the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
R. Kelly would go on to have more allegations about relationships with underage girls and the relationship with Aaliyah was brought up or mentioned most of the time as a starting point.
He refused to discuss his relationship with her and explained his reason for doing this: ""Out of respect for her, and her mom and her dad, I will not discuss Aaliyah.
That was a whole other situation, a whole other time, it was a whole other thing, and I'm sure that people also know that."
According to her mother Diane Haughton, everything "that went wrong in her life" began with her relationship with R. Kelly.
The allegations were dismissed as having little effect on her image or career.
In 1996, Aaliyah left Jive Records and signed with Atlantic Records.
She worked with record producers Timbaland and Missy Elliott, who contributed to her second studio album, One in a Million.
She developed friendships with the pair.
Timbaland was in love with her, but did not act out on it due to her being years younger than him.
Instead he wanted to be a bigger brother figure for her, similar to her own brother Rashad Haughton.
However, he struggled with keeping his feelings at bay.
During her last days, the pair had an argument and it would be the last time they would speak to each other, as he next learned that she had passed.
She played as herself in the police drama television series New York Undercover.
During this time, Aaliyah participated in the Children's Benefit Concert, a charity concert that took place at the Beacon Theatre in New York.
Aaliyah's first major movie role was in Romeo Must Die.
Aaliyah starred opposite martial artist Jet Li, playing a couple who fall in love amid their warring families.
It grossed US$18.6 million in its first weekend, ranking number two at the box office.
Aaliyah was scared about bad reviews so she did not look for them.
She heard good things about her role in the movie, but there were critics that did not like her role because of her relationship with Jet Li's character not having any realism along with the rest of the movie.
Before she died, she talked to the Isley Brothers about working together, having recorded one of their songs when she was younger during her tenure with Jive Records and was signed to appear in more movies.
One of them was Honey, which came out in 2003 Some Kind of Blue, a romantic movie and Sparkle, a movie produced by Whitney Houston that was the remake of the 1976 film of the same name.
Houston said after Aaliyah passed that she wanted to be in the movie.
Studio officials from Warner Brothers said she and her mother read the script and Aaliyah was passionate about appearing in the movie.
Aaliyah had a vocal range of a soprano.
With the release of her first single "Back & Forth", Dimitri Ehrlich of Entertainment Weekly expressed that Aaliyah's "silky vocals are more agile than those of self-proclaimed queen of hip-hop soul Mary J. Blige."
Aaliyah described her sound as "street but sweet", which featured her "gentle" vocals over a "hard" beat.
Though Aaliyah did not write any of her own material, her lyrics were described as in-depth.
She incorporated R&B, pop and hip hop into her music.
Her songs were often uptempo and melancholy, revolving around "matters of the heart".
Her songs have been said to have "crisp production" and "staccato arrangements" that "extend genre boundaries" while containing "old-school" soul music.
When she experimented with other genres, such as Latin pop and heavy metal, critics did not like the attempt.
As her albums progressed, writers felt that Aaliyah acted more older, calling her progress a "declaration of strength and independence".
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic described her eponymous album, Aaliyah, as "a statement of maturity and a stunning artistic leap forward" and called it one of the strongest urban soul records of its time.
She portrayed "unfamiliar sounds, styles and emotions", but managed to please critics with the contemporary sound it contained.
Ernest Hardy of Rolling Stone felt that Aaliyah reflected a stronger technique, where she gave her best vocal performance.
Others felt that she was "satisfying rather than extraordinary", stating that she added little to modern R&B.
On August 25, 2001, at 6:50 pm (EST), Aaliyah and various members of the record company boarded a twin-engine Cessna 402B (registration N8097W) at the Marsh Harbour Airport in Abaco Islands, The Bahamas, to travel to the Opa-locka Airport in Florida, after they completed filming the music video for the single "Rock the Boat".
They had a flight scheduled the following day, August 26, but with filming finishing early, Aaliyah and her entourage were eager to return to the United States and made the decision to leave immediately.
The designated airplane was smaller than the Cessna 404 in which they had originally flown.
The whole party and all of the equipment were accommodated on board.
As a result, when the aircraft attempted to depart, it was over its maximum takeoff weight by  and was carrying one excess passenger, according to its certification.
The plane crashed shortly after takeoff, about  from the runway.
Aaliyah and the eight others on board, pilot Luis Morales III, hair stylist Eric Forman, Anthony Dodd, security guard Scott Gallin, video producer Douglas Kratz, stylist Christopher Maldonado, and Blackground Records employees Keith Wallace and Gina Smith, were all killed.
According to findings from an inquest, conducted by the coroner's office in The Bahamas, Aaliyah suffered from "severe burns and a blow to the head", in addition to severe shock and a weak heart.
The coroner theorized that, even if Aaliyah had survived the crash, her recovery would have been virtually impossible given the severity of her injuries.
The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) report stated that "the airplane was seen lifting off the runway, and then nose down, impacting in a marsh on the south side of the departure end of runway 27 and then exploding in flames."
It indicated that the pilot was not approved to pilot the plane he was attempting to fly.
