the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
This is believed to mostly be due to more time spent indoors, close to each other; specifically children returning to school.
Still, changes in the respiratory system may result in easier infections.
Dry air may increase transmission rates by allowing small easily spread droplets to spread farther and stay in the air longer.
Herd immunity, immunity that occurs when an entire group of people become immune to a particular infection, occurs from previous exposure to cold viruses.
Thus younger populations have greater rates of respiratory infections and older populations have lower rates of respiratory infections.
Poor immune function is also a risk factor for disease.
Lack of sleep and poor nutrition have also been associated with a greater risk of developing infection following rhinovirus exposure.
This is believed to be due to their effects on immune function.
The symptoms of the common cold are believed to be mostly related to the immune response to the virus.
The mechanism of this immune response is virus-specific.
For example, the rhinovirus is typically acquired by direct contact.
It binds to human ICAM-1 receptors through unknown methods to trigger the release of inflammatory mediators.
These inflammatory mediators then produce the symptoms.
It does not generally cause damage to the nasal epithelium.
In contrast, the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is contacted by both direct contact and airborne droplets.
It then replicates in the nose and throat before frequently spreading to the lower respiratory tract.
RSV does cause epithelium damage.
Human parainfluenza virus typically results in inflammation of the nose, throat, and airways.
In young children, when it affects the trachea it may produce croup, a hoarse cough and difficulty breathing.
This is due to the small size of the airway in children.
The distinction between different upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) is loosely based on the location of the symptoms.
The common cold primarily affects the nose, pharyngitis primarily affects the throat, and bronchitis primarily affects the lungs.
The common cold is frequently defined as inflammation of the nose and may include varying amounts of throat inflammation.
Self-diagnosis is common.
Isolation of the actual viral agent involved is rarely performed.
It is generally not possible to identify the specific virus through symptoms.
The only effective way to prevent the common cold is by physically preventing the spread of the viruses.
This primarily includes hand washing and wearing face masks.
In the health care environment, gowns and disposable gloves are also worn.
Isolating infected individuals is not possible because the disease is so widespread and symptoms are not specific.
Vaccination has proved difficult because there are so many viruses involved and the viruses undergo rapid change.
Developing a broadly effective vaccine is very unlikely.
Regular hand washing reduces the spread of cold viruses.
It is most effective and is especially recommended for use in children, due to a lack of evidence supporting the effectiveness of over-the-counter cold medicines for children, and due to the risk for harm from those medicines.
In 2009, Canada restricted the use of over-the-counter cough and cold medication in children six years old and younger due to concerns regarding risks and unproven benefits.
The misuse of dextromethorphan (an over-the-counter cough medicine) has led to its ban in a number of countries.
In adults, the symptoms of a runny nose can be reduced by first-generation antihistamines.
However, first-generation antihistamines are associated with adverse side effects such as drowsiness.
Other decongestants such as pseudoephedrine are also effective in adults.
Ipratropium nasal spray may reduce the symptoms of a runny nose, but there is little effect on stuffiness.
Second-generation antihistamines do not appear to be effective.
Due to the lack of studies, it is not known whether drinking more fluids improves symptoms or shortens respiratory illness.
A similar lack of data exists for the use of heated humidified air.
One study found chest vapor rub to be effective in providing some symptomatic relief of night-time cough, congestion, and sleep difficulty.
Antibiotics and antivirals
Antibiotics have no effect against viral infections and thus have no effect against the common cold.
Antibiotics are often prescribed even though antibiotic side effects cause overall harm.
Antibiotics are commonly prescribed because people expect doctors to prescribe them, and doctors want to help people.
Prescribing antibiotics also happens because it is difficult to exclude causes of infection that may be managed by antibiotics.
There are no effective antiviral drugs for the common cold, even though some preliminary research has shown benefit.
Alternative treatments
While there are many alternative treatments used for the common cold, there is not enough scientific evidence to support the use of most treatments.
As of 2010, there is not enough evidence to recommend for or against either honey or nasal irrigation.
Zinc supplements may reduce the severity and duration of symptoms when taken within 24 hours of their onset.
The effect of vitamin C on the common cold, while extensively researched, is disappointing.
Evidence about the usefulness of echinacea is inconsistent.
Different types of echinacea supplements may vary in their effectiveness.
The common cold is generally mild and goes away on its own with most symptoms improving in one week.
Severe complications, if they occur, are usually in the very old, the very young, or those who are immunosuppressed (have a weakened immune system).
Secondary bacterial infections may occur resulting in sinusitis, pharyngitis, or an ear infection.
It is estimated that sinusitis occurs in 8% of cases.
Ear infections occur in 30% of cases.
The common cold is the most common human disease and people are affected all around the world.
Adults typically have two to five infections per year.
Children may have six to ten colds per year (and up to twelve colds per year for school children).
Rates of symptomatic infections increase in the elderly due to a weakening immune system.
While the cause of the common cold has been known since only the 1950s, the disease has been with humanity since ancient times.
Its symptoms and treatment are described in the Egyptian Ebers papyrus, the oldest existing medical text, written before the 16th century BC.
