the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
They also sometimes eat porridge.
Moving at a high speed
Fasting -  when someone stops eating.
A town is usually a place with a lot of houses, but not a city.
As with cities, there is more than one way to say what a town is in different countries.
In some places, it is a kind of local government.
When they say "town" people are normally thinking of a big, important place.
It may even be a city.
Generally, a town is smaller than a city and larger than a village, but that is not always the case, and the definition can differ in each country.
Generally, the difference between towns and villages or hamlets is the sort of economy they have.
People in towns usually get money from industry (factories etc.),
commerce (shops etc.)
and public service (working for the town), not agriculture (growing food).
The number of people who live in a place does not tell us if it is a town or a village.
In many areas of the world, like India, a big village can have many more people than a small town.
It is also difficult to say if a place is a town because today, some towns are becoming bigger.
Sometimes a place is a city because it got the name "city" by law.
However, people often call a place a "town" if it is small.
In the United States of America, the meaning of the term town is different in each state.
In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is.
In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county.
In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning.
People use it to describe any place where many people live.
In the six New England states, a town is a smaller part of the county.
In all six, towns do things that, in most other states, the counties do.
In many of these towns, town meetings are the main form of government, so citizens can say what happens where they live by direct democracy.
In these states, the towns are really more important than the county.
In Connecticut and Rhode Island, counties are only on the map and have no power.
In the other four states, courts are the main work of counties.
The counties with other functions are mostly in New Hampshire and Vermont.
In Alabama, whether or not a place is a "town" or a "city" is based on how many people live there.
A place with 2,000 people or more is a city.
A place with less than 2,000 people is a town (Code of Alabama 1975, Section 11-40-6).
For legislative purposes, places are put into eight categories based on the number of people.
Class 8 includes all towns, and it includes all cities with that have less than 6,000 people (Code of Alabama 1975, Section 11-40-12).
All incorporated places in Kansas are called cities.
Once a city is incorporated in Kansas, it will continue to be a city no matter what.
3rd Class Cities - When a city incorporates, it becomes a 3rd class city.
To incorporate, a city must generally have at least 300 people living there.
2nd Class Cities - A city may ask to become a 2nd class city when there are 2,00015,000 people living there.
A city that has 2,0005,000 people may choose to still be a city of the 3rd class.
However, they must become a 2nd class city when they have 5,000 people.
1st Class Cities - A city may ask to become a 1st class city when at least 15,000 people live there.
A city with only 15,00025,000 people may choose to still be a 2nd class city.
However, it must become a 1st class city when they have 25,000 people.
In New York, a town is also a smaller part of the county, but it is less important than in New England.
Towns provide almost all municipal services to places, called hamlets, that are not in villages, and some services to places that are in villages.
In New York, a town usually has some hamlets and villages.
But, because villages have power without towns (they are independent) they can be in two towns or even two counties.
Everyone in New York State who does not live in an Indian reservation (a special place for American Indians) or a city lives in a town, and perhaps in one of the town's hamlets or villages.
A city may be part of a county, but even if it is surrounded by a town that has more people than the city, it is not part of the town.
In Utah, the terms "town" and "city" is based on the number of people living there.
A place with 1,000 or more people is a city.
A place with fewer than 1,000 people is a town.
Cities are divided into five different categories based on the number of people.
In Virginia, a town is similar to a city, but it can have a smaller number of people in it.
By Virginia law cities are independent of counties (they have power without counties), towns are part of a county.
Wyoming law says towns are incorporated places that have less than 4,000 people living there.
Places with 4,000 or more people are "first-class cities".
In the past, cities usually had a cathedral.
Some English people think that a place with a cathedral must be a city, but it is not true today.
For example, Northampton, Blackburn and Middlesbrough (where is the cathedral??)
are all towns with a cathedral.
In the past, a place was usually a town, not a village, when it had a regular market or fair (a market, but not so often).
There are some English villages (for example Ipswich, Oxfordshire) larger than some small towns (e.g. Middleham, North Yorkshire).
Condensed matter physics is a branch of physics which talks about matter that has its molecules packed together very closely.
This usually means it deals with solids (solid matter).
A bag is a kind of soft container.
It can hold or carry things.
It may be made from cloth, leather, plastic, or paper.
Many bags are disposable but some are made to use for a long time.
A bag may have one or two handles or a shoulder strap.
Bags come in different shapes and sizes depending on how they will be used.
A small bag that can be carried with a single hand is sometimes called a handbag, purse, or pocketbook.
Children can suffocate, or stop breathing and die, when they put certain kinds of bags over their heads, due to having the supply of oxygen cut off.
