllā Allah, Muḥammadun Rasūl Allah", meaning "There is no deity but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God".
The Shia and Quraniyoon sects may have slight differences in their shahada.
The Quranist sources comes from verse 3:18 of the Quran.
It  states: "God bears witness that there is no other god besides Him, and so do the angels and those who possess knowledge."
Arabic text:
English rendering:
I bear witness that there is no god but Allah
And I bear witness that Muhammad is the messenger of God
And I bear witness that Ali is the vicegerent of God
LivingHalal.com Islamic audio glossary
AbdurRahman.org
Longer Form
“In Purgatory there are different levels; the lowest is close to hell and the highest gradually draws near to Heaven.
It is not All Souls Day, but, Christmas, that the greatest number of souls leave Purgatory.
There are in Purgatory, souls who pray ardently to God, but for whom no relative or friend prays on earth.
God makes them benefit from the prayers of other people.
Purgatory in art and culture
Perhaps the best-known instance of purgatory in the arts is Dante's Purgatorio, the second book of his Divine Comedy.
Likewise, the Ghost in William Shakespeare's Hamlet may also presuppose a belief in purgatory,
Akin, James.
How to explain Purgatory to Protestants
Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity  (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999)
Catechism of the Catholic Church, available online
Catechism of St. Philaret (Drozdov) of Moscow
Catholic Encyclopedia of 1914, Purgatory
Clendenin, Daniel B.  (ed.).
Eastern Orthodox Theology  (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995)
Demetry, Constas H. Catechism of the Eastern Orthodox Church
Dragani, Anthony.
From East to West: Purgatory
O' Collins, Gerald and Mario Farrugia.
Catholicism: the story of Catholic Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003)
CatholicBridge.com, Purgatory  — Ecumenical article by David MacDonald concerning Evangelical and Catholic belief
Catholic Answers, Purgatory  — Catholic apologetic article
NewAdvent.org, Purgatory — 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article
philvaz.com/apologetics — Readings from the Church Fathers and other sources on Purgatory, by Phil Porvaznik
EWTN.com library, Heaven, Hell and Purgatory according to Pope John Paul II  — Article from the newspaper of the Holy See, L'Osservatore Romano, July-August 1999
JewishEncyclopedia.com, Purgatory — Article by Kaufmann Kohler in the online Jewish Encyclopedia
New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Purgatory — Article by C. A. Beckwith in the 19th century Protestant encyclopedia (ed.
Philip Schaff)
Purgatory account in the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica.
I Believe in Purgatory... — excerpt from C. S. Lewis's Letters To Malcolm: Chiefly on Prayer, chapter 20
Frequently Asked Questions  at Holy Souls Online
Purgatory and praying for the dead on Catholic Apologetic
"Prisoner of the King: Thoughts on the Catholic Doctrine of Purgatory", H. J. Coleridge, 1889.
retrieved 24 May 2007
William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827) was an English poet, visionary, painter, and printmaker.
During his lifetime he was not very well known.
Today Blake's work is thought to be important in the history of both poetry and the visual arts.
Blake's first collection of poems, Poetical Sketches, was printed around 1783.
His most famous poem "And did those feet in ancient time" was, over 100 years later, put to music by Hubert Parry.
The hymn is called "Jerusalem".
Books about Blake
Recent Discovery of the Location of William Blake's Grave.
The William Blake Archive, a multi-media archive, sponsored by the Library of Congress
Blake250: 2007 London festival celebrating 250 years of William Blake's influence
Paintings of William Blake
William Blake Society
Friends of William Blake
Blake Society
Making facsimiles of Blake's prints
William Blake at the British Library
Profile at the Academy of American Poets
Profile at the Poetry Foundation
William Blake profile, video on BBC Poetry Season and BBC etching gallery
Tate William Blake learning resource
Profile at Jacob Boehme Online
The William Blake Archive – A Comprehensive Academic Archive of Blake's works with scans from multiple collections
Single Institution Holdings:
The G.E. Bentley: William Blake Collection Special Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
The G.E. Bentley: William Blake Collection Digital Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
William Blake collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin
Links to articles, manuscripts and films relating to William Blake.
From the British Library's Discovering Literature website.
William Blake Digital Material From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress
Settings of William Blake's poetry in the Choral Public Domain Library
William Blake's America and Europe at Auckland Libraries
An institution has a purpose.
