the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Rarely the chairperson is called the "chair," though in educational institutions a "chair" indicates a specific endowed position on a faculty.
NeXTSTEP was a computer operating system made by a company called NeXT.
NeXT was run by Steve Jobs, who was the CEO of Apple until his death in 2011.
NEXTSTEP was based on UNIX and used source code from BSD.
It had a graphical user interface and it let people write computer programs using object-oriented programming.
NeXTSTEP ran only on computers made by NeXT.
Later on, NeXTSTEP was changed so that it could run on other computers.
This new operating system was called OPENSTEP.
In 1997, Apple bought the NeXT company and used NeXTSTEP to make Mac OS X.
Darwin is a free, open source, Unix operating system made by Apple Inc. It is named after Charles Darwin.
Darwin is used as the base of macOS, but it cannot run macOS programs by itself.
Mashiro is a Japanese name meaning white.
Mashiro may refer to:
Mashiro Matsumura
Mashiro Kazahana or Mashiro Blanc de Windbloom, fictional characters in My-HiME and My-Otome
Mashiro, a fictional character in Bleach (manga)
Graduation is the confirmation of the finishing of an academy.
Graduation is celebrated in a ceremony done at the day of that confirmation; the name of that ceremony is usually the degree day.
This is also called commencement, invocation, or convocation.
Loyalty is a devotion for someone or something.
Someone who is loyal can be trusted, because they never betray the people they are loyal to.
Loyalty in business
Being loyal can also bring good to business because the boss, or person in control, may let the person do something difficult but greatly paid.
This is because loyal people are expected and trusted to behave responsibly.
Some firms (e.g. insurance brokers) may give "loyalty discounts" to customers who stay with them for a long time (who are loyal to the firm).
Some stores may offer their customers "loyalty cards" to get some money off their purchases.
The concept of loyalty.
Ben Loyal, a mountain in Sutherland
Some places are named Loyal in the United States:
Loyal, Wisconsin
Loyal (town), Wisconsin
iTunes is a media player made by Apple.
It came out on January 10, 2001, at the Macworld Expo in San Francisco.
iTunes is used for playing and sorting music and video files.
It also lets users see and change what is on their iPod or iPhone.
iTunes is a free download for Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows from Apple's website.
The download is also included with QuickTime, a program used to play videos.
It also comes with all Apple Macintosh computers, and some HP and Dell computers.
However, on 3 Jun 2019, Apple announced that iTunes would not be available on macOS Catalina.
The iTunes Store is an online store built into iTunes.
iTunes can connect to the iTunes Store if there is an internet connection to buy and download music, music videos, television shows, iPod games, audiobooks, podcasts, and movies.
The files from the iTunes Store used to use Digital Rights Management (DRM) to prevent piracy.
However, iTunes now sells music and videos called iTunes Plus, which are higher quality and have no DRM.
For a long time, you could not get music by The Beatles on iTunes due to a legal conflict between Apple Inc. and Apple Records.
Starting in November 2010, you can now get music by the Beatles.
It is very popular nowadays.
There is a lot of advertisement by Apple for Beatles music.
Bill Kincaid had developed SoundJamMP which was released later in the year of 1999.
It was later renamed iTunes which was then purchased by Apple in 2000.
As SoundJam was being worked on throughout the years, the interface of the site was changed to make it easier for people to understand how to use it.
And added the ability to burn CDs, and removed its recording feature and skin support.
On January 9, 2001, iTunes 1.0 was released at Macworld San Francisco.
Macintosh users immediately began to dig through iTunes’s resource fork where they discovered that there were so many other strings and other resources that indicated iTunes was a re-engineered SoundJam MP.
Casady & Greene ceased distribution of SoundJam MP on June 1, 2001 at the request of the developers.
is a Japanese word.
In English, it means few years.
It can have any of the these meanings:
Shōnen, a normal boy.
A student in primary school up to Middle School
Shōnen (magazine), a manga magazine published by Koubunsha
Weekly Shōnen Magazine, a manga magazine published by Kodansha
Shounen (media), media whose audience is boys under 18-years-old
AAC is a file format for storing music or other sounds.
It stands for Advanced Audio Coding or Advanced Audio Codec.
It is used by Apple Inc. in the iPod and iTunes.
AAC is one of the standard formats that comes from the MPEG organization, the same people who invented MP3.
Like MP3, AAC is a compressed format.
It works by removing parts of the music that people can not hear.
A good AAC encoder can compress CD quality music to about 10% of its original size without affecting the perceived sound quality.
There are several profiles (variants) of AAC.
These are the most popular:
AAC LC – Standard AAC profile with no extensions.
All AAC players support this profile.
This is the format used by Apple (iPod / iPhone), Sony (Walkman), and many others; it takes up more space, has high audio quality, and is used for music stored on an iPod, CD-ROM, or disk drive.
HE-AAC v1 – AAC with Spectral Band Replication - a more efficient format; it saves space for music sent over a network, like over the Internet or to a cell phone, although at the cost of sound quality.
Brand names for this format include aacPlus™, Nero Digital™, and AAC+.
A variant of this format is used for HD Radio.
HE-AAC v2 – AAC with Spectral Band Replication and Parametric Stereo - an even more efficient format for music sent over a network, although at the cost of reduced stereo separation.
Brand names for this format include aacPlus™ v2, eAAC+™, and AAC+ Enhanced™.
AAC-LD - Low delay profile used for VOIP applications.
Various other profiles exist, but are not commonly used.