The name "common cold" came into use in the 16th century, due to the similarity between its symptoms and those of exposure to cold weather.
In the United Kingdom, the Common Cold Unit (CCU) was set up by the Medical Research Council in 1946, and it was here that the rhinovirus was discovered in 1956.
In the 1970s, the CCU demonstrated that treatment with interferon during the incubation phase of rhinovirus infection provided some protection against the disease.
No practical treatment could be developed.
The unit was closed in 1989, two years after it completed research of zinc gluconate lozenges in the prevention and treatment of rhinovirus colds.
Zinc was the only successful treatment developed in the history of the CCU.
The economic impact of the common cold is poorly understood in much of the world.
In the United States, the common cold leads to 75 million to 100 million physician visits annually, costing at least $7.7 billion per year (by conservative cost estimates).
Americans spend $2.9 billion on over-the-counter (OTC) drugs.
Americans spend an additional $400 million on prescription medicines for symptomatic relief.
More than one-third of people who saw a doctor received an antibiotic prescription.
The use of antibiotic prescriptions has implications for antibiotic resistance.
An estimated 22 million to 189 million school days are missed each year due to a cold.
As a result, parents missed 126 million workdays to stay home to care for their children.
When added to the 150 million workdays missed by employees suffering from a cold, the total economic impact of cold-related work loss exceeds $20 billion per year.
This accounts for 40% of time lost from work in the United States.
A number of antivirals have been tested for effectiveness in the common cold.
As of 2009, none have been both found effective and licensed for use.
There are ongoing trials of the antiviral drug pleconaril.
It shows promise against picornaviruses.
There are also ongoing trials of BTA-798.
The oral form of pleconaril had safety issues and an aerosol form is being studied.
FindDocTV - Fly while Having a Cold
The Qajar dynasty (,  - or دودمان قاجار - Qâjâr) was a ruling Azerbaijani dynasty of Iran from 1781 to 1925.
Soltan Ahmad Shah Qajar (1909-1925) was the last ruling Shah.
Among many other members of the Qajar family are
Mohammad Mosaddegh 19 May 1882 – 5 March 1967), the Prime Minister who nationalised Iran's oil industry
Aga Khan III, Ismaili leader
Aga Khan IV, Ismaili leader
Azerbaijani dynasties
1781 establishments
1925 disestablishments
18th-century establishments in Iran
1920s disestablishments in Asia
Zenwalk (formerly Minislack), or Zenwalk Linux, is a Linux distribution started by Jean-Philippe Guillemin.
It was at first based on Slackware.
Since its creation, the distribution has become very different from Slackware while still still being able to use its binary packages.
Zenwalk aims to be a Linux distribution with many uses by focusing on Internet applications, multimedia and programming tools.
Project versions
Zenwalk (full version ~ 420 MB iso download) is a distribution aimed at mainstream desktop use.
Designed to be a stand-alone operating system, it installs to the hard drive by way of a ncurses-based installer.
It includes all of the officially released software packages that are deemed most useful for their tasks.
This collection may change with every release.
Zenwalk Core (~ 230 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk system built with customization in mind.
Released with no X Window System binaries, its aim is to allow a skilled user to build a system fit for his or her needs.
The project's lead developer is Emmanuel Bailleul.
ZenLive (~ 476 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk system built on a Live CD design.
ZenLive follows the progress made by the full Zenwalk system closely, thus mirroring the version number, and attempts to stay true to the original distribution's goals.
In addition, it includes all of the necessary libraries and applications to develop and compile software, a particularly rare feature in Live CD distributions.
Project members include Pierrick Le Brun, creator, Mauricio Tricoli, project lead, and Michael Verret, artwork.
Zenserver (~ 263 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk Core-derived system specifically designed for servers.
The main goals are to create a secure, reliable, easy to use, easy to configure, expandable and dependable server operating system, in the best Zenwalk tradition.
The distribution development team is led by Teran McKinney.
Distributions based on Zenwalk
SaxenOS, a distribution built primarily to support older hardware (SaxenOS 2008 is not as lightweight anymore as the former versions)
Arudius, a Linux Live CD distribution for information assurance with tools for penetration testing and vulnerability analysis
Zencafe , a distribution designed  for Internet cafes
Zeee Zenwalk for the ASUS Eee PC
Arudius
Zenwalk 4.8 Review at Tech Source from Bohol
In thermodynamics, a thermodynamic system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium when it is in thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, radiative equilibrium, and chemical equilibrium.
The local state of a system at thermodynamic equilibrium is determined by the values of its intensive parameters, as pressure, temperature, etc.
Specifically, thermodynamic equilibrium is characterized by the minimum of a thermodynamic potential.
Please search      Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium     for better understanding
In thermodynamics, thermodynamic potentials are parameters associated with a thermodynamic system and have the dimensions of energy.
They are called "potentials" because in a sense, they describe the amount of potential energy in a thermodynamic system when it is subjected to certain constraints.
The different potentials correspond to different constraints to which the system may be subjected.
