the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
German popes
People from Bavaria
Guan Gong, also known as Guan Yu or Guan Yun Chang (160 – 219) was a general who lived close to two thousand years ago in China.
He helped his sworn brother Liu Bei to fight against the dynasty of Wei that seized the throne from the last Han-Emperor.
He was also the sworn brother of Zhang Fei, another warrior of Liu Bei's.
The Three Brothers conquered the Southwest of China and founded a Dynasty named Shu Han (because Liu Bei claimed to be the rightful heir of the Han Dynasty).
They also battled with Eastern Wu, another Chinese dynasty at this time, and during one of the battles, Guan Yu was captured by the Wu general Lü Meng and executed (along with his son Guan Ping).
160 births
219 deaths
Three Kingdoms generals
Chinese gods and goddesses
Subsistence farming is the kind of farming done by farmers who have small plots, enough only for themselves.
Literally, subsistence agriculture means no extra food is produced to sell or trade.
This means farming doesn't give them money to buy things.
However, today most subsistence farmers also do trade to some degree.
From time to time they may need money to buy essential things to keep going.
A family has only one cow to give milk only for that family.
A farmer grows only enough wheat to make bread for his or her family.
The River Clyde (, ) is a river in Scotland.
It  flows through Glasgow before opening up into the Firth of Clyde.
River Clyde: Source to Firth Panorama Project
The Clyde-built ships data base - lists over 22,000 ships built on the Clyde
Clyde Waterfront regeneration
Clyde Waterfront Heritage
Glasgow Digital Library: Glimpses of old Glasgow
In Glasgow Photo Gallery of pictures of the River Clyde
Clydebank Restoration Trust
Rivers of Scotland
Electric charge is a basic property of electrons, protons and other subatomic particles.
Electrons are negatively charged while protons are positively charged.
Things that are negatively charged and things that are positively charged pull on (attract) each other.
This makes electrons and protons stick together to form atoms.
Things that have the same charge push each other away (they repel each other).
This is called the Law of Charges.
It was discovered by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb.
The law that describes how strongly charges pull and push on each other is called Coulomb's Law.
Things that have equal numbers of electrons and protons are neutral.
Things that have more electrons than protons are negatively charged, while things with fewer electrons than protons are positively charged.
Things with the same charge repel each other.
Things that have different charges attract each other.
If possible, the one with too many electrons will give enough electrons to match the number of protons in the one that has too many protons for its load of electrons.
If there are just enough electrons to match the extra protons, then the two things will not attract each other anymore.
When electrons move from a place where there are too many to a place where there are too few, that is called an electrical current.
When a person shuffles their feet on a carpet and then touches a brass doorknob, they may get an electrical shock.
If there are enough extra electrons then the force with which those electrons push each other away may be enough to make some of the electrons jump across a gap between the person and the doorknob.
The length of the spark is a measure of voltage or "electrical pressure."
The number of electrons that move from one place to another per unit of time measured as amperage or "rate of electron flow."
Electric charge felt when one gets a shock from a doorknob or other object usually is between 25 thousand and 30 thousand volts.
However, the electric current only flows briefly, so the flow of electrons through the person's body does not cause physical harm.
On the other hand, when clouds gain electrical charges they have even higher voltages and the amperage (the number of electrons that will flow in the lightning strike) can be very high.
That means that electrons can jump from a cloud to the earth (or from the earth to a cloud).
If those electrons go through a person, then the electric shock can burn or kill.
Historical experiment
The following experiment is described by James Clerk Maxwell in his work A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (1873).
Normally, glass and resin are both neutrally charged.
However, if they are rubbed together and then separated, they will become able to attract each other.
The two pieces of glass repel each other.
Each piece of glass attracts each piece of resin.
The two pieces of resin repel each other.
Bodies that are able to attract or repel things in this way are said to be 'electrified', or to be 'charged with electricity'.
When two different substances are rubbed together, an electrical charge is produced because one of them will give electrons to the other.
