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Middle English is an older type of the English language that was spoken after the Norman invasion in 1066 until the middle/late 1400s.
It came from Old English after William the Conqueror came to England with his French nobles and stopped English from being taught in schools for a few hundred years.
Over this time, English borrowed several French words.
In the 1470s, the Chancery Standard, a type of English spoken in London, started to become more common.
This was partly because William Caxton brought the printing press to England in the 1470s.
The type of English that people spoke in England between then and 1650 is called Early Modern English.
There were many different dialects of Middle English.
Brunner, Karl (1962) Abriss der mittelenglischen Grammatik; 5.
Tübingen: M. Niemeyer (1st ed.
Halle (Saale): M. Niemeyer, 1938)
Brunner, Karl (1963) An Outline of Middle English Grammar; translated by Grahame Johnston.
Oxford: Blackwell
1060s establishments
Patroclus (Ancient Greek: Πάτροκλος, Pátroklos - "glory of the father") was a central figure in Homer's Iliad.
He was the son of Menoetius, and is most famous as being the lover of Achilles.
During the Trojan War, Achilles refuses to fight after a quarrel with Agamemnon,  leader of the Greek forces, over a woman, Briseis.
Patroclus, with Achilles' permission, then dons Achilles' armor and leads the Myrmidons into battle.
The Greeks, thinking him to be Achilles, are roused into a frenzy as they begin to beat the Trojans back.
He managed to kill Sarpedon when he charged into battle.
However, the ruse is discovered as Patroclus is soon killed by the Trojan prince Hector.
The death of Patroclus is a key event in the Iliad, as it serves as the catalyst of Achilles' legendary rage.
James VI and I (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625) was King of Scotland as James VI, and King of England and King of Ireland as James I. He was the first monarch to be called the king of Great Britain.
He ruled in Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 until his death and he ruled in England and Scotland from 24 March 1603 until his death.
His reign was important because it was the first time England and Scotland had the same monarch.
He was the first monarch of England from the House of Stuart.
The previous English monarch had been Elizabeth I. She had died without any children, so the English agreed to have a Scottish monarch because James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, thus the closest relative Elizabeth had.
By being king of both, he created a personal union.
James fought often with the Parliament of England.
In addition, he did not use the kingdom’s money well.
While James was ruling, the Scottish and English governments were quite stable.
After James died, his son Charles tried to rule in the same way as James, but caused the English Civil War.
At the end of the war in 1649, Charles was executed.
James was very well educated and good at learning.
He helped people in England and in Scotland to study things such as science, literature, and art.
James wrote Daemonologie in 1597, The True Law of Free Monarchies in 1598, Basilikon Doron in 1599, and A Counterblaste to Tobacco in 1604.
He sponsored the Authorized King James Version of the Bible.
James was a target of the Gunpowder Plot.
A group of Catholics planned to blow up the Houses of Parliament on 5 November 1605 during a ceremony while James was in the building.
The plot was stopped when a member of the group, Guy Fawkes, was found in a basement with barrels of gunpowder.
The event is remembered every year on 5 November, also known as Bonfire Night,where many people decide to celebrate and light bonfires and fireworks.
James believed in witchcraft.
When he read The Discoverie of Witchcraft, he ordered all copies of the book to be burnt.
The king had an importance with the first English settlers.
1566 births
1625 deaths
Hesiod (Hesiodos, ) was an Ancient Greek poet.
He is probably the second Greek poet whose work has survived; like Homer, his dates are not known for certain.
As with Homer, there are numerous legends, none of which are supported by hard evidence.
He may have lived around 700 BC in Askra in Boeotia, as a farmer.
Today his writings are one of the main sources for Greek mythology, and everyday life in Ancient Greece, such as farming techniques, astronomy and ancient time-keeping.
The complete surviving works were published in 1493, and by Aldus Manutius in 1495.
Works and days
Catalogue of women (or Eoiae)
The Shield of Heracles
Web texts taken from Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns and Homerica, edited and translated by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, published as Loeb Classical Library #57, 1914, :
Scanned text at the Internet Archive, in PDF and DjVu format
Perseus Classics Collection: Greek and Roman Materials: Text: Hesiod Greek texts and English translations for Works and Days, Theogony, and Shield of Heracles with additional notes and cross links.
Versions of the electronic edition of Evelyn-White's English translation edited by Douglas B. Killings, June 1995:
Project Gutenberg plain text .
Berkeley Digital Library SunSITE: The Online Medieval and Classical Library: Hesiod
Sacred Texts: Classics: The Works of Hesiod (Theogony and Works and Days only)
Hesiod and the Arcadian theme in the paintings Shepherds of Arcadia – Et in Arcadia Ego
Year of death unknown
Fu Xiancai is a Chinese farmer and civil rights activist.
He started to be political in 1994, after his village was in danger, because the Three Gorges Dam was built.
In 1997 he had to leave his home, after it was flooded by the water of the dam.
Since that time he tries to get together with other people fair damages from the Peoples Republic of China.
On 19 May 2006 he had an interview with the German television station ARD.
After this one he was arrested by police and hit so he cannot move since that time and is crippled.
He did not get any medical help, because he cannot pay it.
The German government protested against this situation.
In June 2006, the German embassy paid for the life-saving medical treatment.
The Chinese government said they did not hit him, so he must have hit himself.
Article of an international Organisation
Article of the german Newspaper FAZ (german)
Interview with the reporter of the german newsstation (german)
Phoebus (means shining-one) was originally a name of the Greek god Helios.