The four most common thermodynamic potentials are:
where T = temperature, S = entropy, p = pressure, V = volume.
The Helmholtz free energy is often denoted by the symbol F, but the use of A is preferred by IUPAC (See Alberty, 2001).
is the number of particles of type i in the system.
For the sake of completeness, the set of all  are also included as natural variables, although they are sometimes ignored.
Description and interpretation
Thermodynamic potentials are very useful when calculating the equilibrium results of a chemical reaction, or when measuring the properties of materials in a chemical reaction.
The chemical reactions usually take place under some simple constraints such as constant pressure and temperature, or constant entropy and volume, and when this is true, there is a corresponding thermodynamic potential which comes into play.
Just as in mechanics, the system will tend towards lower values of potential and at equilibrium, under these constraints, the potential will take on an unchanging minimum value.
The thermodynamic potentials can also be used to estimate the total amount of energy available from a thermodynamic system under the appropriate constraint.
Thermodynamic Potentials - Georgia State University
Chemical Potential Energy: The 'Characteristic' vs the Concentration-Dependent Kind
The thermal efficiency () is a dimensionless performance measure of a thermal device such as an internal combustion engine, a boiler, or a furnace, for example.
The input, , to the device is heat, or the heat-content of a fuel that is consumed.
The desired output is mechanical work, , or heat, , or possibly both.
Because the input heat normally has a real financial cost, a memorable, generic definition of thermal efficiency is
When expressed as a percentage, the thermal efficiency must be between 0% and 100%.
Due to inefficiencies such as friction, heat loss, and other factors, thermal efficiencies are typically much less than 100%.
For example, a typical gasoline automobile engine operates at around 25% thermal efficiency, and a large coal-fueled electrical generating plant peaks at about 36%.
In a combined cycle plant thermal efficiencies are approaching 60%.
Heat engines
When transforming thermal energy into mechanical energy, the thermal efficiency of a heat engine is the percentage of energy that is transformed into work.
Thermal efficiency is defined as
So, for a boiler that produces 210 kW (or 700,000 BTU/h) output for each 300 kW (or 1,000,000 BTU/h) heat-equivalent input, its thermal efficiency is 210/300 = 0.70, or 70%.
This means that the 30% of the energy is lost to the environment.
An electric resistance heater has a thermal efficiency of at or very near 100%, so, for example, 1500W of heat are produced for 1500W of electrical input.
When comparing heating units, such as a 100% efficient electric resistance heater to an 80% efficient natural gas-fueled furnace, energy prices must be compared to find the lower cost.
Heat pumps and Refrigerators
Heat pumps, refrigerators, and air conditioners, for example, move heat, rather than convert it, so other measures are needed to describe their thermal performance.
The common measures are the coefficient-of-performance (COP), energy-efficiency ratio (EER), and seasonal-energy-efficiency ratio (SEER).
*H=high (temperature/heat source), L=low (temperature/heat source)
The 'thermal efficiency' is sometimes called the energy efficiency.
In the United States, in everyday usage the SEER is the more common measure of energy efficiency for cooling devices, as well as for heat pumps when in their heating mode.
For energy-conversion heating devices their peak steady-state thermal efficiency is often stated, e.g., 'this furnace is 90% efficient', but a more detailed measure of seasonal energy effectiveness is the Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency (AFUE).
A thermodynamic state is the macroscopic condition of a thermodynamic system as described by its particular thermodynamic parameters.
The state of any thermodynamic system can be described by a set of thermodynamic parameters, such as temperature, pressure, density, composition,  independently of its surroundings or history.
The parameters required to specify the state depend on the characteristics of the system.
There is an optimal ensemble of parameters that uniquely specify the state, and all other parameters can be derived from these.
The state postulate says that the state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.
Black W. & Hartley, J. (1996).
Thermodynamics, 3rd Ed. (
textbook).
New York: Harper Collins.
Cengel, Yunus, A. (2002).
Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach, 4th Ed. (
New York: McGraw Hill.
Perrot, Pierre. (
A to Z of Thermodynamics (dictionary).
Thermal physics is the combined study of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and kinetic theory.
This umbrella-subject is typically designed for physics students and functions to provide a general introduction to each of three core heat-related subjects.
Other authors, however, define thermal physics loosely as a summation of only thermodynamics and statistical mechanics.
Thermal physics, generally speaking, is the study of the statistical nature of physical systems from an energetic perspective.
Starting with the basics of heat and temperature, thermal physics analyzes the first law of thermodynamics and second law of thermodynamics from the statistical perspective, in terms of the number of microstates corresponding to a given macrostate.
In addition, the concept of entropy is studied via quantum theory.
A central topic in thermal physics is the canonical probability distribution.
The electromagnetic nature of photons and phonons are studied which show that the oscillations of electromagnetic fields and of crystal lattices have much in common.
Waves form a basis for both, provided one incorporates quantum theory.
Thermodynamic instruments
There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir.
In some cases, the thermodynamic parameter is actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument.