The reason is that the atoms in the two substances have unequal power to attract electrons.
So the one that is more able to attract electrons will take electrons from the one that has a lower attractive force.
If glass is rubbed against something else, it may either give or take electrons.
What happens depends on what the other thing is.
Things that have taken electrons are called "negatively charged", and things that have given up electrons are called "positively charged".
There is no special reason for these names.
It is just an arbitrary (random choice) convention (agreement).
Argyroxiphium is a small genus of plants in the sunflower family, Asteraceae.
Its members are known by the common names of silversword or greensword due to their long, narrow leaves and the silvery hairs on some species.
The silversword is a noticeable, round-shaped rosette plant with rigid (swordlike), succulent leaves densely covered by silver hairs.
When a plant flowers at the end of its life, it produces a spectacular flowering stalk 0.5-2.0 m (1.6-6.4 ft) tall, typically with hundreds of maroon sunflowerlike flower heads.
This plant receives more attention from visitors to Haleakala National Park than any other plant or animal because of its striking appearance and restricted distribution.
The strikingly beautiful Haleakala silversword has always aroused the curiosity of human visitors to Haleakala Volcano.
In pre-park days, plants were often removed by travelers to Haleakala Volcano as proof that the party had reached the summit, a practice that eventually seriously affected the silversword population.
Browsing by feral goats and domestic cattle was also a significant factor in the silversword decline, but it was not a species preferred by these animals.
By the 1920s, silversword numbers were so depleted that the Maui Chamber of Commerce sent a petition to Washington, DC, requesting that a serious effort be made to save the species (Loope and Crivellone 1986).
Mr. Pacman is an American pop music band from Colorado.
They use sounds from old video games to create their music.
Mr. Pacman has recorded 2 CDs & made 4 music videos.
http://myspace.com/mrpacman/ - official website
Musical groups from Colorado
Musical groups established in 2001
2001 establishments in the United States
2000s establishments in Colorado
A music video or music clip is a short movie that represents a song on a television screen.
Most music videos feature the artist who recorded the song singing or lip-syncing it on screen.
TV network channels that are famous for playing music videos are MTV, VH1, BET, and CMT.
In most countries in East Asia, music videos are called PVs.
PV stands for "Promotional Video."
Hip hop is a type of culture/art style that started in the 1970s in the Bronx.
It began in Jamaican American, African American, and Puerto Rican/Hispanic and Latino American urban areas in some of the larger cities of the United States.
Hip hop uses drum beats produced by a drum machine, and rapping, where the rapper or group chants or says words with a rhythm that rhymes.
The lyrics of hip hop songs are often about the life of urban people in the big cities.
Hip hop music also uses musical styles from pop music such as disco and reggae.
Rap and hip hop music have become successful music genres.
Hip hop as a culture involves the music as well as a style of dressing called "urban" clothes (baggy pants, Timberland leather work boots, and oversize shirts); a dancing style called breakdancing or "B-boying"; and graffiti, a street art in which people paint pictures or words on walls.
In the 2000s, hip hop music and hip hop culture are very popular in the United States and Canada.
Hip hop musicians usually use nicknames.
Many of the popular hip hop musicians from the 2000s use nicknames, such as Snoop Dogg, Jay-Z, Eminem, Lil' Wayne, and 50 Cent.
Hip hop is sometimes fused with other genres such as country music and rock music.
Rapping is a form of singing.
It is a mix between singing and talking.
The words are spoken with rhythm and in the text there are rhymes.
The urban youth made rhyming games based on rap.
The beat in the background is a simple loop that is sometimes made by the rapper themself or sometimes copied from a sample CD.
The simple loop carries out through the entire song usually, except for the chorus.
It developed in the ethnic minority urban (city) areas, as an American form of Jamaican "toasting" (chanting and rhyming with a microphone).
Run DMC and The Sugarhill Gang were early popular hip hop groups in the 1980s.
