the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Later that same day, 909 inhabitants of Jonestown, 303 of them children, died of apparent cyanide poisoning, in and around a pavilion.
This was the greatest single loss of American civilian life in a non-natural disaster until the September 11, 2001 attacks.
No video was taken during the mass suicide, though the FBI did recover a 45-minute audio recording of the suicide in progress.
On that tape, Jones tells Temple members that the Soviet Union, with whom the Temple had been negotiating a potential exodus for months, would not take them after the Temple had murdered Ryan and four others at a nearby airstrip.
The reason given by Jones to commit suicide was consistent with his previously stated conspiracy theories of intelligence organizations allegedly conspiring against the Temple, that men would "parachute in here on us," "shoot some of our innocent babies" and "they'll torture our children, they'll torture some of our people here, they'll torture our seniors".
Parroting Jones' prior statements that hostile forces would convert captured children to fascism, one temple member states "the ones that they take captured, they're gonna just let them grow up and be dummies".
Jones and several members argued that the group should commit "revolutionary suicide" by drinking cyanide-laced grape-flavored Flavor Aid.
However, later released video made to show the best of Jonestown shows Jones opening a storage container full of Kool-Aid in large quantities.
This may have been what was used to mix the "potion" (as was referred to in several statements on the tape recordings) along with a sedative.
One member, Christine Miller, dissents toward the beginning of the tape.
When members apparently cried, Jones counseled, "Stop this hysterics.
This is not the way for people who are Socialists or Communists to die.
No way for us to die.
We must die with some dignity".
Jones can be heard saying, "Don't be afraid to die," that death is "just stepping over into another plane" and that it's "a friend".
At the end of the tape, Jones concludes: "We didn't commit suicide; we committed an act of revolutionary suicide protesting the conditions of an inhumane world".
According to escaping Temple members, children were given the drink first and families were told to lie down together.
Mass suicide had been previously discussed in simulated events called "White Nights" on a regular basis.
Jones was found dead in a deck chair with a gunshot wound to his head that Guyanese coroner Cyrill Mootoo stated was consistent with a self-inflicted gun wound.
However, Jones' son Stephan believes his father may have directed someone else to shoot him.
An autopsy of Jones' body also showed levels of the barbiturate Pentobarbital which may have been lethal to humans who had not developed physiological tolerance.
Jones' drug usage (including LSD and marijuana) was confirmed by his son, Stephan, and Jones' doctor in San Francisco.
American agnostics
American communists
People from Indiana
Let us salute the motherland,
Proud to be called her children.
To her well-being let us swear
Boldly and unceasingly to devote our lives.
Devote our lives! (
repeat 4 times)
Of peace enjoyed in perfect happiness,
To achieve this has been her eternal proposition,
http://saludemos-la-patria-orgullosos.ask.dyndns.dk/
Eritrea is a country on the eastern coast of Africa.
Its official name is The State of Eritrea.
Eritrea is located on the coast of the Red Sea.
It is north of the Bab-el-Mandeb and the Horn of Africa.
Eritrea has borders with the countries of Sudan, Ethiopia, and Djibouti.
The land area of Eritrea is 101,000 km², and it is one of the smallest countries in Africa.
Eritrea became an independent country on May 24, 1993.
It is one of the newest countries in the world.
Many different countries have ruled the land that is now called Eritrea.
Between 1885 and 1941 it was a colony of Italy.
Between 1941 and 1952, the United Nations put it under the protection of the United Kingdom.
After 1952, Eritrea became a part of Ethiopia.
This was the reason for a long civil war between the Eritreans and the government of Ethiopia.
Eritreans are the native inhabitants of Eritrea, as well as the global diaspora of Eritreans displaced by the Eritrean War of Independence and seeking refuge from human rights violations by the Eritrean government.
Eritreans constitute several component ethnic groups, many of which are closely related to ethnic groups in Ethiopia and other parts of the Horn of Africa.
The Eritrean national identity began to develop during the Scramble for Africa, when Italy claimed Eritrea as one of its colonies.
This marked the establishment of Eritrea's present-day borders.
Following Italy's defeat in World War II and the subsequent British administration of Eritrea, the former colony was federated with Ethiopia in 1952.
Tensions increased through the 1950s between Eritreans wishing for independence and the Ethiopian government, culminating in the Eritrean War of Independence.
The majority of the Tigrinya inhabit the highlands of Eritrea; however, migration to other parts of the country has occurred.
Their language is called Tigrinya.
They are the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting about 60% of the population.
The predominantly Tigrinya populated urban centers in Eritrea are the capital Asmara, Mendefera, Dekemhare, Adi Keyh, Adi Quala and Senafe, while there is a significant population of Tigrinya in other cities including Keren, and Massawa.
They are 96% Christians, (of which 90% are of the Eritrean Orthodox faith, 5% Roman Catholic and Eastern Catholic (whose mass is held in Ge'ez as opposed to Latin), and 5% belonging to various Protestant and other Christian denominations, the majority of which belong to the (Lutheran) Evangelical Church of Eritrea).
Many also migrated to Sudan at the time of the Ethiopian-Eritrean conflict and lived there since.
