the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
|1996/97||rowspan="8"|Celta Vigo||rowspan="8"|La Liga||31||5||6||1||colspan="2"|-||37||6
|1997/98||34||8||3||1||colspan="2"|-||37||9
|1998/99||33||6||1||0||7||2||41||8
|1999/00||26||6||1||0||7||2||34||8
|2000/01||30||9||6||2||7||2||43||13
|2001/02||30||10||0||0||1||3||31||13
|2002/03||27||6||0||0||4||1||31||7
|2003/04||24||6||||||||||24||6
|2004/05||Deportivo Alavés||Segunda División||1||1||||||||||1||1
Total||15||3
Total||50||10
Gregory van der Wiel (born 3 February 1988 in Amsterdam) is a Dutch football player who plays for Paris Saint-Germain.
Van der Wiel was playing for Ajax in 2007-2012.
During 2002-2005 he was loaned out to HFC Haarlem.
Luis Alberto Suarez Diaz (born 24 January 1987 in Salto) is an Uruguayan footballer who plays for  Atlético de Madrid and the Uruguay national team as a Striker.
He is regarded as one of the best strikers of all time and is Uruguay's all-time leading goalscorer.
In his home country of Uruguay, he is considered to be one of the biggest ever talents of the country.
The transfer between Nacional and FC Groningen, which cost 1.5 million Euros, was the biggest purchase ever in the teams' history from the Groningen province.
Arup is a company that provides engineering, design, planning, project management and consulting services.
It was once known as Ove Arup & Partners.
It was founded in 1946  by Sir Ove Arup.
The company (and its associated practices in Ireland, Africa and Asia) now has more than 7000 staff based in 73 offices in 32 countries.
It has projects in more than 160 countries.
In 2004-05, Arup had an annual profit of more than £400 million (US$700m).
It is best known for its engineering design work.
Projects it has helped with include the Sydney Opera House, the Pompidou Centre, the Oresund Bridge, the Seattle Library, the new De Young Museum, the HSBC headquarters in Hong Kong, the Channel Tunnel Rail Link and the London Millennium Bridge.
Arup official website
Brownfield sites are abandoned or not very used industrial and business places available for re-use.
Expansion or redevelopment of such a facility may be difficult by real or possible environmental contaminations.
In the United States city planning language, a brownfield site (or simply a brownfield) is land previously used for industrial purposes or certain business uses.
The land may be contaminated by low amounts of hazardous waste or pollution.
It has the potential to be reused once it is cleaned up.
Land that is more severely contaminated and has high levels of hazardous waste or pollution, such as a Superfund site, does not fall under the brownfield classification.
Mothballed brownfields are properties which the owners are not willing to transfer or put to productive reuse.
The Manchester Regional Arena is a stadium in Manchester, England used mostly for athletics and association football.
It was originally made as the warm-up track for the 2002 Commonwealth Games held at the City of Manchester Stadium which is next to it.
It has hosted the AAA Championships and Paralympic World Cup.
It is the current home of the Manchester City reserve team.
Stadiums in the United Kingdom
Royston Rikki Drenthe (born 1987 in Rotterdam) is a Dutch professional football player.
He currently plays for Real Madrid.
Michael Lindeman (b. 1 April 1964) is Dutch football manager. ,
he was the assistant manager of the English club FC Fulham.
Before that, he worked for the Dutch club Ajax.
He mainly focuses on the fitness of the players.
Currently , He  worked for Al Ahly SC .
Coronel was the person behind the move from De Meer to the current stadium named Amsterdam Arena.
In 2007 he was the head commissioner of an investigation to the club's functioning.
Coronel was of Jewish descent.
He died in the summer of 2016 at the age of 69.
Paul Phoenix is a karate master in the Tekken video game series.
He has appeared in all the Tekken games to date.
Paul's rival is Marshall Law.
Lei Wulong is a character in the Tekken video game series.
He is a Five Form Kung Fu expert.
He has appeared in all of the Tekken games so far, except for the first game.
Manchester Velodrome is an indoor cycle-racing track (or velodrome) in Manchester, in the north west of England.
It opened in September 1994 and is the United Kingdom's leading indoor Olympic-standard track.
Today it is home to the National Cycling Centre, and the headquarters of British Cycling, the national governing body.
The track has a reputation for speed.
By 30 March 2008, more than 15 world records had been set there.
The records include Chris Boardman's 1996 and 2000 hour records and the 4000 metre team pursuit record set by the Great Britain men's team at the 2008 World Championships.
The track is 250 metres long.
Its bankings reach 42 degrees in the middle.
The track is as steep at the top as it is on the black (racing) line.
On 21 May 2007 the velodrome closed to be re-surfaced.
The old track was relaid with Siberian pine.
It reopened on 16 July 2007, and is now considered smoother to ride.
Revolution Series
The Revolution Series was introduced in 2003 to make track cycling more popular.
Its goal was to try and build on the success of the well attended events like the World Championships and World Cup Classics Meetings.
It was also to provide more regular events for fans to go to.
The series started with 4 events over the winter season and quickly built up good regular crowds.
The first close to sell out crowd came at the 7th meeting, in 2005, when all seats were sold with a further number of fans standing.
The first official complete sell out came at Revolution 14 and is now a regular occurrence.
Alongside the senior racing, the Future Stars competition also runs at each Revolution event.
This series involves young riders, usually 15-16 year olds, and puts them through a number of races each night to test both their sprint and endurance skills.
Hosted events
1996 UCI world championships
2000 UCI world championships
2002 Commonwealth Games (track cycling events only)
2003/2004 Revolution Series 1
2004 UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics Round 3
2004-2005 UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics Round 3
2004/2005 Revolution Series 2
2005-2006 UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics Round 2
2005/2006 Revolution Series 3
2006/2007 Revolution Series 4
2006–2007 UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics Round 4
2007/2008 Revolution Series 5
2008–2009 UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics Round 1
2008 UCI world championships
2009–2010 UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics Round 1
Cycling For All
The velodrome is not just solely for the use of professional riders.