When rappers began to use violent language and gestures, the music was then liked by gangsters.
This kind of music was called "gangsta rap".
Gangsta rap often has lyrics which are about guns, drug dealing and life as a thug on the street.
This genre also began in the 1980s and is still produced.
Some well known early rappers include: Tupac Shakur, Snoop Dogg, The Notorious B.I.G., Eminem, and Sean "P-Diddy" Combs.
During the 1990s there was a rivalry between the two big record labels "Death Row Records" and "Bad Boy Records".
The rappers Tupac Shakur and Notorious B.I.G. were murdered.
Later, the two record labels stopped the rivalry.
Because most of the rappers who rapped for "Death Row Records" were from the West Coast of the US and most of the rappers who rapped for "Bad Boy Records" were from the East Coast, this rivalry was called "the West Coast – East Coast beef".
The fastest rapper according to Guinness World Records is Twista.
In 1992, he rapped 11 syllables in one second.
In 2013, the song Rap God by Eminem took the record for most words in a song; 1,560 in a little over 6 minutes, which is about 4 words per second.
Contemporary R&B
People with color blindness cannot tell the difference between certain colors.
They may not see colors at all.
Most color blindness is heritable, usually as simple Mendelian inheritance.
Sometimes, it is the result of damage to the eyes, nerves, or the brain.
It can be caused by coming into contact with certain chemicals.
Most color blindness is permanent.
Some conditions can lead to temporary color blindness.
During certain kinds of migraine, some people are unable to tell the difference between certain colors.
There is no treatment cure for permanent color blindness.
Many more males are color blind than females.
Between five and eight percent of males, but less than one percent of females, are color blind.
Color blindness is usually thought of as a disability.
However, people who are color blind have one advantage: they are sometimes better at seeing through some types of camouflage.
In 1798, English chemist John Dalton published the first scientific article about color blindness.
That was after he found out that he was color blind.
The article was called "Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colours".
Because of this, the condition is sometimes called daltonism.
As of 2009, the word daltonism is used only for the type of color blindness called deuteranopia.
Seeing color
Light hits specialized nerve cells in the eye.
Those cells are called receptors.
Some of them are stimulated and create an electrical signal.
The signals move along nerves to special parts of the brain.
Those parts of the brain interpret the signals.
The signals are changed into an image.
This image is then carefully looked at to separate different objects, to see shapes and sometimes colors, and to link these to other kinds of information.
How the human eye sees colors
Inside the human eye is a part called the retina.
The retina receives the images that the eye sees.
It sends the images to the brain.
The retina has two types of cells: Rod cells and Cone cells.
They work in different types of light.
Rod cells receive the images that the eye sees when the light is dim, at night, or in a dark room.
Cone cells receive the images that the eye sees in normal daylight or in bright light.
There are three types of cone cells.
Each type has a different chemical photopsin and reacts to a different spectrum of light.
One is specially sensitive to short wavelengths.
Another is sensitive to medium wavelengths.
The third is sensitive to long wavelengths.
These wavelengths cover much of the visible light.
Each color is "seen" as a result of how much each of the receptors is stimulated.
How the brain works out the colors
Parts of the thalamus and the visual cortex in the brain are involved in seeing, also seeing colors.
Color blindness can therefore also result if these areas of the brain, the optic nerve or the retina have been damaged.
These types of color blindness usually happen because of an accident.
They are not inherited.
Inherited forms of color blindness affect the retina only.
Causes of color blindness
If a person's eye has no cone cells, then they cannot see any color at all.
They can only see shades of dark and light.
There are three types of cone cells in the human eye.
If there are two types, a person will have a hard time to tell certain colors apart.
If there is only one type, a person will not see color at all.
Sometimes cone cells change.
This means that they no longer react to those wavelengths they should.
A person will need more of a certain color to see this color.
They see colors differently, and may not be able to tell certain colors apart.
Most of these people do not know they are color blind, as they have little difficulty telling colors apart in most cases.