Institutions are permanent, which means that they do not end when one person is gone.
An institution has rules and can enforce rules of human behavior.
The word "institution" can be used in two ways.
It can mean a very broad idea, or a very "specific" (narrow) one.
Government is an institution in the broad sense.
Westminster Parliament is an institution in the specific sense.
Education is an institution in the broad sense.
Harvard University is an institution in the specific sense.
Institutions, in the broad sense, are found in every society.
The way that each institution works is different in different cultures.
Some important institutions are:
Marriage- This is how society protects itself by controlling the way people live together, have children and care for them.
Education- A society controls how young ones are prepared to be useful adult members of society.
Kinship- Society controls how people who are related, or not related, should act to each other.
This includes inheritance.
Religion- Societies have ways in which people's religious beliefs are celebrated.
Law- Societies decide what is right and wrong, and what punishments there are for doing wrong.
Trade- Societies have ways of controlling the way food and other goods pass from one person to another.
Defence- Societies set up institutions to protect themselves against attack.
Some societies have many institutions in the "specific" sense.
These societies have an organised government, schools, hospitals, churches, clubs, armies, markets, courts and places for entertainment.
Some societies have very few of these things, but this does not mean that there are no "institutions".
The way in which the people relate to each other may have just as many "controls" as in a society with schools, markets and a government.
An example of a society that has lots of "specific" institutions is Western Europe.
Historians look at institutions to find differences between eras or periods.
They sometimes judge political and military events by the effect that they had on institutions.
Berger, P. L. and T. Luckmann (1966), The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Anchor Books, Garden City, NY.
Greif, Avner (2006), Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade , Cambridge University Press.
North, D. (1990), Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance.
Schotter, A. (1981), The Economic Theory of Social Institutions.
International Society for New Institutional Economics
Institutional reform
The populations are ecological races if they arise from adaptation to different local habitats or geographic races when they are geographically isolated.
If not, they are called races, which means that a formal rank should not be given to the group, or taxonomists are unsure whether or not a formal rank should be given.
According to Ernst Mayr, "a subspecies is a geographic race that is sufficiently different taxonomically to be worthy of a separate name"
The key lime is a shrub that grows to a size of about 5 metres in height.
It has many thorns.
It produces a fruit that is yellow when it is ripe.
This fruit is preferred by bartenders to mix cocktails.
They prefer this lime, rather than the Persian lime.
The lime plant originally came from southeast Asia, where it is native.
It was taken to the Middle East, and Crusaders took it to Europe and North Africa.
Spanish explorers took it to the West Indies and the Florida Keys.
In 1926, a hurricane destroyed most of the commercially-grown limes in the region.
The Persian lime was reintroduced then.
Some of the original shrubs grew wild in the Florida Keys.
It became clear that the originally introduced shrubs (now known as Mexican limes) had modified their fruits.
These were darker green than the original Persian limes, they also had a thicker skin.
In biological taxonomy, race is an informal rank below the level of subspecies.
It may be used as a higher rank than "strain".
There are various definitions.
Races may be genetically distinct populations in the same species, or they may be defined in other ways, e.g. geographically, or physiologically.
Genetic isolation between races is not complete (some interbreeding takes place between the groups).
However, the genetic differences are not (yet) enough to put the groups into separate species.
The term race is recognized by some, but is not governed by any of the formal codes of biological classification.
In former times, scientists often divided human beings into races.
For example, they called people with a dark skin  "Negroid" or "black race".
But, human gene sequences are very similar compared to many other animals.
This is one reason why modern biology says that there is only one human race.
It does not mean just 'what you can see on the surface'.
Rather, it means anything which can be made visible by suitable means.
For example, blood groups are definitely a part of the phenotype.
However, they are not visible just by looking at a person.
In biology, the phenotype is distinguished from the genotype.
This was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's heredity and what that heredity produces.
The distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann, who distinguished between germ plasm (gametes or their stem cells) and somatic cells (the body).
"From Darwin to the present day most evolutionists have considered the individual organism to be the principal object of selection.
Actually, it is the phenotype which is the part of the individual that is “visible” to selection".
Phenotypes are determined mainly by genes and are influenced by environmental factors.
So, knowing the genome of an organism does not give an exact prediction of its phenotype.