Caesar became a member of the First Triumvirate, and when that broke up, he fought a civil war against Pompey the Great.
Winning the war, Caesar became Roman dictator for life.
He was killed by his enemies in Rome.
Later rulers of Rome called themselves “Caesar” and this title also became “Kaiser” and “Tsar”.
Julius Caesar was born in Italy around July 100 BC.
The exact date is not known.
At sixteen he was the head of his family, and came under threat when Lucius Cornelius Sulla became Roman dictator.
Sulla set about purging Rome of his enemies.
Hundreds were killed or exiled, and Caesar was on the list.
His mother's family pleaded for his life; Sulla reluctantly gave in and removed Caesar from his inheritance.
From then on, lack of money was one of the main problems in his life.
Caesar joined the army and left Rome.
On the way across the Aegean Sea, Caesar was kidnapped by pirates and held prisoner.
When the pirates thought to demand a ransom of twenty talents of silver, he insisted they ask for fifty.p39 After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them.
He had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised while in captivity—a promise the pirates had taken as a joke.
As a sign of leniency, he first had their throats cut.
He was soon called back into military action.
On the way up
On his return to Rome, he was elected as military tribune, a first step in a political career.
He was elected quaestor for 69 BC.
His wife Cornelia died that year.
After her funeral, Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Spain.p100 On his return in 67 BC, he married Pompeia (a granddaughter of Sulla), whom he later divorced.
In 63 BC he ran for election to the post of Pontifex Maximus, as high priest of the Roman state religion.
He ran against two powerful senators; there were accusations of bribery by all sides.
Caesar won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing.
After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern Roman Spain, but he was still in considerable debt and needed to pay his creditors.
He turned to Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of Rome's richest men.
In return for political support, Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others.
Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended.
In Spain he conquered two local tribes, was hailed as imperator by his troops, and completed his governorship in high esteem.
Though he was due a 'triumph' in Rome, he also wanted to stand for Consul, the most senior magistracy in the Republic.
After election, he was a consul in 59 BC.
The First Triumvirate
Caesar took power with Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) and Marcus Licinius Crassus.
These three men ruled Rome and were called the Triumvirate.
Caesar was the go-between for Crassus and Pompey.
They had been at odds for years, but Caesar tried to reconcile them.
Between the three of them, they had enough money and political influence to control public business.
This informal alliance, known as the First Triumvirate (rule of three men), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter Julia.
Caesar also married again, this time to Calpurnia, who was the daughter of another powerful senator.
Caesar proposed a law for the redistribution of public lands to the poor, a proposal supported by Pompey, by force of arms if need be, and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public.
Pompey filled the city with soldiers, and the triumvirate's opponents were frightened.
With the agreement of his partners, Caesar became the governor of Gallia (Gaul).
Gaul is the area which is today's Northern Italy, Switzerland, and France.
Caesar was the commander of the Roman legions during the Gallic War.
The war was fought on the side of Rome's Gallic clients against the Germans, who wanted to invade Gaul.
It was also to extend Rome's control of Gaul.
Caesar's conquest of Gaul extended Rome's territory to the North Sea.
In 55 BC he conducted the first Roman invasion of Britain.
Caesar wrote about this eight-year war in his book De Bello Gallico ('About the Gallic Wars').
This book, written in Latin, is an important historical account.
These achievements got him great military power, and threatened to eclipse Pompey.
The balance of power was further upset by the death of Crassus in 53 BC.
Caesar's civil war
In 50 BC, the Senate, led by Pompey, ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as governor had finished.
Caesar thought he would be prosecuted if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a magistrate.
Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason.
Caesar and his army approached Rome and crossed the Rubicon, a shallow river in north-east Italy, in 49 BC.
It was the point beyond which no army was supposed to go.
The river marked the boundary between Cisalpine Gaul to the north, and Italy proper to the south.
Crossing the Rubicon caused a civil war.
Pompey, the lawful Consul, and his friends, fled from Rome as Caesar's army approached.
Caesar decided to head for Spain, while leaving Italy under the control of Mark Antony.
Caesar made an astonishing 27-day route-march to Spain, where he defeated Pompey's lieutenants.
He then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Greece.
There, in July 48 BC, at Dyrrhachium Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat.
He then decisively defeated Pompey, at the Battle of Pharsalus later that year.
Dictator at last
In Rome, Caesar was appointed Dictator, with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse (second in command).
Caesar presided over his own election to a second consulship and then, after eleven days, resigned this dictatorship.
Late in 48 BC, he was appointed dictator again, with a term of one year.