Cycling fans can also have the opportunity of riding around the famous boards as well.
Regular sessions are run every week at the velodrome, starting from taster sessions right up to serious training.
A taster session involves some basic training and an hour riding the track.
On 2 July 2009 cycling fans Kraftwerk performed at the Manchester Velodrome as part of the 2009 Manchester International Festival.
During the performance of the song Tour de France, four members of the British Olympic Cycling Team entered the velodrome and cycled circuits.
The Revolution Series
British Cycling
The 2012 United States presidential election happened on November 6, 2012.
Barack Obama, the incumbent president and Democratic candidate, won the election.
He defeated Mitt Romney, the Republican candidate, who was the former Governor of Massachusetts.
There were also elections for the U.S. Senate and U.S. House of Representatives.
By November 6, 2012, 11:30 PM ET (5:30 AM UTC), many broadcast networks said that Obama and Biden won the election.
Mitt Romney of the Republican Party conceded the election to Obama around 1 AM ET on November 7.
Gary Johnson of the Libertarian Party came in third.
Electoral College changes
Between the 2008 and 2012 elections the Electoral College changed because of the 2010 Census.
As a result, several states have lost electoral votes, and several states have gained electoral votes.
Here are the states that have gained or lost electoral votes:
Texas +4
Florida +2
Arizona +1
Georgia +1
Nevada +1
South Carolina +1
Utah +1
Washington +1
New York -2
Ohio -2
Illinois -1
Iowa -1
Louisiana -1
Massachusetts -1
Michigan -1
Missouri -1
New Jersey -1
Pennsylvania -1
The Republicans held their national convention from August 27 to August 30, 2012 at the St. Pete Times Forum in Tampa, Florida.
The Democrats held their convention from September 3 to September 6, 2012 at the Time Warner Cable Arena in Charlotte, North Carolina.
Major candidates
Barack Obama declared that he was running for re-election in 2012 on April 4, 2011.
He had challengers in 7 states, but still managed to win all 57 democratic primaries and therefore the democratic nomination.
Other candidates
John Wolfe, Jr., attorney from Tennessee
Darcy Richardson, historian from Florida
Bob Ely, entrepreneur from Illinois
Randall Terry, anti-abortion activist from West Virginia
Ron Paul, U.S. Representative from Texas (ended active campaigning on May 14, 2012; no endorsement, continued to seek delegates from earlier primaries).
Fred Karger, Political consultant and gay rights activist from California (withdrew June 29, 2012).
Newt Gingrich, former U.S. Speaker of the House of Representatives from Georgia (withdrew on May 2, 2012, and endorsed Mitt Romney)
Rick Santorum, former senator from Pennsylvania (withdrew on April 10, 2012, and endorsed Mitt Romney)
Buddy Roemer, former governor of Louisiana (withdrew on February 22, 2012, to run for the nominations of Americans Elect and the Reform Party, then endorsed Gary Johnson)
Rick Perry, Governor of Texas (withdrew on January 19, 2012, and endorsed Newt Gingrich, then Mitt Romney after Gingrich withdrew)
Jon Huntsman, former U.S. ambassador to China and former governor of Utah (withdrew on January 16, 2012, and endorsed Mitt Romney)
Michele Bachmann, U.S. Representative from Minnesota (withdrew on January 4, 2012, and endorsed Mitt Romney)
Gary Johnson, former governor of New Mexico (withdrew on December 28, 2011, to run for the nomination of the Libertarian Party)
Herman Cain, a businessman from Georgia (withdrew on December 3, 2011, and endorsed Newt Gingrich, then Mitt Romney after Gingrich withdrew)
Thaddeus McCotter, U.S. Representative from Michigan (withdrew on September 22, 2011, and endorsed Mitt Romney)
Tim Pawlenty, former governor of Minnesota (withdrew on August 14, 2011, and endorsed Mitt Romney)
Scott Brown, Sarah Palin, Chris Christie, Donald Trump, Mike Huckabee, and Rudy Giuliani were considered possible candidates.
All of them said that they were not going to run for president.
In August 2011, the Ames Straw Poll was conducted.
It was won by Bachmann, with Paul coming in second.
During the poll, Perry entered the race.
After not placing in the top 2 in the poll, former Minnesota governor Tim Pawlenty dropped out.
Thaddeus McCotter dropped out a short time later.
Rick Perry became the frontrunner (person with the highest amount of support who is expected to win, according to polls) of the party, ahead of Romney in the polls.
Rick Perry then had several bad debates and in one of them, he said he wanted to remove 3 government departments, but forgot one of them.
After these mistakes, Perry's poll numbers went down.
In the fall, Herman Cain became the new frontrunner for several months.
He had an economic plan called 9-9-9 that would replace the entire tax system with a 9% income tax, a 9% national sales tax, and a 9% corporation tax.
During foreign policy debates, he was not as successful.
On December 3, 2011, Cain left the Presidential race.
This was after several women said that he had sexually harassed them.
Newt Gingrich and Mitt Romney were the two main competitors after that, but soon after Newt Gingrich lost much of his support.
Gary Johnson withdrew on December 28, 2011, to run for the nomination of the Libertarian Party.
In January 2012, after not doing well in the primaries, Bachmann, Huntsman, and Perry dropped out of the Presidential race.
Rick Santorum, however, picked up a surprise win in Iowa, as did Gingrich in South Carolina.
For February, March, and the beginning of April, Rick Santorum was Mitt Romney's main competitor.