Morales falsely obtained his Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) license by showing hundreds of hours never flown, and he may also have falsified how many hours he had flown in order to get a job with his employer, Blackhawk International Airways.
Additionally, an autopsy performed on Morales revealed traces of cocaine and alcohol in his system.
The NTSB reported that the maximum allowed gross weight of the plane was "substantially exceeded" and that the center of gravity was positioned beyond its rear limit.
John Frank of the Cessna Pilots Association stated that the plane was "definitely overloaded".
The day of the crash was Morales' first official day with Blackhawk International Airways, an FAA Part 135 single-pilot operation.
Morales was not registered with the FAA to fly for Blackhawk.
As a result of the accident, Aaliyah's parents filed a wrongful death lawsuit against the company, which was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount.
Barry & Sons, Inc., a corporation formed in 1992 to develop, promote and capitalize Aaliyah and to oversee the production and distribution of her records and music videos, brought an unsuccessful lawsuit in the New York Supreme Court against Instinct Productions LLC, the company that was hired in August 2001 to produce the music video for "Rock the Boat".
The case was dismissed because of New York's wrongful death statute only permitting certain people to recover damages for wrongful death.
Aaliyah's funeral was held on August 31, 2001, at the Saint Ignatius Loyola Church in Manhattan.
Her body was set in a silver casket, which was carried in a glass hearse and was drawn by horse.
An estimated 800 mourners were in attendance of the procession.
Among those in attendance at the private ceremony were Missy Elliott, Timbaland, Gladys Knight, Lil' Kim and Sean Combs.
After the service, 22 white doves were released to symbolize each year of Aaliyah's life.
She was interred in a crypt in a private room in the Rosewood Mausoleum at the Ferncliff Cemetery.
The week after Aaliyah's death, her third studio album, Aaliyah, rose from number 19 to number one on the Billboard 200. "
Rock the Boat" was released as a posthumous single.
The music video premiered on BET's Access Granted; it became the most viewed and highest rated episode in the history of the show.
The song peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number two on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart.
It was also included on the Now That's What I Call Music!
8 compilation series; a portion of the album's profits was donated to the Aaliyah Memorial Fund.
The following two singles from Aaliyah, "More than a Woman" and "I Care 4 U", peaked within the top 25 of the Billboard Hot 100.
The album was certified double Platinum by the RIAA and sold 2.95 million copies in the United States. "
More than a Woman" reached number one in the UK singles chart making Aaliyah the first deceased artist to reach number one in the UK single chart. "
More than a Woman" was replaced by George Harrison's "My Sweet Lord" which is the only time in the UK singles chart history where a dead artist has replaced another dead artist at number one.
She won two posthumous awards at the American Music Awards of 2002; Favorite Female R&B Artist and Favorite R&B/Soul Album for Aaliyah.
Her second and final movie, Queen of the Damned, was released in February 2002.
Before its release, Aaliyah's brother, Rashad, re-dubbed some of her lines during post-production.
It grossed US$15.2 million in its first weekend, ranking number one at the box office.
On the first anniversary of Aaliyah's death, a candlelight vigil was held in Times Square, where millions of fans observed a moment of silence.
Throughout the United States, radio stations played her music in remembrance.
In December 2002, a collection of previously unreleased material was released as Aaliyah's first posthumous album, I Care 4 U. A portion of the proceeds was donated to the Aaliyah Memorial Fund, a program that benefits the Revlon UCLA Women Cancer Research Program and Harlem's Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.
It debuted at number three on the Billboard 200, selling 280,000 copies in its first week.
The album's lead single, "Miss You", peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and topped the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart.
In August of the following year, clothing retailer Christian Dior donated profits from sales in honor of Aaliyah.
Aaliyah was signed to appear in several future movies, including Honey (recast to Jessica Alba).
Some Kind of Blue and a Whitney Houston-produced remake of the 1976 movie Sparkle were canceled due to Aaliyah's death.
Before her death, Aaliyah had filmed part of her role in The Matrix Reloaded and was scheduled to appear in The Matrix Revolutions as Zee.
The role was later recast to Nona Gaye.
Aaliyah's scenes were later included in the tribute section of the Matrix Ultimate Collection series.
In 2005, Aaliyah's second compilation album, Ultimate Aaliyah was released in the UK by Blackground Records.
Ultimate Aaliyah is a three disc set, which included a greatest hits audio CD and a DVD.
Andy Kellman of Allmusic remarked "Ultimate Aaliyah adequately represents the shortened career of a tremendous talent who benefited from some of the best songwriting and production work by Timbaland, Missy Elliott, and R. Kelly."
A documentary movie Aaliyah Live in Amsterdam was released in 2011.,
shortly before the tenth anniversary of Aaliyah's death.
The documentary, by Pogus Caesar, contained previously unseen footage shot of her career beginnings in 1995 when she was appearing in the Netherlands.
In 2012 music producer Jeffrey "J-Dub" Walker via twitter said "Just got great news today; the smash unreleased song called "Steady Ground" I produced on #Aaliyah is gonna be on her upcoming album".