Caesar then pursued Pompey to Egypt, where Pompey was soon murdered.
Caesar then became involved in an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, Cleopatra.
Perhaps as a result of the pharaoh's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra.
He is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which was offered to him by the pharaoh as a gift.
In any event, Caesar defeated the pharaoh's forces in 47 BC and installed Cleopatra as ruler.
Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory with a triumphant procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 B.C. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, introducing Caesar to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs.
Caesar and Cleopatra never married; Roman Law only recognized marriages between two Roman citizens.
Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, which lasted 14 years – in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery – and may have fathered a son called Caesarion.
Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, staying in Caesar's villa, outside Rome across the River Tiber.
In 46 BC, Caesar defeated Cato and the remnants of Pompey's supporters in Africa.
He was then appointed dictator for ten years.
In two years he made numerous changes in Roman administration to improve the Republic.
Many of these changes were meant to improve the lives of ordinary people.
One example, which has lasted, was his reform of the calendar into the present format, with a leap day every four years.
In February of 44 BC, one month before his assassination, he was appointed Dictator for life.
On the Ides of March (15 March; see Roman calendar) of 44 BC, Caesar was due to appear at a session of the Senate.
Mark Antony, fearing the worst, went to head Caesar off.
The plotters expected this, and arranged for someone to intercept him.
According to Eutropius, around sixty or more men participated in the assassination.
He was stabbed 23 times.
According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal.
The dictator's last words are not known with certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike.
The version best known in the English-speaking world is the Latin phrase Et tu, Brute? ('
You too, Brutus?').
In Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, this is the first half of the line: "Et tu, Brute?
Then fall, Caesar".
According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators; they, however, fled the building.
Brutus and his companions then marched to the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city: "People of Rome, we are once again free!".
They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumour of what had taken place had begun to spread.
A wax statue of Caesar was erected in the forum displaying the 23 stab wounds.
A crowd who had gathered there started a fire, which badly damaged the forum and the neighbouring buildings.
In the ensuing chaos, Mark Antony, Octavian (later Augustus Caesar), and others fought a series of five civil wars, which would end in the formation of the Roman Empire.
The Roman empire and its emperors were so important in history that the word Caesar was used as a title in some European countries to mean emperor, even long after the Roman empire was gone.
For example, Germany's emperor was called a  Kaiser up to the year 1919 AD and Russia's emperor was called a Tsar until 1917 AD.
Caesar as author
The Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War), campaigns in Gallia and Britannia during his term as proconsul; and
The Commentarii de Bello Civili (Commentaries on the Civil War), events of the Civil War until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt.
De Bello Alexandrino (On the Alexandrine War), campaign in Alexandria;
De Bello Africo (On the African War), campaigns in North Africa; and
De Bello Hispaniensi (On the Hispanic War), campaigns in the Iberian peninsula.
These narratives were written and published on a yearly basis during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front".
Apparently simple and direct in style—to the point that Caesar's Commentarii are commonly studied by first and second year Latin students—they are in fact quite sophisticated, aimed at the middle-brow readership of minor aristocrats in Rome, Italy, and the provinces.
Based on remarks by Plutarch, Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy.
Modern scholarship is divided on the subject.
It is more certain that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s.
Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures.
He may additionally have had absence seizures (petit mal) in his youth.
The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius who was born after Caesar died.
The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia.
This can cause seizures which are a bit like epilepsy.
100 BC births
44 BC deaths
Ancient Roman historians
European politicians
Murders by blade weapons
Roman generals
is the capital city of Hokkaidō Prefecture in Japan.
The port city is on the southwest part of the island of Hokkaidō and it is the island's largest city.
The city has a famous snow festival in winter, it has a growing population of about 1,800,000 people.
Its area is .
There are a lot of fish markets in Sapporo.
A beer brand named "Sapporo" was named after this city.
Ramen is a very popular food in Sapporo.
The city has a subway system.
Some famous landmarks are the Sapporo TV Tower, and the clock tower that is in the center of the city.
There are several universities here, including Hokkaido University.
The nearby airport is called New Chitose Airport.
1972 - The Winter Olympic Games were held in Sapporo.
City of Sapporo
Sightseeing of Sapporo
is a special Japanese prefecture in Hokkaidō region on the island Hokkaidō.
It is the most northern prefecture of Japan.
Until the Meiji Restoration, the island was called Ezo, Watari-shima, Yeddo, and Yezo.
Since 1869, it has been called Hokkaidō.
1947 (Shōwa 22): Hokkaidō Prefecture was established.