.aac–music only (raw file without mp4 container, uncommon)
.m4a–music and information
.m4p–music and information, with DRM
.m4b-speech and information, "Audiobook" recognized by Apple that keeps the listener's position
.m4r-music and information used by Apple as a ringtone
.mp4–music, video, or both, plus information
A number of encoders exist for AAC.
These are some of the most popular:
Fraunhofer FDK AAC
Fraunhofer FhG AAC
Nero AAC
Apple AAC
Microsoft AAC
FAAC
FFmpeg AAC
Coding Technologies HE-AAC
VisualOn AAC (obsolete)
PsyTel AAC (obsolete)
Compaact (obsolete)
A KDE/Qt application for Linux/Unix called easytag will edit metadata about AAC-encoded files as long as they end with the .m4a extension.
Typically, renaming files to .m4a and back to the original extension after editing is sufficient.
This method can be used to configure typical ID3v2 metadata including cover art.
This cover art is used by Apple's iTunes and their media players.
Note that easytag does not have the ability to add chapter points into Audiobooks (.m4b).
WMA is a file format for storing music.
It was made by Microsoft.
It stands for Windows Media Audio.
It is used in Windows Media Player and many portable music players.
I am an amazing person who knows all about WMA but am not going to tell you anything
L'Encobert (in Catalan; El Encubierto in Spanish; "The Hidden [One]"), a mysterious rebel leader in the Revolt of the Brotherhoods in Valencia in 1522
Hidden, also known as Caché, a 2005 French drama movie
Hidden (2009 movie), a 2009 Norwegian horror movie
The Hidden a 1987 American science fiction movie
Although the term typically describes racing events of unpowered watercraft, some powerboat race series are also called regattas.
Most commonly, a regatta is either a series of rowing, sailing or yacht racing.
Although regattas are typically amateur competitions, they are usually very highly organized, formally structured events, with complex rules precisely describing the schedule and procedures of the event.
Rowing regattas
Henley Royal Regatta, held every year on the river Thames is the most prestigious British event
The Boat Race is a rowing race between the Oxford University Boat Club and the Cambridge University Boat Club.
It is rowed annually each Spring on the Thames in London.
Dad Vail Regatta, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Head of the Charles Regatta, on the Charles River between Boston and Cambridge, Massachusetts
Sailing regattas
America's Cup, hosted by prior winner
Balmain Regatta held annually on Sydney Harbour, Australia
Bass Week, Bassenthwaite Lake, Cumbria
Bay Week, Put-in-Bay, Ohio
Block Island Race Week, Storm Trysail Club Rhode Island
CORK Regatta, Kingston, Ontario, annually in August.
Cowes Week, Royal Yacht Squadron, England
Fowey Royal Regatta, Fowey Cornwall annually in August
Kamer 2 Sailing Marathon, Kaag, Netherlands, annually in September
Key West Race Week, Key West, Florida
Larchmont Race Week, Larchmont Yacht Club, New York
Long Beach Race Week, Long Beach, California
National Offshore One Design (NOOD)
Round Texel, Texel, Netherlands, annually in June
Lysekil Women's Match, Lysekil, Sweden, annually in August
Tjörn Runt, Tjörn, Sweden, annually in August
Washington's Birthday Regatta, Coconut Grove, Florida, annually in February
Youngstown Levels, Youngstown, New York
Figawi Race, Hyannis, MA
College Sailing Regattas
Charleston Open, College of Charleston
Kennedy Cup, US Naval Academy
The Roth Regatta, Roth Pond, State University of New York at Stony Brook
Intercollegiate Sailing Association National Championships, various locations
High school sailing regattas
Mallory Cup, United States high school sailing national championships.
The National School Sailing Assosiation Regatta, UK.
Annual Sailing reggatta held in various sailing clubs and competed in by many secondary school students.
Other regattas
The Madison Regatta, Madison, Indiana. (
hydroplanes)
Kingston Multi-Hull Regatta, Kingston, Ontario (multihull sailboats and sailing hydrofoils)
Henley-on-Todd Regatta - an Australian dry-land event.
Royal Hobart Regatta - A Multiple event 3 day Reggatta in Tasmania, Australia.
Sy Barash Regatta - discontinued event at Penn State
Worrell 1000, between South Beach and Virginia Beach, Virginia
For the Cruise Ship Regatta see Oceania Cruises
How to Start Racing a Boat
The photos and videos of Borneo regatta
Watski Skagerrak TwoStar, online yacht race in Norway, Denmark and Sweden
Aegean Regatta Photos
International Sailing Federation, the international governing body of sailboat racing
US Sailing's official homepage
Sailing Anarchy, a very popular international sailing site
Boat racing
A touchscreen is a computer screen that can be used by touching it with a finger or a stylus pen, instead of using a mouse and keyboard.
It can be described as a touchpad with a screen built-in to it.
Today, all kinds of devices, both big and small, make use of touchscreens.
However, tablet computers and smartphones have made them popular and are the most widely known and used products that use touchscreens.
In 1965, E.A Johnson of England’s Royal Radar Establishment, invented the first touchscreen that was used in the U.K for air traffic control up until around 1995.
The first resistive touch screen was invented by G. Samuel Hurst in 1975, and produced in 1982.
Back in 1970, Hurst and nine friends discovered that a touchscreen on a computer monitor made for an excellent method of interaction.
Pressure on the cover sheet allowed voltage to flow between the X wires and the Y wires, which could be measured to indicate coordinates.