On April 10, However, with only 11 (primary)  victories to Romney's 23, Rick Santorum announced that he was going to drop out of the race.
Buddy Roemer dropped out on February 22nd to run for the nominations of americans elect and the reform party, before ending his campaign completely on May 31.
After Santorum dropped out, most people thought that Mitt Romney would win the most primaries, and therefore the most pledged delegates, and ultimately the nomination.
His two remaining opponents, Newt Gingrich and Ron Paul decided to stay in the race.
Gingrich dropped out on May 2 after a disappointing showing in the Delaware primary that left his number of victories at 2 to Romney's 28.
Paul, despite having only 1 victory to Romney's eventual 42 victories, did not end his campaign until after the 2012 republican national convention.
At the republican national convention, with support from many pledged and unpledged delegates, Romney won the nomination in a landslide.
The convention chose Paul Ryan as Romney's running mate.
Gary Johnson, former governor of New Mexico.
Vice-presidential nominee: Jim Gray, retired state court judge, from California
Jill Stein, medical doctor from Massachusetts.
Vice-presidential nominee: Cheri Honkala, social organizer, from Pennsylvania.
Virgil Goode, former U.S. congressman, from Virginia.
Vice-presidential nominee: Jim Clymer from Pennsylvania
Rocky Anderson, former mayor of Salt Lake City and founding member of the Justice Party, from Utah.
Vice-presidential nominee: Luis J. Rodriguez from California.
Many polls have been taken about the presidential election.
Most polls show Obama beating Romney, aside from polls taken between the first and second presidential debates.
In polls taken state-by-state, Obama usually wins states he won in 2008, and Republicans usually win states that McCain won in 2008.
Indiana, North Carolina, and Nebraska's second congressional district are the main exceptions to the rule.
Projection by state
When you read "Consensus", it means that many news programs have said they believe Obama/Romney will win a particular state.
A projection is when someone expresses their belief in something, in this case about the outcome of the election.
An EV is an Electoral vote, from the Electoral college.
Alabama – 9 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Arkansas – 6 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Arizona – 11 EVs, Romney (CNN projection)
California – 55 EVs, Obama (CNN projection)
Connecticut – 7 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
Colorado – 9 EVs, Obama (AP projection)
Delaware – 3 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
Florida - 29 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
Georgia – 16 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Hawaii – 4 EVs, Obama (CNN projection)
Idaho – 4 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Illinois – 20 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
Indiana – 11 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Iowa – 6 EVs, Obama (CNN projection)
Kansas – 6 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Kentucky – 8 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Louisiana – 8 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Maine – 4 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
Maryland – 10 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
Massachusetts – 11 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
Michigan – 16 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
Minnesota – 10 EVs, Obama (CBS projection)
Mississippi – 6 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Missouri – 10 EVs, Romney (CBS projection)
Montana – 3 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Nebraska – 3 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection) (4th and 5th Electoral votes Consensus projection)
Nevada – 6 EVs, Obama (ABC projection)
New Hampshire – 4 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
New Jersey – 14 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
New Mexico – 5 EVs, Obama (NBC projection)
New York – 29 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
North Carolina – 15 EVs, Romney (CNN projection)
North Dakota – 3 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Ohio - 18 EVs, Obama (CNN projection)
Oklahoma – 7 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Oregon – 7 EVs, Obama (CNN projection)
Pennsylvania – 20 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
Rhode Island – 4 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
South Carolina – 9 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
South Dakota – 3 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Tennessee – 11 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Texas – 38 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Utah – 6 EVs, Romney (CNN projection)
Vermont – 3 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
Virginia – 13 EVs, Obama (CNN projection)
Washington, D.C. – 3 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
Washington – 12 EVs, Obama (CNN projection)
West Virginia – 5 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
Wisconsin – 10 EVs, Obama (Consensus projection)
Wyoming – 3 EVs, Romney (Consensus projection)
2012 elections
The Kippax was one of the most well known stands at Manchester City's Maine Road Ground.
Originally the Popular Stand, its name was changed in 1957.
The Kippax was unusual in that unlike in most other grounds, this area of support occupied a full side rather than an end of the ground.
In 1994, due to the Taylor Report, the new redeveloped, all seater stand was opened by City legend Bert Trautmann.
It housed 10,000 fans and had three levels.
At the time it was the highest stand in the country.
The club left the Maine Road ground in 2003 and moved to the new City of Manchester Stadium.. This of course bought the end for one of City's most loved stands, The Kippax.
Unofficially, the East stand in the new stadium is also named Kippax.
The Official Manchester City Maine Road History Site
The 2005 UEFA Women's Championship, also called WOMEN'S EURO 2005 (trademark of UEFA), was a football tournament for women held from 5 June to 19 June 2005 in Lancashire, England.
The UEFA Women's Championship is a regular tournament involving European national teams from countries that are part of UEFA, the European governing body, who have qualified for the competition.
The competition tries to determine which national women's team is the best in Europe.
Germany won the competition for the fourth consecutive tournament.
It was the sixth time overall (including one win in the predecessor tournament, the European Competition for Representative Women's Teams) that they won.
Their championship win was the last for coach Tina Theune-Meyer, who months earlier had announced that she would retire at the end of the tournament.
In her nine years in charge of Germany, they won three European titles, two bronze medals in the Olympics, and the 2003 World Cup.
Teams and structure
Eight national teams participated–seven which qualified from earlier stages, plus England, which received an automatic berth as the host nation.
They were split into two groups of 4: Group A and Group B. Each team in a group played each other once, with the top two teams in each group moving into the semi-finals.
The winner faced the runner-up of the other group in a play-off, with the winner of each semi-final advancing to the final to determine the champion.
See main article: 2005 UEFA Women's Championship qualification
A qualifying round ran from 22 March to 3 October 2004 .