There may be nothing wrong with the eye, but the nerves that transport the information or the area in the brain that interprets it may be damaged.
This means that the signal is interpreted the wrong way.
The damage may be permanent, or it may be temporary.
Certain conditions of the brain, like a migraine can change the way people see colors.
Different types of color blindness
Total color blindness
This condition is very rare.
People who suffer from it can only see in black, gray and white: They can perceive only differences in brightness and do not see color.
This is called monochromacy.
Rod monochromacy (achromatopsia): The retina has no cone cells.
This makes it difficult to see even lights of a normal level; this means that people who suffer from it are almost blind.
It occurs almost only on the island of Pingelap, a part of the Pohnpei state in the Federated States of Micronesia.
There it is called maskun: about one person in 12 of the population has it.
The island was hit by a storm in the 18th century.
Very few men survived the storm.
One of them carried a gene for rod monochromacy.
Today, several hundred people live on the island, about 30% have this gene.
Cone monochromacy: The retina has both rods and cones, but only one type kind of cone.
People who suffer from this will be able to see patterns well, in normal daylight, but they will not see hues.
Red/green color blindness
There are two kinds of red-green color blindness: protanopia or deuteranopia.
Deuteranopia is the most common form of color blindness; between five and ten percent of males suffer from it.
It is called Daltonism because John Dalton discovered it.
Those affected have trouble telling the difference between red and green.
As seen by protanopes (people suffering from protanopia), red is darkened.
Most often, this is because they lack the receptors for long (protanopia) or medium (deuteranopia)-length light waves or because these receptors have changed their sensitivity.
Blue/yellow color blindness
Although the name is blue-yellow color blindness (tritanopia), people affected by this type of color blindness can usually tell the difference between blue and yellow.
Instead they cannot tell the difference between blue and green, and also yellow and violet.
It is different from the other types of color blindness because it is not linked to sex.
It is equally possible for anyone to develop blue-yellow color blindness.
It is caused by having few or no cones in the retina which can sense short wavelength light.
Other causes of color blindness
Sometimes, people do not have problems seeing color, but their brain has trouble "telling" the color, and interprets it wrong.
It is also possible that only certain parts of the eye have color blindness; people may become color blind because of other diseases, but after the disease goes away, see normally again.
This seems to be the case with certain forms of migraine.
How color blindness is inherited
Males have one X and one Y chromosome; females have two X chromosomes.
Many of the genes involved in making color vision work are on the X chromosome: they are sex linked.
For this reason, men are more often affected by color blindness than women.
The "color blind" gene allows non-color blind people see the difference between red and green.
The gene is located on the X chromosome.
This means that a male will be color blind if the single X he inherits from his mother contains the color blind version of the "color blind" gene.
A female will inherit color blindness only if she inherits two X chromosomes containing defective (mutant) color gene alleles.
In other words, a female needs to inherit "color blind" genes from both parents in order to be color blind.
Testing someone for color blindness
The Ishihara plate test has been in use since 1917.
Each plate has an image with dots of different size and color.
People will then see different images (most often Arabic numbers).
Those with certain types of color blindness will see different numbers from those not affected by color blindness.
Because many young children have not learned numbers yet, other tests have been developed.
They use symbols, like a square, a circle or a car instead of numbers.
A color code is when there is much information in the color of certain item.
Such codes cannot be understood easily by those who are color blind.
For this reason, color should not be used alone to give information.
Good graphic design avoids using color coding or color differences alone to give information.
This does not only help color blind people, but also normally sighted people.
Cascading Style Sheets can be used on web pages.
They allow to give a different color scheme for color blind people.
Certain color scheme generators help graphic designers see color schemes as eight types of color blind people see them.
Color blindness is very sensitive to changes in material.
A red-green color blind person may be unable to see the difference between colors on a map printed on paper.
The same map on a computer screen or television may appear normally.
In addition, some color blind people find it easier to tell the difference between colors on artificial materials, such as plastic or in acrylic paints, than on natural materials, such as paper or wood.