This discovery helped found what we today refer to as resistive touch technology (because it responds purely to pressure rather than electrical conductivity, working with both a stylus and a finger).
Much later in 2005, three friends from France created a multi-touch screen capable of tracking any numbers of fingers.
By 2005, their company named JazzMutant released the Lemur, a music controller with a multi-touch screen interface.
This new technology helped influenced the TactaPad also made in 2005.
Two years later, in January 2007, the iPhone was released, which was controlled entirely by a multi-touch screen.
It, and the iPad which came out in September 2010, were very successful and would eventually lead to more companies adding touchscreens to their products.
They included Samsung, Sony, Motorola, and many companies who adopted the touch-friendly Android operating system.
In response to the popularity of touchscreens, Microsoft, maker of the Windows family of operating systems for personal computers, would introduce a new interface in Windows 8 in 2011, which has large tiles that are meant to be easily usable with touch technology like those on tablets.
It would come out the next year, along with the Microsoft Surface tablet.
Because of how easy they are to use, touchscreens can be found in many places.
Along with general computing and consumer electronics devices such as smartphones, tablets, smartwatches and personal computers, touchscreens are also widely used on kiosks, which are used for information systems in cities and museums.
They are also found on machines including Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs), cash registers and retail point-of-sale terminals, GPS navigation systems such as those in cars and other vehicles, medical equipment and industrial control panels.
The touchscreen built into kiosks use simple point and click interaction.
Interactive whiteboards, which can be found in many schools, also use a simple form of touch technology.
Different kinds of touchscreens work in different ways.
There are two main technologies used for touchscreens:
A resistive touchscreen has a layer of conducting polyester plastic.
When you press on it, you force the polyester to touch the glass and complete an electric circuit.
A chip under the screen identifies the coordinates of the place you touched.
These screens can sense only one finger at a time and get confused if you try to press in two places at once.
They are often used in industrial equipment because it is strong and responds to any kind of input, such as when wearing gloves.
A capacitive touchscreen has multiple layers of glass.
Both the innermost and outermost layers of glass conduct electricity.
The screen behaves like two electrical conductors separated by an insulator—in other words, a capacitor.
Unlike resistive screens, capacitive screens can easily detect and distinguish more than one press at once.
This is called multi-touch.
Unlike resistive screens, capacitive screens don’t work if you touch them with a plastic stylus because the plastic acts as an insulator.
Some stylus pens, such as the Apple Pencil for the iPad Pro, are made to work with capacitive screens.
They are pressure sensitive and let you to do different things by pushing harder or more gently.
For example, you can draw a wider or narrower line in programs like Microsoft OneNote and Adobe Photoshop.
Western Zodiac
The modern astrological signs are the simplified pictures of the signs used in the Hellenistic times.
These are the twelve aspects the signs represent:
Aries  (The Ram)
Taurus  (The Bull)
Gemini  (The Twins)
Cancer  (The Crab)
Leo   (The Lion)
Virgo (The Virgin)
Libra (The Scales)
Scorpius  (The Scorpion)
Sagittarius (The Centaur-Archer)
Capricorn (The Sea-Goat)
Aquarius  (The Water-Bearer)
Pisces  (The Fish)
Artemis Fowl is a series of books about a young criminal mastermind.
The books were written by Irish author Eoin Colfer.
The series currently has eight main books and two short stories.
The first two books are have been made into graphic novels.
Artemis Fowl And The Arctic Incident
Artemis Fowl And The Eternity Code
Artemis Fowl And The Opal Deception
Artemis Fowl And The Lost Colony
Artemis Fowl And The Time Paradox
Artemis Fowl And The Atlantis Complex
Artemis Fowl And The Last Guardian
LEPrecon
LEPrecon comes before Artemis Fowl, and is about one of the main characters, an elf called Holly Short.
It tells how she moves to a unit in the fairy 'police' called LEPrecon (a word-play on leprechaun).
The Seventh Dwarf comes between Artemis Fowl and Artemis Fowl and the Arctic Incident.
The Seventh Dwarf is about when two of the characters are trying to steal a tiara.
They do not originally know they are both trying.
They meet, and end up helping each other.
As the books advance, more attention is given to the moral progressiveness of the main character, Artemis Fowl II.
In the first book he is shown as the bad guy, but further on in the series he is shown as a goodie.
Lists of books
Barton Lee Hazlewood (July 9, 1929 – August 4, 2007) was an American country singer, songwriter and record producer.
He was most famous for writing the song These Boots Are Made For Walking for Nancy Sinatra.
He was born in Mannford, Oklahoma.
Article about his death at the BBC Website
Deaths from kidney cancer
Record producers
A border that encloses a space or area
Boundary (topology)
Boundary lubrication
Boundary (surveying), a dividing line between parcels of real property.
Boundaries that are studied in landscape history
Boundaries - 1997 Movie starring Playboy Playmate Kathy Shower
The decimal separator is a symbol used to mark the border between the integral and the fractional parts of a decimal numeral.
This symbol can be a period ("."),
as is common in United States and other English-speaking countries, or a comma (","), as in continental Europe.
Decimal point and decimal comma are also common names for the decimal separator.
For example, 9.5 means nine and one half in English speaking countries, while in many European countries, the same number might be written as 9,5.
The Moving Picture Experts Group, or MPEG for short, is a group of people that figure out ways to put music and video onto computers.
Then they publish this information for people to use.
MP3 and AAC, which are two of MPEG's music formats, are very popular.
The MPEG-2 video format, used in DVDs, is also very popular.