For example, the zeroth law states that if two bodies are in thermodynamic equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermodynamic equilibrium with each other.
This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature.
An idealized thermometer is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure.
It is important that these two types of instruments are distinct.
A meter does not perform its task accurately if it behaves like a reservoir of the state variable it is trying to measure.
If, for example, a thermometer, were to act as a temperature reservoir it would alter the temperature of the system being measured, and the reading would be incorrect.
Ideal meters have no effect on the state variables of the system they are measuring.
Thermal Physics Links on the Web
It provides a framework for relating the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic or bulk properties of materials that can be observed in everyday life, therefore explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics and mechanics (classical and quantum) at the microscopic level.
In particular, it can be used to calculate the thermodynamic properties of bulk materials from the spectroscopic data of individual molecules.
This ability to make macroscopic predictions based on microscopic properties is the main asset of statistical mechanics over thermodynamics.
Both theories are governed by the second law of thermodynamics through the medium of entropy.
However, entropy in thermodynamics can only be known empirically, whereas in statistical mechanics, it is a function of the distribution of the system on its micro-states.
Philosophy of Statistical Mechanics article by Lawrence Sklar for the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Kinetic theory or kinetic theory of gases attempts to explain overall properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion.
The theory basically states that pressure is not caused by molecules pushing each other away, like earlier scientists thought.
Instead, pressure is caused by the molecules colliding with each other and their container.
Kinetic theory is also known as kinetic-molecular theory or collision theory.
No energy is gained or lost when molecules collide
The molecules in a gas take up a negligible (able to be ignored) amount of space in relation to the container they occupy
The molecules are in constant, linear motion.
The Mathematical Theory of Non-uniform Gases : An Account of the Kinetic Theory of Viscosity, Thermal Conduction and Diffusion in Gases, Sydney Chapman, T. G. Cowling
1.The particles attract each other with a force.
This force is called      cohesive force if the particles are of same kind and adhesive force when particles are of different kinds.
All matter is composed of small particles called molecules. (
Atoms or ions as the situation demands).
The particles are in a state of unending motion (continuous motion) and as such have kinetic energy.
with the supply of heat energy (thermal energy) to matter, the kinetic energy of a particle increase, i.e., they start moving more vigorously.
Reverse happens if the matter is cooled.i.e.,
heat energy is taken out of it.
The force of attraction between the particles decreases, if the distance between them increases and vice versa.
Early Theories of Gases
Thermodynamics - a chapter from an online textbook
Temperature and Pressure of an Ideal Gas: The Equation of State on Project PHYSNET.
Introduction  to the kinetic molecular theory of gases, from The Upper Canada District School Board
Java animation  illustrating the kinetic theory from University of Arkansas
Flowchart linking together kinetic theory concepts, from HyperPhysics
Interactive Java Applets  allowing high school students to experiment and discover how various factors affect rates of chemical reactions.
Frik was an Armenian poet who lived in the 13th and 14th centuries, at the time of Mongolian control over Armenia.
Armenian poets
13th-century births
14th-century deaths
Anything related to Mongolia
Mongolian Empire
From 1904 to 1912 Yeghishe Soghomonian he was at school in Kars.
Amid the upheavals of the First World War and the Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire, he volunteered in 1915 for the Caucasian Front.
In 1917-1918 he was in Karin Erzurum during the bitter fighting.
Some of his experiences would later appear in his poetry.
Yeghishe Charents (Soghomonian), one of the nation's favourite poets - a famous philanderer who apparently sought the USSR Kremlin's favours - produced a now famous poem called "The Message".
Its praise of Uncle Joe might grind the average set of teeth down to the gum; it included the following: "A new light shone on the world... It is only this sunlight/Which for centuries will stay alive."
And more of the same.
Undiscovered by the USSR Kremlin's censors for many months, however, Charents (1897 - 1937) had used the first letter of each line to frame a quite different "message", which read: "O Armenian people, your only salvation is in the power of your unity."
Like the distant Mount Ararat, it was a brave, hopeless symbol, as doomed as it was impressive.
Yeghishe Charents was "disappeared" by the NKVD (KGB) in 1937 after being denounced by the architect Alexsandr Tamanyan - now hard at work building Yerevan's new Stalinist opera house - the moment Yeghishe Charents' schoolboy prank was spotted.
Then Alexsandr Tamanyan fell from the roof of his still unfinished opera house, and even today Armenians - with their Arab-like desire to believe in "заговор" the plot - ask the obvious questions.
1987: Charents - Known and Unknown Sides (Yeghishe Charents)Armenfilm,35mm, script by Levon Mkrtchyan, narration by Sos Sargsyan, director Levon Mkrtchyan
Kars (, ) is a city in northeast Turkey and is the capital of the Kars Province, before at the head of a sanjak in the Turkish vilayet of Erzurum.
Population: 8,672 (1878); 20,891 (1897); 54,000 (1970); 142,145 (1990);  130,361 (2000).
The early history of Kars is little known, beyond that it had its own dynasty of Armenian rulers and was the capital of a region known as Vanand.