2008 (Heisei 20): 34th G8 summit at Toyako
Shrines and Temples
Hokkaidō jingū was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Ezo, which was an ancient name for the Hokkaidō region.
Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Hinduism is not only a religion but also a way of life.
Hinduism is known to have more than one god and is widely practiced in South Asia mainly in India and Nepal.
Hinduism is the oldest religion in the world, and Hindus refer to it as n, "the eternal tradition," or the "eternal way," beyond human history.
Scholars regard Hinduism as a combination of different Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots.
Hinduism has no founder and origins of Hinduism is unknown.. Hinduism has roots in Indus Valley civilization.
There was no concept of religion in India and Hinduism was not a religion.
Hinduism as a religion started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE, after the Vedic period (1500 BCE to 500 BCE).
Hinduism contains a wide range of philosophies, and is linked by the concepts, like rituals, cosmology, Texts, and pilgrimage to sacred sites.
Hindu texts are divided into Śruti ("heard") and Smṛti ("remembered").
These texts discuss philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, and many more.
Major scriptures in Hinduism include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Agamas.
There are 4 goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma (duties), Artha (prosperity), Kama (desires/passions), Moksha (liberation/freedom/salvation); karma (action, intent and consequences), Saṃsāra (cycle of rebirth), and the various Yogas (paths or practices to attain moksha).
Hindu rituals include puja (worship) and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals, and occasional pilgrimages.
Some Hindus leave their social world and become sanyasi to achieve Moksha.
Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, non-violence (ahimsa), patience, self-restraint, and compassion, among others.
The four largest sects of Hinduism are the Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism.
Hinduism is the world's third largest religion, There are approximately 1.15 billion Hindus which are 15-16% of the global population.
The vast majority of Hindus live in India, Nepal and Mauritius.
Hindus are also found in other countries.
The word Hindu is taken from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word  Sapta Sindhu, which is Sanskrit name for the Indus River which lies west of the border of India and Pakistan.
According to Gavin Flood, The word Hindu was used by Persians for the people who live beyond the Indus River, Inscription of Darius I which was written around 550–486 BCE also refer Hindu as the people who live beyond the Indus River.
These records didn't refer Hindu as a religion.
The earliest record which refer Hindu as religion may be the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by Xuanzang, and 14th-century Persian text Futuhu's-salatin by 'Abd al-Malik Isami.
This is because the name if the religion is called Hinduism, not Hindu.
The Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus.
It means "Land of Hindus" which is what it stood for until Muslims started to come into India.
The term Hindu was later used in some Sanskrit texts such as the later Rajataranginis of Kashmir (Hinduka, c. 1450) and some 16th- to 18th-century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts including Chaitanya Charitamrita and Chaitanya Bhagavata.
These texts used to distinguish Hindus from Muslims who are called Yavanas (foreigners) or Mlecchas (barbarians), with the 16th-century Chaitanya Charitamrita text and the 17th century Bhakta Mala text using the phrase "Hindu dharma".
In the end of the 18th century the European merchants and colonists began to call followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus.
The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India.
Hinduism is diverse on ideas on spirituality and traditions, but has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist.
Because of the wideness and openness of Hinduism, arriving at a definition is difficult.
Hinduism has been defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life."
From a Western point of view, Hinduism like other faiths is referred to as a religion.
In India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion.
The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion.
Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.
Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) Dharma (ethics/duties),  (the continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (Every action has a reaction), Moksha (liberation from samsara or liberation in this life), and the various Yogas (paths or practices).
Purusharthas (objectives of human life)
Hindism have accepted four proper goals or aims of human life: Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.
These are known as the Puruṣārthas:
Dharma (righteousness, ethics)
Dharma is considered one of the most important goal of a human being in Hinduism.
Dharma is considered Important because it is dharma which makes running of Universe and life possible, and includes duties, virtues and "right way of living".
Hindu Dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states it as:
In the Mahabharata, Krishna says it is Dharma which is holding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (
Mbh 12.110.11).
The word Sanātana means eternal, perennial, or forever; thus, Sanātana Dharma means that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.
Artha (livelihood, wealth)
Artha is second goal of life in Hinduism which means pursuit of wealth for livelihood, and economic prosperity.
It includes political life, diplomacy and material well-being.
The Artha includes all "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security.
The aim of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.
Kāma (sensual pleasure)
Kāma (Sanskrit, Pali; Devanagari: काम) means desire, wish, passion, pleasure of the senses, the enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without sexual connotations.
In Hinduism, Kama is considered an important and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing Dharma, Artha and Moksha.
Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from samsara)
Moksha (Sanskrit:  ) or mukti (Sanskrit: ) is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism.