Companies like Apple use MPEG formats in iTunes and the iPod.
Many YouTube videos use the MPEG-4 format, which sometimes goes by the brand names DivX™ or Xvid.
Princess Iman bint Al Hussein (born April 24, 1983) is the daughter of the late King Hussein of Jordan and Queen Noor.
She is the half-sister of the present Jordanian king, Abdullah II.
Princess Iman was educated at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in England.
Jordanian princes and princesses
Clannad are a musical group from  Gweedore, in County Donegal, which is in the north-west of Ireland.
They are very famous for their haunting sound that has been used in many Hollywood movies.
They have sold over 20 million albums all over the world and won a Grammy award in 1999.
They are brothers and sisters Máire, Ciarán, and Pól Brennan and their uncles Noel and Pádraig Duggan.
Their younger sister Enya was once part of the group.
1973 – Clannad (The Pretty Maid) debut
1975 – Clannad 2
1976 – Dúlamán
1978 – Clannad In Concert [live]
1980 – Crann Úll
1982 – Fuaim
1983 – Magical Ring
1984 – Legend [soundtrack for Robin of Sherwood]
1985 – Macalla
1987 – Sirius
1988 – Atlantic Realm [soundtrack]
1989 – Past Present [compilation]
1990 – The Collection [compilation]
1989 – The Angel and the Soldier Boy [soundtrack]
1990 – Anam (US: 1992)
1993 – Banba (with The Last of the Mohicans soundtrack theme)
1994 – Themes
1996 – Lore
1996 – Rogha: The Best Of Clannad
1997 – Landmarks
1998 – An Díolaim [collection of early recordings for Irish Gael-Linn label]
2003 – The Best Of: In A Lifetime
2005 – Clannad: Live In Concert, 1996 [live]
Official Clannad site
Fan site with videos, galleries and news blog
Nicole Vaidišová  (born 23 April 1989 in Nuremberg) is a Czech professional female tennis player.
She became a tennis professional in 2003, and debuted in several ITF tournaments.
She measures at  and weighs .
She enjoys reading, watching movies, yoga, and bike riding.
Her favorite city is New York City.
She speaks German, English, Czech, and is learning French.
WTA Tour Titles
2004 Vancouver defeated Laura Granville
2004 Tashkent defeated Virginie Razzano
2005 Seoul defeated Jelena Jankovic
2005 Tokyo defeated Tatiana Golovin
2005 Bangkok defeated Nadia Petrova
2006 Strasbourg defeated Shuai Peng
Singles Finalist
2005 Istanbul lost to Venus Williams
ITF Titles
2003 Plzen defeated Andrea Hlavackova
2004  Columbus defeated Shuai Peng
Nicole Vaidisova profile on WTA Tour
Czech female tennis players
Tatiana Golovin (born 25 January 1988 in Moscow, Russia) is a professional female tennis player.
She moved to Paris, France and earned French citizenship.
She won the 2004 French Open mixed-doubles event with Richard Gasquet.
She lives in Miami, Florida.
WTA Tour titles
2007 Amelia Island defeated Nadia Petrova
Singles finalist
2004 Birmingham lost to Maria Sharapova
2005 Tokyo lost to Nicole Vaidišová
2006 Stuttgart lost to Nadia Petrova
Grand Slam titles
Mixed doubles
2004 French Open with Richard Gasquet defeated Cara Black and Wayne Black
The home row is the middle row on a standard computer keyboard.
On a QWERTY keyboard, the home row consists of the letters ASDFGHJKL, and the characters ; (the semi-colon) and ' (the apostrophe).
en:Home row
Arzashkun () was a capital city of the Kingdom of Urartu in the 9th century B.C. It is thought that the city was located north of Lake Van in what is now eastern Turkey.
The city had two walls and towers.
It was protected from attack, by a thick forest.
An army could not easily travel through this forest.
The nation of Urartu was at the headwaters of the river Tigris in the 9th century B.C. Shalmaneser III, king of Assyria thought that Urartu was a danger to Assyria.
He started an expedition to Urartu in 857.
He said that he destroyed the capital, Arzashkun.
He also claimed that he traveled as far as Lake Van and left his inscription on Mount Irritia.
It is believed that the name Arzashkun is the Assyrian form of an Armenian name.
9th century BC
The Caucasus Mountains is a mountain range in Eurasia.
They are in the Caucasus region between the Black Sea in the west and the Caspian Sea in the east.
The Greater Caucasus divide Europe from Asia.
The Lesser Caucasus are south of there.
Hayk (Armenian:Հայկ, also known as Haik),  in Armenian legend, was the founder of the Armenian nation.
His story is found mostly in the 5th century historian Moses Khorenatsi's book History of Armenia.
According to Moses Khorenatsi, Hayk is the son of Torgom (Togarmah), the son of Gomer, the son of Japheth.
Hayk is also called the founder of the Haykazuni dynasty.
According to the historian Juansher, Hayk "was prince of the seven brothers and stood in service to the giant Nimrod (Nebrovt') who first ruled the entire world as king.<ref>[http://rbedrosian.com/gc2.htm The Georgian Chronicle]</ref>"
According to Moses Khorenatsi, after Hayk the son of Torgom became father to Armeneak while living in Babylon, because the arrogant Titan Bel (who is Nimrod, according to Moses) has made himself king of the world, Hayk moves with his family and 300 others to the land of Ararat, and starts a village called Haykashen.
On the way, he leaves one area for his grandson, Cadmus.