But later, it also became a name of Apollo, because in later times, both gods were merged (became one).
An overture is a piece of music for the orchestra to play at the beginning of an opera or ballet.
The word comes from the French word for "opening" because it "opens" the show.
Overtures usually have tunes which are going to be heard during the opera or ballet.
In this way it prepares the audience for what is to come.
Many overtures in the 18th century were simply background music to get the audience's attention (people used to chatter during performances).
Some composers like Gioacchino Rossini (1792-1868) used the same overture again and again for his next operas, or just changed bits of it.
Composers like Christoph Willibald Gluck and later Richard Wagner (1813-1883) were very careful to make the overture a dramatic beginning which prepared the audience for the story.
Wagner often called his overtures "Vorspiel" (Prelude).
Not all composers wrote overtures to their operas.
Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901) and Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924) often go straight into the first act or they just have a very short prelude.
In the 19th century many Romantic composers wrote concert overtures.
These pieces did not belong to any opera or ballet, they were just written to be heard at concerts.
They often had a descriptive title because they told some sort of story, e.g. Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847) wrote an overture "Fingal's Cave" which describes the sea coming into the cave in the Inner Hebrides islands.
Sometimes these descriptive pieces were much longer than an overture (which is usually just a few minutes), so they were called tone poems.
A luthier is a person who repairs guitars, violins, violas, cellos, double basses, and other wooden stringed instruments.
These instruments need regular adjustments and minor repairs, especially straightening the bridge.
As well, sometimes instruments are damaged in accidents, and a luthier has to use wood glue, broken pieces, and clamps to repair the instrument.
Luthiers also have the ability to create wooden stringed instruments, mostly classic string family instruments.
The French word lutherie is referred to the art to build wooden instruments.
The word luthier comes from the French word luth, luth comes from the Arabian word al-`ūd (العود), this last word means lute, although its generic meaning is the wood.
The German word for luthier is luther, that word has became also in a name (Martin Luther King) and in a last name (Martin Luther)
Moss is a coastal town in the Norwegian county of Østfold.
It served an important role in the declaration of independence from the union with Sweden.
The city used to have a lot of heavy industries, like shipyards and paper mills.
Today it has mostly service sector businesses (shops, banks etc.)
Cities in Norway
Dorset is a county in south England which is by the sea.
The biggest towns in it are Bournemouth and Poole.
There are other smaller towns, some by the sea, like Weymouth, Swanage, West Bay, the Isle of Portland, Dorchester, Wareham, Lyme Regis, Blandford and Wool.
There is a lot of countryside in Dorset, so there are quite a few farmers.
Other people work in offices, shops or the holiday business.
There are not many factories or industry in Dorset.
People come on holiday to Dorset because the countryside and sea is peaceful and pretty, and there are not many big towns and no cities at all.
Bournemouth, Poole, Weymouth, Swanage and Lyme Regis are quite famous seaside towns, where most holidaymakers go when they come to Dorset.
Dorset coast
The Dorset coast is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Jurassic Coast.
This includes famous fossil sites where Mary Anning collected, and famous landforms such as Chesil Beach.
Poole is a town in Dorset, England.
It is the second biggest town in Dorset after Bournemouth.
In 2001, 138,299 people lived there.
Lots of tourists visit Poole because of its nice beaches and sunny weather.
It has a very big natural harbour.
Lots of people in Poole work for Barclays Bank, Hamworthy Engineering, Poole Packaging, Sunseeker, RNLI and Ryvita.
Poole's harbour is the second biggest natural harbour in the world after Sydney in Australia but the water in Poole is very shallow which means that very big ships cannot go into Poole Harbour.
It was used in World War II for some ships to set off for France on D-Day.
The harbour entrance is also the home to many millionaires being in the top 5 most expensive places to live in the world.
People have lived in Poole for 2,000 years.
There were lots of Celtic people there.
Archaeologists found a boat in the harbor which they think was made in 295 BC.
When the Romans invaded Britain in the 1st century, they landed in Poole.
In the Norman Conquest in 1066, Poole was used mostly for fishing but then became a port for trading things like wool.
In the 18th century, Poole was one of the biggest ports in England.
The harbor stopped being so useful because big boats could not get in, so they went to places like Liverpool, Southampton and Plymouth.
Even though the harbor can not be used that well, due to the shallowness of the sea, it is very beautiful and peaceful for people.
Unitary authorities in Dorset
Towns in Dorset
Gorillas are one of three groups of african apes.
They are divided into two species, the Western gorilla and the Eastern gorilla.
Gorillas may be aggressive when attacked or provoked, but they are naturally gentle.
They are generally herbivores, which means that they eat plants.
But they also eat insects.
Life span
A gorilla's lifespan in the wild is between 35 and 40 years, although zoo gorillas may live for 50 years or more because they have more food and health care.
Genus Gorilla
Western gorilla, Gorilla gorilla
Western lowland gorilla, Gorilla gorilla gorilla
Cross River gorilla, Gorilla gorilla diehli
Eastern gorilla, Gorilla beringei
Mountain gorilla, Gorilla beringei beringei
Eastern lowland gorilla, Gorilla beringei graueri
Gorillas are large apes.
They can be strong like chimpanzees, orangutans and humans.
An adult male gorilla can weigh up to 225 kilograms and stand 1.8 meters in height.
Gorillas live in family groups called troops.
They have a broad chest, wide shoulders, short legs, and long strong arms.
