the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
In mammals like humans, the gases come from two sources: swallowed air (for example, while eating, talking or drinking) and gases naturally created by bacteria in the body during digestion.
Of the gases that come out during flatuence, most of it is nitrogen (which has the chemical formula N2 and makes up between 20% to 90% of all the gases), followed by hydrogen (H), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2) and methane (CH4).
7 Easy Ways to Tame Excessive Gas
Computability theory is part of computer science.
Scientists want to know what can be computed, and what can not.
There is a model of a computer that is used for this.
It is called the Turing machine.
A Turing machine basically is a special typewriter with an endless ribbon.
The machine is named after the mathematician Alan Turing.
A problem is computable if it can be expressed in such a way that a Turing machine can solve it.
One of the best known examples is the Halting problem.
The task is to write a program which says for all programs whether they will finally stop.
This is impossible to decide.
Mathematicians say the problem is undecidable.
Batman is a city in southeast Turkey.
It is the capital (city) of the province with the same name.
In 2010, 325,000 people lived there.
There are many Kurds in that area.
The area has much oil and gas.
There is a railway track at Kurtalan, near this city.
The track runs all the way to Istanbul.
There is also an airport near Batman.
The name is short for the Bati Raman mountains.
Batman Municipality
A typewriter is a machine that is for typing on a piece of paper instead of writing by hand.
It has keys for typing letters, numerals, and symbols one at a time.
Typewriters were created in 1829.
Typewriters were originally invented to make writing faster and printing.
The earliest typing was done on stone, clay, or metal sheets by inscribing them.
A typewriter does not have computer memory.
As with writing with a pen, it is difficult to correct mistakes.
One advantage is that many of them are not electrical, so you do not need to plug them in.
Hackers cannot see what you have typed.
On many typewriters, a separate type element (called a typebar) corresponds to each key.
The first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874.
They did not become common in offices until after the mid-1880s.
Typewriters quickly became a necessary tool for almost all writing other than personal handwritten letters.
They were used a lot by professional writers, in offices, and for business correspondence in private homes.
Typewriters were common in most offices up to the 1980s.
After that, computers often replaced them.
Nevertheless, typewriters are still common in some parts of the world.
They are needed for a few specific applications, and they are popular in certain subcultures.
Early typewriters, and later cheap ones, were "manual" typewriters.
This means they were powered completely by the user.
After the mid-20th century, electric typewriters with a motor became most common.
Nocturnal (Latin: nox - night, darkness) animals are animals that are mainly active during the night.
They hunt or feed during the night, and sleep during the day.
Diurnal animals do it the other way around.
Crepuscular animals are mostly active near dawn, dusk, and sometimes when the full moon throws light.
Domestic cats hunt mice and voles mostly at this time.
Cathemeral animals are equally likely to be awake and active at any time of day or night.
Many nocturnal animals have good night vision.
Their large eyes may be highly reflective when a bright light flashes on them.
Owls and bats are typical nocturnal predators.
More specifically, they have a larger cornea relative to their eye size than diurnal creatures.
This increases their visual sensitivity in low-light conditions.
Examples of nocturnal animals
Censorship is when an authority (such as a government or  religion) cuts out or suppresses communication.
This has been done widely.
All countries, religions and societies have their limits as to what can be said, or written or communication by art or nowadays by computer.
Certain facts are changed or removed on purpose.
This may be done because it is considered wrong, harmful, sensitive, or inconvenient to the government or other authority.
This can be done for different reasons.
A censor is a person whose job is to look at all types of media and remove material.
There are many reasons to censor something, like protecting military secrets, stopping immoral or anti-religious works, or keeping political power.
Censorship is almost always used as an insult, and there is much debate over what censorship is and when it is okay.
When there is freedom of speech and freedom of the press, most information can published.
However, even in developed countries with much freedom of the press, there are some things that cannot be published.
For example, journalists are usually not allowed to publish many secrets about the military, like where troops will be sent on a mission.
Pornography is censored in some countries because it is seen as not moral.
For these reasons, the government might arrest anyone who publishes it.
Moral censorship: It is thought that certain facts may be inappropriate for the audience.
There are many countries that limit who may see pornography.
Additionally, it may be forbidden to show or write about certain forms of pornography, such as child pornography.
Obscene words may be forbidden.
Since about 1960 pressure groups have tried to stop the use of some words in favour of others.
This has happened especially with words that describe race and gender.
Military censorship: In a war, all news reports might be censored.
This is done to guarantee that the enemy cannot get information that might be used to plan an attack.
Very often, this includes the size of military troops, but also the strategies and tactics used
Political censorship: A government (or a political party) may hold back certain kinds of information.
This is done to avoid rebellions or embarrassment, or control the population by withholding certain information which those in power feel would damage their reputation or image,
Religious censorship: Often, there is a dominant religion which removes or changes certain kinds of information.
Examples for this are the Vatican censoring Galileo Galilei, or the Iranian Ayatollah Khomeini banning The Satanic Verses, a novel by Salman Rushdie.
In Romania, many schools no longer teach evolution, and many schools in the US and UK refuse to discuss Creationism.