Bel sends one of his sons to give Hayk a message, saying that he must return to Babylon, but Hayk answers that he will not.
Then Bel marches against him with a great army, but Cadmus warns Hayk that he is coming.
Hayk gathers his own army on the shore of Lake Van and tells them they must either defeat Bel or die trying, so they will not become his slaves.
After that, he finds Bel's army on a mountain.
Moses says this mountain is found at Dastakert.
Bel himself is seen in front of his army.
In the middle of the battle, Hayk kills Bel with a lucky arrow and Bel's army becomes confused and defeated.
According to other writers, this battle was fought at Dyutsaznamart around Julamerk, southeast of Lake Van, in the year 2501 BC.
Hayk builds a castle called Haykaberd'' and the village of Haykashen.
He names the country where the battle was fought "Hayk" after himself, and today the name of Armenia is called "Hayastan" and the Armenian people are called "Hay", in their language.
Also, in the ancient writings of the Hittites, there was a country called Hayasa in the area.
Autodesk Maya (), commonly shortened to Maya, is 3D computer graphics software that runs on Microsoft Windows, Mac OS and Linux, originally developed by Alias Systems Corporation (formerly Alias|Wavefront) and currently owned and developed by Autodesk, Inc. It is used to create interactive 3D applications, including video games, animated film, TV series, or visual effects.
The product is named after the Sanskrit word Maya ( ), the Hindu concept of illusion.
Gerard "Gerry" Adams () (born 6 October, 1948 in Belfast, Northern Ireland) is an Irish politician who was the president of Sinn Féin, a political party that wants Northern Ireland to join the Republic of Ireland.
He was a member of the Northern Ireland Assembly in Belfast and was a member of the British Parliament for Belfast West.
He does not go to Parliament because he does not believe that Britain should control Northern Ireland, this is called abstentionism.
Adams is a spokesman for the Irish republican movement or the "Provisional movement".
This includes Sinn Féin and the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA).
The IRA is illegal in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, because it is called a terrorist group by both governments.
Adams is thought to have persuaded the IRA to give up its "war" against the UK in return for devolved government for Northern Ireland.
From the late 1980s, Adams was an important figure in the Northern Ireland peace process, started when he met first the SDLP (Social Democratic and Labour Party’s) leader John Hume and later the Irish and British governments, and then other parties.
In 1995 the IRA stopped fighting, and in 2005 the IRA said the war was over.
Gerry Adams was born in West Belfast.
He has 4 brothers and 5 sisters.
His parents, Gerry Adams Sr.
and Annie Hannaway, came from strong republican backgrounds.
Adams's grandfather, also named Gerry Adams, had been a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) during the Irish War of Independence.
Two of Adams's uncles, Dominic and Patrick Adams, had been interned (jailed without a trial) by the governments in Belfast and Dublin.
His uncle Dominic was a senior figure in the IRA of the mid-1940s, but not the chief of staff as some people say,.
Gerry Sr.
joined the IRA when he was sixteen.
Adams's mother’s grandfather, Michael Hannaway, was a member of the Fenians during their dynamiting campaign in England in the 1860s and 1870s.
Michael's son, Billy, was election agent for Éamon de Valera in 1918 in West Belfast but refused to follow de Valera into democratic and constitutional politics upon the formation of Fianna Fáil.
Annie Hannaway was a member of Cumann na mBan, the women's branch of the IRA.
Three of her brothers (Alfie, Liam, and Tommy) were also IRA members.
Early republican career
In the late 1960s, a civil rights campaign started in Northern Ireland, to get equal treatment for Roman Catholics Adams was an active supporter and joined the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association in 1967.
Instead of leading to change, the civil rights movement there were protests counter-demonstrators called Loyalists.
In August 1969 there was rioting in Northern Ireland’s big cities of Belfast and Derry, and the Government of Northern Ireland asked for the British army to help keep control.
This is when the IRA and its political counterpart in Sinn Féin, restarted.
Gerry Adams was active in Sinn Féin at this time.
In 1970 the republican movement (that is the peaceful politicians and the fighters like the IRA who all want the United Kingdom not to control Northern Ireland) split.
Adams aligned himself with the active Provisional part based in Belfast.
The Official part based in Dublin was not interested in fighting for people in Belfast, and the Official Sinn Féin was more interested in spreading Marxism rather than making Ireland united.
In August 1971, internment without trial was introduced in Northern Ireland.
Adams was arrested in March 1972 and interned HMS Maidstone, but was set free in June to take part in secret talks in London.
There was a short-lived truce and some members of the IRA met with William Whitelaw the British government minister in charge of Northern Ireland.
The IRA delegation included Sean Mac Stiofain (Chief of Staff), Daithi O'Conaill, Seamus Twomey, Ivor Bell, Martin McGuinness and Gerry Adams.
The IRA insisted Adams be included in the meeting and he was released from internment to participate.
Following the failure of the talks, he helped to plan a bombing campaign in Belfast known as Bloody Friday.
He was re-arrested in July 1973 and interned at Long Kesh internment camp, which was later called the Maze Prison.
After attempting to escape he was sentenced to imprisonment, which was also served at the Maze.
During the Hunger Strikes of 1981, Adams played an important policy-making role.
The hunger strikes saw Sinn Féin become more important as a political force.
In 1983 he was elected president of Sinn Féin and became the first Sinn Féin MP elected to the British House of Commons since the 1950s.
Following his election (as MP for Belfast West) the British government lifted a ban on him traveling to Britain.
In line with Sinn Féin policy, he refused to sit in the House of Commons.