Walker co-wrote "I Refuse" and "What if" from Aaliyah's third self-titled album and produced the song "Steady Ground" for her 'One in a Million' album.
This second proposed posthumous album would feature this song using demo vocals since Walker claims the originals were somehow lost by his sound engineer.
However, Walker's original tweet announcing this event has since been removed, and Aaliyah's brother, via Twitter, has stated that "no official album [is] being released and supported by the Haughton family."
Age Ain't Nothing But a Number (1994)
One in a Million (1996)
Aaliyah (2001)
I Care 4 U (2002)
Ultimate Aaliyah (2005)
Pierre Charles Bouvier, Vocals & Acoustic Guitar (born May 9 1979 in Montréal)
David Phillippe Desrosiers, Bass & Background Vocals (born August 29 1980 in Sept-Îles, Canada)
Charles André "Chuck" Comeau, Drums (born September 17 1979 in Montréal)
Sébestien Lefebvre, Rhythm Guitar and Background Vocals (born June 5 1981 in Montréal)
Jean-François "Jeff" Stinco, Lead guitar (born August 22 1978 in Montréal)
When they were 13, schoolmates Pierre Bouvier and Chuck Comeau founded the band Reset.
They published their first album in 1997.
Soon after that, Comeau left the band because school was more important to him.
He came back in 1999 and founded Simple Plan with Sebastien Lefebvre and Jeff Stinco.
Bouvier met up with Comeau at a Sugar Ray concert, and Comeau offered Bouvier to join his band.
David Desrosiers, who had replaced Bouvier in Reset, joined the band in 2000.
in 2002, they published the album No Pads, No Helmets,... Just Balls.
They worked together with Joel Madden (Good Charlotte) and Mark Hoppus (Blink-182).
One year later, the album Still Not Getting Any... was published.
No Pads, No Helmets... Just Balls.
"I'm Just a Kid" (2001)
"I'd Do Anything" (2002) #51 US
"Addicted" (2003) #45 US, #63 UK, #10 AUS (2004 release)
"Perfect" (2004) #24 US, #6 AUS (2004 release)
Still Not Getting Any....
"Welcome To My Life" (2004) #40 US, #7 AUS, #1 CAN, #1 SPAIN, #12 FR
"Shut Up!" (
2004) #99 US, #14 AUS, #12 CAN, #14 SP
"Untitled (How Could This Happen to Me)" (2005) #49 US, #9 AUS,#3 CAN, #1 SPAIN
"Crazy" (2005) #32 AUS, #4 CAN
"Perfect World" (2006) (Single only in iTunes, but not launched in CD single)
"When I'm Gone" (2007)
"Your Love is a Lie" (2008)
"Save You (2008)
No Pads, No Helmets...Just Balls (2002)
Live in Japan 2002 (2003)
Live in Anaheim (2004) (Limited Edition)
Still Not Getting Any... (2004)
MTV Hard Rock Live (2005)
Simple Plan (2008)
Get Your Heart On! (
A Big Package for You (2003)
Serj Tankian (born on August 21, 1967 in Beirut, Lebanon) is an Armenian-American musician who lives in Auckland, New Zealand.
He was the lead vocalist of System of a Down.
He is now a solo artist and has released five solo albums.
Tankian was born in Beirut, Lebanon.
Tankian moved with his parents to Los Angeles, California when he was five years old.
Elect the Dead (2007)
Imperfect Harmonies (2010)
Harakiri (2012)
Orca (2013)
Jazz-Iz-Christ (2013)
Fuktronic (with Jimmy Urine) (TBA)
Prometheus Bound (TBA)
With System of a Down
Hypnotize (2005)
With Arto Tunçboyacıyan
Serart (2003)
Serj Tankian's official page
Screamers Official Site
'Screamers' and Genocide: A Talk With Serj Tankian From System of a Down
System of a Down Official Site
Serjical Strike Records
SOADFans Profile for Serj Tankian
SOADTalk.com Serj Tankian Biography
Recent interview with Serj
SerjFans.com
Armenian people
Axl Rose (born February 6, 1962) is an American hard rock singer and songwriter.
He was born William Bruce Bailey in Lafayette, Indiana, and grew up under the name William 'Bill' Bailey.
He is best known as the lead singer for the rock band Guns N' Roses.
Rose started dating Erin Everly in early 1986.
He wrote "Sweet Child o' Mine" for her and she was in the song's video.
He married Everly on April 28, 1990 in Las Vegas.
Everly later said that Rose came to her house the day before their wedding with a gun and told her he would kill himself if she didn't marry him.
GunsNRoses.
Com - Official website of Guns N' Roses
Gravitational energy is the potential energy held by an object because of its high position compared to a lower position.
In other words, it is energy associated with gravity or gravitational force.
For example, a pen being held above a table has a higher gravitational potential than a pen sitting on the table.
Gravitational potential energy is mechanical energy minus kinetic energy.
It has a scalar quantity measured in Joules (J).
An object gets gravitational potential energy when it moves uphill.
The energy used up when moving up the hill is changed into gravitational potential energy.