They are a nomadic and pastoralist people, related to the Tigrinya and to the Beja people.
They are a predominantly Muslim nomadic people who inhabit the northern, western, and coastal lowlands of Eritrea, where they constitute 30% of local residents.
Some also inhabit areas in eastern Sudan.
95% of the Tigre people adhere to the Islamic religion Sunni Islam, but there are a small number of Christians among them as well (often referred to as the Mensaï in Eritrea).
Their language is called Tigre.
Jeberti
The Jeberti people in Eritrea trace descent from early Muslim adherents.
The term Jeberti is also locally sometimes used to generically refer to all Islamic inhabitants of the highlands.
The Jeberti in Eritrea speak Arabic and Tigrinya.
They account for about 4% of the Tigrinya speakers in the nation.
According to the CIA, the Afar constitute under 5% of the nation's population.
They live in the Debubawi Keyih Bahri Region of Eritrea, as well as the Afar Region in Ethiopia, and Djibouti.
They speak the Afar language as a mother tongue, and are predominantly Muslim.
Afars in Eritrea number about 397,000 individuals, the smallest population out of the countries they reside in.
In Djibouti, there are about 780,000 group members, and in Ethiopia, they number approximately 1,300,000.
Saho
The Saho represent 4% of Eritrea's population.
They principally reside in the Debubawi Keyih Bahri Region and the Northern Red Sea Region of Eritrea.
Their language is called Saho.
They are predominantly Muslim, although a few Christians known as the Irob live in the Debub Region of Eritrea and the Tigray region of Ethiopia.
Bilen
The Bilen in Eritrea represent around 2% of the country's population.
They are primarily concentrated in the north-central areas, in and around the city of Keren, and south towards Asmara, the nation's capital.
Many of them entered Eritrea from Kush (central Sudan) in the 8th century and settled at Merara, after which they went to Lalibela and Lasta.
The Bilen then returned to Axum in Ethiopia's Tigray Province, and battled with the natives; in the resulting aftermath, the Bilen returned to their main base at Merara.
The Bilen include adherents of both Islam and Christianity.
They speak the Bilen as a mother tongue.
Christian adherents are mainly urban and have intermingled with the Tigrinya who live in the area.
Beja
The Beja in Eritrea, or Hedareb, constitute under 5% of local residents.
Group members are predominantly Muslim and communicate in Hedareb as a first or second language.
The Beja also include the Beni-Amer people, who have retained their native Beja language alongside Hedareb.
According to the CIA, the Kunama constitute around 2% of Eritrea's population.
They mainly live in the country's Gash Barka Region, as well as in adjacent parts of Ethiopia's Tigray Region.
Many of them reside in the contested border village of Badme.
Their language is called Kunama.
Although some Kunama still practice traditional beliefs, most are converts to either Christianity (Roman Catholic and Protestant) or Islam.
The Nara represent under 5% of the nation's population.
They principally reside along the south-western border with Sudan and Ethiopia.
They are generally Muslim, with a few Christians and some practising their indigenous beliefs.
Their language is called Nara.
Rashaida Arabs in Eritrean
The Rashaida are one of Eritrea's nine recognized ethnic groups.
They represent around 2% of the population of Eritrea.
The Rashaida reside in the northern coastal lowlands of Eritrea and the northern eastern coasts of Sudan.
They are predominantly Muslim and are the only ethnic group in Eritrea to have Arabic as their communal language, specifically the Hejazi dialect.
The Rashaida first came to Eritrea in the 19th century from the Arabian Coast.
Italians in Eritrea
A few monolingual Italian Eritreans remain.
As of 2008, they were estimated at 900 people, down from around 38,000 residents at the end of World War II.
Eritrean diaspora
Eritrean Americans
Eritrean Australians
Eritrean Canadians
Eritreans in Italy
Eritreans in the United Kingdom
Eritreans in Denmark
Eritreans in Israel
Eritreans in Norway
Eritreans in Sweden
Eritrea is known for being the most oppressive country in Africa, sometimes considered to be the "North Korea of Africa".
The nation has been accused of many human rights violations, severely limited freedoms, and many arbitrary (made-up) arrests.
Eritrea is divided into six administrative regions.
These areas are then divided into 58 districts.
The population of Eritrea is about 3.6 million.
About 0.5 million people live in Asmara.
People from Eritrea are called Eritreans.
Most of them speak Tigrinya or Tigre as their first language.
The people usually use Tigrinya or Arabic for official business.
Eritrea has nine ethnic groups.
These are the Afar people, the Bilen people, the Hedareb people, the Kunama, the Nara, the Rashaida, the Saho, the Tigre, and Tigray-Tigrinya.
The currency of Eritrea is called the Nakfa.
Eritrea is a very poor country.
Almost half of Eritrea's economy comes from Eritreans who live abroad.
They send money home to their families.
Most of the rest comes from farming.
Football and cycling are the most popular sports in Eritrea.
In recent years, Eritrean athletes have also seen increasing success in the international arena.
1993 establishments in Africa
Sanford Dole (April 23, 1844 – June 9, 1926) was an American politician.