At some point in the 9th century (at least by 888) it became part of the territory of the Armenian Bagratids.
From 928 to 961 Kars became the capital of their kingdom.
It was during this period that the Cathedral, later known as the Church of the Apostles, was built.
Kars is a province of Turkey.
It shares part of its border with the Republic of Armenia.
In 1919 and 1920 the province came under the control of the Democratic Republic of Armenia as the Vanand province (with the city of Kars as its capital).
Its territory was ceded to Turkey by the Soviet Union in the Treaty of Kars.
Kars province is divided into 8 districts (ilçe), each named after the administrative center of the district:
Akyaka
Arpaçay
Digor
Kağızman
Sarıkamış
Susuz
Pictures of the capital of this province and of nearby Ani
Provinces of Turkey
Manvel Gamburyan (was born in 1981) is a mixed martial artist with a history in judo.
Manvel was chosen as a participant on the reality show The Ultimate Fighter 5.
He fights on Jens Pulver's team.
Manny defeated Noah Thomas in the preliminary round.
In May, 1991, Manvel's family relocated from Armenia to United States.
Shortly after his arrival, Manvel began training in judo at Gokor Chivichyan's Hayastan MMA Academy and quickly became one of the top judokas in the country, winning junior nationals less than two years later.
He went on to win junior nationals eight times, the junior Olympics once, and was a member of the 2000 judo junior world team.
Manny Gamburyan at ArmeniaPedia
Armenian sportspeople
Martial artists
The Mickey Mouse Club was an American variety television series that began in 1955, ran intermittently, and left the air in 1996.
It was directed by Walt Disney Productions.
Over the years, the series featured many stellar teenage performers including Annette Funicello, Britney Spears, and Justin Timberlake.
The original series ran newsreels, cartoons, talent segments, and Disney produced serials such as The Hardy Boys with Tommy Kirk and Tim Considine.
Mickey Mouse Club was hosted by Jimmie Dodd, a songwriter and the Head Mouseketeer.
He provided leadership both on and off screen.
In addition to his other contributions, he often provided short segments encouraging young viewers to make the right moral choices.
These little sermons became known as "Doddisms".
Fanta is an orange soda drink.
It was created in Germany in 1940.
Fanta was created during World War II in Nazi Germany by the German Coca Cola (GmbH) bottling company.
Because of the war, there was no shipping between Nazi Germany and the United States.
Therefore, the German bottling plant could no longer get Coca-Cola syrup.
The manager of the plant, Max Keith, needed to do something to keep the plant going.
He came up with a fruit-flavored drink made from whatever he could find.
Using apple fiber leftover from lollipops and whey, from cheesemakers, Fanta was created and became quite popular.
The original German Fanta had a yellow color and tasted different from today's Fanta Orange; the flavor would change during the war, depending on what ingredients could be found.
Back in America, the Coca-Cola Company—led by Robert Woodruff—did not discourage this.
The company sponsored the 1936 Berlin Olympics, which Woodruff attended, and made banners featuring the Coca-Cola logo alongside the swastika.
Keith used a 10th anniversary party for Coca-Cola GmbH to order a mass Sieg-Heil (Nazi salute) in honor of the dictator’s 50th birthday.
He declared that this was “to commemorate our deepest admiration for our Fuhrer.”
The name 'Fanta' came during an employee contest to name the new beverage.
Keith told them to let their Fantasie (German for imagination) run wild.
On hearing that, salesman Joe Knipp thought of the name Fanta.
After the war, Fanta was brought to the United States by Coca-Cola, and in 1960 they bought the trademark.
Fanta Orange is the most popular Fanta flavor.
It is available in 180 countries.
In terms of volume, Brazil is the largest consumer of Fanta in the world.
Fanta is more popular in Europe and South America than in the United States.
There are over 90 different flavors worldwide.
Most of them are only available by region in some countries.
For example, in Romania (and some other countries), there is "Fanta Shokata" based on the traditional Romanian drink "Socată".
This drink is made from Elderflower.
In Switzerland and the Netherlands the local fruit, blackcurrant is used to make Fanta as well.
Some identical flavors have different names in different markets. “
The classic orange”, for example, was renamed "Fanta Funky Orange" in 2003 for the Nordic countries and Belgium, while other countries have kept the older "Fanta Orange" brand name.
As of the year 2005, the Fanta brand has been connected with the word Bambaacha (or Bamboocha), which is often seen in the Fanta commercials.
TaB diet Cola was originally produced by the Fanta division of Coca-Cola.
It was available in different non-cola flavors as well.
Later in 2005, Fanta branched out into new Fanta Zero (diet versions) varieties in Great Britain and in other countries as well.
In some non-technical contexts or in jargon, parameter may simply be a synonym for criterion.
In mathematics, statistics, and the mathematical sciences, parameters (L: auxiliary measure) are quantities that define certain relatively constant characteristics of systems or functions.
Most commonly represented θ in general form, other symbols carry standard, specific meanings.
When evaluating the function over a domain or determining the response of the system over a period of time, the independent variables are modulated, while the parameters are held constant.