Thirdly, for some color blind people, color can only be distinguished if there is enough color: thin lines might appear black, but a thicker line of the same color can be seen in the correct color.
In certain cases when it is important to understand information very quickly, the visual system may drop the colors, and only work in shades of gray.
This is important to know when designing the interfaces for objects that need to be used in an emergency situation, like emergency brakes, or emergency telephones.
Because color blind people may not see the difference between colors such as red and green, some countries, such as Romania have refused to give them driving licenses.
In Romania, people have started to change the laws so that color blind people will also be able to drive legally.
In the United Kingdom, electricity wires in houses used to be red, black and green.
They were changed to brown, blue and green/yellow to help color blind people see the difference between the "live" and "earth" wires.
What color blindness is not
Many people do not understand color blindness.
People who are color blind never swap the colors they are blind to.
They may have trouble telling two colors from one another.
That way they may have a problem finding the right kind of apple in the supermarket.
The image below first shows the way that two apples look to a person with normal vision, and then the way it looks to a person with red-green color blindness.
The left apple is a Braeburn; it is red in color.
The apple on the right is a Granny Smith; it is green.
To someone with red-green blindness, the apples look like they are almost the same color.
Diseases and disorders of the eye
Genetic disorders
Sopron (Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈʃopron]; , ; Central Bavarian: Ednburg, ) is a city of Hungary, near the western border of Hungary with Austria, at the foot of the Alps, 60 km from Vienna (in Austria) and 220 km from Budapest.
The people of this city are famous for their loyalty to their country, and their hometown.
A famous monument is 'Gate of Faith' which is the symbol of the people's faith to Hungary in 1921.
Ancient Scarbantia
At the time of the Roman Empire, there was a city here called Scarbantia.
The main square of Sopron is in the same place as the forum (or main square) of Roman times.
After this, the city was probably deserted.
When the Hungarians arrived in the area, it was in ruins.
In the 9th–11th centuries Hungarians strengthened the old Roman city walls and built a castle.
The town got its Hungarian name of Sopron from a steward of the castle named Suprun.
By 1153 it was an important town.
In 1273 King Otakar II of Bohemia took over the castle and took the children of Sopron's noble families as hostage.
But the people of the city opened the gates when the army of King Ladislaus IV of Hungary arrived.
The King Ladislaus made Sopron a free royal town.
1500s-1800s
In 1528 Hungary was invaded by Ottoman Turks who destroyed many parts of the city but did not take it over.
Many people from other towns fled to Sopron for safety.
In 1676 most of the ancient buildings in the city were destroyed by a fire.
When they were replaced, they were in a new style, called Baroque.
Many of the Baroque buildings are standing today.
Sopron was an important town in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
After the World War I it became part of Austria.
But the townspeople were not happy with this and in December 1921 they voted that the city should be part of Hungary.
Since that day the city has been called "Civitas Fidelissima", ("The Most Loyal Town" which in Hungarian is "A Leghűségesebb Város").
A holiday is held every year to celebrate.
In World War II Sopron suffered badly.
It was bombed several times.
There were many Jewish people living in Sopron before the war.
The Nazis and their Hungarian allies sent the Jews of Sopron to death camps and killed nearly all of them, as well as other people who disagreed with Nazi ideas.
The Soviet Red Army captured the city on April 1, 1945.
Sopron, as part of Hungary, was ruled by a Socialist government.
At this time many factories were built around Sopron.
The Socialist government took away a lot of the freedom that people had.
In August 1989, in Sopron there was a big protest against the Socialist government, which was called the Pan-European Picnic.
While this was happening more than 200 people who lived in East Germany (which was Socialist) escaped to the West.
This was the beginning of a big change for all the Socialist countries of Europe.
People who had not been allowed to travel or live in other countries were finally allowed to be free.
Hungary is now part of the European Union.
Sopron now has trade with other countries, most importantly Austria.