The teams which were entered played in a group stage, with the winners advancing to the final, and the runners-up being given the chance of qualification through a play-off.
Armenia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Israel, Kazakhstan, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Scotland, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland, Ukraine
Czech Republic, Iceland, Russia
Blazenka Logarusic
Dagmar Danková
Hana Spackova
Alexandra Ihringova
Amy Rainer
Wendy Toms
Gyöngyi Gaal
Andi Regan
Katarzyna Nadolska
Floarea Cristina Ionescu
Irina Mirt
Miroslava Migalova
Yolanda Parga Rodriguez
Elke Lüthi
Nicole Petignat
Finland and Denmark finished level on points.
Finland advanced to the semifinals due to their head-to-head win.
OG - own goal
aet - after extra time
pen - penalty
Inka Grings
Conny Pohlers
Solveig Gulbrandsen
Hanna Ljungberg
Laura Österberg Kalmari
Melania Gabbiadini
Dagny Mellgren
Merete Pedersen
Johanna Rasmussen
Amanda Barr
Heidi Kackur
Minna Mustonen
Anna-Kaisa Rantanen
Stephanie Jones
Sandra Minnert
Elisa Camporese
Sara Di Filippo
Heidi Christensen
Anna Sjöström
own goal
Sanna Valkonen (playing against England)
Top scored teams
UEFA Women's Championship official webpages
BBC Sport coverage of Women's football
BBC Sport: " How Women's Euros have evolved"
2005 in association football
Laurent Robert (born 21 May 1975) is a French football player.
|1994/95||rowspan="5"|Montpellier||rowspan="5"|Division 1||7||0
|1996/97||38||1
|1998/99||32||11
|1999/00||rowspan="3"|Paris Saint-Germain||rowspan="3"|Division 1||28||9
|2000/01||32||15
|2001/02||rowspan="4"|Newcastle United||rowspan="4"|Premier League||36||8
|2002/03||27||5
|2003/04||35||6
|2004/05||31||3
|2005/06||Portsmouth||Premier League||17||1
|2005/06||Benfica||Portuguese Liga||13||2
|2006/07||Levante||La Liga||13||0
|2007/08||Derby County||Premier League||4||0
|2008||Toronto||Major League Soccer||17||1
|2008/09||Larissas||Super League||6||0
Nicolae Mitea (born 24 March 1985) is a Romanian football player.
|2002/03||Dinamo Bucureşti||Divizia A||9||0
|2003/04||rowspan="5"|Ajax||rowspan="5"|Eredivisie||23||7
|2004/05||21||2
|2006/07||8||2
|2008/09||Dinamo Bucureşti||Liga I||12||0
Yasumichi Uchima (born 10 September 1984) is a Japanese football player.
|2007||rowspan="3"|Sagan Tosu||rowspan="3"|J. League 2||10||0||0||0||10||0
|2008||22||1||4||1||26||2
|2009||14||0||1||0||15||0
|2010||Gainare Tottori||Football League||||||||||||
Rodrigo Fabri (born 15 January 1976) is a Brazilian football player.
|1995||rowspan="3"|Portuguesa Desportos||rowspan="3"|Série A||5||0
|1996||27||11
|1997||26||15
|1998||Flamengo||Série A||15||2
|1998/99||Real Madrid||La Liga||0||0
|1999/00||Real Valladolid||La Liga||29||8
|2000/01||Sporting Portugal||Portuguese Liga||23||3
|2001||rowspan="3"|Grêmio||rowspan="3"|Série A||8||2
|2002||22||18
|2003||13||1
|2003/04||Atlético Madrid||La Liga||16||0
|2004||rowspan="2"|Atlético Mineiro||rowspan="2"|Série A||22||3
|2005||25||4
|2006||São Paulo||Série A||6||0
|2007||Paulista||Série B||18||5
|2008||Figueirense||Série A||19||1
|2009||rowspan="2"|Santo André||Série A||16||1
Public health is the science dealing with prevention there is a disease that is a threat to the overall health of a community, as well as with prolonging life and promoting health.
The aims are achieved through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, public and private organizations, communities and individuals.
It bases on health analysis of a handful of people or all the inhabitants of several continents rather than on an individual.
Public health includes such parts as epidemiology, biostatistics, health services, environmental, social, behavioral, and occupational health.
Public health intervention prevents rather than treats a disease through surveillance of cases and promotes healthy behaviors such as hand washing, vaccination programs and distribution of condoms.
In outbreaks of an infectious disease, treating a disease may be vital to preventing it in others.
Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, to respond to domestic health issues.
Many diseases are preventable through simple, non-medical methods.
Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in the developing world and in developed countries, through local health systems and through international non-governmental organizations.
In the developing world, there may not be enough trained health workers or monetary resources to provide a basic level of medical care and disease prevention.
History of public health
Public health has roots in antiquity.
From the beginning, human civilization recognized that polluted water and lack of proper waste disposal spread communicable diseases.
Early religions attempted to regulate behavior related to health, from types of food eaten, to behaviors, such as drinking alcohol or sexual relationships.
Governments placed responsibility on leaders to develop public health policies and programs in order to gain some understanding of the causes of disease, ensure social stability prosperity, and maintain order.
The Chinese developed the practice of variolation following a smallpox epidemic around 1000 BC.
The practice of vaccination did not become prevalent until the 1820s.
During the 14th century Black Death in Europe, burning parts of cities resulted in benefit, since it destroyed the rodent infestations.
The development of quarantine in the medieval period restricted effects of other infectious diseases.
Later they started build of sewers, the regular collection of garbage, incineration or disposal, providing clean water and draining standing water to prevent the breeding of mosquitos.
The industrial revolution initially caused the spread of disease through large conurbations around workhouses and factories.