Traits vary greatly in how much they owe to heredity (nature vs nurture).
The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often been conceptualized by the following relationship:
genotype + environment → phenotype
The term 'phenotype' must include characteristics that can be made visible by some technical procedure (such as blood types).
Another extension adds behaviour to the phenotype since behaviours are also affected by both genotypic and environmental factors.
The idea of the extended phenotype has been developed by Richard Dawkins to mean all the effects a gene has on the outside world that may influence its chances of being inherited.
These can be effects on the organism carrying the trait, the environment, or other organisms.
For instance, a beaver dam might be considered a phenotype of beaver genes, the same way beavers' powerful incisor teeth are phenotype expressions of their genes.
Dawkins also cites the effect of an organism on the behaviour of another organism (such as the devoted nurturing of a cuckoo by a parent clearly of a different species) as an example of the extended phenotype.
he:גן (ביולוגיה)#מושגים בסיסיים
The Key lime is a citrus fruit.
Its Latin name is  Citrus aurantiifolia (often, less correctly: C. aurantifolia), or Citrus x aurantiifolia (Christm.)
Swingle.
It is also known as the Mexican lime, West Indian lime or Bartender's lime.
It is a shrub that grows to about 5m in height.
Its fruit is 2.5-5 cm in diameter (1-2 in).
The fruit is yellow when ripe but usually it is picked green.
It is smaller, seedier, has a higher acidity, a stronger aroma, and a thinner rind than that of the more common Persian lime.
It is valued for its unique flavor compared to other lime.
The Key lime usually has a more tart and bitter flavor.
It is perhaps most distinguished as an ingredient in the Key lime pie.
C. aurantiifolia is a shrubby tree, that grows to 5 m (16 ft), with many thorns.
Dwarf varieties are popular with home growers and can be grown indoors in winter in colder climates.
The trunk rarely grows straight, with many branches that often originate quite far down on the trunk.
The leaves are ovate 2.5–9 cm (1–3.5 in) long.
They resemble orange leaves (the scientific name aurantiifolia refers to the leaves' resemblance).
The flowers are 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter.
They are yellowish white with a light purple tinge on the margins.
Flowers and fruit appear throughout the year but are most abundant from May to September  .
C. aurantiifolia originally came from  Southeast Asia.
It was introduced through the Middle East to North Africa and Europe during the Crusades.
Spanish explorers then took it to the West Indies (at some point including the Florida Keys) contemporaneously with Columbus, then tropical and sub-tropical North America including Mexico, Florida, and later California .
The English name "lime" was derived from the Persian name لیمو Limu in this course.
"Key" would seem to have been added some time after the Persian lime cultivar became more important commercially in the United States.
This was after the hurricane of 1926.
The hurricane destroyed most U.S. C. aurantiifolia plants.
Some plants growing in the wild in the Keys survived the hurricane.
Since the North American Free Trade Agreement came into effect, many Key limes are grown in Mexico and Central America.
They are also grown in Texas and California.
Alphabetical List of Plant Families with Insecticidal and Fungicidal Properties
Citrus aurantiifolia Swingle
Link to main Wikipedia article on Key_lime
Link to Fruits: Limes on tonytantillo.com (may not work)
They were in search of trading goods such as gold, silver and spices.
In the process, Europeans met people and mapped lands previously unknown to them.
Among the most famous explorers of the period were Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Pedro Álvares Cabral, John Cabot, Yermak, Juan Ponce de León, Juan Sebastian Elcano, Bartholomeu Dias, Ferdinand Magellan, Willem Barentsz, Abel Tasman, Jean Alfonse, Jacques Cartier, Samuel de Champlain, Willem Blaeu and Captain James Cook.
Henry the Navigator started by paying Portuguese sailors to explore the west coast of Africa.
In 1419 Joao Goncalves Zarco discovered the Madeira Islands.
Later in the 15th century, Vasco da Gama reached the southwestern tip of Africa and established the city of Cape Town, a Portuguese colony.
This opened the way to the Indian Ocean.
In the next two centuries, the Portuguese created a great trading empire on coasts of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and India.
The Portuguese Empire eventually weakened after the Dutch East India Company rose as the major power in Indian Ocean trade.
In a hurry to compete with Portugal for a colonial empire, Spain sent Christopher Columbus to the opposite route of the Portuguese.
Instead of going south along the west coast of Africa, Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean.