Dole was a part of a group of businessmen who first forced a new Hawaiian national constitution on the country during King David Kalakaua's reign and then after his death removed Queen Liliuokalani from the throne and took control of the country in 1893.
They removed the queen by threatening to use the warships of the U.S. Navy had in Honolulu harbor.
Queen Liliuokalani did not want her people to be harmed so she agreed to do what the revolutionists wanted.
The Queen went to Washington and talked to the American President, Grover Cleveland.
Cleveland decided that this had been an act of war against the Hawaiian Kingdom.
Cleveland ordered Sanford Dole, the President of the newly formed republic, to make Liliuokalani the queen again.
Dole refused to do this.
He said that President Cleveland was interfering.
Dole remained the president of Hawaii from 1894 until 1900 after Cleveland was elected out of office.
The newly elected American president William McKinley signed the Newsland Resolution.
The Newsland Resolution made Hawaii a territory of the United States.
This ended any legal or military chance of restoring the Queen and the Hawaiian Kingdom.
Dole served as governor of Hawaii from 1900 until 1903, he was the first when he accepted a position as United States District Court judge.
He remained a judge until 1915.
Governors of Hawaii
1844 births
1926 deaths
Ancient Egypt, or the Kingdom of Kemet, was a society that began about 3150 BC, and lasted until 30 BC when it was invaded by the Roman Empire.
Egypt grew along the River Nile and was at its most powerful in the second millennium BC.
Its land went from the Nile delta to Nubia, a kingdom which today is mostly in the Sudan.
For most of its history, Egypt was prosperous, since the water from the Nile made sure that the Egyptians would have good crops.
Crops were grown after the Nile flood water went down.
The Egyptians created a way of writing using hieroglyphs, built huge temples and tombs, traded with other areas, and had a powerful army.
Their religion had many gods, and its priests were powerful and rich.
Their rulers, called Pharaohs, were thought to be close to the gods.
Archaeologists, who study objects left by ancient people, have found that people have lived along the Nile for a very long time.
The fertile flood plains of the Nile allowed people to begin farming.
By the 10th millennium BC, the people in Egypt had begun growing cereal grains like wheat and barley.
Because they were farming, they stayed in one place, and because they were settled, their society became more complex.
This was an important step in the history of human civilization.
This period in Egyptian history is called predynastic, as it happened before the large dynastic kingdoms were formed.
By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures.
Each had begun farming crops and animals.
Each had their own types of pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads.
In Upper Egypt, the south part of the country, the Badarian was one of the earliest cultures.
It is known for its high quality pottery, stone tools, and its use of copper.
They were followed by the Amratian and Gerzian cultures.
Predynastic Period (5500 – 3000 BC)
Early Dynastic Period (1st & 2nd Dynasties, 3000 – 2700 BC)
Old Kingdom (3rd to 6th Dynasties, 2700 – 2180 BC)
First Intermediate Period (7th to 11th Dynasties, 2180 – 2050 BC)
Middle Kingdom (11th to 14th Dynasties, 2080 – 1640 BC)
Second Intermediate Period (15th to 17th Dynasties, 1640 – 1560 BC; the Hyksos)
New Kingdom (18th to 20th Dynasties, 1560 – 1070 BC)
Third Intermediate Period (21st to 25th Dynasties, 1070 – 664 BC)
Late Period (26th to 31st Dynasties, 664 – 323 BC; the Persians)
Graeco-Roman Egypt (323 – 30 BC; Ptolemaic to Roman)
The Intermediate periods included times when the traditional system broke down, the country was split, or invaded by foreign rulers.
Egypt's culture and climate was relatively stable, compared to other parts of the Middle East.
Nevertheless, they had some periods when their government was challenged and sometimes overthrown.
Ancient Egypt was split up into many different districts called sepats.
The first divisions were created during the Predynastic Period, but then, they were small city-states that ruled themselves.
When the first pharaoh came to power, the sepats remained and were much like the counties in many countries today.
They stayed basically the same for a long time – there were 42 of them, and each was ruled by a governor chosen by the pharaoh.
In later years the districts were called nomes and the governor was called a nomarch.
Ancient Egypt had a lot of different taxes, but there was no real money, so people paid each other with goods or work.
The person who watched the tax collection was a scribe, and every tax collector in Egypt had to tell him every day how many taxes they had collected.
Each person paid different taxes based on the work that they did: craftsmen paid in goods, hunters and fishermen paid with food, and every single household in the country had to pay a labour tax every year by helping with work for the country like mining or for canals.
A lot of rich Egyptians paid poorer people to do this for them.
Language and writing
Archaic Egyptian (before 3000 BC).
This language was found on carvings on pottery.
Old Egyptian (3000 BC to 2000 BC).
This language was used during the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period.
It was found in pyramids, or Egyptian tombs, and was the first version of the language that had plural tense, which shows that there was more than one object being talked about.
Middle Egyptian (2000 BC to 1300 BC).
This language is called Classic Egyptian.
It is found all over objects and tombs in Egypt, including Egyptian coffins.