Modern public health
Sometimes, the developing world is plagued by largely preventable infectious diseases, due to malnutrition and poverty.
The focus of public health has moved from individual behaviors and risk factors to population-level issues such as inequality, poverty, and education.
There is recognition that our health is affected by where we live, genetics, our income, our educational status and our social relationships.
Professional degrees are oriented towards practice in public health settings: the Master of Public Health (M.P.H.), Doctor of Public Health (Dr.PH.)
and the Master of Health Administration (M.H.A.).
They deal with public health in health departments, managed care and community-based organizations, hospitals and consulting firms.
Academic degrees are oriented towards the scientific basis of public health and preventive medicine, research, university teaching in graduate schools, policy analysis and development, and other high-level public health positions.
Examples of academic degrees are the Master of Science (M.S.), Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), and Doctor of Science (Sc.
Public health programs
Most governments recognize the importance of public health programs in reducing the incidence of disease, disability, and the effects of aging, although public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine.
In recent years, public health programs providing vaccinations have made strides in promoting health, including the eradication of smallpox.
An important public health issues facing the world currently are HIV/AIDS, antibiotic resistance, leading to the re-emergence of diseases such as Tuberculosis, diabetes.
As non-communicable diseases caused by smoking have been threatening public health, public health started controlling smoking.
The global health system needs to find a way to even out communicable and non communicable diseases.
Many nations have implemented major initiatives to cut smoking, such as increased taxation and bans on smoking in some or all public places.
Health care in Canada
Health Ministry of Germany
|2005||Shonan Bellmare||J. League 2||0||0||0||0||0||0
|2006||Tottori||Football League||10||0||2||0||12||0
|2007||Banditonce Kobe||Regional Leagues||0||0||0||0||0||0
|2008||rowspan="2"|Yokohama Sports & Culture Club||rowspan="2"|Regional Leagues||10||0||1||0||11||0
Marcos Assunção (born 25 July 1976) is a Brazilian football player.
|1996||rowspan="2"|Santos||rowspan="2"|Série A||19||2
|1998||rowspan="2"|Flamengo||rowspan="2"|Série A||21||5
|1999/00||rowspan="3"|Roma||rowspan="3"|Serie A||21||1
|2000/01||12||2
|2001/02||22||6
|2002/03||rowspan="5"|Real Betis Balompié||rowspan="5"|La Liga||30||5
|2003/04||19||7
|2007/08||Al-Ahli Dubai||UAE League||12||1
James McFadden (born 14 April 1983) is a Scottish football player.
|2000/01||rowspan="4"|Motherwell||rowspan="4"|Premier League||6||0||1||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||7||0
|2001/02||24||10||1||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||25||10
|2002/03||30||13||4||5||1||1||colspan="2"|-||35||19
|2003/04||3||3||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||3||3
|2003/04||rowspan="5"|Everton||rowspan="5"|Premier League||23||0||1||0||3||0||colspan="2"|-||27||0
|2004/05||23||1||3||2||3||0||colspan="2"|-||29||3
|2005/06||32||6||4||1||1||0||4||0||41||7
|2006/07||19||2||0||0||2||1||colspan="2"|-||21||3
|2007/08||12||2||1||0||3||2||5||1||21||5
|2007/08||rowspan="3"|Birmingham City||Premier League||12||4||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||12||4
|2008/09||League Championship||30||4||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||30||4
|2007||6||3
Richard Wright (born 5 November 1977) is an English football player.
|1994/95||rowspan="7"|Ipswich Town||Premier League||3||0||0||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||4||0
|1995/96||rowspan="5"|First Division||23||0||3||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||27||0
|1996/97||40||0||1||0||5||0||colspan="2"|-||46||0
|1997/98||46||0||4||0||6||0||colspan="2"|-||56||0
|1998/99||46||0||2||0||4||0||colspan="2"|-||52||0
|1999/00||46||0||1||0||4||0||colspan="2"|-||51||0
|2000/01||Premier League||36||0||2||0||6||0||colspan="2"|-||44||0
|2001/02||Arsenal||Premier League||12||0||5||0||1||0||4||0||22||0
|2002/03||rowspan="5"|Everton||rowspan="5"|Premier League||33||0||1||0||3||0||colspan="2"|-||37||0
|2003/04||4||0||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||4||0
|2004/05||7||0||2||0||3||0||colspan="2"|-||12||0
|2005/06||15||0||1||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||16||0
|2006/07||1||0||0||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||2||0
|2007/08||West Ham United||Premier League||0||0||0||0||3||0||colspan="2"|-||3||0
|2007/08||Southampton||League Championship||7||0||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||7||0
|2008/09||rowspan="2"|Ipswich Town||rowspan="2"|League Championship||46||0||2||0||2||0||colspan="2"|-||50||0
|2009/10||12||0||0||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||13||0
Lawrence Akandu (born 10 December 1974) is a Hong Kong football player.
He has played for Hong Kong national team.
|2003/04||rowspan="2"|Happy Valley||rowspan="2"|First Division League||14||9||3||1||5||1||6||3||28||14
|2004/05||14||4||3||1||1||0||colspan="2"|-||18||5
|2005/06||Tung Po||Second Division League||21||21||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||21||21
|2006/07||Hong Kong||First Division League||13||2||1||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||14||2
|2007/08||rowspan="2"|Shatin||Third Division League||4||4||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||4||4
|2008/09||Second Division League||16||13||1||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||17||13
|2009/10||Mutual||Second Division League||||||||||||||||||||
Marco Cassetti (born 29 May 1977) is an Italian football player.