On 14 March 1984, Adams was seriously wounded in an assassination attempt when several Ulster Freedom Fighters (UFF) gunmen fired about twenty shots into the car in which he was travelling.
After the shooting, undercover plain-clothes police officers seized three suspects who were later convicted and sentenced.
One of the three was John Gregg.
Adams claimed that the British army had prior knowledge of the attack and allowed it to go ahead.
Alleged IRA membership
Adams has often said that he has never been a member of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA).
However, several writers and journalists such as Ed Moloney, Richard English, Peter Taylor and Mark Urban have all said Adams was part of the IRA leadership during the 1970s.
Adams has called Moloney's claims "libellous."
President of Sinn Féin
In 1978, Gerry Adams became joint-vice-president of Sinn Féin and he led a challenge to the Sinn Féin leadership of President Ruairí Ó Brádaigh and joint-Vice President Dáithí Ó Conaill.
Others who supported Adams and were from Belfast included Jim Gibney, Tom Hartley, and Danny Morrison.
Some say Ruairí Ó Brádaigh was a more traditional Irish nationalist and that the northern leadership which surrounded Adams wanted to act faster and in different ways if they had to.
The 1975 IRA-British truce is often viewed as the event that began the challenge to the original Provisional Sinn Féin leadership, which was said to be Southern-based and dominated by southerners like Ó Brádaigh and Ó Conaill.
However, the Chief of Staff of the IRA at the time, Seamus Twomey, was a senior figure from Belfast.
Others in the leadership also lived in the North, including Billy McKee from Belfast.
Adams was supposed to have become the most senior figure in the IRA Northern Command because he wanted only military action, but during his time in prison, Adams came to thought about his ideas and became more political.
Some of the main reasons that the Provisional IRA was founded in December 1969 and provisional Sinn Féin was founded in January 1970, was that people like Ó Brádaigh, O'Connell, and Billy McKee wanted new political bodies and did not want to work in or with the existing bodies such as the Parliament in London.
Another was the failure of the Goulding leadership to defend nationalist areas against attacks by Loyalists and sometimes even the police.
At the December 1969 IRA convention and the January 1970 Sinn Féin Ard Fheis (the Irish words for a party conference or convention) the delegates voted to participate in the Dublin (Leinster House), Belfast (Stormont) and London (Westminster) parliaments, the organizations split into Provisional and Official parts.
Gerry Adams, who had joined the Republican Movement in the early 1960s, did not go with the Provisionals until later in 1970.
End of abstentionism
Republicans like Ruairí Ó Brádaigh said that the only legitimate country in Ireland was the Irish Republic declared in 1916.
They said the legal government was the IRA Army Council because the last remaining anti-Anglo-Irish Treaty deputies of the Second Dáil made them the government. (
Adams agreed to this idea of republican political legitimacy until quite recently - however in his 2005 speech to the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis he rejected it.)
When Sinn Féin any won seats in the British or Irish parliaments they never went to the parliaments.
At its 1986 Ard Fheis, Sinn Féin changed its and constitution to allow its members to sit in the Dublin parliament (Leinster House/Dáil Éireann).
This made Ruairí Ó Brádaigh lead a small walkout, just as he had done years earlier to create Provisional Sinn Féin.
This minority which still believed in abstentionism, called themselves Republican Sinn Féin (or Sinn Féin Poblachtach in Irish), and says that they are the true Sinn Féin.
Adams' leadership of Sinn Féin was supported by a Northern-based group that included Danny Morrison and Martin McGuinness.
Adams and others, over time, pointed to Sinn Féin election wins in the early and mid-1980s, when hunger strikers Bobby Sands and Kieran Doherty were elected to the British House of Commons and Dáil Éireann, and they pushed to get Sinn Féin to become more political and less paramilitary.
This policy was a success and Adams and McGuinness, and others were elected to the House of Commons, but never attend.
Sinn Féin still abstains from Westminster.
Voice ban
At this time most ordinary people in Britain knew about Adams because they could not hear him.
Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher banned radio and television stations from broadcasting his voice.
All Irish republican organizations and loyalist terrorist organizations were banned like this, but Adams was the only person important enough to appear regularly on TV.
This ban was imposed after the BBC interviewed Martin McGuinness.
and the British Government thought that some groups were getting too much publicity.
A similar ban, known as Section 31, had been the law in the Republic of Ireland since the 1970s.
However, media outlets soon found ways around the ban, first by the use of subtitles, and later and more commonly by using actors to read his words over the pictures of him speaking.
This ban was made fun of in cartoons and satirical TV shows, notably Spitting Image, and in The Day Today.
It was also criticized by freedom of speech organizations worldwide and British media personalities, including BBC Director-General John Birt and BBC foreign editor John Simpson.
The ban was lifted by Prime Minister John Major on 17 September 1994.
Moving into mainstream politics
Sinn Féin continued its policy of refusing to sit in the Westminster parliament even after Adams won the Belfast West constituency.
He lost his seat to Joe Hendron of the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) in the 1992 general election.
However, he easily regained it at the next election in May 1997.
SDLP leader John Hume MP realized that a negotiated settlement might be possible and began secret talks with Adams in 1988.
These discussions led to unofficial contacts with the British Northern Ireland Office under the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Peter Brooke, and with the government of the Republic under Charles Haughey – although both governments maintained in public that they would not negotiate with "terrorists".
These negotiations led to the IRA ceasefire in August 1994.