They have black skin and hair.
Adult male gorillas' hair becomes silver/grey on their backs as they become older.
Because of that, older males are called "silverbacks".
Gorillas live in the rainforests in central Africa.
They mostly live on the ground, but they can also climb.
When on the ground, they walk on their feet and finger knuckles.
Troops of gorillas wander slowly through the forests of Central Africa.
For about half of their day they search for leaves, vines, and bamboo shoots to eat.
Sometimes they also eat ants or termites.
For the rest of the day, they lay in the sun and play with their children.
If another gorilla threatens them, the troop's leader, the silverback, protects them by rearing up and beating his chest.
Although mostly vegetarian, they have long canine teeth or fangs that the adult males sometimes use to fight each other for the troop leadership.
Gorillas sleep in nests that they build on the ground.
At the end of each day, each adult gorilla spends a few minutes putting together a soft, flat bed made of leaves, branches, and moss.
The young gorillas sleep with their mothers.
The gestation period (when a baby grows inside the mother) of a gorilla lasts between eight and ten months.
Gorillas almost always produce one offspring - twins are rare.
Gorilla babies begin to hang onto their mothers when they are only a few hours old and will continue to do so for the next three years.
Gorillas live up to 50 years in the wild and up to 54 years in captivity.
Hominids
Matthew James Bellamy (born 9 June 1978) is an English singer.
He is the lead singer of the band Muse.
He also plays the electric guitar and the piano.
He writes most of the songs.
Bellamy is known for his falsetto and the way he plays the guitar, which is very creative.
Bellamy sings with a tenor voice when he is not singing in falsetto.
Matthew Bellamy was born on 9 June 1978 in Cambridge.
He is the son of George Bellamy and Marilyn Bellamy and he has an older brother named Paul.
His parents moved with him to Teignmouth in Devon in the mid 1980s.
George Bellamy was also a guitarist and was in a band called "The Tornados", who had a number-one hit in the United States with the song "Telstar".
The talent of his father was part of what inspired Matthew to play guitar, sing and form a band.
The Muse song "Knights of Cydonia" is sometimes called a tribute to "Telstar", since it has a similar space rock sound and futuristic video featuring cowboys like a spaghetti western.
Marylin Bellamy was born in Belfast and went to live in England in the 1970s, meeting George for the first time on the day she did so.
When he was 6 years old, Matthew Bellamy began playing piano, and showed signs of having natural skill with the instrument.
Bellamy's parents divorced before he reached fourteen years of age.
He moved in with his grandmother, and around this time he considered playing guitar.
His talent for quickly learning how to play instruments had made some people call him a virtuoso, which is someone musically talented in a unique way.
Matthew was heavily featured in the TV series "History of the Guitar" where his creativity with the instrument was demonstrated to the full.
His father George was introduced on the programme as Matthew's father and was featured performing the hit instrumental "Telstar" with "The Tornados."
Bellamy is fascinated with conspiracy theories.
A lot of songs of Muse are about conspiracies.
He is also interested in the space and conspiracy theories about extraterrestrial life or aliens.
This interest is probably caused by the death of his uncle, who was murdered of the Irish Republican Army.
Matthew's uncle, murdered by the IRA, played lead guitar in the rock band "The Jokers."
They played clubs mainly in the south of England during the late 1960s and early 1970s.
At the time they were based in the Aldershot area of Hampshire UK.
Other members of the band include Pete Crabbe, playing rhythm and base guitar, Denis Williams playing drums, Brian Foster and Joey Graham singing vocals.
Pete Seddon played rhythm guitar occasionally.
Matthew's father George Bellamy, was often mentioned and was a source of inspiration to all but particularly to Matt's uncle who modeled his style of play on him.
Matthew shows agnostic views, stating in a 2006 interview with the Rock Music channel that "I believe in the God of the universe, definitely" but does not believe in heaven or hell.
It is also possible that Bellamy explores otherworldly theories, such as the origin of mankind from another universe, as reflected in the band's rock symphony, "Exogenesis".
Christopher Tony Wolstenholme (born 2 December 1978 in Rotherham, Yorkshire, England) is an English musician.
He sings and plays a bass guitar in the band Muse.
He also sometimes plays guitar or keyboard instead of bass.
Chris grew up in Rotherham before moving to Teignmouth where he had lived up until April 2010.
While attending school there, he played for various different bands until he joined Muse when Matthew Bellamy and Dominic Howard invited him to their band.
Today he is an acclaimed bass-player, receiving praise from many musicians.
Wolstenhome has six children with his wife Kelly: Alfie (born 1999),  Ava-Jo (born 2001), Frankie (born 2003), Ernie (born 2008), Buster (born 2010) and Teddi, born 2012.
He got married in 2018 to his Wife caris ball.
On the 3rd of March, caris gave birth to their Daughter named Mabel aurora Wolstenholme
Dominic James Howard (born 7 December 1977) is an English musician.
He plays the drums for the band Muse.
Howard was born in Stockport, England.
He is left-handed.
Howard is a huge fan of British cheesecake, and has his own secret recipe.
He often wears brightly coloured trousers.
A penlight is a small flashlight in the shape of a pen.
A penlight usually uses a small light known as an "LED" (Light Emitting Diode) but it can also use a small lightbulb made just for small flashlights.
The LED lights up when power is run through it.
Making the penlight light up is as simple as pressing a button, or screwing the end on tighter so it makes contact with the batteries.
Most of the time, penlights use two or three AA, AAA, or AAAA batteries.