When the object comes back down again, the gravitational potential energy is turned back into kinetic energy (movement).
That is why riding a bike up a steep hill is very hard, but when you are coming back down, you will not need to pedal at all - you are being powered by the gravitational potential energy that you stored when you rode up the hill.
Another way gravitational potential energy helps us is by keeping earth and the other planets in orbit in our solar system around the Sun.
Formula and example
Gravitational potential energy =
m is the mass of the object ,
g is the gravitational acceleration of the object , and
h is the height above a chosen point.
The value m is in kilograms.
The value h is in metres.
The value g is a physical constant with the value of 9.81 metres per second squared.
This is known as the gravitational constant.
The value of the gravitational potential energy that is calculated using values in the above units is called the Joule (J).
joules.
The Shining Rock Wilderness is a protected area in the U.S. state of North Carolina.
Its first  have been part of the National Wilderness Preservation System since the System was created in 1964.
It now includes , and is managed by the United States Forest Service.
Within the wilderness, the Art Loeb trail can be followed to the top of Cold Mountain.
Cold Mountain is the namesake of a historical fiction novel set in the time of the American Civil War.
A movie based on the book is also named Cold Mountain.
Other webstites
Shining Rock Wilderness at recreation.gov
Shining Rock Wilderness at wilderness.net
Wilderness Areas of the United States
Geography of North Carolina
Radioactive decay happens to some chemical elements.
Most chemical elements are stable.
Stable elements are made up of atoms that stay the same.
Even in a chemical reaction, the atoms themselves do not change ever.
In the 19th century, Henri Becquerel discovered that some chemical elements have atoms that change over time.
In 1898, Marie and Pierre Curie called this phenomenon radioactive decay.
Becquerel and the Curies were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery, in 1903.
Most carbon atoms have six protons and six neutrons in their nucleus.
This carbon is called carbon-12s (six protons + six neutrons = 12).
Its atomic weight is 12.
If a carbon atom has two more neutrons it is carbon-14.
Carbon-14 acts chemically like other carbon, because the six protons and six electrons are what govern its chemical properties.
In fact, carbon-14 exists in all living things; all plants and animals contain carbon-14.
However, carbon-14 is radioactive.
It decays by beta decay to become nitrogen-14.
Carbon-14, in the small amounts found about us in nature, is harmless.
In archeology, this kind of carbon is used to determine the age of wood and other formerly living things.
The method is called radiocarbon dating.
Different kinds of decay
Ernest Rutherford found that there are different ways in which these particles penetrate matter.
He found two different kinds, which he called alpha decay and beta decay.
Paul Villard discovered a third kind in 1900.
Rutherford called it gamma decay, in 1903.
The change from radioactive carbon-14 to stable nitrogen-14 is a radioactive decay.
It happens when the atom emits an alpha particle.
An alpha particle is a pulse of energy as an electron or positron leaves the nucleus.
Other kinds of decay were discovered later.
The types of decay are different from each other because different types of decay produce different kinds of particles.
The starting radioactive nucleus is called the parent nucleus and the nucleus that it changes into is called the daughter nucleus.
The high-energy particles produced by radioactive materials are called radiation.
These various kinds of decay can happen sequentially in a "decay chain".
One kind of nucleus decays to another kind, which decays again to another and so on until it becomes a stable isotope and the chain comes to an end.
Speed of decay
The speed at which this change happens, is different for each element.
Radioactive decay is governed by chance: The time it takes, on average for half the atoms of a substance to change is named the half-life.
The rate is given by an exponential function.
As an example, iodine (131I) has a half-life of about 8 days.
That of  plutonium ranges between 4 hours (243Pu) and 80 million years (244Pu)
Nuclear transformations and energy
Radioactive decay changes an atom from one that has higher energy inside its nucleus into one with lower energy.
The change of energy of the nucleus is given to the particles that are created.
The energy released by radioactive decay may either be carried away by a gamma ray electromagnetic radiation (a type of light), a beta particle or an alpha particle.
In all those cases, the change of energy of the nucleus is carried away.
And in all those cases, the total number of positive and negative charges of the atom's protons and electrons sum to zero before and after the change.
Alpha decay
During alpha decay, the atomic nucleus releases an alpha particle.
Alpha decay causes the nucleus to lose two protons and two neutrons.
Alpha decay causes the atom to change into another element, because the atom loses two protons (and two electrons).
For example, if Americium were to go through alpha decay it would change into Neptunium because Neptunium is defined by having two protons fewer than Americium.
Alpha decay usually happens in the most heavy elements, such as uranium, thorium, plutonium, and radium.
Alpha particles cannot even go through a few centimeters of air.
Alpha radiation cannot hurt humans when the alpha radiation source is outside the human body, because human skin does not let the alpha particles go through.
Alpha radiation can be very harmful if the source is inside the body, such as when people breathe dust or gas containing materials which decay by emitting alpha particles (radiation).
is the neutron
is the proton
is the electron
is the anti-neutrino
is the positron
is the neutrino
Gamma decay
Gamma decay happens when a nucleus produces a high-energy packet of energy called a gamma ray.