The new Irish Taoiseach (prime minister) Albert Reynolds had played a key role in the Hume/Adams talks through his Special Advisor Martin Mansergh, thought the ceasefire as permanent.
However, the IRA ended its ceasefire because of the slow pace of developments, partly because British prime minister John Major needed the votes of the Ulster Unionist Party in the House of Commons.
Later there was a new ceasefire, and there were talks between teams from the British and Irish governments, the Ulster Unionist Party, the SDLP, Sinn Féin and representatives of loyalist paramilitary organizations, under the chairmanship of former United States Senator Mitchell.
The talks produced the Belfast Agreement (also called the Good Friday Agreement as it was signed on Good Friday, 1998).
Under the agreement, structures were created to show that some people on the island of Ireland were Irish and others wanted to be British.
A British-Irish Council and the Northern Ireland Assembly were set up.
Articles 2 and 3 of the Republic's constitution, Bunreacht na hÉireann, which claimed sovereignty over all of Ireland, were reworded, and a power-sharing Executive Committee was provided for.
As part of their deal Sinn Féin agreed to abandon its abstentionist policy regarding a "six-county parliament", and took its seats in the new Assembly based at Stormont Sinn Féin ran the and running the health and social services and the education ministries in the power-sharing government.
Opponents in Republican Sinn Féin accused Sinn Féin of "selling out" by agreeing to participate in what is called "partitionist assemblies" in the Republic and Northern Ireland.
However Gerry Adams insisted that the Belfast Agreement provided a way to make Ireland united by non-violent and legal means, much as Michael Collins had said of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922
When Sinn Féin came to nominate its two ministers to the Executive Council, the party, like the SDLP and the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) did not include its leader among its ministers. (
When later the SDLP chose a new leader, it selected one of its ministers, Mark Durkan, who then opted to remain a minister.)
Adams remains the President of Sinn Féin, with Caoimhghín Ó Caoláin serving as Sinn Féin parliamentary leader in Dáil Éireann, and Martin McGuinness the party's chief negotiator and effective party head in the Northern Ireland Assembly.
His son, Gearoid is a primary school teacher and has represented County Antrim in gaelic football.
Falls Memories, 1982
The Politics of Irish Freedom, 1986
A Pathway to Peace, 1988
An Irish Journal
An Irish Voice
Cage Eleven, 1990
The Street and Other Stories, 1992
Free Ireland: Towards a Lasting Peace, 1995
Before the Dawn, 1996, Brandon Books,
Who Fears to Speak...?
Hope and History, 2003, Brandon Books,
J. Bowyer Bell.
The Secret Army: The IRA 1916 -.
Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1979.
Colm Keena.
A Biography of Gerry Adams.
Cork, Ireland: Mercier Press, 1990.
Ed Moloney.
A Secret History of the IRA.
New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2002.
O'Callaghan, Sean.
The Informer.
Corgi.
Robert W. White.
Ruairi O Bradaigh, the Life and Politics of an Irish Revolutionary.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006.
Anthony McIntyre.
Gerry Adams Man Of War and Man Of Peace? ,
academic lecture examining Gerry Adams' role in the Republican Movement
Sinn Féin - Gerry Adams official profile
Guardian Politics Ask Aristotle - Gerry Adams
TheyWorkForYou.com - Gerry Adams MP
The Public Whip - Gerry Adams voting record
Former members of Dáil Éireann
Former members of the British House of Commons for Northern Irish constituencies
Leaders of political parties in the United Kingdom
Northern Ireland Assembly, Former Members
Sinn Féin politicians
The Northern Ireland Legislative Assembly was set up after the Belfast Agreement to allow the people of Northern Ireland to run their own government and pass some laws.
The United Kingdom parliament can still abolish the assembly, because Northern Ireland is not an independent country, but a part of the United Kingdom.
The assembly comes together in the city of Belfast.
Speaker is Alex Maskey.
The assembly is elected using a form of proportional representation voting.
The seats of each party after the 2017 election is shown in this table:
The Northern Ireland Office (NIO) was set up in 1971.
It is a ministry in the British Government which looks after the affairs of Northern Ireland.
It head is the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.
The devolution of police and justice in April 2010 transferred many of the NIO's previous responsibilities to the Northern Ireland Assembly and its devolved government, the Northern Ireland Executive.
The Department of Justice (Northern Ireland) looks after those matters.
This transfer of power resulted in a smaller Northern Ireland Office, similar to the Scotland Office and Wales Office.
Politics of Northern Ireland
Cyprian ( ; ;  210 – September 14, 258 AD) was bishop of Carthage.
He was an important early Christian writer.
He was probably born at the beginning of the 3rd century in North Africa, perhaps at Carthage.
At Carthage, he learned about classical (Paganism).
After becoming a Christian, he became a bishop around the year 249.
He died a martyr at Carthage.
Joshua Burns, "Perception and persecution in the Roman Empire: The Edict of Decius"
Pontius the Deacon (Pontius Diaconis), "The Life and Passion of Cyprian, Bishop and Martyr"
"The Plague of AD 251"
Cyprian on the nature of the Church and Papacy by Dom John Chapman
New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia article on Cyprian
Works by Cyprian at the IntraText Digital Library, with concordance and frequency lists
Acta proconsularia S. Cypriani
258 deaths
The flag of Cyprus is the flag of the European country Cyprus.
It features a map of the whole island, with two olive branches below the map (a symbol of peace) on a white background.
The map on the flag is a copper-yellow color to show Cyprus has large amounts of copper.
The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is a partially recognised state and  uses a different flag similar to the flag of Turkey.