AAAA are a newer, thinner type of battery, most commonly found in small electronics.
It started with the AA size batteries.
Penlights can be made out of plastic or metal, and can be any color.
They most often have a little clip, to hold it on your shirt or something.
en:Penlight
Ram is the son of Lord Surya and Seventh Avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism.
However in Valmiki Ramayana, he was the son of Lord Sun.
When king Dashrath conducted the sacrifice, lord sun presented his portion Rama.
Rama's character purely resembles Karna(the chief protagonist of the Mahabharata).
Both were the protagonists of the two greatest epics.
Both were the eldest brother but however Yudhisthira and Bharat were crowned the king.
Both had to be deceived by their mother-Kunti and Kaikeyi.
Both were the most handsome good-looking person of their respective eras.
Both learnt weaponry through the greatest teacher of all time- Parshurama and Vishwamitra.
Despite being a part of royal family, had to suffer their entire life.
Both possessed not more than 1 wife.
Both possessed the bow of Shiva.
Parshurama too had a place in the epic of Mahabharata and Ramayana because of the protagonist of the epics- Lord Rama and Karna.
Indra and Sumitra gave birth to Shatrughana and Lakshmana.
Lakshmana and Shatrughana were twins.
Kaikeyi and Lord Yama gave birth to Bharat.
Lord Rama was born through Lord Surya.
According to Puranas, Rama, Karna and Shani are three portions of Surya.
They are regarded as greatest of all men.
Rama is said to have been born to Kaushalya and Dasharatha in Ayodhya, the ruler of the Kingdom of Kosala.
His siblings included Lakshmana, Bharata, and Shatrughna.
He married Sita.
Though born in a royal family, their life is described in the Hindu texts as one challenged by unexpected changes such as an exile into impoverished and difficult circumstances, ethical questions and moral dilemmas.
Of all their travails, the most notable is the kidnapping of Sita by demon-king Ravana, followed by the determined and epic efforts of Rama and Lakshmana to gain her freedom and destroy the evil Ravana against great odds.
The entire life story of Rama, Sita and their companions allegorically discusses duties, rights and social responsibilities of an individual.
It illustrates dharma and dharmic living through model characters.
Rama is especially important to Vaishnavism.
He is the central figure of the ancient Hindu epic Ramayana, a text historically popular in the South Asian and Southeast Asian cultures.
His ancient legends have attracted bhasya (commentaries) and extensive secondary literature and inspired performance arts.
Two such texts, for example, are the Adhyatma Ramayana – a spiritual and theological treatise considered foundational by Ramanandi monasteries, and the Ramcharitmanas – a popular treatise that inspires thousands of Ramlila festival performances during autumn every year in India.
Rama legends are also found in the texts of Jainism and Buddhism, though he is sometimes called Pauma or Padma in these texts, and their details vary significantly from the Hindu versions.
Jain Texts also mentioned Rama as the eighth balabhadra among the 63 salakapurusas.
In Sikhism, Rama is mentioned as one of twenty four divine incarnations of Vishnu in the Chaubis Avtar in Dasam Granth.
Etymology and nomenclature
Rāma is a Vedic Sanskrit word with two contextual meanings.
In one context as found in Atharva Veda, as stated by Monier Monier-Williams, means "dark, dark-colored, black" and is related to the term ratri which means night.
In another context as found in other Vedic texts, the word means "pleasing, delightful, charming, beautiful, lovely".
The word is sometimes used as a suffix in different Indian languages and religions, such as Pali in Buddhist texts, where -rama adds the sense of "pleasing to the mind, lovely" to the composite word.
Rama as a first name appears in the Vedic literature, associated with two patronymic names – Margaveya and Aupatasvini – representing different individuals.
A third individual named Rama Jamadagnya is the purported author of hymn 10.110 of the Rigveda in the Hindu tradition.
The word Rama appears in ancient literature in reverential terms for three individuals:
Parashu-rama, as the sixth avatar of Vishnu.
He is linked to the Rama Jamadagnya of the Rigveda fame.
Rama-chandra, as the seventh avatar of Vishnu and of the ancient Ramayana fame.
Bala-rama, also called Halayudha, as the elder brother of Krishna both of whom appear in the legends of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
The name Rama appears repeatedly in Hindu texts, for many different scholars and kings in mythical stories.
The word also appears in ancient Upanishads and Aranyakas layer of Vedic literature, as well as music and other post-Vedic literature, but in qualifying context of something or someone who is "charming, beautiful, lovely" or "darkness, night".
The Vishnu avatar named Rama is also known by other names.
He is called Ramachandra (beautiful, lovely moon), or Dasarathi (son of Dasaratha), or Raghava (descendant of Raghu, solar dynasty in Hindu cosmology).
He is also known as Ram Lalla (Infant form of Rama).
Additional names of Rama include Ramavijaya (Javanese), Phreah Ream (Khmer), Phra Ram (Lao and Thai), Megat Seri Rama (Malay), Raja Bantugan (Maranao), Ramudu (Telugu), Ramar (Tamil).
In the Vishnu sahasranama, Rama is the 394th name of Vishnu.
In some Advaita Vedanta inspired texts, Rama connotes the metaphysical concept of Supreme Brahman who is the eternally blissful spiritual Self (Atman, soul) in whom yogis delight nondualistically.
The root of the word Rama is ram- which means "stop, stand still, rest, rejoice, be pleased".