Books on science and society were written during this time, and a lot of the things we know about religion of the time are written in Classic Egyptian.
Even after people stopped speaking this kind of Egyptian, writers still used it when they wrote books.
Late Egyptian (1300 BC to 700 BC).
This is the language of the New Kingdom, which was the best time in Egypt's history.
There was a lot of knowledge being shared during this time, so we have a lot of very old books that were written in Late Egyptian.
Many people believe that this version of the language was much like what Egyptians spoke.
Demotic Egyptian (700 BC to 400 AD)
Coptic Egyptian (300 AD to 1700 AD)
Hieroglyphic writing dates to c. 3200 BC, and is composed of some 500 symbols.
A hieroglyph represents a word, a sound, or a symbol to show what the sign means.
The same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts.
Hieroglyphs on stone monuments and in tombs were for public purposes.
It was art, and often it was propaganda.
Hieratic script
In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier.
While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows.
Demotic script
The script used by ordinary people.
A new form of writing, Demotic, became the main writing style.
It is this form of writing  and formal hieroglyphs  which accompanies the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.
Coptic script
The Coptic script is a modified Greek alphabet.
The Coptic language is the last stage of the Egyptian language (modern Egyptians speak a dialect of Arabic).
Some ancient Egyptian literature has survived to the present day.
There are teaching texts, such as the Maxims of Ptahhotep, the Instructions of Amenemope, and the Ebers papyrus.
The Ebers papyrus is one of the earliest medical texts ever found.
The story of Sinuhe
An Ancient Egyptian murder mystery written around 1800 BC.
Ipuwer papyrus
A poem about the ruin of Egyptian society--some think it is about the story in Exodus, a book in the Jewish/Christian Bible.
Westcar papyrus
A series of stories about the Pharaoh Khufu told by his sons.
Papyrus Harris I
The longest papyrus ever found in Egypt.
Story of Wenamun
An ancient adventure story about a priest who goes to collect gifts from a king.
Religion was very important to Ancient Egyptians.
To Egyptians, animals were holy and were worshipped.
Because of this, Egyptians domesticated, or made pets of, animals very early and took very good care of them.
The centre of any Egyptian town was the temple, and this building was used for everything from the town hall to a university in addition to its religious services.
Because they were so religious, Egyptians created a lot of art of their gods.
This art shows all different kinds of divine, or holy, creatures including the pharaoh, who was thought to be a god.
The afterlife was also very important to Egyptians and they are known for mummifying their dead.
These mummies are important to scientists today because they tell them about how the Egyptians lived.
All the gods were important but some were more important than others.
An example of a goddess is Isis who is the goddess of the sky.
Another example of a major god is Ra who was the god of the sun.
The less well known god of The Nile and the crocodiles was named Sobek, which is a rather unusual name.
Bastet was the goddess of cats, so the Ancient Egyptians mummified cats in honour of her, she was also the goddess of protection, joy and families.
The rich fertile soil came from annual inundations of the Nile River.
The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits.
In ancient Egypt taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.
Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River.
The Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting).
The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops.
After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February.
Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals.
Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops.p514 From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain.
Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.p506
Flax plants were grown for the fibers of their stems.
These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing.
Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper.
Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand.
Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.p577; 630
Most animals were kept as food.
Some animals were kept as pets.
All kinds of animals were important to Egypt.
Ancient Egyptians understood the animals.
Animals they kept were goats, pigs, ducks, cows and geese.
Ancient Egyptians had some advanced medical knowledge for their time.
They performed surgery, set broken bones and even knew about medicines.
Some medicines the Ancient Egyptians used are honey and breast milk or gazelle's milk.
Not only did they have medicinal values, they also are believed to have been used to ward off evil spirits and demons.
The easiest way to see how good they were at medicine is to look at the medical papyri which have survived to the present day.
The Edwin Smith papyrus is the world's oldest surviving surgical document, from about 1600 B.C. The text describes anatomy, and the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of 48 types of medical problems in detail.
Ancient Egyptian pyramids are shaped stone masonry structures.
They are the best known pyramid structures, and are some of the largest ever buildings.
Over 130 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt.
Most were built on the western side of the River Nile in desert areas.
Egyptian pyramids are often contain chambers and passages.
The pyramids were built as the burial places of the Egyptian kings before the start of the old kingdom until the end of the middle kingdom.
Because the Egyptians kept written records, we know about the building of some pyramids.
The Great Pyramid at Giza is the largest and most famous pyramid.
It was built for Pharaoh Khufu.
It is over 140 metres high and took 20 years to build.
It is listed as one of the seven wonders of the world.
The step pyramid at Saqqara is the earliest pyramid which is still standing today.
This was built in 2630 BC.
It was a burial place of the Pharaoh Djoser.
The architect of the step pyramid was Imhotep.
Other achievements
Engineering was an important activity in Egypt.
Engineers were able to measure and survey the distance between two points.
They designed and made the pyramids, which are nearly perfect geometrically.
They could make cement, and developed large irrigation networks.
Science was also important.
Mathematics was used in Egypt, and the golden ratio was used in the construction of the Pyramids.
Another ability of the Egyptians was glass making.