There are many German-speaking people who live in Sopron so most street signs are written in both Hungarian and German.
The city of Sopron shows signs of its long history in its buildings.
There are still walls and foundations from the Ancient Roman times and also building from the Middle Ages.
The medieval Kecske Church ("Goat Church") was where coronations (crowning kings) and parliament took place.
There is also a very old Jewish synagogue.
Many old buildings whose architecture are from the 1600s and 1700s and are in the Baroque style which often has a lot of decoration.
Stornó House is one of the most well-known buildings, because of its elegant Baroque architecture, its connection with King Matthias and its interesting collection.
There is also a famous statue of the Holy Trinity from this time.
the "Várkerület" is part of the city built where the ancient moat was; The inner row of houses follow the line of the castle wall.
Várkerület has a famous Maria Statue.
The Town Hall built in 1896 and the Ursuline Church is an important building in the Gothic Revival style.
Sopron is popular as a holiday place because it is set in beautiful countryside where people like to walk in the hills, enjoying the pure air, the forests and mountain springs.
There are many hiking paths and look-out towers.
Near to Sopron is Lake Fertő.
The Löverek, is a beautiful hilly area south of the city, with forests of spruce, oaks and chestnut trees.
The flowers that bloom there include Lily of the Valley and cyclamens.
Sopron is a wine producing region, that is one of the few in Hungary to make both red and white wines.
The grapes grown here include Kékfrankos for red wine and Traminer (Gewürztraminer) for white wine.
In climate it is similar to the Burgenland wine region nearby in Austria, and several winemakers make wine in both countries.
Sopron Chat
Sopron Chat közösségi Portál – SopronChat - www.sopronchat.eu
Cities in Hungary
Wine regions
is a Japanese full-contact sport.
In sumo, a wrestler (rikishi) attempts to force another wrestler out of a circular ring (dohyō) 4.55 metres in diameter.
Also, the rikishi try to use their skill to force an opponent to touch the ground with anything other than the soles of his feet.
Sumo tournaments (basho) take place in Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya and Fukuoka.
There are a total of 6 major professional tournaments (known as honbasho) per year, in January, March, May, July, September and November.
A tournament normally lasts for 15 days and features matches from different divisions.
The top 5 ranks are known as the "Top division", also called the Makuuchi (幕内) or Makunouchi (幕の内).
It is fixed in size and always contains 42 rikishi.
Sumo wrestlers (rikishi) are ranked into a hierarchy based on win-loss statistics in competitive tournaments.
Grand champions
Those who have earned the highest rank are grand champions (yokuzuna).
Akashi, 16th century
Maruyama, (1712-1749)
Tanikaze (Kajinosuke, 1750-1795)
Onagawa (1758-1805)
Ao no Matsu (1791-1851)
Chiyonofuji Mitsugu (b. 1955)
Takanosato (b. 1952)
Futahaguro Koji (b. 1963)
Hokuto-umi, (b. 1963)
Onokuni (b. 1962)
Asahifuji (b. 1960)
Akebono (b. 1970)
For a full list of those rikishi who have held the title of Yokozuna, see List of yokozuna.
Foreign-born competitors
Sumo has changed in modern times.
Foreign-born wrestlers are part of the sport.
For example, Konishiki and Akebono are Hawaiian-born athletes who earned places for themselves.
In 2008, Kotooshu from Bulgaria won a championship.
In that same year, two top wrestlers, Asashoryu and Hakuho, were Mongolian.
Hakuho won the Nagoya tournament with no losses, 15-0.
Germany is divided into 402 administrative districts.
These consist of 295 rural districts (Landkreise), listed fully here, and 107 urban districts (Kreisfreie Städte / Stadtkreise) - cities which constitute a district in their own right.
Bremen is the smallest state in Germany.
It is a city-state with an area of .
Bremen has a population of 664,000 people.
The official name is "Freie Hansestadt Bremen".
This is because Bremen used to be in the Hanseatic League which was a group of cities which did a lot of trading.