According to Douglas Q. Adams, the Sanskrit word Rama is also found in other Indo-European languages such as Tocharian ram, reme, *romo- where it means "support, make still", "witness, make evident".
The sense of "dark, black, soot" also appears in other Indo European languages, such as *remos or Old English romig.
This summary is a traditional legendary account, based on literary details from the Ramayana and other historic mythology-containing texts of Buddhism and Jainism.
According to Sheldon Pollock, the figure of Rama incorporates more ancient "morphemes of Indian myths", such as the mythical legends of Bali and Namuci.
The ancient sage Valmiki used these morphemes in his Ramayana similes as in sections 3.27, 3.59, 3.73, 5.19 and 29.28.
|group=lower-greek}} He has been depicted in many films, television shows and plays.
Ayodhya dispute
Ram Mandir, Ayodhya
Culture of India
Genealogy of Rama
Natyashastra
Ram Nam
Ram Statue
Jai Shri Ram
Ramayan (1987 TV series)
Rama in Jainism
Rama in Sikhism
Dashavatara
Bournemouth is a town in Dorset, in the country of England.
It is the biggest town in Dorset.
It is next to Poole and Christchurch.
Christchurch is a town in Dorset, England.
It is next to Bournemouth.
Sister city
Saint-Lô, France, since 1985
A symphony is a piece of music written for an orchestra to play.
It may be quite a long piece.
Usually it is divided into parts, usually 3 or 4 parts, which are called movements.
The first movement of a symphony can be a fast movement, often in sonata form.
The second movement can be a slow movement.
The third movement can be a minuet or scherzo and a trio.
The fourth movement may be called “Finale”; it can be in Rondo form or sonata form or a combination of these.
There are lots of different ways of writing a symphony, but this is the pattern that was used by Joseph Haydn who is known as the “Father of the Symphony”, and many composers since have used his pattern of movements for their symphonies.
Connotations
“Symphonic” means “like a symphony”.
It is often used to describe music which is quite long and develops tunes over a long period.
A large orchestra is often called a “symphony orchestra”.
This is to distinguish it from a small orchestra called a “chamber orchestra”.
Upper Franconia (, ; Main-Franconian: ) is a regierungsbezirk (administrative region) of the German state Bavaria.
It has an area of 7,230 km² and about 1,200,000 people.
It borders the German states of Sachsen and Thuringia, and also the Czech Republic.
Bayreuth is its capital.
Cities and districts
Cities which are urban districts
Coburg,
Hof,
Smaller cities
Forchheim,
Kulmbach,
Lichtenfels,
Marktredwitz,
Kronach,
Rödental,
Wunsiedel,
Selb,
Münchberg,
Helmbrechts,
Rehau,
Stadtsteinach,
Bad Staffelstein,
Ebermannstadt,
Burgkunstadt
Coburg Rural District
Bamberg Rural District
Forchheim Rural District
Bayreuth Rural District
Lichtenfels Rural District
Kronach Rural District
Hof Rural District
Kulmbach Rural District
Wunsiedel i. Fichtelgebirge Rural District
After the German Empire was defeated in World War I, Germany became a republic, but it was still called "Deutsches Reich" (German Empire).
Today it is called the Weimar Republic and this period is called the Weimar period, because the constitution was made in the city of Weimar.
On November 9, 1918, the Republic was proclaimed by Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building in Berlin and two hours later a socialist republic was proclaimed around the corner at the Berlin Castle by Karl Liebknecht.
The Emperor, or Kaiser, Wilhelm II, went into exile in the Netherlands.
The new Republic was declared even before the end of World War I.
The Weimar Republic had a lot of problems.
The Treaty of Versailles made things very difficult for the economy.
Inflation got completely out of hand.
There were political problems because governments ruled only for a very short time, not long enough to be able to make important decisions.
There were a lot of radical right and left extremists, for example monarchists (people who wanted back the monarchy) and communists, who believed that all things, especially property, land and money, should be shared.
Political parties had their own militias to fight each other.
One of the paramilitary organizations that arose after World War I was the  meaning "Steel Helmet, League of Front Soldiers".
They operated as the armed branch of the national conservative German National People's Party (DNVP).
they were placed at party gatherings in the position of armed security guards (Saalschutz).
In 1935 they became part of the Nazi Party.
Positives
The Weimar period is also known for its culture.
Artists tried out modern ideas and used new things like film.
The Bauhaus began in the 1920s too.
The Constitution of the German Reich (Weimar constitution) of 11th August 1919, in full text
PSM Data Bank
historical Documents
1930s disestablishments in Germany
1918 establishments
1933 disestablishments in Europe
Popular Lemmas
A good small thing can lead to many big things.
Some powerful results in mathematics are known as lemmas, such as Bézout's lemma, Dehn's lemma, Euclid's lemma, Farkas' lemma, Fatou's lemma, Gauss's lemma, Greendlinger's lemma, Itō's lemma, Jordan's lemma, Nakayama's lemma, Poincaré's lemma, Riesz's lemma, Schur's lemma, Schwarz's lemma, Urysohn's lemma, Yoneda's lemma and Zorn's lemma.
While these results originally seemed too simple to get independent interest, they have turned out to be important to the theories in which they occur.
Avatar, a word in Hinduism, is a deity which comes down to earth in a human form, an animal form or a partly human and partly animal form.
Rama was an avatar of Vishnu, one of the three main gods of the Hindus.
Similarly, Buddha was also an avatar.