Archaeologists have found many pieces of beads, jars, figures and ornaments in tombs across the nation.
In 2005, the remains of an ancient glassmaking factory was found.
Predynastic
3500 BC: Senet, a board game, is invented
3500 BC: Egyptian faience, the world's oldest earthenware, or pottery, is created.
It is not the same as modern faience pottery.
Dynastic
3300 BC: Bronze works are first created
3200 BC: Hieroglyphs are developed
3100 BC: Decimal system in use
3100 BC: Mining occurs on Mount Sinai
3100 BC: Ships are built in Abydos, an Egyptian city
3000 BC: Trading takes place between Egypt and Palestine
3000 BC: Copper plumbing in use
3000 BC: Papyrus, or ancient paper, is first used
3000 BC: First documented use of medicine
2900 BC: Perhaps the first steel use in the ancient world
2700 BC: First surgery performed
2700 BC: Surveying used by engineers
2700 BC: Hieroglyphs no longer just show little pictures of words, but become based on sounds
2600 BC: The Great Pyramids of Giza created
2600 BC: Shipping expeditions occur
2600 BC: First use of barges
2600 BC: Pyramid of Djoser created
2600 BC: Menkaure's Pyramid and the Red Pyramid created
2200 BC: Government in Egypt collapsed, meaning many different people tried to become King
1900 BC: Possible Nile to Red Sea canal created
1650 BC: The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is written, which shows knowledge of geometry, arithmetic and algebra
1600 BC: The Edwin Smith Papyrus is written, which shows knowledge of advanced medical techniques
1550 BC: The Ebers Medical Papyrus is written, the first document on the topic of tumours
1500 BC: Glassmaking
1258 BC: First known peace treaty (Ramesses II)
1160 BC: The Turin Papyrus is written, the first geologic and topographic map
Alexander III of Macedon (, ; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC) commonly known as Alexander the Great, was king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon from 336 BC until his death in 323 BC.
He was one of the greatest military leaders of all time.
He was born in 356 BC in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia.
Alexander was the son of Philip II, King of Macedonia, and Olympias, the princess of neighboring Epirus.
Alexander spent his childhood watching his father turn Macedonia into a great military power, and watching him win victory on the battlefields in the Balkans.
Alexander the Great spoke the Greek language.
He worshiped the Greek gods and also spread the Greek culture through out Asia.
When he was 13, Philip hired the Greek philosopher Aristotle to be Alexander’s personal tutor.
During the next three years, Aristotle gave Alexander a training in rhetoric and literature, and stimulated his interest in science, medicine, and philosophy, all of which became important in Alexander’s later life.
Alexander's war
In 340 BC, Philip assembled a large Greek army and invaded Thrace.
He left 16 year old Alexander with the power to rule Greece in his absence as regent.
But as the Macedonian army advanced deep into Thrace, the Thracian tribe of Maedi bordering north-eastern Macedonia rebelled and posed a danger to the country.
Alexander assembled an army, led it against the rebels, and with swift action defeated the Maedi, captured their stronghold, and renamed it Alexandroupolis.
Alexander became king of Macedonia in 336 BC when his father was assassinated.
A meeting was held to the Greek cities made him strategos (General or supreme commander).
He used this authority to launch his father's military expansion plans.
In 334 BC, he invaded Persian-ruled Asia Minor.
He began series of campaigns that lasted ten years.
Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela.
He overthrew the Persian King Darius III and conquered the entire Persian Empire.
He married the king's daughter to symbolize the unity of his new empire.
At that point, Alexander's empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River.
He attacked the subcontinent in 326 BC, and defeated King Porus, who ruled a region in the Punjab.
Afterwards they became allies.
India at that time was divided into hundreds of kingdoms.
The army refused to cross the Indus and fight the kings on the other side, so Alexander led them out of Pakistan.
Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, of unknown causes.
Poison, murder, or a fever after a battle have all been suggested.
At his death, he was planning a series of campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia.
In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart.
Several states were then ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander's surviving generals and heirs.
They fought and conquered each other.
The largest surviving piece was the Seleucid Empire.
Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion of Greek ideas and language.
He started some twenty cities that were named after him, most notably Alexandria in Egypt.
Alexander's settlement of Macedonian colonists resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization.
Signs of this can be seen in the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century AD.
There were Greek speakers in central and far eastern Anatolia until the 1920s.
Alexander died from Malaria when he was only 32 years old.
He was never defeated in battle.
List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people
Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4, Part 5, Part 6.
356 BC births
320s deaths
Ancient Greek military people
Brisbane (local nickname Brissie) is the seaport capital city and biggest city of Queensland in Australia.
It has a population of 2.2 million people and is the third biggest city in Australia, after Sydney and Melbourne.
The central city is on the Brisbane River,  inland from Moreton Bay.
A penal colony was founded at Redcliffe,  to the north, in 1824.
It was moved to North Quay in 1825.
The first free settlers moved to Brisbane in 1842.
Brisbane became the capital city when Queensland became a separate colony from New South Wales in 1859.
Brisbane has more than 50 skyscrapers more than  tall.