|1996/97||rowspan="2"|Montichiari||rowspan="2"|Nazionale Dilettanti||1||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||1||0
|1997/98||29||6||0||0||colspan="2"|-||29||6
|1998/99||rowspan="2"|Lumezzane||rowspan="2"|Serie C1||19||2||1||0||colspan="2"|-||20||2
|1999/00||31||1||6||0||colspan="2"|-||37||1
|2000/01||rowspan="4"|Hellas Verona||rowspan="2"|Serie A||12||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||13||0
|2001/02||13||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||13||0
|2002/03||rowspan="2"|Serie B||35||7||1||0||colspan="2"|-||36||7
|2003/04||0||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||1||0
|2003/04||rowspan="3"|Lecce||rowspan="3"|Serie A||30||5||0||0||colspan="2"|-||30||5
|2004/05||36||4||3||0||colspan="2"|-||39||4
|2005/06||29||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||29||0
|2006/07||rowspan="4"|Roma||rowspan="4"|Serie A||28||2||6||0||8||0||42||2
|2007/08||27||0||6||0||7||1||40||1
|2008/09||20||0||1||0||2||0||23||0
Piyapong Pue-on (born 14 November 1959) is a Thai football manager and former football player.
He played for Thailand national team.
Aaron Hughes (born 8 November 1979) is a Northern Irish football player.
He plays for Fulham and Northern Ireland national team.
|1997/98||rowspan="8"|Newcastle United||rowspan="8"|Premier League||4||0||1||0||1||0||2||0||8||0
|1998/99||14||0||2||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||17||0
|1999/00||27||2||4||0||0||0||3||0||34||2
|2000/01||35||0||2||0||3||0||colspan="2"|-||40||0
|2001/02||34||0||5||1||3||0||6||2||48||3
|2002/03||35||1||1||0||0||0||12||0||48||1
|2003/04||34||0||2||0||0||0||11||0||47||0
|2004/05||22||1||2||0||2||0||10||0||36||1
|2005/06||rowspan="2"|Aston Villa||rowspan="2"|Premier League||35||0||4||0||2||0||colspan="2"|-||41||0
|2006/07||19||0||1||0||3||0||colspan="2"|-||23||0
|2007/08||rowspan="3"|Fulham||rowspan="3"|Premier League||30||0||1||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||32||0
|2008/09||37||0||5||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||43||0
Total||70||0
Wilfred Bouma (born 15 June 1978) is a Dutch football player.
|1994/95||rowspan="3"|PSV Eindhoven||rowspan="3"|Eredivisie||1||0||||||||||||||||
|1995/96||4||0||||||||||||||||
|1996/97||1||0||||||||||||||||
|1996/97||rowspan="2"|MVV Maastricht||Eerste Divisie||18||7||||||||||||||||
|1997/98||Eredivisie||33||6||||||||||||||||
|1998/99||Fortuna Sittard Combinatie||Eredivisie||33||5||||||||||||||||
|1999/00||rowspan="7"|PSV Eindhoven||rowspan="7"|Eredivisie||27||9||||||||||3||0||30||9
|2000/01||20||0||||||||||7||1||27||1
|2001/02||27||2||||||||||10||0||37||2
|2002/03||27||1||||||||||6||0||33||1
|2003/04||32||5||||||||||12||2||44||7
|2004/05||28||1||||||||||14||0||42||1
|2005/06||3||0||||||||||0||0||3||0
|2005/06||rowspan="5"|Aston Villa||rowspan="5"|Premier League||20||0||1||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||21||0
|2006/07||25||2||1||0||2||0||colspan="2"|-||28||2
|2007/08||38||1||1||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||39||1
|2008/09||0||0||0||0||0||0||2||0||2||0
|2007||Tokyo Verdy||J. League 2||0||0||0||0||0||0
|2008||V-Varen Nagasaki||Regional Leagues||9||2||colspan="2"|-||9||2
|2009||Tokushima Vortis||J. League 2||0||0||0||0||0||0
|2009||Zweigen Kanazawa||Regional Leagues||2||0||2||0||4||0
Thomas Myhre (born 16 October 1973) is a Norwegian football player.
|1993||rowspan="5"|Viking||rowspan="5"|Tippeligaen||22||0
|1995||24||0
|1997/98||rowspan="2"|Everton||rowspan="2"|Premier League||22||0
|1999/00||Rangers||Premier League||3||0
|1999/00||Everton||Premier League||4||0
|1999/00||Birmingham City||First Division||7||0
|2000/01||Tranmere Rovers||First Division||3||0
|2000/01||Everton||Premier League||6||0
|2000/01||Copenhagen||Superliga||14||0
|2001/02||Beşiktaş||Süper Lig||13||0
|2002/03||rowspan="2"|Sunderland||Premier League||2||0
|2003/04||First Division||4||0
|2003/04||Crystal Palace||First Division||15||0
|2004/05||Sunderland||League Championship||31||0
|2005||Fredrikstad||Tippeligaen||3||0
|2005/06||rowspan="2"|Charlton Athletic||rowspan="2"|Premier League||20||0
|2007||rowspan="3"|Viking||rowspan="3"|Tippeligaen||9||0
|2009||28||0
|2010||Kongsvinger||Tippeligaen||||
Total||56||0
Tom Finney (5 April 1922 – 14 February 2014) was an English footballer.
|1946/47||rowspan="14"|Preston North End||rowspan="3"|First Division||32||7||3||2||35||9
|1947/48||33||13||4||1||37||14
|1948/49||24||7||2||2||26||9
|1949/50||rowspan="2"|Second Division||37||10||1||1||38||11
|1950/51||34||13||2||0||36||13
|1951/52||rowspan="9"|First Division||33||13||0||0||33||13
|1952/53||34||17||3||2||37||19
|1953/54||23||11||8||3||31||14
|1954/55||30||7||3||2||33||9
|1955/56||32||17||1||1||33||18
|1956/57||34||23||6||5||40||28
|1957/58||34||26||1||0||35||26
|1958/59||16||6||0||0||16||6
|1959/60||37||17||6||4||43||21
|1946||4||3
|1947||6||5
|1948||5||4
|1950||7||4
|1952||7||1
|1953||6||2
|1955||4||2
|1957||6||1
|1958||7||2
Total||76||30
Nat Lofthouse (27 August 1925 – 15 January 2011) was an English footballer.