Both of these avatars had human form, but avatars of the Hindu mythology have also appeared in animal form.
For example, Matsya had the form of a fish and Varaha had the form of a boar.
The word is usually translated into English as "incarnation", but better as "appearance" or "manifestation".
This is the sense in which the word 'avatar' is used in various media today.
Several Hindu scriptures have details and stories about Vishnu's avatars.
These texts also tell that Vishnu will appear again the Kalki avatar.
The following stories are of the avatars that appeared in animal forms or partly animal and partly human forms.
Matsya is the first avatar of Vishnu, in the form of a big fish.
Sometimes, it is said that he took the form of a half-man and half-fish.
There is a story about this in Hindu mythology.
The story tells about a very wicked demon (an asura) who snatched the Vedas, the holy books of the Hindus, and went deep inside the sea.
At this point, Vishnu came as the Matsya (fish) avatar, who went deep into the sea and brought back the Vedas.
He gave the Vedas to Manu.
The Hindu scriptures say that Manu was the first man in the world.
He may also be compared with Noah.
Kurma is the second avatar of Vishnu, in the form of a tortoise.
Kurma is a word in the Sanskrit language that means a tortoise.
This avatar of Vishnu is a symbol of strength and stability.
Varaha was the third avatar of Vishnu, in the form of a black boar.
Varaha is a word in the Sanskrit language that means a boar.
The Hindu scriptures tell a story about this avatar.
There was a demon (a daitya) named Hiranyaksha.
He threw the earth (called prithivi by the Hindus) into the waters of the ocean.
The earth was about to sink in the ocean.
At this point, Vishnu took the form of a black boar, entered the water and carried the earth on its body.
Thus Vishnu, as Varaha, saved the earth from destruction.
Narashimha was the fourth avatar of Vishnu, in the form of a man with the head of a lion.
This avatar of Vishnu is also a symbol of great strength.
Sugata Bhuddha
Puranass
Avatar, the incarnation of a God in Hinduism.
Avatar, a picture representing a person on the internet.
Avatar: The Last Airbender, a Nickelodeon animated television series
Avatar (2009 film), James Cameron's 3-D science fiction movie
Constantine I (27 February 272 – 22 May 337 AD) was a Roman emperor from 306 until he died.
He was emperor for longer than any other emperor since Augustus, the first emperor.
He was the first ruler of the Roman Empire to be a Christian.
He made the old city Byzantium into a new, larger city: Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey).
The city's name means "City of Constantine" in Greek.
He was the son of the emperor Constantius I, and members of their Constantinian dynasty controlled the empire until 364.
Six years after Constantine said that he was emperor, he was fighting for control of Rome with Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge, a bridge over the Tiber River.
When he saw a cross in the sky with the words , he changed his deity from Apollo to Jesus and won the battle or war.
Constantine (; ) was born in Naissus (Niš, Serbia).
He was born on 27 February.
The Calendar of Philocalus and the works of the Latin writer Polemius Silvius both say Constantine was born in 272 or 273.
The Latin historian Eutropius wrote the same information.
However, the Greek historian and bishop Eusebius of Caesarea wrote that Constantine was born around the year 285.
Constantine's father was Constantius, who later became Roman emperor.
Constantine's mother was Helena.
She was not from the nobility.
The Greek historian Procopius wrote that Helena had come from Drepanon, a city in Bithynia.
The Latin theologian Ambrose wrote that Helena was a .
Helena and Constantius may not have married, and Helena may have been Constantius's concubine.
Constantine was a military tribune in the Roman army by 293, the year his father became caesar (a junior Roman emperor) on 23 March.
Constantius and the other caesar Galerius each became augustus (a more senior Roman emperor) on 1 May 305.
On that day, the emperors Diocletian and Maximian retired.
Maximinus Daza and Valerius Severus each became caesar.
306–310
The Consularia Constantinopolitana says that Constantius I died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum (York, England).
There, on the same day, the army of Constantius made Constantine augustus. (
Later, around August 306, the augustus Galerius agreed that Constantine was caesar, but not that he was augustus.)
Roman Egypt accepted Constantine was an emperor.
In autumn 306 or early the next year, Constantine made a military campaign against the Franks.
Constantine said that he was Roman consul for the first time in 307.
However, the Roman provinces that other emperors controlled did not accept that Constantine was consul.
Constantine may have been in Roman Britain again in 307.
Maximian and Constantine may have met at Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany) in 307, possibly in late summer.
Maximian made Constantine augustus.
Constantine married Maximian's daughter Fausta. (
This could have been in late summer, September, or as late as 25 December.
Historians are not in agreement about the date.)
At the start of his reign, only the lands that Constantine controlled accepted Constantine as augustus.
Then, the lands that Maximian's son Maxentius controlled also accepted that Constantine was an augustus.
In 308 Constantine fought a war against the Bructeri.
In November 308, the emperors Diocletian, Maximian, and Galerius met at Carnutum (Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria) and agreed that Constantine was a caesar.
Constantine himself continued to say that he was an augustus.
The Latin writer Lactantius wrote that in 309, Constantine got the title in .
The Roman provinces that Galerius controlled said that Constantine was Roman consul for the first time in 309, but the provinces Constantine and Maxentius controlled did not accept this.
In 310, probably on the 1 May, Galerius made Maximinus Daza augustus.
From this time, the whole empire started to agree that Constantine was an augustus as well.
In summer 310, Constantine again fought a military campaign against the Franks.
A war between Constantine and Maximian began.