In one school Moksha means liberation from sorrow, suffering and saṃsāra (birth-rebirth cycle).
In other schools of Hinduism, such as monistic, moksha means self-realization,"realizing the whole universe as the Self".
Karma and samsara
Karma means action, work, or deed, and also the vedic theory of cause and effect".
The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be moral or non-moral; (2) moralization, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth.
Karma theory means ''Whatever experience currently a man have is due to his/her past work''.
These actions may be in a person's current life, or, in some schools of Hinduism, actions in their past lives.
This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called samsara.
Liberation from samsara through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.
Hindu scriptures teach that the future depends on the current action and our past deeds.
The ultimate goal of life,according to Hinduism is moksha, nirvana or samadhi, but is understood in different ways in different schools.
For example, Advaita Vedanta says that after attaining moksha a person knows their "soul, self" and identifies it as one with Brahman (Ultimate reality or cause of everything).
The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools,state that after attaining moksha a person identify "soul, self" different from Brahman but very close to Brahman, and after attaining moksha one will spend eternity in a loka (higher planes).
According to theistic schools of Hinduism, moksha is liberation from samsara, while for other schools such as the monistic school, moksha is possible in current life and is a psychological concept.
Concept of God
Hindus believe that all living creatures have a soul.
This soul or true "self" of every living being is called the ātman.
The soul is believed to be eternal.
According to the monistic/pantheistic (non-dualist) theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is indistinct from Brahman.
The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realise that one's soul is identical to supreme soul, that the supreme soul is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life.
Dualistic schools (see Dvaita and Bhakti) sees Brahman as a Supreme Being separate from individual souls.
They worship the Supreme Being variously as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect.
God is called Ishvara, Bhagavan, Parameshwara, Devadu or Devi, and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.
Devi is typically used when refereeing to a female goddess.
The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or  in feminine form;  used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), which in English means demi-gods or heavenly beings.
The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas.
They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a personal god, with many Hindus worshipping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations as their , or chosen ideal.
The choice is a matter of individual preference, and of regional and family traditions.
The multitude of Devas are considered as manifestations of Brahman.
Main traditions
Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular sect or tradition.
Four major sects in Hinduism are: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smarthism.
Vaishnavism is the tradition that worships Vishnu and his avatars, such as Krishna and Rama.
The people of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic.
These practices include community dancing, singing of Kirtans and Bhajans, with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers.
Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva.
Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools.
Their practices include Bhakti-style devotion but they leaned to philosply such as Advaita and Yoga.
Some Shaivas worship in temples, but some practice yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.
Shaivas visualize god as half male, half female, as a combination of the male and female principles (Ardhanarishvara).
Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as wife of Shiva.
Shaivism is mainly practiced in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.
Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother, and it is mainly worshipped in northeastern and eastern states of India such as Assam and Bengal.
Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like Parvati, the consort of Shiva; or, as warrior goddesses like Kali and Durga.
Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.
Smartism  worship all the major Hindu deities like Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, Surya and Skanda.
The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions.
The Smarta tradition is very much same as Advaita Vedanta, and consider Adi Shankara as its founder or reformer, who considered worship of God-with-attributes (saguna Brahman) as a journey towards ultimately realizing God-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self-knowledge).
Hindu texts
Hindu text are world's oldest and had been written in Sanskrit and Tamil.
The oldest Text is Rig Veda which is about 4000 years old.
Hindu Texts can be divided in two parts:
Shruti (what is heard)
Smriti (what is remembered)
Shruti or Shruthi (Sanskrit: श्रुति; IAST: Śruti; IPA/Sanskrit: [ʃrut̪i]) in Sanskrit means "that which is heard" These ancient religious texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism includes the four Vedas including its four types of attached texts - the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early Upanishads
Smriti
Smriti (Sanskrit: स्मृति, IAST: Smṛti), means "that which is remembered" are a body of Hindu texts.
Smriti were the texts which were remembered and were spread through mouth from generation to generation.
Smriti includes (the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana), the Dharmasūtras and Dharmaśāstras (or Smritiśāstras), the Arthasaśāstras, the Purānas, the Kāvya or poetical literature.
There are many Hindu Festivals celebrated throughout the world but mainly in India and Nepal.
These festivals include worship, offerings to deities, fasting, rituals, fairs, charity, celebrations, Puja, etc.
The festivals mainly celebrate events from Hindu mythology, changes in season, changes in Solar System.
Different sects celebrate different festivals but festivals like Diwali, Holi, Shivratri, Raksha Bandhan, Janamashtmi etc.
are celebrated by the majority of Hindus.