Gamma rays do not have electrical charge, but they do have angular momentum.
Gamma rays are usually emitted from nuclei just after other types of decay.
Gamma rays can be used to see through material, to kill bacteria in food, to find some types of disease, and to treat some kinds of cancer.
Gamma rays have the highest energy of any electromagnetic wave, and gamma ray bursts from space are the most energetic releases of energy known.
Nicotine is a drug in tobacco cigarettes, cigars, pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, vaping liquids and some e-cigarettes.
Nicotine is an addictive stimulant that causes the heart to beat faster and makes blood pressure rise.
It can also make a person feel less hungry and speeds up the metabolism.
These effects can be very unhealthy.
Many people who use tobacco products want to quit but have a hard time quitting.
It is one of the most addictive chemicals that is widely consumed by humans.
It can be as addictive as heroin or cocaine.
Nicotine is a substance found in most members of the nightshade family of plants.
Small quantities of it can be found in tomatoes, potatoes, aubergines (eggplants) and green pepper (Capsicum, the peppers used as vegetables).
Nicotine is also in the Coca plant.
In higher quantities it is a very efficient poison.
It acts on the nerves.
It is a stimulant in lower quantities.
It is the main reason people are addicted to smoking.
Nicotine is named after Jean Nicot.
Nicot was a French ambassador in Portugal.
He had some tobacco seeds sent to Paris for analysis (As a drug).
The amount of nicotine in one cigarette varies greatly.
Factors which influence the amount include type of tobacco; brand of cigarette; country or region (some markets restrict maximum average nicotine levels); and how the cigarette is smoked.
Addiction is when the body or mind badly wants or needs something in order to work right.
When you have addiction to something it is called being addicted or being an addict.
People can be addicted to drugs, cigarettes, alcohol, caffeine, and many other things.
When somebody is addicted to something, they can become sick if they do not get the thing they are addicted to.
But taking more of the thing they are addicted to can also hurt their health.
Some people who are addicts need to go to a doctor or hospital to cure the addiction, so they no longer crave (want or need) the drug.
Addiction takes place when the addictive element enters the body.
The blood stream moves the element around the body so that it gets to the brain, and makes the person feel that they are enjoying it; then they want more of that substance.
This takes place remarkably fast for some addictions such as hashish and cocaine; but all of them control the consumer.
Once under this control, the consumer does not have a completely free will, and listens to the addiction's bidding.
People can also be addicted to other things which are not drugs.
You may hear people talk about being "addicted to the Internet" or "addicted to chocolate" or gambling.
This means that they get into a habit of enjoying that thing, so if they have to go without it for a while, they miss it a lot.
Addiction is similar to a major disease like chronic heart disease or perhaps diabetes, but addictions are not taken as seriously as these major diseases.
Most people believe addiction to be a lifestyle choice, which in fact it is but it is also part of a person's genetics.
While some people can do things and control themselves others cannot due to their genetic makeup.
There are ways of helping the addict but this takes the admission of a problem and then proper testing to reveal what kind of treatment is needed.
The American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) defines addiction as a treatable, chronic medical disease involving complex interactions among brain circuits, genetics, the environment, and an individual’s life experiences.
People with addiction use substances or engage in behaviors that become compulsive and often continue despite harmful consequences.
Prevention efforts and treatment approaches for addiction are generally as successful as those for other chronic diseases.
Symptoms and Signs of Addiction
Common symptoms of addiction include:
Tolerance, which is the need to engage in the addictive behavior more and more to get the desired effect
Difficulty cutting down or controlling the addictive behavior
Extreme mood changes – happy, sad, excited, anxious, etc
Weight loss or weight gain
Pupils of the eyes seeming smaller or larger than usual
Withdrawal happens when the person does not take the substance or engage in the activity, and they experience unpleasant symptoms, which are often the opposite of the effects of the addictive behavior
Definition of addiction -American Society of Addiction Medicine
Addiction -Citizendium
Addiction in the South
Life after Addiction
Secession usually means when part of one country breaks away, or leaves that country to start a new country.
During the American Civil War, eleven southern states declared their secession (independence) from the United States.
New England is a region in the northeastern United States consisting of six states: Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island.
The name was coined in 1616 by the English explorer John Smith.
Rockville is a small town in the U.S. state of Virginia.
It is in Hanover County near Richmond, Virginia.
Rockville is mainly a farming town.
It got its name from nearby rock quarries.
An intelligence quotient (acronym: IQ) is a number.
This number is the score (result) of a standard test to measure intelligence.
There are several different tests designed to measure the intelligence of a person.
Measuring intelligence in any way is an idea developed by British scientist Francis Galton in the book Hereditary genius published in the late 19th century.
IQ is a comparative measure: it tells one how much above or below the average a person is.
The idea of the test was developed at the start of the 20th century.
The tests try to avoid specific knowledge, and try to ask questions which, in principle, anyone might be able to answer.
One modern IQ test is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.
It says where the subject's score is on the Gaussian bell.