He believed that he came to Asia.
Later, some Spanish sailors found out that this land was a different continent than Asia.
It is now called the Americas.
In the 16th century, Spanish conquistadores gained the whole of what later became Latin America, except some British and French colonies in northeastern South America, and Brazil, which belonged to Portugal.
The Spanish concentrated on conquest, unlike the Portuguese who focused on trading.
They eventually developed a vast colonial empire, in contrast to the Portuguese who ruled a few islands and coastal cities along the Indian Ocean.
When Spain and Portugal were united under King Philip II of Spain , their combined empire was the largest on earth.
In 1522 the fleet of Ferdinand Magellan returned to Spain.
The survivors were the first ever to sail all the way around the world.
Britain, France, and the Netherlands
In the 17th century, political and religious wars with Britain, France, and the Netherlands weakened the Iberian Peninsula.
These three nations emerged as the main winners of the wars and became major powers like Spain and Portugal.
In the next two centuries, the world became a battlefield of the three nations.
Britain and France held land in North America, in India and other distant places.
The Dutch colonized smaller parts of the Americas, took the former Portuguese trading centers around the Indian Ocean, and conquered Indonesia.
These three new great powers also had influence all around the world.
Eventually, the result was a series of wars that were fought both in Europe and overseas, with Britain emerging victorious.
The British took the former land of French Canada and India in the 18th century.
They seized power in the Indian Ocean and defeated the Dutch navy.
By 1763, the British Empire had become the second global empire after Spain.
However, in 1776, thirteen colonies of British America declared independence.
With help from the French, Dutch and Spanish, they defeated Britain in the American Revolution.
Exploration of the Southern Pacific Ocean
In 1778, Captain James Cook of Britain sailed across the South Pacific Ocean looking for a mysterious continent in the Southern Hemisphere.
He landed on two large islands.
Then he sailed west and found a bigger piece of land.
The first, was modern New Zealand; the second was Australia.
Captain Cook claimed these lands for Britain.
He then explored the Pacific world for another year and died in a fight with the Hawaiians.
Effects of the Age of Discovery
Many slaves brought from Africa were brought to the Americas which was claimed to be found by Christopher Columbus himself.
In conclusion, the Portuguese were weakened after the Dutch rose in the Indian Ocean trade route.
Spain gained almost all of Latin America and a massive amount of silver.
When Christopher Columbus tried to find a new trade route to Asia, he thought that he could travel around the world.
Instead, he had found a New World.
Vikings had briefly visited Vinland around 1000 A.D.
Persian Lime (Citrus x latifolia), also known as Tahiti lime or Bearss lime is a kind of citrus fruit.
It is the primary citrus fruit grown commercially in the U.S. It is sold simply as a "lime".
The fruit is about 6 cm in diameter.
Very often, it has slightly nippled ends.
It is usually sold quite green, although it yellows as it reaches full ripeness.
It is larger, thicker-skinned, and less aromatic than the key lime.
The key lime is grown more often worldwide.
The Persian lime is bigger than the key lime, and has fewer seeds.
The plant is also hardier, and has no thorns on the bushes.
The fruit also has a longer shelf life.
Persian limes are less acidic than key limes and do not have the bitterness that lends to the key lime's unique flavour.
Persian limes are sold primarily in six sizes, known as 110's, 150's, 175's, 200's, 230's and 250's.
They are grown primarily in Florida in the U.S. The Persian lime became more important when key lime orchards were wiped out by a hurricane in 1926.
Persian lime orchards themselves were devastated by Hurricane Andrew in 1992.
Large numbers of Persian limes are grown, processed and exported every year primarily from Martínez de la Torre, Veracruz, Mexico, to the American, European and Asian markets.
U.S. Persian lime imports from Mexico are handled mostly through McAllen, Texas.
Tahiti lime botany, agriculture, and history
history and use of limes
history and varieties of limes
Key limes and others
The Kaffir lime (Citrus hystrix DC.,
Rutaceae), also known as kieffer lime, makrut or magrood, is a citrus fruit native to Indonesia.
It is widely grown worldwide as a garden shrub.
It is usually grown it for its fruit, the lime.
The leaves are used for cooking.
Vegetable oil obtained from the leaves is used to make perfumes.
The plant
The plant is a  very thorny bush with aromatic leaves.