Many goods were sent from the port of Bremen or bought from the port from other countries.
"Free" means it was independent of the local dukes and princes.
There are two cities that make up Bremen.
These cities are Bremen and Bremerhaven.
The local football club is named Werder Bremen.
Saxony-Anhalt (, (; Low German: ) is a Bundesland (state) in Germany.
2,580,626 people live there.
The capital is Magdeburg.
Halle (Saale)
Wittenberg
Magdeburg (capital)
Merseburg
Naumburg (Saale)
Weißenfels
Erfurt is the capital city of the German state of Thuringia.
In December 2015 it had a population of 210,000 people.
The River Gera runs through the city.
People have lived in the area for about 100,000 years.
The city was first mentioned in writing in 742, in a letter to the Pope from St Boniface.
St Boniface established Christianity in the area.
He set up a church in Erfurt in 742.
Erfurt Cathedral was later built on the same site.
The city is in the centre of Germany.
It was on the Via Regia, a medieval trade road network that stretched across Europe.
It became an important trading centre in the Middle Ages.
Erfurt was a member of the Hanseatic League, an alliance of trade associations and market towns.
It was also famous for producing woad.
Blue indigo dye is made from the woad plant.
Erfurt is on the Way of St. James pilgrams' path (Spanish: Camino de Santigo; German: Jakobsweg).
In the Middle Ages a number of monasteries were set up in the city.
Martin Luther, the father of the Reformation, lived at St. Augustine's Monastery from 1505 until 1511.
A famous philosopher and theologian called Meister Eckhart lived at the Dominican Monastery from about 1275 until 1311.
The city was part of the Holy Roman Empire.
It became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1802.
From 1949 until 1990 Erfurt was in the communist German Democratic Republic (East Germany).
Seventeen people were killed in a mass shooting in 2002.
Modern day Erfurt is a transport hub for high speed trains and other German and European transport networks.
This makes logistics one of its main industries.
Other important industries are agriculture, horticulture and microelectronics.
The German Federal Labour Court (German:Bundesarbeitsgericht) is in Erfurt.
The University of Erfurt was first set up in 1379.
It closed in 1816, but was reopened in 1994.
Martin Luther studied there from 1501 to 1505.
It is also thought that Johannes Gutenberg, who developed the printing press, enrolled there in 1418.
Erfurt also has a Fachhochschule, a University of Applied Sciences.
Many visitors come to see the historic medieval town centre.
One of the main tourist attractions is the Krämerbrücke (the Merchants' Bridge).
The bridge was built in its current form in 1472.
It has buildings with shops and houses on it.
People still live on it.
The city is well known for its festivals throughout the year.
Two million people visit the Christmas markets each year.
St. Augustine's Monastery, where Martin Luther lived from 1505 to 1511.
It has been nominated as a World Heritage Site.
The Old Synagogue, which dates back to the 11th and 12th centuries.
It is one of the oldest synagogues in Europe and it has been nominated as a World Heritage Site.
Erfurt Cathedral and the Severikirche (St. Severus Church), which overlook Domplatz, the Cathedral square.
Petersberg Citadel, a 16th-century fortress on a hill overlooking the town centre.
It is one of the largest and best preserved town fortresses in Europe.
Erfurt City official website
Urban Districts of Thuringia
Magdeburg (;  ) is the capital of the state of Saxony-Anhalt, in Germany.
The city covers an area of .
About 236,000 people live there (2016).
A demonstration of air pressure (called the Magdeburg spheres) was done here by Otto von Guericke in 1656.
Also, the 18th century composer Georg Philipp Telemann was born here.
Magdeburg water cross
Urban districts of Saxony-Anhalt
The Romance languages (also sometimes called Romanic languages) are a language family in the Indo-European languages.
They started from Vulgar Latin (in Latin, "vulgar" is the word for "common" and so "Vulgar Latin" means "Common Latin").
The most spoken Romance languages are Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian and Romanian.