Brisbane has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa).
Summers are hot and wet.
Winters are warm and quite dry.
Thunderstorms happen a lot from November to March every year.
Very heavy thunderstorms caused big floods and a lot of damage in February 1893, January 1974, January 2011 and January 2013.
The warmest recorded temperature in Brisbane was  on 26 January 1940 and the coldest was  on 2 July 1896.
The City of Brisbane, run by Brisbane City Council, covers a big part of the suburbs close to the city.
The outer suburbs are part of Logan City to the south, Moreton Bay Region to the north, the City of Ipswich to the south west, Redland City to the south east, with a small part in the Scenic Rim Region to the west.
Brisbane has many universities and colleges including University of Queensland, Queensland University of Technology and Griffith University.
The Australian Catholic University, Central Queensland University, James Cook University, University of Southern Queensland and the University of the Sunshine Coast each have a campus in Brisbane.
There are three big vocational schools in Brisbane - Brisbane North Institute of TAFE, Metropolitan South Institute of TAFE and Southbank Institute of TAFE.
Most primary schools and secondary schools are run by the Queensland Government.
There are also private, Catholic and other Christian schools.
City of Brisbane
Official tourism website of Brisbane
1825 establishments
1820s establishments in Australia
The Hawaiian language () is the language of native Hawaiians.
Aloha and mahalo are probably its most recognized words.
The word lanai is also used in English. (
That is different from Lanai, the name of one of Hawaii's islands.)
There are related languages in the Marquesas, Raratonga, Samoa, some islands of what is now Fiji and New Zealand.
Their languages have changed a lot over the last two thousand years or so.
However, native speakers of all these languages can still understand each other.
The language has only 12 letters (A, E, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, U, W).
There are 13 if you count the okina.
The okina is a real letter and came from some "K" sounds in old Polynesian languages.
The okina is pronounced as a glottal stop, like the break in the middle of the word "Uh-oh".
The okina is written as a backward apostrophe (small numeral 6 above and before a vowel).
The Niihau dialect still uses some T, S, R and "hints" of B sounds.
People who live on that island are the only people who still speak Hawaiian only and their dialect is the truest to its roots.
Syllables
Every Hawaiian syllable ends with a vowel.
There are some who think that makes the language sound "musical".
Some think that final vowels helped the speakers remember chanted traditional stories and genealogies.
Most linguists, however, think it is because of internal phonological processes.
There are two forms of each of the five vowels.
One is regular, where the vowel is pronounced as a Spaniard would say it.
The other is extended, in written form, where a horizontal bar called a kahako is over the vowel.
The meanings (and pronunciations) of words spelled the same but with or without the appropriate kahakos or okinas can be very different, sometimes even embarrassing.
One might think that learning the language would be relatively easy, but that only applies to na keiki (children) who have never learned the 26 letters that English speakers use.
There is a children's rhyme that goes on for a couple of minutes (and written, probably a couple dozen lines) that consists of nothing but both versions of the letters a, i and the okina.
It talks of him (ia) eating (ai) his (iaia) fish (ia).
Since the intent was to translate the Bible ("Paipala"), natives forgave some of the confusion created.
They still learned how unintended "double entendres" could be funny in written form.
When Hawaiian language newspapers started, native-speaking writers and editors were careful to avoid these (the type that was available to "set" did not include such "specialty" characters).
Skinheads, named after their short haircuts, are members of a subculture that originated in Britain in late 1960s, where they were closely tied to the Rude Boys and the Mods.
They shave their heads, because originally most of them were workers in factories and they had to be bald, so their hair could not get caught in the machines.
Traditional skinheads identify with the original skinhead movement ("The Spirit of '69") in music, style, and/or working class pride.
Skinheads listen to ska, rocksteady, reggae, Oi!
and punk music.
People who are not part of the group often see Skinheads as being politically close to the Neo-Nazi (or White Power) movement.
Often Skinheads are seen as part of that movement.
This is wrong, given that there are many young people in the movement who have no political views at all.
Many Skinheads are also not violent, unless they are provoked.
Libcom.org: A Brief History of Skinhead Culture
Reggae, Reggae, Reggae  The Skinhead Movement and Reggae Music
Papaskin American skinhead web site with news, images, forum, etc.
Aussie Skins Australian skinhead web site with news, images, forum, etc.
the Truth  History of Oi!
according to Garry Bushell
SHARP Skinheads  UK skinhead site with news, images, forum, etc.
Skins and Punks in Indonesia!
1400 Photos
Anime (アニメ) is Japanese for 'animation'.
In Japan, anime is the word used for all animation.
Outside of Japan, the term anime refers to Japanese animation, which this article is about.
Some anime is drawn by hand, but anime can also be made with CGI computer animation.
There are many types of anime; you can find anime about sports, magic, or romance.
These are just some examples.
Anime are shown on television, on DVD and VHS, and are used in video games.
Also, some anime cartoons are just movies, but they have cartoon characters and animation instead of real people and places.
Anime is often based on Japanese comics that are called manga and graphic novels.
Sometimes live action (not animation) movies and television series are based on an anime.