Simon Barere  (September 1, 1896–April 2, 1951) was a Russian pianist.
He was born in Odessa, Ukraine.
Simon Barere's Liszt, Rachmaninoff, Balakirev, Chopin on Remington Records.
Tomsk (Russian: Томск) is a Russian city, the administrative center of Tomsk Oblast.
One of the largest cities in Siberia.
Population 575 352 (2019).
Tomsk State University is the first university in Siberia (founded in 1878, opened in 1888).
The Tomsk State University Library book reserve is considered to be among the richest in Russia.
The annual average temperature is 0.9 °C.
Winters are severe and lengthy (from the end of October to the beginning of April), and the lowest recorded temperature was −55 °C in January 1931.
Intelligent design is the theory that life, or the universe, cannot have arisen by chance and was designed and created by some intelligent entity.
It believes that the universe is so complex that it must have been designed by a higher intelligent being.
This theory is that life did not evolve by natural selection.
Intelligent design was developed by a group of American creationists to get around legal judgements like Edwards v. Aguillard, which said that creationism could not be taught in schools because of the First Amendment.
The first use of the term in this form was in the creationist textbook Of Pandas and People, published in 1989.
Intelligent design suggests that life is too complex to have evolved.
Scientists have discovered that even a single cell is complex.
The genes in a cell code have a huge amount of information.
Therefore that information, like computer programming, has to come from an intelligent source and cannot be made randomly.
This is thought to be because the properties of entropy say things cannot grow in complexity by randomness.
Law professor Phillip E. Johnson was seen as the father of the intelligent design.
It is also argued that although an amino acid could be made randomly, a protein (a long, shaped string of amino acids) is such a precise sequence and structure that it would be impossible to make by chance.
Also, a protein or DNA would not be alive by itself; so a whole life form would have to be made all at once.
This argument can be seen as a way of saying that natural selection could not have created life.
It is argued whether that is a valid point.
A common example of this is a bacterial flagellum, which is essentially a microscopic animal version of a very efficient electric motor.
The flagellum has lots of separate parts.
It is argued that for the flagellum to form by evolution, every single one of the parts would have to be formed together at just the right time.
However, scientists say this is not correct.
There is evidence that the flagellum developed through evolution.
A religious philosopher, William Paley, said that life is more complicated than a machine (like as a watch.)
He said that just like a watch was made by a smart designer, so were animals.
This is known as the watchmaker analogy.
Similarities and criticism of Intelligent Design
Many parts of different animals are very similar.
Intelligent design could show that a common creator used the same good design ideas for all of them.
This could be evidence of evolution; but intelligent design suggests that every part of an animal is useful and there for a reason, showing how smart the designer was.
Evolution suggests that many parts of the same animal would not be useful or not good, because it happened by natural selection.
In the past, it was believed that some parts of the human body have no biological function, but later it was proved that some actually do important things.
If animals and persons have similar parts because they came from a common ancestor, then the genes that code for these parts should be similar too.
Sometimes this is true.
But, other times similar structures are coded by entirely different genes, because of convergent evolution.
These examples of this kind of different results in data can be used to claim that evolution is either wrong or right, causing arguments.
Legal Cases
Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District - A trial that banned the teaching of intelligent design in public schools.
It was ruled that this action would defy the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which states that the government may not promote one religion over the other.
However, it has been argued that the ruling itself promotes humanistic or materialistic religions over deistic religions.
Intelligent design was not banned due to a lack of evidence.
In 2005, in the Dover trial, a United States judge ruled that Intelligent Design was a kind of creationism, so that it violated the First Amendment.
H. Allen Orr wrote an article for the New Yorker called  Devolution: Why intelligent design isn’t.
It explains why scientists do not believe intelligent design.
Explaining the Science of Intelligent Design
Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi (; born 25 November 1941) is a spiritual leader and founder of the spiritual movements RAGS International (now known as Messiah Foundation International) and Anjuman Serfaroshan-e-Islam.
He is the author of many Urdu books on spirituality.
The most popular of his books is Deen-e-Ilahi "The Religion of God" (2000) which has recently been republished by Hay House and translated into English, Arabic, Thai, Persian, Hindi and other languages by Messiah Foundation International.
RAGS International was renamed to Messiah Foundation International in 2000.
MFI claims that Shahi is the Mehdi, Messiah, and Kalki Avatar.
Shahi was born on 25 November 1941, in the village of Dhok Gohar Shah in the district of Rawalpindi in British India.
He is a fifth generation descendant of the Sufi Baba Gohar Ali Shah.
At the age of twenty, when he was the owner of F.Q. Steel Industries, Shahi began to search for spirituality.
Eventually he became disillusioned in this search and returned to work.
Shahi then married and had three children.
In 1975, he went to Sehwan Sharif for self-mortification.
He spent a period of three years in the mountains of Sehwan Sharif and the forest of Laal Bagh in self-purification.
Career as spiritual leader
Shahi became popular as a Sufi preacher in Pakistan during the later 1970s.
He formed RAGS International and Anjuman Serfaroshan-e-Islam in 1980.
Of the two organisations, RAGS International is still active as Messiah Foundation International whereas Anjuman Serfaroshan-e-Islam was reported to have been dissolved and banned in Pakistan in 2011.
The CEO of Messiah Foundation International is Younus AlGohar.
Shahi claimed to have met with Jesus Christ in 1997.
Legal persecution and exile
He and many of his followers have been convicted under Islamic blasphemy  by an antiterrorist court in Sindh.