The function or system may then be reevaluated or reprocessed with different parameters, to give a function or system with different behavior.
In a section on frequently misused words in his book The Writer's Art, James J. Kilpatrick quoted a letter from a correspondent, giving examples to illustrate the correct use of the word parameter:
If asked to imagine the graph of the relationship , one typically visualizes a range of values of x, but only one value of a. Of course a different value of a can be used, generating a different graphical appearance.
The a can therefore be considered to be a parameter: less variable than the variable x, but less constant than the constant 2.
Suppose you want to buy a bike, and that you believe that the amount of money you are going to make next month is defined by the wage you receive per hour times the number of hours you are going to work (y = ax)(Income=wage x hours that you work).
You are able to influence the number of hours you work next month (your boss is very flexible), but you think that you will not be able to change the height of your wage (your boss is a real pain when it comes to discussing wages).
Then:
Your wage is the parameter
The number of hours you work is the variable.
This is of course depending on whether you think you can or cannot change your wage.
(y = 2ax)(Income=2 x wage x hours that you work).
the constant is 2
the parameter is your wage
the variable is the number of hours you are going to work
In engineering (especially involving data acquisition) the term parameter sometimes loosely refers to an individual measured item.
For example, an airliner flight data recorder may record 88 different items, each termed a parameter.
This usage is not consistent, as sometimes the term channel refers to an individual measured item, with parameter referring to the setup information about that channel.
"Speaking generally, properties are those physical quantities which directly describe the physical attributes of the system; parameters are those combinations of the properties which suffice to determine the response of the system.
Properties can have all sorts of dimensions, depending upon the system being considered; parameters are dimensionless, or have the dimension of time or its reciprocal."
John D. Trimmer, 1950, Response of Physical Systems (New York: Wiley), p. 13.
The term can also be used in engineering contexts, however, as it is typically used in the physical sciences.
The data that one computer program gives to another are sometimes called parameters.
Agavaceae is a family of plants.
Many of these plants grow in dry, hot climates.
Some grow in the desert.
Well-known plants of this family are the agave, yucca, and Joshua tree.
The family includes about 550-600 species in around 18 genera.
It is widespread in the tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world.
It is not quite clear how large the family really is.
There are genera which some biologists leave out of the family.
This includes for example Cordyline and Dracaena, which are sometimes separated off into a separate family, Dracaenaceae.
Recent research has tended to incorporate these into a larger family Ruscaceae, though.
Nolina, Beaucarnea, and Dasylirion are sometimes recognized as Nolinaceae or placed in Ruscaceae.
Conversely, data from molecular systematics now suggest that Agavaceae should be broadened to include a number of genera previously classified elsewhere.
Among them  are Chlorogalum, Camassia and the family Anthericaceae.
This would enlarge the family with anything up to 22 genera.
The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group's APG II classification places Agavaceae, along with a number of other families (including Ruscaceae) in an expanded family Asparagaceae.
However, APG II allows the alternative of keeping some of these families, including Agavaceae, separate.
In this case, it recommends expanding the family to include the genera currently classified in Anemarrhenaceae, Anthericaceae (with Anthericum and Paradisea), Behniaceae and Herreriaceae.
Most references have retained Agavaceae (in varying circumscriptions) as a family distinct from Asparagaceae.
Hesperocallis, sometimes placed in its own family, Hesperocallideaceae, has recently been shown to be closely related and its inclusion in Agavaceae has been recommended (Pires et al.
Some species are succulent.
In general, Agavaceae leaves occur as rosettes at the end of a woody stem, which may range from extremely short to tree-like heights, as in the Joshua tree.
The leaves are parallel-veined, and usually appear long and pointed, often with a hardened spine on the end, and sometimes with additional spines along the margins.
Agave species are used to make pulque and mezcal, while others are valued for their fibres.
They are quite popular for xeriscaping, many types having showy flowers.
Agavaceae in Flora of North America.
Agavaceae  in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards).
The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval.
Succulent plants are plants that have adapted to very dry climates.
They have adapted in such a way that they can store water, either in their leaves, stems or roots.
Often, they look different than plants that do not do this.
Their leaves may look more fleshy.
Almost all cacti are succulents.
Not all succulents are cacti.
Other plant families with this property are the Agavaceae (Agave family), Azioaceae and Crassulaceae.
Other well-known succulents are the Aloe and the bottle tree.
He showed his skills by helping defeat Guan Yu with the Wei army.
Sun Quan saw his potential and promoted him to main strategist in the Wu army after the death of Lu Meng.
He showed his talents  at Yiling where his tactics and fire attack lead Wu to victory.
He soon developed a name for himself when at Hefei castle his tactics crushed Wei and Cao Pi leaving only Shu and Liu Bei's son Liu Chan alive, who retreated and Wu gained full control of the land.
183 births
254 deaths
There are 79 known moons of Jupiter.
Jupiter has the second largest number of moons with reasonably stable orbits of any planet in the Solar System.
The most massive of the moons are the four Galilean moons, which were independently discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei and Simon Marius.