The filmmakers in Japan did not have a lot of money to make their movies and not a lot of places where they could film their movies.
The people that the filmmakers could use as actors in their movies was also a problem for making Japanese movies.
Japanese people look different from people in other places in the world (e.g. If the movie's theme were about Vikings,  Ancient Rome or the Black Death pandemic in Medieval Europe, for example), and it was hard for filmmakers to make a movie about places other than Japan with Japanese actors.
Movie makers liked animation because then they could have animator draw other places and people that could not be filmed in a normal movie, and the animators could be very creative with the cartoons they made.
During the 1970s, more and more people started to like manga.
At the same time, manga were used as the starting point to make anime with the same characters and stories.
Animators would take the drawings done by a manga artist and the stories the manga artist wrote, and turn them into the stories and characters of a similar anime.
At that time Osamu Tezuka became very popular.
Now he is called a "legend" and the "god of manga".
Tezuka and other pioneers of anime made a lot of types of stories and styles that are common to anime today.
The giant robot genre (known as "mecha" outside Japan) began with manga and anime from Tezuka's ideas.
Robot anime like Gundam and Macross became classics in the 1980s.
Today, the robot genre is still very popular in Japan and worldwide.
In the 1980s, anime became very popular in Japan, and saw an increase in production. (
Manga is much more popular than anime in Japan).
There are a lot of different kinds of anime that many different kinds of people like besides Mecha, and there are types of anime based on the age of the people (e.g. seinen or shōnen) who might like it or the subject of the anime.
Very popular stories in anime and manga are often translated into other languages, and the words used in the anime or manga will be put into another language where they mean the same thing.
That way, people who live outside of Japan and who do not understand Japanese (the language used for dialogue in anime and manga in Japan) can also understand the stories.
If a manga or anime is not translated by a company in another country, sometimes people in that country will translate the story to share with other people for free before a company translates it for the general public.
This is good because it allows more people to watch animes, but some companies think it is stealing.
Forms of anime
Kodomo (Aimed at children)
Shōnen (Young teen boys.)
Shōjo (Young teen girls.)
Seinen (Young adult men.)
Josei (Young adult women.)
Harem (Boy surrounded by girls.)
Reverse Harem (Girl surrounded by boys.)
Hentai (Anime with erotic and pornographic themes, this type of anime is generally about sex and sexual arousal, and depicts scenes of explicit sexual intercourse and nudity)
Romance (Anime about people falling in love.)
Horror (Anime intended to invoke fear, anxiety or dread in its viewers, the most common elements in horror-themed animes are ghosts (yūrei), yōkai, demons, demonic possession, graphic violence, monsters, curses, etc.)
Ecchi (Sexual content, but not as much as hentai.
Doesn't show any sex.)
Mecha (Anime about robots, usually ones big enough for people to sit inside them and control them like people drive cars.
Mecha anime often have wars where the robots are used to fight between countries like tanks and planes are used today.)
Isekai (Protagonist transported to a different world.)
Yaoi or shounen-ai (Anime about boys who are in love with other boys.)
Yuri or shojo-ai (Anime about girls who are in love with other girls.)
Supernatural (Anime about witches, magic, ghosts, deities, or other things that we do not normally see in everyday life)
Slice of Life (Anime that contains moe, but usually about things people do every day, like going to school, or playing sports, or going to cultural festivals, Generic life)
Adventure, the main and the characters embark on a journey facing obstacles, some of them on a mission, some have their own purposes.
OVA, also known as Original Video Anime (Anime is about talks to 1993-2005 VHS tapes and the 1998-2021 DVDs of VeggieTales from Big Idea Studios from 20th Century Fox owned by Paramount)
In the late 1980s, lots of people in countries other than Japan started to like anime too.
In the United States, giant robot anime became popular.
In Europe, anime for children became popular.
Today, many different kinds of anime are popular all around the world.
Anime helped spread in popularity thanks to the internet.
Anime Expo
Anime Expo is a convention all about anime.
It has mostly cosplay but attendees can also meet anime creators and voice actors.
Kyotoanimation
- VeggieTales.com
Sudan is a country in Africa.
The official name of Sudan is The Republic of the Sudan.
Its capital and largest city is Khartoum.
Sudan borders by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, and Libya to the northwest.
Sudan has a sea to the northeast called the Red Sea.
Sudan used to have the largest area of all the countries in Africa.
However, on July 9, 2011, the southern part of the country left and became a new country, South Sudan.
Sudan now has an area of .
It is the third largest country in Africa by area.
The Nile flows through Sudan, providing water to crops.
There are many different tribal and ethnic groups, though the country is mainly divided between the north, which has more Arabic people, and the south, which has more people of African descent.
People from Sudan are called Sudanese.
About 45 million people live in Sudan.
About 4 million of these live in Khartoum or in towns that are joined to it.
Arabic is the official language of Sudan, but people also speak Nubian, Nilotic and English.
Many other languages are spoken in different parts of the country as well.
Most Sudanese people have Islam as their religion.
A small number are Christian.
Some people have other religions that are called tribal (local) beliefs.