The oil obtained from the rind of the fruit can be used as an insecticide.
The plant is well suited to being grown in a container.
The green fruits are different from other limes because of their bumpy and rough exterior.
They are also quite small, about 4 centimetres across.
The leaves are shaped like an hourglass.
The leaves and the leaf-shaped stem are widely used in the cuisine of Cambodia, Thailand and Laos.
Citrus x hystrix leaves are also popular in Cambodia but less so in Vietnam.
Malay, Burmese and Indonesian (especially Balinese and Javanese; see also Indonesian bay leaf) cuisines use them sporadically with chicken and fish.
Although the most common product of the Citrus x hystrix tree is its leaves (which give a sharp Lime/neroli flavour to Cambodian base paste known as Krueng, Thai dishes such as tom yum and Indonesian food such as sayur assam - literally sour vegetables), the juice and rind of the small, dark-green gnarled fruit (known as jeruk obat - literally medicine citrus) are used in traditional Indonesian medicine.
Other names for Citrus x hystrix:
Burma: shauk-nu, shauk-waing
Cambodia: krauch soeuch
China: fatt-fung-kam
Malaysia: limau purut
Indonesia: jeruk purut, jeruk sambal
Philippines: swangi
Sri Lanka: kahpiri dehi, odu dehi, kudala-dehi
Thailand: makrut, som makrut
The Oxford Companion to Food () recommends that the name kaffir lime should be avoided in favour of makrut lime because Kaffir is an offensive term in certain cultures and also has no clear reason for being attached to this plant.
However kaffir lime appears to be much more common.
Medina (; ,  , "the radiant city"; or ,  (), "the city"), also transliterated as Madīnah, is a city in the Hejaz, and the capital of the Al Madinah Region of Saudi Arabia.
The city contains al-Masjid al-Nabawi ("the Prophet's Mosque"), which is the burial place of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and is the second-holiest city in Islam after Mecca.
Medina was Muhammad's destination after his Hijrah from Mecca, and became the capital of a rapidly increasing Muslim Empire, first under Muhammad's leadership, and then under the first four Rashidun caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali.
It served as the power base of Islam in its first century where the early Muslim community developed.
Medina is home to the three oldest mosques, namely the Quba Mosque, al-Masjid an-Nabawi, and Masjid al-Qiblatayn ("the mosque of the two qiblas").
Muslims believe that the chronologically final surahs of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad in Medina, and are called Medinan surahs in contrast to the earlier Meccan surahs.
Medina currently has a population of  more than 1,300,000 people (2006).
The city was originally known as Yathrib, but later its name was changed to Madīnat al-Nabī (مدينة ﺍﻟﻨﺒﻲ  "city of the prophet") or Al Madīnah al Munawwarah ("the enlightened city" or "the radiant city").
The short form Madīnah simply means "city".
Madina is the second holiest city of Islam, after Mecca (Makkah).
Medina's religious significance in Islam
Medina is very important to Muslims.
This is because the Prophet Muhammad is buried in a mosque known as 'Masjid-e-Nabawi' or 'The Mosque of The Prophet'.
The Mosque was built on a site next to Muhammad's home.
Muslims believe  that Prophets must be buried at the very same place that they die.
Accordingly, Muhammad was buried in his house.
The tomb later became part of the mosque when it was expanded by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I. The first mosque of Islam is also in Medina.
It is known as Masjid Quba, (the Quba Mosque).
Like Mecca, the city of Medina only permits Muslims to enter.
The haram (area closed to non-Muslims) of Medina is much smaller than that of Mecca, though.
Many facilities on the outskirts of Medina are open to non-Muslims.
In Mecca the area closed to non-Muslims extends well beyond the limits of the built-up area.
Both cities' numerous mosques are the destination for large numbers of Muslims on their annual pilgrimage.
Hundreds of thousands of Muslims come to Medina each year to visit the 'Tomb of Prophet' and to worship at mosques in a unified celebration.
Muslims believe that praying once in the Mosque of the Prophet is equal to praying at least 1000 times in any other mosque.
Beautiful Masajids Of Madina Munawara, Details And Pictures
Satellite map of Medina - Google
Pictures of Medina Munawwara
hu:Medina
Doctrine (Latin: doctrina) is a code of beliefs or "a body of teachings".