Corporate censorship: (Often large) businesses stop the publication of material because it shows some of their business idea, or their employees in a bad light, and bad light is not good
There is much debate about when censorship should be allowed.
For example, U.S. President Richard Nixon censored the New York Times when they tried to publish articles about the Pentagon Papers, a group of classified military documents that showed that Nixon and the military lied about the Vietnam War.
The Supreme Court in New York Times Co v. United States overturned the censorship, saying that Nixon had not shown it would be dangerous to the military, just embarrassing.
In other countries, journalists and bloggers (who are usually not seen as journalists) are sometimes arrested for saying bad things about the government.
In Egypt, Kareem Amer was famously arrested for insulting Islam and calling the president of Egypt, Hosni Mubarak, a dictator.
Non-governmental censorship
Governments are not the only ones who censor information.
For example, when the history department at Middlebury College did not allow professors to accept Wikipedia as a source in papers, some said it was censorship.
This was because the department was telling professors (who usually have academic freedom) what works they should or should not accept.
Sometimes, a group or a website will not allow some facts, articles, and pictures that they do not think should be seen.
There is much debate over the difference between censorship and editing, that is, deciding what should or should not be published.
Censorship of knowledge
Sometimes there is censorship of knowledge because it is believed  that the average person can be harmed by access to it.
On July 16, 2019 the National Post ran an article about a woman who was banned fromTwitter.
Lindsay Shepherd who is described as a Free speech advocate claimed that twitter has been too eager  to censor  right-wing public figures.
Shepherd was a teaching assistant at Wilfrid Laurier University.
Częstochowa is a city in south Poland on the Warta River.
It has 248,894 residents.
It has been in the Silesian Voivodeship (administrative division) since 1999, and was once the capital of Częstochowa Voivodship (1975-1998).
The town is known for the famous monastery of Jasna Góra Monastery, which is the home of the Black Madonna painting, a shrine of the Virgin Mary.
Every year, thousands of people from all over the world come to Częstochowa to see it.
City name
The name Częstochowa means Częstoch's place, and comes from the name of a person, Częstoch.
It is mentioned in medieval documents also as Częstobor and Częstomir.
Częstochowa is also known as Czestochowa, Czenstochov, and Chenstochov.
Currently, the city is one of the main tourist attractions in the area.
It attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors every year.
A Voivodeship is one of 16 different divisions of land in Poland.
The word comes from the Polish "wojewoda" meaning a governor.
This is an article about the years 50 AD to 59 AD.
Sometimes, the 50s is used for the 1950s.
The Roman emperor Claudius is murdered in (54).
Nero be comes emperor.
Buddhism comes to China through the Emperor Ming of Han China
Claudius, Roman Emperor (41–54).
Nero, Roman Emperor (54–68).
Kujula Kadphises, Kushan emperor
Saint Paul, Christian evangelist
Emperor Ming of Han China
Juvenal, Roman poet.
Domitian, Emperor of Rome
Claudius, Emperor of Rome
Agrippina the younger, mother of Nero
The teams are separated by a large net.
It has six players on each side of the net.
Each team is allowed twelve substitution players.
The game starts when the captain from each team decides which side of the court they will play on, by the toss of a coin, which also determines who will serve (hit) the ball first.
The point of the game is to keep the ball in the air.
The ball can be played with any part of the body, with a maximum of three strokes a team.
If at any point the ball hits the floor, the side that the ball landed on it is a point for the other team.
In 1895, William G. Morgan invented a new game called "Mintonette".
However, when an observer named Alfred Halstead saw the game being played, he noticed the volleying action used to get the ball over the net, so he decided to change the name to "volleyball".
Morgan wanted to create a skilled activity, which required more players, less space, and less exertion than basketball.
The first net was a “rope” and the first ball was a basketball air bladder.
Until 1960, men and women played with different rules.
Now the rules are the same except for the height of the net, the men’s net is higher.
A player cannot hit the ball twice.
A point is gained when a team plays the ball in the opposition's court and the ball is not defended, therefore it lands within the court.
The ball must be served (hit) from outside the court, otherwise, it will be regarded as a foul.
The game is played in sets of 25 points (sometimes 21).
The team that reaches 25 (or 21) points first, wins the set.
Each game consists of 3-5 sets (or the first one to 3 in middle school).
The fifth set is played to 15 points.
A player usually wears knee pads to protect their knees from becoming bruised during dives for the volleyball.
In order to win the game, the winners must be ahead by 2 points or the game goes on until you win by 2 points.
The sports governing body is the  (FIVB).
Digging is the ability to prevent the ball from touching one's court after a spike or attack, particularly a ball that is nearly touching the ground.
Usually, the player is diving (throwing themselves towards the ground) to be the barrier to block the ball from hitting the court.
In many aspects, this skill is similar to passing, or bumping: overhand dig and bump are also used to distinguish between defensive actions taken with fingertips or with joined arms.
A player may sometimes perform a "dive", i.e., throw his or her body in the air with a forward movement in an attempt to save the ball, and land on his or her chest.