He was born in Bolton, and died there on 15 January 2011 at 85 years old.
|1946/47||rowspan="15"|Bolton Wanderers||rowspan="15"|First Division||40||16
|1947/48||34||18
|1948/49||22||7
|1949/50||35||10
|1950/51||38||21
|1951/52||38||18
|1952/53||36||22
|1953/54||32||17
|1954/55||31||15
|1955/56||36||32
|1956/57||36||28
|1957/58||31||17
|1958/59||37||29
|1960/61||6||3
|1950||1||2
|1951||3||3
|1952||7||9
|1953||8||6
|1954||3||3
|1955||7||4
|1956||2||2
Total||33||30
Antonio Carbajal (born 7 June 1929) is a Mexican retired football player.
|1948/49||rowspan="2"|España||rowspan="2"|Primera División||25||0
|1949/50||20||0
|1950/51||rowspan="16"|León||rowspan="16"|Primera División||22||0
|1951/52||22||0
|1952/53||20||0
|1953/54||22||0
|1954/55||22||0
|1955/56||25||0
|1956/57||24||0
|1957/58||24||0
|1958/59||26||0
|1959/60||26||0
|1960/61||25||0
|1961/62||24||0
|1962/63||25||0
|1963/64||25||0
|1964/65||25||0
|1965/66||7||0
Daniel Van Buyten (born 7 February 1978) is a Belgian football player.
He plays for Bayern Munich and Belgium national team.
|1997/98||rowspan="2"|Charleroi||rowspan="2"|First Division||0||0||||||||||0||0
|1998/99||19||1||||||||||19||1
|1999/00||rowspan="2"|Standard Liège||rowspan="2"|First Division||26||3||||||||||26||3
|2001/02||rowspan="3"|Olympique Marseille||Division 1||23||2||||||||||23||2
|2002/03||rowspan="2"|Ligue 1||35||8||||||||||35||2
|2003/04||18||2||||||||||35||8
|2003/04||Manchester City||Premier League||5||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||6||0
|2004/05||rowspan="2"|Hamburg||rowspan="2"|Bundesliga||34||5||1||0||4||0||39||5
|2005/06||27||2||3||1||15||2||45||5
|2006/07||rowspan="4"|Bayern Munich||rowspan="4"|Bundesliga||31||3||3||0||10||2||44||5
|2007/08||19||1||4||1||3||1||26||3
|2008/09||18||3||2||0||5||1||25||4
Epidemiology is the study of factors that influence the health and illness of populations.
The three levels of causation of health problems include individual behavioral level, individual biological level, and political-economic ecological level.
Epidemiologists aim to understand the causes of health problems by looking at the relationship between agents, hosts, and environmental factors that affects health.
Using these information, they also design public health interventions to solve various health problems among populations.
They regularly evaluate the health of populations, tries to identify which populations have greater risk from specific causes of diseases, and evaluates the effectiveness of the intervention programs or methods that they create.
In essence, epidemiology provides the foundation of public health and preventative medicine practices.
Descriptive/analytic epidemiology
There are two types of epidemiology: descriptive and analytic.
Descriptive epidemiology aims to describe the distribution of people who gets sick (versus those who don't) with regards to time, place, and person (TPP).
TPP can also be thought of as answering the questions of when, who, and what respectively; in other words it investigates when a health issue or disease first emerged in a population, who in the population are getting sick, and where the disease/health condition seems to have first originated and spread from.
Analytic epidemiology then uses the data provided by TPP to make and test hypothesis which aim to determine the cause of an outbreak or disease cluster among a population.
Epidemiologist evaluate morbidity (people who are sick or injured) and mortality (people who are killed) to understand the burden of disease among populations.
Surveillance studies
A key aspect of epidemiology is surveillance studies, which provides the numerical data and statistics that epidemiologists use.
Surveillance studies are done systematically to monitor the health of populations and helps with identifying any new health problems or disease that may develop, as well as evaluating the effectiveness of existing health intervention measures in place.
These studies also rely on TPP to collect data and presents it in simple graphs and tables which are easy to summarize and understand.
These studies are especially important in helping guide policy making decisions and helping epidemiologists understand which interventions work and which don't.
It is also important for donors as they rely on surveillance data to analyze the usefulness of their investments and whether it is being used effectively or not.
Definition and origin of term
Epidemiology means "the study of what is upon the people".
The word derived from the Greek terms epi = upon, among; demos = people, district; logos = study, word, discourse.
It applies only to human populations.
But the term is used in studies of zoological populations 'epizoology', and plant populations.
Hippocrates was the first who has looked at the relationships between disease and environmental influences.
He drew the distinction between 'epidemic' and 'endemic': diseases that are 'visited upon' a population (epidemic) as contrasted with those that 'live within' a population (endemic).
The Persian physician Avicenna in the 1020s, discovered the contagious nature of tuberculosis and sexually transmitted disease.
He noted the distribution of disease through water and soil.
Avicenna said that bodily secretion is contaminated by foul foreign earthly bodies before being infected.
He introduced the method of quarantine to limit the spread of contagious disease.
Black death
The Black Death (bubonic plague) reached Al Andalus in the 14th century.
Ibn Khatima thought infectious diseases were caused by "minute bodies" which enter the human body and cause disease.
Another Andalusian-Arabian physician, Ibn al-Khatib (1313–1374) in his treatise On the Plague stated how infectious disease can be transmitted through bodily contact and "through garments, vessels and earrings".