Maximian was at Massilia (Marseille, France) when Constantine took control of the city, probably in around July 310.
Then Maximian died, probably by suicide.
On 25 July 310, it was Constantine's fifth anniversary festival as emperor (his ).
At that time, Constantine gave himself the name in .
Constantine said that his father Constantius had been part of the family of the emperor Claudius Gothicus.
This was fiction.
310–315
On 30 April 311, the augustus Galerius made a edict.
The Edict of Serdica mostly ended the persecution of Christianity in the Roman Empire.
At the start of May, Galerius died.
Constantine was Roman consul for the second time in 312.
Constantine was consul for the third time in 313.
Constantine fought a civil war with Maxentius.
The Calendar of Philocalus says that the Battle of the Milvian Bridge happened on the 28 October 313.
In this battle, Constantine's army overcame the army of Maxentius.
Maxentius died in the battle.
The Latin writer Lactantius wrote about these events.
After the battle, Constantine went across the Tiber River and took control of Rome itself.
The Calendar of Philocalus says that Constantine went into the city on 29 October, and that there was a festival for two days.
After 18 January 313, Constantine was in Mediolanum (Milan, Italy).
There Constantine met his co-emperor, Licinius, in January or February.
Either in autumn 313 or during the first half of 314, Constantine travelled to Britain.
On 1 August 314 in the city of Arelate (Arles, France), the Council of Arles started (a meeting of bishops.
Constantine was consul for the fourth time in 315.
In the first half of 315, Constantine probably had success in a military campaign he fought against the Goths and Sarmatians.
The Calendar of Philocalus says that Constantine came again to Rome in July 315.
There was a ceremony (an ) when Constantine came to the city.
The Calendar says that there was a festival for two days.
Constantine got the .
On 25 July 315, it was Constantine's tenth anniversary as emperor (his ).
315–320
On 27 September 315 Constantine went away from Rome.
There was another ceremony (a ) when Constantine went out of the city.
At some time, Constantine fought a civil war with his co-emperor Licinius.
The Calendar of Philocalus says that Constantine's army overcame Licinius's army at the Battle of Cibalae on 8 October 314, but historians are not in agreement about the date.
It may have been in 316.
After this civil war, Constantine and Licinius made peace.
This was either at the end of 314 or in January 317.
As part of the agreement, Constantine got from Licinius the Roman provinces next to the Danube. (
Licinius kept Thracia however.)
The Consularia Constantinopolitana and the Chronicon Paschale both say Constantine and Licinius chose co-emperors on 1 March 317.
Constantine and his co-emperor made their three sons their junior co-emperors (their ).
Crispus and Constantine II (Constantine's sons) and Licinius II (Licinius's son) were each made caesar at Serdica (Sofia, Bulgaria).
Constantine was Roman consul for the fifth time in 319.
He was consul for the sixth time in 320.
On the 25 July 320, it was Constantine's fifteenth anniversary as emperor (his ).
320–325
In 321, it was the fifth anniversary of Crispus, Constantine II, and Licinius II as emperors (each caesar's ).
In summer 322, Constantine won a military victory against the Sarmatians.
At the start of 323, Constantine fought a war against the Goths.
In 324, Constantine and Crispus fought another war against their co-emperor Licinius.
The Consularia Constantinopolitana says that Constantine's army overcame the army of Licinius in a battle near Hadrianopolis (Edirne, European Turkey) on 3 July 324.
Constantine's armies again overcame Licinius's soldiers at the Battle of Chrysopolis.
The Consularia Constantinopolitana says that this battle was on the 18 September 324.
Licinius and Licinius II both retired from being emperors.
On 8 November that year, Constantine made his son Constantius II caesar.
At that time, all Constantine's co-emperors were Constantine's own children (the  Crispus, Constantine II, and Constantius II).
On 20 May 324 at Nicaea (İznik, Turkey) the Council of Nicaea started.
This meeting of bishops ended on 19 July 325.
The Greek historian Socrates Scholasticus wrote about these events.
The Chronicle of the Latin theologian Jerome and the Chronicon Paschale both say that on 25 July 325, it was Constantine's twentieth anniversary festival as emperor (his ) at Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey).
325–330
Constantine was Roman consul for the seventh time in 326.
The Consularia Constantinopolitana says that in around March 326, Constantine executed his oldest son, the caesar Crispus.
The Calendar of Philocalus says that on 18 July 326 (or the 21 July) Constantine again came to Rome.
When he came to the city there was another  ceremony.
Jerome wrote that on 25 July 326, it was Constantine's twentieth anniversary festival as emperor (his ) in Rome. (
326 was the second year in which Constantine had a festival for the same twentieth anniversary.)
Jerome's Chronicle and the Chronicon Paschale both say that Constantine set up the city of Helenopolis on 7 January 327.
Constantine was consul for the eighth time in 329.
The year was the last time Constantine was consul.
The Consularia Constantinopolitana says that on 11 May 330, Constantine was in Byzantium.
On that day, Constantine dedicated again the city.
After that, Byzantium had the name Constantinople (; ).
330–335
The Consularia Constantinopolitana says that on 25 December 333, Constantine made his youngest son, Constans, his caesar.
They were probably at Constantinople then.
In 333 or 334, Calocaerus started a rebellion in Cyprus.
The Consularia Constantinopolitana says that the Romans forced the Sarmatians out of the Banat area around the Danube in 334.
Around 335, Shapur II's armies attacked Armenia, as part of the Roman–Persian Wars.