When the player also slides his or her hand under a ball that is almost touching the court, this is called a "pancake".
The pancake is frequently used in indoor volleyball.
Besides being one of the best-known sports in the world, and being a favourite to millions of people, it is in the Olympics.
The positions in volleyball are separated into 6 areas, the first being Position 1 which is the back right side on the side that you are.
Position 2 is on the right side of the court closest to the net, Position 3 is in the middle of the front part of the court right beside the net, Position 4 is on the left side of the court right beside the net, Position 5 is in the back left side of the court, and Position 6 is in the middle of the back of the court.
The court is .
A net is stretched tightly in the middle.
The height of the net is  for middle and high schools and college women, 7,11 feet (2.43 m) for college men.
The objective of the game is to legally return the ball over the net in such a manner that the opponent’s team cannot make a legal return.
The main causes of illegal plays are: holding, carrying, or lifting with the palm of the hands, four touches on one side, and two consecutive touches by one player.
A regulation game is played with six players on the court.
They are to rotate to serve in a clockwise direction when facing the net.
The server will come from the right front position, serve, then play the right back position.
Rally scoring is used in volleyball, which means a point will be awarded to one of the two teams when a rally ends or a mistake is made.
A rally is a play in volleyball and can be started by a serve.
A regulation game is played to 25 points and the winners must be ahead by 2 points.
A middle and high school game is played best out of three games.
If the games are tied at 1-1, the 3rd game is played to 15 points and the winners must be ahead by 2 points.
Serving: may be underhand or overhand.
If the serve touches the net and goes to the opponent’s side, it must be played.
The server is not allowed to step on or over the end line when serving.
In class, the server must say the score before serving.
Float: Similar to a knuckle ball in baseball, the server stands flat footed and contacts the ball with a stiff wrist and does not swing through after contact.
This causes no spin to be on the ball, allowing it to catch any air current and causes the ball to change directional course throughout the whole air course.
Top Spin: This serve is executed by snapping hard on the ball during contact.
This puts a forward spin on the ball, which causes it to drop faster than a float.
Jump Serve: A jump serve is used to assist the server get more height.
By jumping they have a better angle to put the ball down into the court, and are less likely to be underneath the ball.
This can be a float or topspin ball depending on the contact, arm swing, and approach.
Pass or Bump (underarm pass): This is a pass used when the ball approaches a player below their shoulders.
You are to hold your fingers together, elbows straight, and contact the ball with the forearms with shoulders facing the net on impact.
Defined as a dig when passing a hard driven hit.
Also pancaking is a form of passing.
This is when the player has sprawled out to the floor in a last hope type of decision for the ball to land on their hand and it pop straight up.
Set or volley: (overhead pass) direct the ball to a place specifically.
Hands high, flex wrist, contact the ball with the finger pads, and elbows bent.
Use your legs and arms to project the ball into the air.
Hit: A hard hit ball from a height above the net, straight to the opponent’s side.
Contact the ball with the cupped fingers and a long arm swing.
Block: (defensive hit) Two hands above the head, jumping with arms reaching for a ball that has been spiked.
A block is used to prevent a volley from crossing the net.
it usually hits the ball straight down or up!
Incredible Volleyball Actions
In the morning, dawn is when it is not dark any more, and the light of the sun is just starting to appear, before sunrise.
In the evening, it is the other way around and that phenomenon is called dusk.
At sunset, the sun disappears, and darkness is settling in.
Light fades away.
Civil twilight is when the sun is less than 6° below the horizon.
It ends at sunrise in the morning or follows sunset in the evening.
Dark twilight is when the sun is between 6° and 9° below the horizon.
Black twilight is when the sun is between 9° and 12° below the horizon.
Astronomical twilight is when the sun is between 12° and 18° below the horizon.
For all these definitions, the horizon is at sea level.
Definition of Twilight, US Naval Observatory
Twilight time calculator
Formulae to calculate twilight duration , by Herbert Glarner
The Great Depression was the great economic crisis that started after the U.S. stock market crash in 1929.
The prices on the Wall Street stock market fell a lot from October 24 to October 29, 1929.
By 1932, 25–30% of people lost their jobs.
They became homeless and poor.
This ended the wealth of the Roaring Twenties.
Many people think that the Great Depression started on Tuesday, October 29, but economists think Black Tuesday was just one of the causes.
From 1929 to 1932, the depression worsened.
Many suspect that increased taxes on American citizens and the increased tariffs (taxes on countries which trade with the United States) worsened it.
Economist Milton Friedman said that the Great Depression was worsened because the Federal Reserve printed out less money than usual.
When the Great Depression started, Herbert Hoover was the president of the United States, and as a result, he was blamed for it.
People voted for a new president in 1932.
His name was Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Roosevelt got the government to pass many new laws and programs to help people who were hurt by the Great Depression.
These programs were called the New Deal.
One of these programs was the Civilian Conservation Corps, or CCC.
The CCC put many young men to work in the outdoors.
The men were paid thirty dollars a month, of which twenty five dollars was sent home to support their families, to work, and they got free food and shelter.