In matters of foreign policy, a doctrine, also known as dogma, is group of fundamental rules for a nation's foreign policy.
Examples include the Monroe Doctrine, the Stimson Doctrine, the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, the Nixon Doctrine, the Brezhnev Doctrine, the Kirkpatrick doctrine, and the Bush Doctrine.
Religious usage
Christian Trinity and Virgin birth of Jesus
Roman Catholic transubstantiation and immaculate conception
Pentecostal Jesus-Only doctrine
Calvinist predestination
Methodist Prevenient Grace
Military usage
The term also applies to the concept of an established procedure to a complex operation in warfare.
The typical example is tactical doctrine in which a standard set of maneuvers, kinds of troops and weapons are employed as a default approach to a kind of attack.
Blitzkrieg of World War II
Hit-and-run tactics
Guerre de course
Mahanian of late 19th up to mid-20th Century
The citron (Citrus medica) is a species of citrus fruit.
It usually has a thick rind and small sections.
Originally, the tree came from Southeast Asia.
Today it is mainly grown in Sicily, Morocco, Crete, and Corsica, as well as Puerto Rico.
The tree can grow to a size of about 3 metres.
The fruit can grow to a size of about 25 cm in length, and about 4 kg in weight.
The pulp of the fruit is hardly ever used.
The rind is used.
It is made into an additive for cooking.
Jam can also be made from the rind.
The rind is also used to make vegetable oil, which is used for perfumes.
Generally, it is eaten preserved or in bakery goods, such as fruitcakes. (
The candied peel rather than the fruit is often used in cooking.)
In some cultures, it is made into a fruity tea.
Pliny the Elder states that in his time , the citron could only be grown in Media and Persia (HN xii.7).
The Romans tried to transport it into the Roman Empire in tightly packed pots, but failed, according to Pliny.
There is evidence, however, which shows it was cultivated in the Mediterranean during Pliny's lifetime.
Zohary and Hopf believe this tree was first domesticated in India.
They think that its wild forms, along with those of the mandarin and pomelo, were the original citrus species.
The citron has many names in different countries; one popular reference is Cedrat, which is the French name for the fruit.
Theophrastus referred to the citron as the Persian or Median Apple, and the fruit later came to be known as the Citrus Apple.
Pliny calls the tree the Assyrian, or the Median, "apple" (the generic Greco-Roman name for globose fruits).
Other citrus crops were not introduced to the Mediterranean basin until Islamic times.
In many languages other than English, a normal lemon is called a "citron" and a Lime is called a "limon".
Although the East Asian citrus fruit yuzu (also called yuja) is sometimes called a citron, it is actually a separate species, Citrus junos.
The citron fruit is slow-growing.
The citron tree is typically grown from cuttings that are two to four years old; the tree begins to bear fruit when it is around three years old.
The fruit is oblong in shape, and sometimes as much as six inches in length.
Its skin is thick, somewhat hard, fragrant, and covered with protuberances; the pulp is white and subacid.
In Hebrew, the citron is known as the etrog ().
It is one of the Four Species used during the holiday of Sukkot each fall.
The role of the citron in that holiday was portrayed in the Israeli movie Ushpizin.
Citrons that have been bred with lemon (in order to increase output per tree and make the tree less fragile) are not kosher for use as part of the Four Species.
In South Indian cuisine, especially Tamil cuisine, citron is widely used in pickles and preserves.
In Tamil, the unripe fruit is referred to as 'narthangai', which is usually salted and dried to make a preserve.
The tender leaves of the plant are often used in conjunction with chili powder and other spices to make a powder, called 'narthellai podi', literally translating to 'powder of citron leaves'.
Both narthangai and narthellai podi are usually consumed with 'thayir sadam' (Curd Rice - Yogurt Rice).
In Korea, it is used to create a syrupy tea (called Yuja cha) where the slices of whole fruit are eaten with the sweet tea.
The fruit is thinly sliced (peel, pith and pulp) and soaked or cooked in honey or sugar to create a chunky syrup.
This syrupy candied fruit is mixed with hot water as a fragrant tea, where the fruit at the bottom of the cup is eaten as well.
Often perserved in the syrup for the cold months, Yuja tea served as a source of fruit in winter.
It is also popular in Taiwan, where it is known as 柚子茶 (Youzi cha).
[Note: The Korean Yuja is the same as the Japanese Yuzu 柚子 and must be different from the citron being described in this article.