The bell curve used has a center value of 100 and a standard deviation of 15; other tests may have different standard deviations.
IQ scores can tell some things about a person, as well as intelligence.
This is because intelligence is linked to other aspects of life. "
All the cognitive tests completed in 1983 predicted onset of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease up to 11 years later".
They can predict the social status of the parents, and the parents' IQ.
There is still disagreement about to what extent IQ is inherited.
People still disagree about how much of a person's IQ comes from his parents and how much depends on his environment (what his home is like).
to predict a person's educational achievement or special needs.
to tell what kind of jobs a person could probably do.
to study what the IQ scores of a population are like.
to study what other things about a person are related to his IQ.
The average IQ scores for many populations have been rising about three points per decade since the early 20th century.
Most of the increase is in the lower half of the IQ range.
This is called the Flynn effect.
People who study it disagree whether these changes in scores are really happening, or it they mean that there were mistakes in how people were tested in the past.
General factor (g)
There are many different kinds of intelligence tests that use many methods.
Some kinds of tests are
visual (they only use pictures)
verbal (they only use words)
abstract-reasoning (thinking about puzzles)
arithmetic (simple maths)
spatial imagery (thinking about shapes)
vocabulary (how many words a person knows)
general knowledge
The different tests are strongly correlated with each other.
psychologist Charles Spearman in 1904 first studied how the scores from different kinds of intelligence tests are related to each other.
He did factor analysis of correlations between the tests, and found a single common factor explained the positive correlations among tests.
Spearman found that if a person got a high (or low) score on one kind of test, he probably (but not always) would get a similar score on the other kinds of tests.
Because of this, he said that a person's intelligence could be described with one number.
He called this number g (for general factor).
Tests that use abstract reasoning are usually the best to tell what the scores on the other kinds of tests probably will be.
Because of that, Spearman thought that a person's abstract reasoning ability (how good he was at solving puzzles or problems) was what other kinds of intelligence are based on.
Therefore, the number g is what an IQ test is supposed to measure.
One of the most commonly used measures of g is Raven's Progressive Matrices, which is a test of visual reasoning.
The war years in the United States
During World War I, the military needed a way to test recruits and decide what kind of job they could do best.
They used IQ tests.
The testing generated controversy and much public debate.
Nonverbal or "performance" tests were developed for those who could not speak English or were suspected of malingering.
After the war, positive publicity on army psychological testing helped to make psychology a respected field.
Afterwards, there was an increase in jobs and funding in psychology in the United States.
Group intelligence tests were developed and became widely used in schools and industry.
Criticisms of IQ tests
There are a number of problems with intelligence quotients.
They relate to different fields of the subject.
The problems can be grouped:
There is no general agreement on what intelligence really is.
So, it is problematic to claim that the intelligence quotient is a measure of intelligence.
However, psychologists do not claim that the tests measure intelligence directly.
They claim the tests are an index of intelligence, since higher scorers usually can do more difficult tasks.
Some think it is problematic that different aspects of intelligence can be combined into one "measurement".
The first tests were done on children in school, to determine which children would likely need more attention.
Some think this is different from measuring "intelligence".
A child that needs more help in school may not be less intelligent; they might simply come from a different background.
Some tests favor those tested from a certain cultural background.
People of another culture will test less well, but without a definition, there is no way to determine whether that means they are less intelligent.
Test does not measure intelligence
Alfred Binet, a French psychologist (who designed one of the first tests in 1905) had this opinion.
He used the test to see which pupils would need special help with the school curriculum.
He believed that the test scales were not able to measure intelligence:
He argued that with good education programs, most students could catch up and perform quite well in school.
This was independent of the background of the pupil.
He did not believe that intelligence was a measurable fixed entity.
Some dispute psychometrics entirely.
Paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould argued that intelligence tests were based on faulty assumptions and showed their history of being used as the basis for scientific racism.
In his opinion, the general intelligence factor g (which these tests measure), is simply a mathematical artifact.
However, as explained above, IQ tests were highly successful in assessing recruits during wartime.
Therefore, it must be true that they are measuring a relevant mental capability.
Therefore, IQs are not simply a mathematical fiction: they relate to the ability of individuals to perform certain functions.
Even if experts do not agree on a definition of intelligence, that does not disprove the usefulness (or otherwise) of the tests.
In every day life people do notice the relative intelligence of others.
The issue is central to human nature and evolutionary psychology, because humans evolved the characteristics which helped them survive and reproduce.
Tests are biased
The American Psychological Association's report Intelligence: knowns and unknowns states that IQ tests as predictors of social achievement are not biased against people of African descent.
They predict future performance, such as school achievement, similarly to the way they predict future performance for European descent.
However, IQ tests may well be biased when used in other situations.
A 2005 study stated that "differential validity in prediction suggests that the WAIS-R test may contain cultural influences that reduce the validity of the WAIS-R as a measure of cognitive ability for Mexican American students", indicating a weaker positive correlation relative to sampled white students.
Other recent studies have questioned the culture-fairness of IQ tests when used in South Africa.