For several years, the Darfur conflict has been going on in Sudan.
Over 400,000 people have died in it.
Muhammed Ahmed, the Mahdi
OpenBSD is a secure, free computer operating system.
It can run on many types of computers, including Intel PCs and Apple Computer's PowerPCs.
Like the other open source BSDs and unlike with most Linux operating systems, the whole operating system is developed by the same group of people with OpenBSD.
Programmes from other sources are available separately.
OpenBSD is often the first to add new security tools to make it harder to break, developers have also carefully read through the programming code to check for mistakes more than once.
The project is led by Theo de Raadt from Calgary, Alberta, Canada and is released under conditions which put few restrictions on people that use the source code, the BSD licence.
OpenBSD releases new versions every six months, each version is supported for one year after release.
OpenBSD 4.4 was released November 1, 2008.
Because it is so secure, OpenBSD is often used as a firewall and for other security-related jobs.
It is also usable for on a desktop computer, it can act and look like one of several other operating systems like Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows, and others.
POSSE project
KAME project
The OpenBSD homepage
OpenBSD journal
O'Reilly Network: An Interview with OpenBSD's Marc Espie
One floppy OpenBSD MP3 Player and router/NAT/Firewall
OpenBSD ports — full-text search to find applications ported to OpenBSD and available to install as packages
BXR.SU — OpenBSD source code search (can be useful to see if your new computer parts are supported)
April 23 – Isabelle of Hainaut
August 8 – Saint Dominic, founder of the Dominicans (d. 1221)
December 29 – Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury (assassinated) (b. c. 1118)
February 7 – Eubie Blake, American musician and composer
April 5 - Walter Huston, Canadian actor (d. 1950)
April 7 – Gino Severini Italian painter (d. 1966)
April 15 – Stanley Bruce, 8th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1967)
July 29 – Benito Mussolini, Italian dictator
March 14 – Karl Marx, German philosopher
August 23 – Sarah Yorke Jackson, American First Lady
Pinocchio by Carlo Collodi
June 25 – Maria Theresa of Austria is crowned Queen Regnant of Hungary in Bratislava.
Royal Order of Scotland is founded.
January 7 – Benedict Arnold
A civil war is a war that takes place between two or more groups in one country.
While civil wars can take place for many of reasons, there are two common reasons.
The first is because the different groups disagree about who should be in charge, or how the country should be run.
If two political parties disagree about the result of an election, this might lead to a war if the two sides cannot or would not come to an agreement.
The second is because one group of people does not want to be part of the country anymore.
This is known as a war of secession.
Lots of people living in a certain area might decide that they want independence to make their own country.
Very few national leaders would be happy to give up land that is part of that country, and a war could result.
Sometimes the people who want to break away do not necessarily want to form a whole new country, but they might want more autonomy over their affairs.
This happens sometimes when different ethnic groups belong to the same nation.
Civil wars can go on for many years and be just as destructive and damaging as international wars.
Civil wars tend to become complicated very quickly.
A civil war might start between two sides, but groups might break up and the new, different sides could start fighting each other.
Groups who were not involved at the beginning can easily be sucked in, as they fight to defend themselves against both sides.
Civil wars with many different sides all fighting each other have occurred.
Sometimes foreign countries help one side, or different countries help different sides.
This can become a proxy war.
English Civil War (1642–1651)
American Civil War (1861–1865)
Chinese Civil War (1927–1949)
Vietnam War (1955–1975)
Mexican Revolution (1911–1920)
Russian Civil War (1917–1921)
Finnish Civil War (1918)
Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)
Pakistan Civil War (1971)
Sri Lankan Civil War (1983–2009)
Syrian Civil War (2011–present)
Ruaidri Ua Conchobair, last High King of Ireland, submits to Henry II as vassal of Ireland with the Treaty of Windsor
Ly Cao Ton becomes ruler of Vietnam
William of Tyre becomes archbishop of Tyre
Massacre of Abergavenny ends with several noblemen dead under William de Braose
Vordingborg Castle is finished.
Andrew II of Hungary, King of Hungary (died 1235)
Frederick I of Austria (died 1198)
Robert Grosseteste, English statesman, theologian and bishop (approximate date; died 1253)
Fibonacci, Italian mathematician (approximate date; died 1250)
Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor (died 1218)
Roger III of Sicily (died 1194)
Michael Scot, Scottish mathematician and astrologer (died 1232)
Mleh of Armenia, ruler of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
Judyta, wife of Ladislaus II of Hungary and Otto I von Brandenburg (born 1132)
A crocodile is a large amphibious reptile.
It lives mostly in large tropical rivers, where it is an ambush predator.
One species, the Australian saltie, also travels in coastal salt water.
In very dry climates, crocodiles may aestivate and sleep out the dry season.
The modern type of crocodile appeared first in the Eocene period.
Its ancestors go much further back to the Upper Triassic.
The name "Crocodile" is also used for any member of the order Crocodilia.
They are basically Archosaurs, a group which also includes the dinosaurs.
There are many species of Crocodiles including the American, slender-snouted and Orinoco crocodile.
The crocodile can quickly snap its jaw shut with much power.