Another program was called Social Security.
Social Security gave old people a small income so they had money for things they needed.
The Great Depression was really bad, but with everyone's help, it would get better.
Between 1939 and 1944, more people had jobs again because of World War II, and the Great Depression came to an end.
The Great Depression followed a decade of rapid economic growth and urbanization.
After the Wall Street Crash of 1929, business declined as it had after previous stock market crashes.
However, people still had hope.
John D. Rockefeller said that "These are days when many are discouraged.
In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come and gone.
Prosperity (wealth) has always returned (come back) and will again."
But soon the bad effects of the depression grew worse and worse.
More people lost jobs, money, and homes.
There were reports that in Germany and the United States, there were great hunger, disease, and even starvation.
Nations used protectionism more than in recent decades.
This diminished international trade.
Farmers were usually safe from the severe effects of previous depressions because they could at least feed themselves.
During the Great Depression, the Great Plains were also hit hard with a drought and dust storms.
This was called the Dust Bowl.
Years of overgrazing combined with drought caused the grass to disappear.
With topsoil exposed, high winds picked up the loose dirt and carried it over long distances.
The dust storms destroyed crops, leaving farmers without food or something to sell.
Small farmers were hit especially hard.
Even before the dust storms hit, the invention of the tractor drastically cut the need for manpower on farms.
These small farmers were usually already in debt, borrowing money for seed and paying it back when their crops came in.
When the dust storms damaged the crops, not only could the small farmer not feed himself and his family, he could not pay back his debt.
Banks would then foreclose on the mortgage and the farmer's family would be homeless, unemployed and poor.
The Crusades end.
February 8 – King Afonso IV of Portugal (d. 1357)
October 31 – Philippe de Vitry, French composer (d. 1361)
Pope Clement VI (d. 1352)
Theodore I of Montferrat (d. 1338)
Aimone of Savoy (d. 1343)
March 10 – Arghun, Mongol ruler
June 18 – King Alfonso III of Aragon (b. 1265)
June 26 – Eleanor of Provence, queen of Henry III of England
July 15 – Rudolph I of Germany, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1218)
Hong Dagu, Korean military leader (b. 1244)
Talabuga, khan of the Blue Horde
Delhi (;  Dillī;  Dillī;  Dēhlī), officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT), is a territory in India.
It includes the country's capital New Delhi.
It is bigger than the Faroe Islands but smaller than Guadeloupe.
Delhi is a part of the National Capital Region, which has 12.5 million residents.
The governance of Delhi is like that of a state in India.
It has its own legislature, high court and a council of executive ministers.
Delhi is on the banks of the Yamuna River.
Historians have evidence that people have been living in this region since at least the 6th century BC.
People also believe that the legendary city of Indraprastha was here.
This city has many remains and monuments of historic importance.
The India Gate is a war memorial in Delhi.
Following the Bangladesh Liberation war in 1972, a structure consisting of a black marble plinth with a reversed rifle, capped by a war helmet and bounded by four eternal flames, was built beneath the archway.
This structure, called Amar Jawan Jyoti (Flame of the Immortal Soldier), has since 1971 served as India's tomb of the unknown soldier
Nightlife in Delhi
newstaza
The European Central Bank (ECB) is the central bank for the euro and administers monetary policy of the eurozone, which consists of 19 EU member states and is one of the largest currency areas in the world.
The capital stock of the bank is owned by the central banks of all 28 EU member states.
The Treaty of Amsterdam established the bank in 1998, and it is headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany.
the President of the ECB is Mario Draghi, former governor of the Bank of Italy, former member of the World Bank, and former managing director of the Goldman Sachs international division (2002–2005).
The bank primarily occupied the Eurotower prior to, and during, the construction of the new headquarters.
The primary objective of the ECB, mandated in Article 2 of the Statute of the ECB, is to maintain price stability within the Eurozone.
Its basic tasks, set out in Article 3 of the Statute, are to set and implement the monetary policy for the Eurozone, to conduct foreign exchange operations, to take care of the foreign reserves of the European System of Central Banks and operation of the financial market infrastructure under the TARGET2 payments system and the technical platform (currently being developed) for settlement of securities in Europe (TARGET2 Securities).
Member states can issue euro coins, but the amount must be authorised by the ECB beforehand.
The ECB is governed by European law directly, but its set-up resembles that of a corporation in the sense that the ECB has shareholders and stock capital.
Its capital is €11 billion held by the national central banks of the member states as shareholders.
The initial capital allocation key was determined in 1998 on the basis of the states' population and GDP, but the capital key has been adjusted.
Shares in the ECB are not transferable and cannot be used as collateral.
The European Central Bank is the main bank of the European Union.
The European Central Bank is in Frankfurt am Main.
The main goal of the European Central Bank is to maintain price stability, in other words make sure inflation is below 2%.
This is done by e.g. controlling the interest rates.
It is also the only bank allowed to issue euro banknotes (€), used by 16 of the 28 member states of the European Union (EU).