Standard intelligence tests, such as the Stanford-Binet test, are often inappropriate for children with autism and dyslexia; the alternative of using developmental or adaptive skills measures are relatively poor measures of intelligence in autistic children, and have resulted in incorrect claims that a majority of children with autism are mentally retarded.
Claimed low intelligence has historically been used to justify the feudal system and unequal treatment of women.
In contrast, others claim that the refusal of "high-IQ elites" to take IQ seriously as a cause of inequality is itself immoral.
The American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs established a task force in 1995 to write a consensus statement on the state of intelligence research which could be used by all sides as a basis for discussion.
The task force concluded that IQ scores do have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement.
They confirm the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled.
They found that individual differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by genetics.
Both genes and environment, in complex interplay, are essential to the development of intellectual competence.
They state there is little evidence to show that childhood diet influences intelligence except in cases of severe malnutrition.
The task force agrees that large differences do exist between the average IQ scores of blacks and whites, and that these differences cannot be attributed to biases in test construction.
The task force suggests that explanations based on social status and cultural differences are possible, and that environmental factors have raised mean test scores in many populations.
The APA journal that published the statement, American Psychologist, later published responses in January 1997.
Several of these argued that the report failed to examine adequately the evidence for partly-genetic explanations.
Giftedness
Dead Calm is an American novel that was written in 1963.
A 1989 Australian movie was made from it.
The movie stars Sam Neill, Nicole Kidman, and Billy Zane.
In this movie, Kidman and Neill plays good guys and Zane plays a bad guy.
This movie was Kidman's first well-known movie, and it helped make her famous.
In this movie, Zane's character rapes Kidman's character.
1963 books
It was directed by Paul W. S. Anderson.
It stars Laurence Fishburne, Sam Neill, Kathleen Quinlan and Joely Richardson.
This movie is set in 2047.
A spaceship is stuck near Neptune.
Sam Neill's character (Dr. William Weir) is very sad because his wife has died.
When they go to the space ship, they find that everyone has killed themselves.
It all looks very scary.
Then they find out that the ship has been to another dimension.
It is like hell and everyone sees their worst nightmares.
Sam Neill sees his wife in his dream.
She tells him to pull his eyes out.
Neill then walks around without any eyes and starts to kill people.
They send him out to space, but he does not die.
People get very scared.
Even after they kill Neill, they still see him.
1997 horror movies
1990s science fiction horror movies
1990s supernatural movies
American science fiction horror movies
American supernatural movies
British horror movies
British science fiction movies
Movies set in the future
Movies directed by Paul W.S. Anderson‏‎
The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which this substance goes from the solid  state to the liquid one, at a normal pressure.
For water, this is 0° Celsius (32 Fahrenheit, 273,15 Kelvin).
The chemical element with the highest melting point is tungsten.
Some chemical compounds have a higher melting point.
When looking at when a liquid substance becomes solid, most people call this the freezing point.
For most substances, like water, this is the same as the melting point.
There are substances, where this is not the case (they melt at one temperature, and freeze at another).
Agar seems to melt at 85° Celsius, but freeze at between 35°C and 40°C.
This phenomenon is a kind of hysteresis.
Adding certain substances or impurities will change the melting point of the resulting mixture.
For example, sugar or salt will lower the melting point, and alcohol will raise it.
Michael Hayden (born March 17, 1945) is an American politician, writer and military personnel.
He was the head of the CIA from 2006 to 2009.
On 24 May 2006, he was voted as the new head of the CIA by the United States Senate.
He was the director of the NSA from 1999 to 2005.
The NSA and CIA are both spy agencies.
He has worked as a spy since 1970.
Michael Hayden biography from the NSA
Wittenberg ( , ; Low Saxon: Wittenbarg; meaning White Mountain; officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg (traditional English: Luther City Wittenberg, Low Saxon: Lutherstadt Wittenbarg)) is a town in Germany.
It lies in the eastern part of Saxony-Anhalt.
Wittenberg became one of the most important German towns of political, cultural, historical, and artistic advances in the 16th century.
The famous reformation places in the old town, and the buildings developed in different epochs, make up the architecture of the town.
Wittenberg has about 46,000 inhabitants.
Its geographical coordinates are 51° 52’ N, 12° 39’ E.
Wittenberg Rural District
Cyberstalking is when someone is using the Internet to stalk or harass someone.
Cyberstalking is illegal in some countries.
Stalking is following someone around in a way that makes them feel hunted or not safe in some other way.
The stalker may do this because they want to be involved in that person's life or because they want to have power over that person's life.
The stalker can hurt that person's feelings by making them scared.
Psychologists say stalking is a way of hurting someone's mind with serious effects.
Cyberstalking is when the stalker uses the Internet to contact or follow that person.
The stalker may make direct contact with that person, they may send nasty messages to that person or spread lies about them to others.
Sometimes stalkers use the Internet to learn more about the other person.
They might find their address, phone number, workplace or photograph.
Then they might use this information to do more stalking or find other ways to hurt that person on the Internet or hurt their body.
The person who is stalked on the Internet may feel they have more power if they can simply delete emails or turn their computer connection off.