Shapur's Sasanian Empire sent Narses to invade Armenia, but the attack did not have success and Narses died.
The Consularia Constantinopolitana and the Chronicon Paschale both say that on 25 July 335, it was Constantine's thirtieth anniversary festival as emperor (his ) at Constantinople.
Eusebius of Caesarea gave a speech at the festival.
335–337
On the 18 September 335, Constantine made Dalmatius caesar.
Constantine probably made Hannibalianus "King of Kings and of the Pontic people" () on the same day.
Eusebius of Caesarea's Life of Constantine says that a Persian embassy from the Sasanian Empire came to Constantine at Constantinople not long after the festival of Easter.
Constantine had been at Constantinople on Easter (3 April 337).
Eusebius of Caesarea's Life of Constantine says that Constantine died at Ancyrona, near Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey).
He died on 22 May 337.
Constantine was the first Christian Roman emperor.
His rule changed the Christian Church greatly.
In February 313, Constantine met with Licinius in Milan where they made the Edict of Milan.
The edict said that Christians could believe what they wanted.
This stopped people from punishing Christians, who had often been martyred, or killed for their faith.
It also returned the property which had been taken away from them.
In 311, Galerius had made a similar edict, though it did not return any property to them.
In pagan Rome before this, it had been against the law to practise Christianity, and Christians had often been tortured or killed.
Constantine protected them.
He went on to organize the whole Christian Church at the First Council of Nicea, even though he himself did not get baptized until near the end of his life.
Constantine did not support Christianity alone.
After winning the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, he built the Arch of Constantine) to celebrate, but the arch was decorated with pictures of sacrifices to gods like Apollo, Diana, or Hercules.
It had no Christian symbolism.
In 321, Constantine said that Christians and non-Christians should all join the "day of the sun" (the eastern sun-worship which Aurelian had helped him introduce).
His coins also had symbols of the sun-cult until 324.
Even after pagan gods disappeared from the coins, Christians symbols never appeared on the coin, either.
Even when Constantine dedicated the new city of Constantinople, he was wearing the Apollonian sun-rayed Diadem.
Letters of Constantine: Book 1, Book 2, & Book 3
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Constantine I
12 Byzantine Rulers by Lars Brownworth of Stony Brook School (grades 7–12).
40 minute audio lecture on Constantine.
Constantine I in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
Constantine the Great A site about Constantine the Great and his bronze coins emphasizing history using coins, with many resources including reverse types issued and reverse translations.
House of Constantine bronze coins Illustrations and descriptions of coins of Constantine the Great and his relatives.
BBC North Yorkshire's site on Roman York, Yorkshire and Constantine the Great
This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Constantine I relating to Christianity.
Professor Edwin Judge discusses Constantine's legacy for a Centre for Public Christianity vodcast
Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York'
272 births
337 deaths
Cleopatra (Greek: Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ) 69 BC – 10 August 30 BC was part of the Macedonian Ptolemaic dynasty in the Kingdom of Egypt and was the last active ruler of Egypt.
She was one of the most famous women in history.
Her full name was Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator.
She was the last of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Pharaohs set up in Egypt after the death of the famous Macedonian king Alexander the Great.
After her death, Egypt became the Roman province of Aegyptus.
See Roman Empire
The main historical source for her life is Plutarch's Life of Antony, available in translations.
Antony and Cleopatra is the famous tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written sometime between 1603 and 1607.
It was first printed in 1623.
Life of Cleopatra
Cleopatra was born in Alexandria, then the capital of Egypt.
She is the daughter of Ptolemy XII Auletes and Cleopatra V. When she was 18 years old, her father Ptolemy XII - who was Pharaoh, died.
She and her brother, Ptolemy XIII, became the leaders of Egypt.
She was queen and her brother was king.
Her brother was only 10 years old, so she was the real leader.
Cleopatra made some enemies amongst the courtiers.
The reign of Cleopatra was ended by a cabal of courtiers, led by the eunuch Pothinus.
They removed Cleopatra from power, as her being a woman, and made Ptolemy sole ruler, in about 51 to 48 BC.
She had to leave the country.
Ptolemy was king, but because he was still a boy, Pothinus and his friends were the real leaders of Egypt.
Cleopatra was the first of the Ptolemaic dynasty to learn the Egyptian language, and she was fluent in 9 languages in total.
She also embraced Egyptian culture, associating herself with the Goddess Isis.
Caesar and Pompey
At that time, two Roman generals were fighting to be the leaders of the Roman Republic.
They were Pompey and Julius Caesar.
Julius Caesar defeated Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus in Greece, 48 BC.
Pompey fled to Egypt from Pharsalus, and was murdered by the orders of Ptolemy.
Ptolemy and his supporters thought Caesar would be pleased, but that was a big mistake.
Caesar had pardoned many of the senators who fought against him.
His reason was to lay the ground for peace in Rome.
The murder of Pompey cut right across Caesar's plans.
Worse, Pompey was a Roman consul, and the widower of Caesar's only daughter, Julia.
Worse still, Pompey was beheaded in front of his fifth wife and children, who were on the ship from which he had just disembarked.
This made sure that Pompey's powerful family and supporters would never forget, and would always be enemies of Caesar.
Then Caesar came to Alexandria, the capital of Egypt.
Economically, Egypt was a bread-basket which could feed the people of Rome.
Cleopatra received Caesar in her own unique way.
She lay down on a carpet.
Then her servants rolled up the carpet with Cleopatra inside.