They were the first objects found to orbit a body that was neither Earth nor the Sun.
The Galilean moons are by far the largest and most massive objects to orbit Jupiter.
The other 75 known moons and the rings together make up just 0.003% of the total orbiting mass.
The four are Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.
They are roughly the same size as Earth's moon, some are a bit bigger, some are smaller.
From the end of the 19th century, dozens of much smaller Jovian moons have been discovered.
All these are less than  in diameter, with most barely exceeding .
Their orbital shapes range from nearly perfectly circular to highly eccentric and inclined.
Many revolve in the direction opposite to Jupiter's spin (retrograde motion).
Orbital periods range from seven hours (taking less time than Jupiter does to spin around its axis), to some three thousand times more (almost three Earth years).
List of moons
This list starts with those that go around Jupiter (orbit) the fastest.
That is, they have the shortest orbital period.
Moons highlighted in purple are the "Galilean moons," moons highlighted in dark gray have a retrograde orbit, and moons with the regular white background have a prograde orbit.
The planet Saturn has 53 named moons, and another 29 which are still being studied.
Many of the moons are very small: 33 are less than  in diameter and thirteen moons are less than .
Many of the moons are named after Titans, Giants, or minor Greek or Roman gods.
Some of Saturn's moons are very large; the moon Titan is bigger than the planet Mercury.
Confirmed moons
The moons of Saturn are listed here by orbital period (or semi-major axis), from shortest to longest.
Moons massive enough for their surfaces to have collapsed into a spheroid are highlighted in bold, while the irregular moons are listed in red, orange and gray background.
Unconfirmed moons
The following objects (observed by Cassini) have not been confirmed as solid bodies.
It is not yet clear if these are real satellites or merely persistent clumps within the F Ring.
Hypothetical moons
Two moons were claimed to be discovered by different astronomers but never seen again.
Both moons were said to orbit between Titan and Hyperion.
Chiron which was supposedly sighted by Hermann Goldschmidt in 1861, but never observed by anyone else.
Themis was allegedly discovered in 1905 by astronomer William Pickering, but never seen again.
Nevertheless, it was included in numerous almanacs and astronomy books until the 1960s.
Vande Mataram is the national slogan and national marching song of India.
It is not to be confused with the national anthem of India.
The lyrics were written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, in a mix of Sanskrit and Bengali.
The song was written in 1876, but published in 1882.
The title means "Long live the Mother[land]".
The first version of the Flag of India had "वन्दे मातरम्" (Vande Mataram) written on it.
Jana Gana Mana was chosen over Vande Mataram as the National Anthem of independent India in January 24, 1950, although before this date, Vande Mataram was treated as such.
Vande Mataram was rejected because it offended Muslims by calling India "Mother Durga" (a Hindu goddess), equating the nation with Hinduism, and by its origin as part of Anandamatha, a book they felt had an anti-Muslim message.
translated by Sri Aurobindo
brighttgyeusr6iw4h465ezuyrziaw with orchard gleams,
On compulsory singing, Aju John writes in Indlaw
Vande Mataram voted second in The World's Top Ten - BBC
Vande Mataram against Sikh tenets
Boycott threat over Indian song - BBC
1937 Congress Resolution on validity of Muslim objection to this song
"Vande Mataram and Muslims" - Islamic Voice
Listen Vande Mataram Online
Listen Vande Mataram in Dr.SPB's voice
This is a list of the 27 moons of Uranus.
They are listed by how long they take to orbit (go around once) Uranus.
They are all named after characters created by William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope.
The largest moon is Triton which was discovered by William Lassell just seventeen days after Neptune was found.
One hundred years later the second moon, Nereid was found.
The Hubble Telescope found the 14th moon in 2013.
Unusual orbits
Neptune has moons which have unusual orbits.
Triton, the largest moon of Neptune, has a retrograde orbit (which means Triton orbits or moves the opposite way from how Neptune spins).
Two moons, Psamathe (discovered in 2002) and Neso (discovered in 2003), are unusual because they have the largest orbits for any moons discovered in the solar system so far.
They take about 25 years to make one orbit and are 125 times more distant from Neptune than our Moon is from Earth.
How Neptune's moons formed
Many astronomers and scientists think that Neptune's inner moons were not original bodies that formed with Neptune, but were remains of debris from Triton that slowly came together.
Other scientists think that when Triton was captured by Neptune, Triton's mass and odd orbit caused Neptune's original moons to be destroyed by gravity, only to be reformed after Triton formed a stable orbit.
While many astronomers agree that Triton was not an original moon of Neptune, some think that Triton was captured in a "three-body-encounter".
What must have happened was that Triton was part of a binary pair with another unknown celestial body.
The pair was then captured but Triton survived and the other object being affected by Neptune's gravity.
Halimede, discovered in 2002, was perhaps a piece of Nereid when the moon was hit with another object.
Both moons seemed to have the same gray colors.
Also Halimede was also calculated that the moon had a high chance of colliding with Nereid in the past.
The Neptunian moons are listed here by its orbital period, from shortest to longest.