The Japanese Yuzu = Citrus junos.]
List of Citrus fruits
Citrus medica used as a medicinal plant.
Citric acid is a weak organic acid.
It can be found in citrus fruits ( like oranges).
It is used by organisms for Krebs cycle.
It acts like a preservative when added to food.
It is also used to add a sour (acidic) taste to foods and soft drinks.
In the European Union it is known as E 330, as a food additive.
Carl Wilhelm Scheele was the first who could extract citric acid from lemons, in 1782.
The substance was probably known to alchemists, perhaps with a different name.
The Arabian alchemist Geber is said to have discovered citric acid in the 9th century.
Citric Acid contains 6 Carbon atoms, 8 Hydrogen atoms and 7 Oxygen atoms.
Its chemical formula is C6H8O7.
Main uses
As a water softener
It is often used in detergents, to avoid the smell of acid, esp.
As a preserving agent
Citric acid and its salts prevent blood clotting.
Blood donations are kept liquid using citric acid.
Citric acid analysis - free spreadsheet for titration of acids and pH calculation
Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (; ; died between 806 and 816), is the name for the writer of a great number of writings in Arabic.
The writings together have the name Jabirian corpus.
The most important subjects of these writings are: alchemy, cosmology, numerology, astrology, medicine, magic, mysticism, and philosophy.
Jabir's writings have in them the oldest known list of chemical substances.
For the first time, the writings gave an explanation of how to produce an inorganic substance (ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair).
Modern scholars doubt the historical existence of Jabir.
It is probable that one person did not write all of the writings in the Jabirian corpus.
Instead, scholars see Jabir ibn Hayyan as a pseudonym that a group of writers used.
Translations into Latin of some of Jabir's Arabic writings (like the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") came into existence in the Middle Ages.
In Latin, Jabir had the name "Geber", a transliteration of "Jabir".
In 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, called pseudo-Geber, started to produce new writings about alchemy under the name Geber.
People still read the  in the 17th century.
The  was one of the writings that pseudo-Geber produced in the 13th century.
It was an influence on early modern chemists like Robert Boyle (1627–1691).
Carl Wilhelm Scheele (December 9, 1742 - May 21, 1786) a German-Swedish pharmaceutical chemist, born in Stralsund, Western Pomerania, Germany (at the time under Swedish rule), was the discoverer of many chemical substances, most notably discovering oxygen before Joseph Priestley and chlorine before Humphry Davy.
1742 births
1786 deaths
Micheline Calmy-Rey (born 8 July 1945) is a Swiss politician.
She was Switzerland's foreign minister as head of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs.
She was also a member of the Swiss Federal Council from 2003.
She was President of the Confederation in 2007 and again in 2011.
She resigned her office as member of the Federal Council on 31 December 2011.
Presidents of the Swiss Confederation
Criss Angel Mindfreak is an American television program.
The program is hosted by illusionist Criss Angel.
Angel performs many different types of stunts and illusions on the program such as street magic, levitation, and setting himself on fire.
The program was first shown on July 20, 2005.
It is shown and distributed by the A&E network.
Official Criss Angel Mindfreak TV Series website at A&E
Titles & Air Dates Guide of Criss Angel Mindfreak at epguides.com
2005 American television series debuts
The term “piano trio” can also be used in jazz.
This article is about the piano trio in classical music.
A piano trio is a group of three instruments including a piano.
Usually it is a piano, a violin and a cello.
This combination of instruments has been a very popular form of chamber music from the Classical music period onwards.
A piano trio can also mean a piece of music written for a piano trio to play.
Other combinations of piano with two instruments are often called by the featuring wind instrument.
For example: Mozart wrote a trio for piano, clarinet and viola which is usually called a “clarinet trio”.
Brahms wrote a trio for piano, violin and French horn which is usually called a “horn trio”.
Famous music for piano trio
Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote several piano trios for the traditional combination of piano, violin and cello.
Beethoven’s last piano trio has the nickname Archduke because it was written for the Archduke Rudolph.
Franz Schubert wrote two beautiful piano trios.
Famous piano trios
During the second half of the 20th century the Beaux Arts Trio were the best known group.
Today there are many young musicians who play piano trios, including three Japanese sisters called the Fujita Piano Trio who play a lot of their music all from memory.