Or they may feel they have less power if they do not know who the stalker is.
Current (fluid)
Air current
Current (mathematics)
Present (time), e.g. current events
Voltage is what makes electric charges move.
It is the 'push' that causes charges to move in a wire or other electrical conductor.
It can be thought of as the force that pushes the charges, but it is not a force.
Voltage can cause charges to move, and since moving charges is a current, voltage can cause a current.
Electric Potential Difference is the true scientific term but is commonly called Voltage.
Informally, voltage or electric potential difference is sometimes called "Potential Difference".
Voltage is also called, in certain circumstances, electromotive force (EMF).
Voltage is an electrical potential difference, the difference in electric potential between two places.
The unit for electrical potential difference, or voltage, is the volt.
The volt is named in memory of Alessandro Volta.
One volt equals one joule per coulomb.
The symbol for the unit volt is written with an uppercase V as in (9V).
According to the rules of the International System of Units, the symbol for a unit with a name derived from the proper name of a person is uppercase.
Please note that the volt and voltage are two different things.
The volt is a unit by which we measure something.
Both electric potential and voltage are things we measure and the volt is the unit of measure for both.
The symbol for the unit volt is written with a V (9 volts or 9 V).
When voltage is used in a formula, it can be typeset in italics, e.g., , or written in cursive.
If there is only a single letter symbol to go by, a lowercase v may be used, e.g.,  or .
Electrical engineers use the symbol  for voltage, e.g., , to make the difference between voltage and volts very clear.
Technically, the voltage is the difference in electric potential between two points and is always measured between two points.
e.g. between the positive and negative ends of a battery, between a wire and the ground, or between a wire or a point of a circuit and a point in another part of the circuit.
In everyday use with household electricity in the U.S. the voltage is most often 120V. This voltage is measured from the electric wire to the ground.
Note that there must be both voltage and current to transfer power (energy).
For example, a wire can have a high voltage on it, but unless it is connected, nothing will happen.
Birds can land on high voltage lines such as 12kV and 16kV without dying, because the current does not flow through the bird.
There are two types of voltage, DC voltage and AC voltage.
The DC voltage (direct current voltage) always has the same polarity (positive or negative), such as in a battery.
The AC voltage (alternating current voltage) alternates between positive and negative.
For example, the voltage from the wall socket changes polarity 60 times per second (in America) or 50 times per second (UK and Europe).
The DC is typically used for electronics and the AC for motors.
Voltage is the change in Electric Potential between two places
Where V=Voltage, EPE=Electric Potential Energy, q=charge, ∆=difference in.
Ground voltage
Voltage is always measured between two points, and one of them is often called the "ground", or the zero volt (0V) point.
In most AC electrical installations there is a connection to the earth.
A connection is made to the real ground through a water pipe, a ground rod buried or driven into the earth, or a convenient metallic conductor (not a gas pipe) buried underground.
This connection is made at the point of entry of the electric system into a building, at every pole where there is a transformer at the street (often on an electric pole), and other places in the system.
The whole planet Earth is used as a reference point for measuring voltage.
In a building this ground is carried to each electrical device on two wires.
One is the 'grounding conductor' (the green or bare wire) and is used as a safety ground to connect metal parts of equipment to the earth.
The other is used as one of the electric conductors in the circuits of the system and is called the 'neutral conductor'.
This wire which is at the ground potential completes all the circuits by carrying the current from any electric equipment back to the systems entry point into the buildings and then to the transformer usually at the street.
In many places outside the buildings it becomes unnecessary to have a wire to complete the circuits and carry the current from the buildings to the generators.
The return path that carries all the current back is the earth itself.
In DC circuits, the negative end of a generator or battery is often called the "ground" or zero volt (0V) point, even though there may or may not be a connection to the earth.
There can be several grounds on the same printed circuit board (PCB), for example with sensitive analog circuits, that part of the circuit can use an "analog ground", and the digital part, have a " digital ground".
The voltmeter measures the voltage between two points and can be set to the DC mode or the AC mode.
The voltmeter can measure the DC voltage of a battery for example (typically 1.5V or 9V), or the AC voltage from the power socket on the wall (typically 120V).
Potential difference
The voltage, or potential difference from point a to point b is the amount of energy in joules (as a result of electric field) required to move 1 coulomb of positive charge from point a to point b. A negative voltage between points a and b is one in which 1 coulomb of energy is required to move a negative charge from point a to b. If there is a uniform electric field about a charged object, negatively charged objects will be pulled towards higher voltages, and positively charged objects will be pulled towards lower voltages.
The potential difference/Voltage between two points is independent of the path taken to get from point a to b. Thus, the voltage from a to b + the voltage from b to c will always equal the voltage from a to c.
A stopwatch is a tool used to measure the amount of time something takes.
For example, to learn how soon a car can reach 60 miles per hour, or how much time it takes a runner to run 40 yards.
These days, stopwatches are even installed in digital watches.
You press a button to start the time and press it again to stop the time.
A stopwatch can tell you the time in seconds, hundredths of a second, or thousandths of a second.