Periodisation
Prevedic religions (pre-history and Indus Valley Civilisation; until c. 1500 BCE);
Vedic period (c. 1500–500 BCE);
"Second Urbanisation" (c. 500–200 BCE);
Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE-1100 CE);[note 20]
Pre-classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE-300 CE);
"Golden Age" (Gupta Empire) (c. 320–650 CE);
Late-Classical Hinduism - Puranic Hinduism (c. 650–1100 CE);
Islam and sects of Hinduism (c. 1200–1700 CE);
Modern Hinduism (from c. 1800).
The origins of Hinduism are unknown but the earliest traces of Hinduism come from Mesolithic in the sites such as the rock paintings of Bhimbetka rock shelters dating to a period of 30,000 BCE or older, as well as neolithic times.
Some of the religious practices can be considered to have originated in 4000 BCE.
Several tribal religions still exist, though their practices may not resemble those of prehistoric religions.
According to one view, the Varna, which later transformed into caste system during the British rule, shows how strongly many have felt about each person following his or her dharma, or destined path.
Many Hindus say it goes against the true meaning of dharma.
However, Varna plays a big role in Hindu society.
It's later transformation as Caste system by the British rule of India lost favor and became illegal after the independence of India.
Puja (worship) takes place in the Mandir (temple).
Mandirs vary in size from small village shrines to large buildings, surrounded by walls.
People can also visit the Mandir at any time to pray and participate in the bhajans (religious songs).
Hindus also worship at home and often have a special room with a shrine to particular gods.
Temple construction in India started nearly 2000 years ago.
The oldest temples that were built of brick and wood no longer exist.
Stone later became the preferred material.
Temples marked the transition of Hinduism from the Vedic religion of ritual sacrifices to a religion of Bhakti or love and devotion to a personal deity.
Temple construction and mode of worship is governed by ancient Sanskrit scriptures called agamas, of which there are several, which deal with individual deities.
There are substantial differences in architecture, customs, rituals and traditions in temples in different parts of India.
During the ritual consecration of a temple, the presence of the universal all-encompassing Brahman is invoked into the main stone deity of the temple, through ritual, thereby making the deity and the temple sacred and divine
Alternative cultures of worship
The Bhakti schools
The Bhakti (Devotional) school takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming love of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart.
The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to tap into the universal divinity through personal form, which explains the proliferation of so many gods and goddesses in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people.
Seen as a form of Yoga, or union, it seeks to dissolve the ego in God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a divisive factor in spiritual realization.
Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. '
Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even transcended, through the love of God.
The Bhakti movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of faith and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India.
They can rightly be said to have affected the greatest wave of change in Hindu prayer and ritual since ancient times.
The most popular means of expressing love for God in the Hindu tradition has been through puja, or ritual devotion, frequently using the aid of a murti (statue) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of mantras.
Devotional songs called bhajans (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), kirtan (praise), and arti (a filtered down form of Vedic fire ritual) are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of puja.
This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic medium.
It is said, however, that the bhakta, through a growing connection with God, is eventually able to avoid all external form and is immersed entirely in the bliss of undifferentiated Love in Truth.
Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the world and gave India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing unnecessary ritual and artificial social boundaries.
See bhakti yoga for more.
According to the most famous Western Tantrik scholar, Sir John Woodroffe (pseudonym Arthur Avalon): "The Indian Tantras, which are numerous, constitute the Scripture (Shastra) of the Kaliyuga, and as such are the voluminous source of present and practical orthodox 'Hinduism'.
The Tantra Shastra is, in fact, and whatever be its historical origin, a development of the Vaidika Karmakanda, promulgated to meet the needs of that age.
Shiva says: 'For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one!
is given' (Chap.
IX.,
verse 12).
To the Tantra we must therefore look if we would understand aright both ritual, yoga, and sadhana of all kinds, as also the general principles of which these practices are but the objective expression." (
Introduction to Sir John Woodroffe's translation of "Mahanirvana Tantra.")
The word "tantra" means "treatise" or "continuum", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as to those which we would now regard as "tantric".
Most tantras were written in the late Middle Ages and sprang from Hindu cosmology and Yoga.
Important symbolism and themes in Hinduism
Ahimsa and the cow
Many Hindus are vegetarians (do not eat meat) because of their respect for life.
About 30% of today's Hindu population, especially in orthodox communities in South India, in certain northerly states like Gujarat, and in many Brahmin areas around the subcontinent, are vegetarian.
Most Hindus who do eat meat do not eat beef.
Some do not even use leather products.