Girolamo Fracastoro from Verona suggested these very small, unseeable, particles that cause disease were alive.
They were able to spread by air, and multiply.
They could be destroyed by fire.
He refuted Galen's miasma theory (poison gas in sick people).
In 1543, Fracastoro's book De contagione et contagiosis morbis suggested personal and environmental hygiene to prevent disease.
The development of a sufficiently powerful microscope by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1675 provided visual evidence of living particles consistent with a germ theory of disease.
Great Plague
In 1662 John Graunt analysed the mortality rolls in London before the Great Plague.
This gave statistical evidence for and against various theories of disease.
Dr. John Snow investigated the causes of the 19th Century Cholera epidemics.
He noticed the significantly higher death rates in two areas supplied by Southwark Water Company.
He showed the Broad Street pump was the origin of the Soho epidemic, a classic example of epidemiology He used chlorine in an attempt to clean the water and had the pump handle removed.
This stopped the outbreak.
It was a major event in the history of public health, and the founding event of the science of epidemiology.
The term 'epidemiology' was first used in 1802 by the Spanish physician Villalba.
The term is used now for the description and causation of epidemic diseases, and of disease in general.
It can be used for many non-disease health-related conditions, such as high blood pressure and obesity.
In 1847 Hungarian physician Ignaz Semmelweis brought down infant mortality at a Vienna hospital by disinfection.
Unfortunately, disinfection did not become widely practiced until British surgeon Joseph Lister 'discovered' antiseptics in 1865 after Louis Pasteur's work.
In the early 20th century, mathematical methods were introduced into epidemiology by Ronald Ross and others.
In 1954 came the results of a study led by Richard Doll.
This gave very strong statistical support to the suspicion that tobacco smoking was linked to lung cancer.
Important concepts/terms
There are several very key terms that epidemiologists use when discussing population health and disease outbreaks.
The following, although not a comprehensive list, provides some of the key concepts that are important to understand when discussing epidemiology.
Cases: refers specifically to those individual who are sick with a disease/health condition or injured
Epidemic / Outbreak: is the occurrence of a disease among a population that is in excess (higher rate) than what is expected for that given time and place
Endemic: a disease or health condition that is present in the population at all times during the year
Pandemic: a disease that spreads across various regions; also refers to global outbreaks that spreads over multiple continents
Cluster: refers to group of cases in a specific time and place that's more than what's expected
Population at risk: refers to those within a population who are particularly susceptible to a certain disease or health condition
It is important to note that an endemic disease or cluster can become an epidemic.
An example of this would be with malaria; although malaria is endemic to certain regions in South America, Africa, and South Asia, during certain years or times it can become an epidemic with higher number of cases then usual present in the population.
In addition, it is also possible for epidemic or outbreak to progress and become a full-fledged pandemic.
Calculating Disease Rates
Rates refers to the number of cases occurring during a specific period of time and depends on the population size at that time.
Calculating disease rates helps epidemiologists to compare health issues among different populations.
The general calculation for determining disease rate is to divide the number of cases or health condition by the number of population at risk during a specific period of time, and multiplying that by 100.
However, disease rates can also be differentiated into two different types: prevalence rate and incidence rate.
Prevalence rate refers to the number of both old and new cases in a population during a specific time period, which is divided by the total number of cases in the population.
Prevalence rates are useful when dealing with investigations relating to chronic diseases, which last for more than 3 months.
On the other hand, incidence rate refers to the number of new health related conditions or cases which is divided by the population at risk.
Incidence rates are important in studies involving acute diseases, where symptoms of a disease peak and subside within days or weeks and generally lasts less than 3 months.
Types of Epidemiological Studies
Epidemiological studies makes use of both experimental and observational studies.
Experimental studies
Experimental studies are ones where the epidemiologist can control and manipulate different variables throughout the experiment.
It usually involves a placebo treatment/group.
This type of study is used when epidemiologists are trying to determine the cause of a health issue/disease or evaluating the effectiveness of a cure or interventions.
Observational studies
Observational studies include descriptive and analytical studies; descriptive studies investigates epidemiological cases with regards to TPP while analytical study investigates hypothesis regarding relationships between health issues and risk factors.
While descriptive studies (TPP) answers questions of when, who, and where, analytical studies tries to answer the question of how a population is affected by a disease and why they are affected.
Overall, observational studies do not manipulate any variables and often uses comparison groups for analysis; this type of study is often done in an attempt to discover the links between exposure to certain risk factors and health outcomes.
Some examples of observational studies include cohort studies, case-control studies, and cross-sectional studies.
Cohort study: participants are categorized based on exposure to disease, risk factor, or presence of a health condition and are observed over time to see if they develop symptoms of the disease
Case-control study: Those individuals who are identified as cases (has the disease or health condition) are compared with those who don't have the disease/health condition
Cross - sectional study: provides a "one-shot" picture of a group at a certain point in time; participants are selected based on a specific characteristic or because they belong to a certain population/group and are examined to see how the disease/health condition has affected their group.
Process of Epidemiological Investigations
Investigating an outbreak is a very involved multi-step process which ranges from first establishing the existence of an outbreak to communicating the findings of the investigation with the scientific community as well as the general population.
The following is a rough sequence of the process of these investigations.
Establish that there is an outbreak.
Epidemiologists look at data (TPP) and surveillance studies to determine if there have been similar cases, like the one being investigated, in the past or if it is a completely new type of disease or health condition.
Prepare for field work.
Once an outbreak has been established, epidemiologists take preparations, arrange materials/equipment for travel to investigate the outbreak at its place of origin and other locations where it may have spread to.
Verify the diagnosis.
Researchers review all laboratory/clinical findings and interview patients to get a better sense of what they are dealing with and to confirm their initial diagnosis of an outbreak.
Define/identify case.