Wim Duisenberg (from the Netherlands): 1998-2003
Jean-Claude Trichet (from France): 2003-2011
Mario Draghi (from Italy): 2011-present
Banks of Europe
1998 establishments in Europe
People who are friends talk to each other and spend time together.
They trust one another and also help each other when they are in trouble or are hurt.
Friends are people that can be looked up to and trusted.
Usually, friends have similar interests.
A friend is one who admires a person's skill and helps or encourages them to make the right choices and do not get into any trouble at all.
The strength of the bond of friendship between two people can vary.
If the bond is very strong, they are called best friends.
This can usually be achieved by possessing the elements of friendship, by being kind, generous, loyal, honest, and by having fun.
With these qualities, you can truly enjoy the bliss of friendship.
There are expectations, demands, and complaints in friendship too.
If friends don't match your expectations, it does not mean you will break the friendship.
It is all about understanding, realizing, and helping whenever possible.
Friendship is both good and necessary.
Man cannot live all alone.
He is a social being.
He needs someone to share his joys and sorrows.
Generally, it is only people of similar age, character, and background, mentality, etc.,
who can understand him and his problems.
Friends are needed for support and for sharing.
There are many different types of friendships.
Most people find friends at a very young age however it is harder for others.
Many movies are based on a group of friends.
An example of a friendship would be that of Sierra, Olivia, Emma, Langli, and Mallory in the movie Eight grade Whittier.
The word Friendship is also the official motto of Texas.
State mottos of the United States
The clitoris is a female genital organ.
It includes erectile tissue, glands, muscles and ligaments, nerves, and blood vessels.
In an embryo there is a small raised point that grows into a clitoris in girls or a penis in boys.
Inside the penis, there is the urethra, but there is no urethra in the clitoris.
In women, the urethra is hidden behind the clitoris and in front of the vagina.
Penises with male urethras are used daily for urination, and can be used for sex: semen passes out of the body through the male urethra.
Although the parts are placed differently, the clitoris is a match to the male penis.
The clitoris causes females sexual pleasure, arousal and orgasm.
Rubbing or applying other consistent pressure to it is usually needed to help the female have an orgasm.
During sexual arousal, erectile tissue fills with blood.
This causes the clitoris to grow.
It grows until orgasm happens.
Also during arousal, touching the clitoris and other sensitive areas of the female genitals makes a woman's vagina change shape and release a lubricant.
The lubricant and change of shape makes it easier for a man to enter a woman and for sex to occur.
Most of the clitoris is hidden inside the body.
Only a small part of it is seen outside the body.
Adding the outside and inside parts, the clitoris is about the same size as the penis.
The clitoris and penis grow from the same tissue in the womb; they bear many similar parts.
Parts of the clitoris
Outside the body
The parts of the clitoris that can be seen from the outside are located from the clitoral junction (the point where the outer lips meet at the base of the pubic mound) to the fork (where the lower edges of the inner lips meet below the vaginal opening).
The outside parts include:
the glans: the head or tip.
It is filled with nerve endings.
The glans creates pleasurable feelings.
It also increases a woman's sexual response.
the hood: the fold of skin formed by the outer edges of the inner lips.
It covers the glans.
The hood is the same as the male foreskin.
the inner lips: hairless and very sensitive to touch.
Inside the body
The parts of the clitoris inside the body include erectile tissue, glands, muscles, blood vessels, and nerves.
In both the clitoris and the penis, there are two types of erectile tissue.
These are corpus cavernosum (cavern-like body) and vestibular bulbs.
These tissues fill with blood during sexual arousal.
This causes an erection.
The clitoral shaft is connected to the glans.
It is just underneath the surface of the skin.
The shaft is a round spongy erectile tissue.
It is very sensitive like the glans.
It feels like a hard ridge.
The shaft is about  long.
It moves toward the pubic mound for a short distance, then bends sharply and divides.
This forms two thin legs.
These legs are also made of spongy tissue.
The legs spread out like the wishbone of a chicken.
The Berlin Wall (German: Berliner Mauer) was a wall that separated the city of Berlin in Germany from 1961 to 1989.
It separated the eastern half from the western half.
Many people thought it was a symbol of the Cold War.
The Berlin Wall was taken down on November 9, 1989.
The Berlin Wall was about  long.
It was built to prevent people from escaping from the eastern half of Berlin.
Division of Germany
After World War II ended, Germany was divided into four zones, one zone for each of the main Allied countries: France, the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Union.
Its capital Berlin was also divided into four zones, so that it was an enclave, like an island inside the Soviet zone.
On May 8, 1949, the French, United Kingdom and US zones were made into West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany, Bundesrepublik Deutschland, BRD) and West Berlin.
The Soviet zones were made into East Germany and East Berlin.
East Germany (German Democratic Republic, Deutsche Demokratische Republik, DDR) was founded on October 7, 1949.
Europe, Germany and Berlin were divided by an iron curtain.
What led to the building of the wall
After Germany split into West and East Germany on May 8, 1949, 2.6 million East Germans left to go to West Germany.
In Berlin alone, 3.6 million people fled to the west.