This is most likely because many Hindus have relied so heavily on the cow for all sorts of dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertiliser that its status as a willing 'caretaker' of humanity grew to identifying it as an almost motherly figure.
Thus, while most Hindus do not worship the cow, and rules against eating beef arose long after the Vedas had been written, it still has an honored place in Hindu society.
It is said that Krishna is both Govinda (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and Shiva's attendant is Nandi, the bull.
With the stress on vegetarianism (which is usually followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days or special occasions) and the sacred nature of the cow, it is no wonder that most holy cities and areas in India have a ban on selling meat-products and there is a movement among Hindus to ban cow-slaughter not only in specific regions, but in all of India.
Hindu symbols
Hindus use many symbols and signs.
The two most important symbols used by Hindus are the "Aum" and the "Swastika (Hinduism)".
Forms of worship: murtis and mantras
Contrary to popular belief, practiced Hinduism is neither polytheistic nor strictly monotheistic.
The various Hindu gods and avatars that are worshipped by Hindus are understood as different forms of One truth, sometimes seen as beyond a mere god and as a formless Divine Ground (Brahman), akin but not limited to monism, or as one monotheistic principle like Vishnu or Shiva.
Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal god (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people.
Hinduism encourages devotees to describe and develop a personal relationship with their chosen deity (ishta devata) in the form of a god or goddess.
While some censuses hold worshippers of one form or another of Vishnu (known as Vaishnavs) to be at 80% and those of Shiva (called Shaivaites) and Shakti at the remaining 20%, such figures are perhaps misleading.
The vast majority of Hindus worship many gods as varicolored forms of the same prism of Truth.
Among the most popular are Vishnu (as Krishna or Rama), Shiva, Devi (the Mother as many female deities, such as Lakshmi, Saraswati, Kali and Durga), Ganesha, Skanda and Hanuman.
Worship of the said deities is often done through the aid of pictures or icons (murti) which are said not to be God themselves but conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human soul that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the love and grandeur of God.
They are symbols of the greater principle, representing and are never presumed to be the concept or entity itself.
Thus, Hindu image worship is a form of iconolatry, in which the symbols are venerated as putative sigils of divinity, as opposed to idolatry, a charge often levied (erroneously) at Hindus.
For more details on this form of worship, see murti.
Hindus use several prayers and group of words.
Some group of words are called mantras.
A well known mantra is om or aum.
It symbolizes Brahman, and is often the opening word in many prayers.
Geographic distribution
The nations of India, Mauritius, and Nepal as well as the Indonesian island of Bali have more people who are Hindus than people who are not Hindus.
In these nations, specially Nepal and India Hinduism is very popular.
Bangladesh (12 million),
Sri Lanka (2.5 million),
the United States (2.0 million)
Pakistan (3.3 million),
South Africa (1.2 million),
the United Kingdom (1.2 million),
Malaysia (1.1 million),
Canada (0.7 million),
Fiji (0.5 million),
Trinidad and Tobago (0.5 million),
Guyana (0.4 million),
the Netherlands (0.4 million),
Singapore (0.3 million)
Myanmar (0.3 million),
Suriname (0.2 million),
Australia (0.1 Million).
There are also strong Hindu communities in the countries of the ex-Soviet Union, especially in Russia and Poland.
The Indonesian islands of Java, Sulawesi, Sumatra, and Borneo also have big native Hindu populations.
In its Yoga stream, Hinduism is even more widespread all over the world with 30 million (less than one percent can not be 30 million for US population) Hindus in the United States alone.
Rigveda.
"Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online
Sâdhus, Going beyond the dreadlocks, by Patrick Levy, published by Prakash Books, Delhi, 2010.
Web notes
Chopra, R.M., "Hinduism Today", Kolkata, 2009.
Mishra, Pankaj. "
The Invention of the Hindu."
Axess Magazine 2 (2004).
Hindu Timeline
http://www.hinduism-today.com
Some nice info about Hinduism in general including  its all most important gods, festivals, personalities, demons, etc.
Religious Tolerance- Hinduism
Chemistry lists
Elements numbered in blue are liquids at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP);
those in green are gases at STP;
those in black are solid at STP;
those in red are synthetic (all are solid at STP).
those in gray have not yet been discovered (they also have muted filled colors indicating the likely chemical series they would fall under).
Hernán Cortés (1485 - 2 December 1547) was an explorer and Conquistador from Spain.
Between 1519 and 1521, he conquered the Aztec Empire of emperor Montezuma II where Mexico is today.
He introduced vanilla and chocolate to Europe.