Triton, which is not only massive enough for its surface to have collapsed into a sphere, but is comparable in size to our own moon, is highlighted in purple.
Irregular (captured) moons are shown in grey; prograde in light grey and retrograde in dark grey. (
Triton is also thought to be captured.)
The picture at the right shows the orbits of Neptune's irregular moons discovered so far.
The eccentricity of the orbits is represented by the yellow segments (extending from the pericentre to the apocentre) with the inclination represented on Y axis.
The satellites above the X axis are prograde, the satellites beneath are retrograde.
The X axis is labelled in Gm (million km) and the fraction of the Hill sphere's (gravitational influence) radius (~116 Gm for Neptune).
Triton, the biggest moon following a retrograde but a quasi-circular orbit, also thought to be a captured satellite, is not shown.
Nereid, on a prograde but very eccentric orbit is believed to be scattered during Triton's capture.
Naming notes
Note that Triton did not have an official name until the twentieth century.
Although the name was suggested in 1880 by Camille Flammarion, it did not come into regular use until at least the 1930s.
Usually, it was simply known as "the satellite of Neptune" (the second satellite, Nereid, was not discovered until 1949).
One of the 14 moons is called Neptune.
Satellite (natural), the word for moons of other planets
Neptune's Moons  by NASA's Solar System Exploration
The king is the most valuable chess piece in a game of chess.
It can move left, right, up, down or diagonally.
It can only move one square at a time.
When recording chess games, king is shortened to K.
The object of the game is to checkmate (capture the king).
If a player's king is attacked by an opponent's piece, it is called check.
The player with the attacked king must move so that the king is no longer in check.
If the king cannot do this, it is in checkmate, and that side loses the game.
With a rook, the king may make a special move called 'castling'.
This is when the king moves two squares toward one of its rooks and then the rook is placed on the other side of the king.
Castling consists of moving the king two squares on its first rank toward either one of the first rooks, then moving the rook onto the square over which the king crossed.
Castling is only allowed when the king nor the castling rook has moved already, when no squares between them are occupied, when the king is not in check, and when the king will not move across or end its movement on a square that puts the king in check.
Check and Checkmate
If a player's move places the opponent's king under attack, that king is in check, and the player in check is made to stop the attack.
There are three possible ways to remove the king from check:
Moving the king to an adjacent non-threatened square
Blocking the check with another piece between the king in check and the attacking piece in order to break the line of threat (not possible when the attacking piece is a knight, or when in double check).
Capturing the attacking piece (not possible in double check, unless the king captures)
If none of these three ways are possible, the player's king has been checkmated and the player with the checkmated king loses the game.
In the opening and middlegame, the king will mostly not play an active role in the development of an attacking or defensive position.
Instead, a player will usually castle and find safety on the edge of the board behind pawns.
In the endgame, however, the king may comes out of hiding to play an active role as an offensive piece as well as helping in the promotion of their remaining pawns.
In thermodynamics, work transfer is an energy transfer in which temperature is not considered during energy transfer.
Unit is always in Joules.
It is also a result of force acting through the distance.
W=FxD
Work, i.e. "weight lifted through a height", was originally defined in 1824 by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in his famous paper Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire.
Specifically, according to Carnot:
In 1845, the English physicist James Joule wrote a paper On the mechanical equivalent of heat for the British Association meeting in Cambridge.
In this work, he reported his best-known experiment, in which the work released through the action of a "weight falling through a height" was used to turn a paddle-wheel in an insulated barrel of water.
In this experiment, the friction and agitation of the paddle-wheel on the body of water caused heat to be generated which, in turn, increased the temperature of water.
Both the temperature change ∆T of the water and the height of the fall ∆h of the weight mg were recorded.
Using these values, Joule was able to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat.
Joule estimated a mechanical equivalent of heat to be 819 ft•lbf/Btu (4.41 J/cal).
The modern day definitions of heat, work, temperature, and energy all have connection to this experiment.
According to the First law of thermodynamics, it is useful to separate changes to the internal energy of a thermodynamic system into two sorts of energy transfers.
Work refers to forms of energy transfer which can be accounted for in terms of changes in the macroscopic physical variables of the system, for example energy which goes into expanding the volume of a system against an external pressure, by driving a piston-head out of a cylinder against an external force.
This is in contrast to heat energy, which is carried into or out of the system in the form of transfers in the microscopic thermal motions of particles.
The concept of thermodynamic work is slightly more general than that of mechanical work because it includes other types of energy transfers as well.
The electrical work required to move a charge against an external electrical field can be measured, as can the work required to move heat against a temperature gradient.
Thermodynamic work need not have any mechanical component to be considered such.
In thermodynamics, the internal energy of a thermodynamic system, or a body with well-defined boundaries, denoted by U, or sometimes E, is the total of the kinetic energy due to the motion of molecules (translational, rotational, vibrational) and the potential energy associated with the vibrational and electric energy of atoms within molecules or crystals.
It includes the energy in all the chemical bonds, and the energy of the free, conduction electrons in metals.