To stop this, on August 13, 1961, the Communist government of East Germany built a wall separating East and West Berlin.
The wall was built to keep the country's people in.
But the Soviets and East German government said it was to keep capitalism out.
They said that West Germany refused to recognize East Germany as an independent country because they wanted to take over North-East Germany just like Hitler took over Poland.
People still tried to escape even though the Berlin Wall was there.
They used many methods to get around the guards and barbed wire on the Berlin Wall.
In the late 1980s, Mikhail Gorbachev said that the Soviet Union would not use the Red Army to stop the people of Eastern and Middle Europe from changing their government.
After he said that, several countries began to change the way they governed their people.
Hungary opened its border and people from East Germany began moving to the west through Hungary.
In October 1989 mass demonstrations against the government in East Germany began.
The long-time leader, Erich Honecker, resigned and was replaced by Egon Krenz a few days later.
Honecker had predicted in January 1989 that the wall would stand for a "hundred more years" if the conditions which had caused its construction did not change.
This did not turn out to be true.
In November, 1989, the Central Committee of East Germany decided to make it easier for East Germans to pass through the wall.
A mistake by the press officer meant the border was opened several hours before it should have been.
Millions of East German citizens celebrated the opening of the wall.
Many collected souvenirs with chisels and some television stations filmed people hitting the wall with sledge hammers.
This image of people in West Berlin hitting the wall is often said to be East Berliners breaking out.
The eastern side of the wall had no graffiti on it.
All pictures of people chipping away at the wall show people hitting graffiti covered walls.
Less than one year after the Berlin Wall was broken down, Germany again became one country.
Death toll
In the 28 years of its existence, between 125 and 206 people were killed when trying to cross the Berlin Wall.
At least 800 more people were killed outside Berlin, trying to cross from East Germany to the west.
Those people who were caught alive in an attempt to flee, had to go to jail for at least five years.
The first victim of the Wall was Ida Siekmann.
She was fatally injured after jumping out of the window of her apartment.
She fell onto the pavement on the west side.
The first victim of the Wall to be shot at was Günter Litfin.
He was 24 years old and was shot by police, near the railway station of Berlin Friedrichstrasse, when he tried to get into the West.
This was on 24 August, 1961, only eleven days after the border had been closed.
Peter Fechter bled to death in the death strip, on 17 August, 1962.
This led to a public outcry.
American troops watched him, but could not help him.
The East-German border policemen, who had wounded him, did not help him either.
In 1966, two children, aged ten and thirteen years, were killed in the border strip.
This is unusual because the East German border police had orders to not shoot on pregnant women, children or mentally ill people.
On 6 February, 1989, border guards shot and killed Chris Gueffroy as he tried to cross the wall.
He was the last person to be killed by border guards.
On 8 March, 1989, Winfried Freudenberg died after falling from a gas balloon.
He was the last person to die trying to cross the Berlin Wall and escape into West Berlin.
The Riots of Berlin
The Berlin wall eventually started to fall once people rioted.
Many jumped on top of the wall, and even crowded against it.
This caused the wall to collapse in some areas, and more people could get through to the refugee camps that were set up on the other side.
was a speech made by United States President Ronald Reagan to Soviet Union leader Mikhail Gorbachev to destroy the wall.
The speech was made at the Brandenburg Gate near the Berlin Wall on June 12, 1987.
It was made to honor the 750th anniversary of Berlin.
His speech and its fallout might have aided in the wall's demolition.
Fall of the Wall
By late 1989 the GDR was suffering from many problems such as a struggling economy, and large-scale protests.
The Hungarian regime had collapsed and  was dismantling its border fences with Austria by August 1989.
Since the Warsaw Pact allowed citizens to travel within the Soviet bloc, many East German tourists fled to the west via Hungary.
When the Hungarian government refused the GDR's demand to stop defectors, East Germany banned all travel to Hungary; prompting demonstrations and protest.
This began the GDR's isolation within the bloc.
Erich Honecker, leader of the GDR since 1971, was forced to resign on October 18, 1989.
He was replaced by Egon Krenz after a unanimous vote by the politburo.
Under Krenz's regime, East Germans could still escape to Hungary via Czechoslovakia.
The number of defectors grew and caused tensions between East Germany and Czechoslovakia.
The Krenz regime decided to allow people to leave directly to the west through border checkpoints in East Berlin.
This prompted many East Germans, who learned about it broadcast from West German media, to go to the border crossings and demand to be let through immediately.
Border guards at each checkpoint told the people to go back home as they had no orders that the wall would open that night.
As time passed, the number of people arriving at the checkpoint was increasing and the guards were becoming alarmed.
They began taking the more aggressive people aside and stamped their passports with a special stamp that allowed them access to West Berlin however, the people were not aware that they were effectively revoking their East German citizenship and were shocked to be refused entry back into the GDR.
The Chief Guard of the checkpoint frantically telephoned his superiors hoping to get answers as to why so many people thought that the wall was to open.
By 22:45, it was clear that the outnumbered and overwhelmed border guards would not use their weapons to suppress the crowds.
The Chief Guard surrendered and ordered the gates to West Berlin to be opened.