Cortes was born Medellín, Extremadura province, in the Kingdom of Castile in Spain.
He went to Salamanca University, but dropped out at the age of 17.
After two years, Cortes failed and finished schooling, returning home.
This, however, was later helpful, as he knew how the law of Spain worked.
Hernan's journeys started in 1502 when he had heard stories about the New World.
He then went on a journey led by Nicolas de Ovando and Diego Velazquez to the West Indies.
He turned out to be a good soldier under the orders of Velázquez.
Conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba
He went to the New World in 1506.
In 1511, he took part in the Spanish conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba, where the Arawak people lived.
In 1513, the Spanish built the town Bayamo.
The next year, they built Trinidad, Santo Espiritu, Puerto Principe, and Santiago de Cuba.
In 1519, Cortes set out from Cuba with a fleet of ships, 600 men, and about 20 horses.
They went to Yucatán to look for gold and to get Mexico ready for colonization.
They landed in Yucatán Peninsula and met Jeronimo de Aguilar, a priest who lived through a shipwreck.
He knew a lot about the Maya, who owned this section of land.
He met a woman, La Malinche, who knew the Maya and Nahuatl languages.
She acted as his translator when he talked with Maya and Aztec people.
In July of 1519, the Spanish took over Veracruz, and left 100 men there.
That August, Cortes went to Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire.
He brought 400 men, 15 horsemen, and 15 cannons with him.
On his way, he met Native American tribes like the Nahuas of Tlaxcala and the Totonacs of Cempoala.
In October 1519, Cortes gathered his soldiers and around three thousand Tlaxcalteca (who had long been enemies of the Aztecs).
His goal was to scare the Aztecs in Tenochtitlan.
He then went on a killing spree and burned down the city.
When he came to Tenochtitlan, he had a vast army of Aztec enemies.t
Cortés was surprised that Tenochtitlan was as great as Constantinople.
In November, the emperor of the Aztecs, Moctezuma II, welcomed Cortes and his army.
Montezuma II let them into Aztec territory, where they learned the Aztecs' weaknesses and then destroyed them.
The emperor gave them gold, and Cortes later told King Charles V that the Aztecs might have thought he was one of their gods: Quetzalcoatl, a feathered serpent with fair skin and a beard.
Cortes quickly realized that some Spaniards had been attacked on the coast and planned to kidnap Moctezuma and his house and make him swear loyalty to King Charles V.
On the night of June 30 – July 1, 1520 the Aztecs attacked, but the majority of the Spanish escaped and allied themselves with enemies of the Aztec empire.
Later, in 1521, with his army of a few Spaniards and many natives, Cortés destroyed Tenochtitlan and took over the Aztec Empire.
Cortés returned from Honduras and was Governor of the Viceroyalty of New Spain for a while.
Later, he went back to Europe with a lot of treasure.
He died in Seville, Spain, in 1547 from pleurisy.
1485 births
1547 deaths
Deaths from pleurisy
Spanish explorers
People from Extremadura
For Christians, study of the Bible is often part of daily life.
A lot of other people are also interested in this piece of world literature.
In Europe before the 16th century it was not possible for most people to study the Bible.
Books were written using only the languages Latin and Greek.
Only people who had learned to read those languages could study the Bible.
The Roman Catholic Church said people could not translate the Bible into other languages, for example Italian or English because many people could not read and it took the lifetime of a monk, by himself, to translate the Bible.
When the Reformation started in 16th century Europe, the Bible was translated into several languages.
Many books were printed in these languages.
People were then able to read the Bible in their own language.
Biblical study, the academic study of the Bible
The medlar is a tree and the name of the fruit of this tree.
Its Latin name is Crataegus germanica, or "German medlar", but it is not from Germany.
It grows in the Near East and South-Eastern Europe, and the Romans took it to Germany.
Near the Caspian Sea, people grew the medlar about three thousand years ago.
It came to Greece in about 700 BC and to Rome in about 200 BC.
It was an important fruit plant in Roman and medieval times.
But by 1600-1700, people started eating other fruits and not the medlar.
Today people do not grow it very often.
The medlar needs warm summers and mild (not too cold) winters and likes to grow in sunny, dry places.
In the best places, the plant can grow up to eight metres tall.
The medlar is deciduous: it is not green all year.
Usually, it is shorter than a tree.
It lives between thirty and fifty years.
Medlar leaves are dark green, maximum fifteen centimetres long and three centimetres wide.
The plant has flowers in late spring.
The red-brown medlar fruits are similar to apples and grow to two to three centimetres.
They are very hard and acidic, and we can only eat them after the cold weather makes them soft.