The crowds of East Berliners were met with crowds of West Berliners in a happy scene as the Berlin wall had just fallen.
Many people even climbed up onto the wall by the Brandenburg Gate in protest and began to chisel away at the wall.
The GDR authorities responded to this initially by blasting the people with water cannons; this proved to be ineffective.
The East German army later climbed up onto the wall to prevent others from standing on the wall.
The government began demolishing the wall the next day.
The fall of the wall destroyed the SED, the ruling party of the GDR, and caused many of its officials to resign.
The German Democratic Republic would cease to exist less than a year later; reuniting with the Federal Republic of Germany on October 3, 1990.
What the wall was made of
The wall was changed and added to several times.
It was not really a wall, but a collection of walls and fences and other devices.
This is what the border fence was made of, starting from the east, going west
Concrete wall or wire fence, 2–3 meters high
Signalling system in the floor, which would cause an alarm to be sounded when touched
Contact wire fence with barbed wire fence.
Taller than a man.
(Not in all places) Kennels for dogs.
With German Shepherd Dogs or other trained dogs.
(Not in all places) Equipment and trenches to stop vehicles and tanks.
These systems would be removed (if the West paid for the removal).
Most were replaced later.
Streets to get replacements and reinforcements in.
Watchtowers (in 1989 there were 302 of them).
Including searchlights
death strip.
This was an area in which all of the buildings were torn down, with nowhere to hide.
Sometimes there were strips of sand where footprints could be detected.
Metallic fence, then the border itself:
Concrete wall, 3.75 metres in height.
Very hard to climb.
The whole was done in an a zone of between 30 and 500 m wide.
The official (civil border) began before the first fence.
Entering the installation required a special permit.
The real border was about one or two metres in front of the concrete wall, so that the whole of the wall complex was inside East Germany (only the East Berlin part of the wall was inside East Berlin).
The border between East Germany and West Germany was also heavily defended with fences and mines.
East Germans needed a special permit to live close to the border.
What is left today
After the Reunification of Germany in October 3, 1990, the Berlin Wall was demolished and taken away.
A few sections of the wall remain; some of the sections became a museum.
Of the total of 302 watchtowers, 5 are left.
The so-called Todesstreifen (death zone) can still be seen in many places.
Some of them are large areas of brown, uncultivated land.
Sometimes they are now parks.
There is a private museum at Checkpoint Charlie.
There is a cemetery near Checkpoint Charlie, remembering the victims of the Wall.
The East Berlin special police who guarded the wall had the order to shoot if this was necessary to stop people fleeing.
East German leaders such as Egon Krenz were arrested after German reunification because guards were ordered to shoot to kill.
However, after the Wall was built, many people were no longer able to leave East Berlin using normal border posts.
The only way they could do so was to race through the Wall or try to dig a tunnel underneath.
After the unification of Germany, border guards who had shot people were convicted by West German Courts.
The judges said, that some of the laws of the border police (about shooting) were against human rights.
They therefore should have refused to shoot.
Border guards who did shoot, and stop someone from fleeing could get a reward of up to 500 Marks.
Some of those guards were sentenced after the unification.
The other choice was to not shoot, or to miss badly.
Such guards risked losing their well-paid jobs.
In 1988, there was a swapping of territory between East and West Berlin.
Some territory, called the Lenné triangle (near Potsdamer Platz), was now part of the West.
A few days after the swap, a group of ecology protestors fled from the western police into East Berlin, over the Wall.
They were given a meal and sent back by the border guards.
Another strip of land was given to West Berlin.
This strip was only the width of a road which joined West Berlin with a tiny exclave.
www.wall-berlin.org
Berlin Wall Fotos an More (In German)
Retracing the Berlin Wall
Bernauer Straße Memorial website
Allied Forces in Berlin (FR, UK & US Berlin Brigade)
Photographs of time of the Fall as well as updates on the current situation in Germany
Reports on reinforcements to Berlin Brigade
"Berlin 1969" includes sections on Helmstedt-Berlin rail operations.
Includes articles on rail transport for Berlin during the Cold War. (
large files)
Berlin 1983: Berlin and the Wall in the early 1980s
Berlin Life: A concise but thorough history of the wall
Images and personal accounts
Berlin Wall - Pictures Photographs
Photos of the Berlin Wall 1989 to 1999
Images of the Berlin wall
1960s establishments in Germany
Łódź (pronounced "wuj") is the third-largest city in Poland, with 776,000 inhabitants.
It is in the Łódź Voivodeship in the centre of the country.
In Polish the name also means "boat".
The mayor of Łódź is Hanna Zdanowska.
The first documents mentioning the city date from 1332.
Łódź was awarded city rights (according to the Magdeburg law) in 1432.
The Congress of Vienna decided in 1815 that the city should be part of Russia.
Only in 1918 did the city fall back to Poland.
The city is about 120 km south-west of Warsaw.
In and around the city, there are some textile and electronics industries.
Because of prolonged economic difficulties, there has been a decline in the population of the city.
The city has a university and a film academy.
Łódź has a humid continental climate (Dfb in  the Koeppen climate classification).
Notable residents
Grażyna Bacewicz, composer
Max Factor, Sr.,
businessman, founder of the Max Factor cosmetics company
Piotr Fronczewski, Polish actor
Marcin Gortat, NBA basketball player for the Phoenix Suns
Roman Polanski, cinema director, Oscar and Golden Palm winner
Władysław Reymont, writer, Nobel Prize winner
Paweł Rogaliński, journalist
Artur Rubinstein, pianist, settled
Julian Tuwim, poet
Miś Uszatek, cartoon character
Marek Saganowski, football player
Adam Ostrowski, better known as O.S.T.R., rapper
Kraków (Polish: Kraków; (pronounced: ); variant English spelling Cracow; in full Royal Capital City of Krakow, Polish: Królewskie Stołeczne Miasto Kraków) is one of the oldest and largest cities in Poland.
In 2014 in Kraków lived 759,800 people.
It is on the Vistula river.
Krakow is the capital of Lesser Poland Voivodeship (województwo małopolskie); before that it was the capital of Kraków Voivodship (since 14th century).
During the mid-early 19th century, Krakow became an independent city-state, under the name of "The Free, Independent and Strictly Neutral City of Krakow".
However, it was annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1846.
Pope John Paul II was raised in Krakow and was its archbishop from 1964 until he was elected as Pope in 1978.
When it was later announced that the city will host World Youth Day in 2016, it will be a tribute to the late Pope who became a saint in 2014.
Buses in Kraków
www.e-krakow.pl
Portland is the largest city in the U.S. state of Oregon.
It is the county seat of Multnomah County.
About 538,544 people live in the city of Portland, and about 1,927,881 people live in the city's metropolitan area.
It is found in the north part of the state, where the Willamette River meets the Columbia River.
Portland has the second most people of any city in the Northwest United States, after the city of Seattle.
Portland has many nicknames.
One of these is "The City of Roses," because roses grow well there.
Some other nicknames of Portland are "Stumptown" (from the fact that Portland was built over a forest), and "Puddletown" (from the fact that it often rains in Portland).
Many things are from Portland.
Some of these things are Powell's Books, Beverly Cleary (and some of her most popular fictional characters, Henry Huggins and Ramona Quimby, which also have statues in the city's Beverly Cleary Sculpture Garden for Children), and the Portland Trail Blazers basketball team.
In physics, a frame of reference, or reference frame, is a perspective that one uses to determine if an object is moving.
A frame of reference consists of an object or environment that is considered to be stationary.
Typically the observer is at rest in the reference frame; in this context, the term is "observational frame of reference."
For example, when you see a ball roll down a street, you can tell the ball is moving because the frame of reference is the streets, whatever may be on the side of the roads, or the Earth.
All of these are frames of reference.
All measurements of motion will be compared to a frame of reference.
Therefore, the most commonly used frame of reference is Earth itself, even though it moves.
Stars are used as a frame of reference when discussing the motions of the Earth.
Inertial frame of reference
An inertial frame of reference is a frame that is either not moving or moving at a constant velocity.
In other words, an inertial frame of reference has no net force acting upon it, and therefore Newton's laws of motion are observed.
Inertial frames of reference are useful in everyday life as well.
For example, consider a situation where two cars are traveling along a road.
See Figure 1.
If they are separated by a distance of 100 meters, the car in the back is moving at 10 meters per second and the car in front is moving at 5 meters per second, both relative to the ground.
There are three obvious inertial reference frames that can be used to determine when the cars will be even with each other: one where the back car is not moving but the front car is moving backwards at 5 m/s, one where the front car is stationary and the back car is moving forward at 5 m/s, or one where the ground is not moving and the cars are moving at their given velocities.
These three perspectives all describe the situation accurately and are physically identical.
Broadway is a -long main street in New York City.
It is different from other streets in that it runs diagonally across the street grid of Manhattan, diagonally crossing newer streets.
The street also goes through the Bronx.
It continues north as U.S. Route 9 to Albany, the capital of New York State.
One of the New York City Subway lines, the BMT Broadway Line, runs under the street in Manhattan, south of Times Square.
The IRT Broadway - Seventh Avenue Line runs under Broadway, north of Times Square.
The Schrödinger equation is a differential equation (a type of equation that involves an unknown function rather than an unknown number) that forms the basis of quantum mechanics, one of the most accurate theories of how subatomic particles behave.
It is a mathematical equation that was thought of by Erwin Schrödinger in 1925.
It defines a wave function of a particle or system (group of particles) which has a certain value at every point in space for every given time.
These values have no physical meaning (in fact, they are mathematically complex), yet the wave function contains all information that can be known about a particle or system.
This information can be found by mathematically manipulating the wave function to return real values relating to physical properties such as position, momentum, energy, etc.
The wave function can be thought of as a picture of how this particle or system acts with time and describes it as fully as possible.
The wave function can be in a number of different states at once, and so a particle may have many different positions, energies, velocities or other physical properties at the same time (i.e. "be in two places at once").