They are called "Romance languages" because they originate from Latin, the language spoken by the Western Roman Empire.
Their grammatical inflection system has been simplified and lost most of the complex case structure of classical Latin.
The area that the Romance languages are spoken in Europe is mostly extent of the Western Roman Empire.
The Greek language superseded Latin in the Eastern Roman Empire.
Latin survived in Romania, whose language, Romanian, is a Romance language.
In Moldova it is sometimes called Moldovan.
Spanish is spoken mainly in Spain and Latin America.
Portuguese is mostly used/spoken in Brazil, Portugal and parts of  Africa.
French is spoken in France, Belgium, Switzerland, Canada, and in some areas of Africa.
Romanian is spoken in Romania and Moldova.
List of Romance languages
Istro-romanian
Megleno-romanian
Italo-Western Romance
Italo-Dalmatian
Gallo-Iberian languages
Gallo
Family tree of Romance languages
Romance languages - Citizendium
Stellar evolution is the study of how a star changes over time.
Stars can change very much between when they are first created and when they run out of energy.
Because stars can produce light and heat for millions or billions of years, scientists study stellar evolution by studying many different stars in different stages of their life.
How a star is born
A star starts its life as a cloud of dust and gas called a nebula.
This is pulled together by gravity which causes it to heat up.
It also starts to spin and to look like a ball.
When it gets hot enough, it starts to release energy through nuclear fusion, changing hydrogen to helium.
This makes it shine very brightly and become what astronomers think of as a main-sequence star.
It may stay a main-sequence star, looking about the same, for billions of years.
How a star enters old age
Sooner or later, almost all of the hydrogen at the center has changed to helium.
This causes the nuclear reaction in the middle of the star to stop and the center will start to get smaller due to the star's gravity.
The layer of the star just outside the center will begin to change hydrogen to helium, releasing energy.
The outer layers of the star will get much, much bigger.
The star will make much more light, sometimes as much as ten thousand times as much as it did at first.
Since the surface of the star will get bigger, this energy will be spread out over a much larger area.
Because of this, the temperature of the surface will go down and the color will change to red or orange.
It will become a red giant.
It can swallow up any planets that orbit around it.
How a star dies
Later, the red giant that was left over from a star like ours stops burning.
A cloud of gas is given off and a smaller star called a white dwarf is left behind.
After a really long time, the white dwarf cools down into a black dwarf.
But, when a big red giant explodes, the explosion is a lot larger and is called a supernova.
Instead of a white dwarf, it leaves behind a much smaller, much denser ball called a neutron star.
A neutron star is created because the force of gravity is so strong that the atoms left behind would not have any electrons orbiting the nucleus of the atoms.
A teaspoon of that matter might weigh as much as the entire Earth.
A much bigger red giant leaves behind a black hole.
A black hole is created because gravity is so strong that even the protons and neutrons collapse in on themselves.
Even light can no longer escape a black hole.
Since there is nothing we know of stronger than the force that holds atomic nuclei (the plural of 'nucleus') together, some physicists think that a black hole collapses all the way down to a mathematical point called a singularity.
Genetics is a discipline of biology.
It is the science of heredity.
This includes the study of genes, and the inheritance of variation and traits of living organisms.
In the laboratory, genetics proceeds by mating carefully selected organisms, and analysing their offspring.
More informally, genetics is the study of how parents pass some of their characteristics to their children.
It is an important part of biology, and gives the basic rules on which evolution acts.
The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been known since prehistoric times, and used to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding.
However, the modern science of genetics seeks to understand the process of inheritance.
This began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-nineteenth century.
Although he did not know the physical basis for heredity, Mendel observed that organisms inherit traits via discrete units of inheritance, now called genes.
Modern genetics has expanded beyond inheritance.
It studies the way genes work.
Living things are made of millions of tiny self-contained components called cells.
Inside each cell are long and complex molecules called deoxyribonucleic acid, known for short as DNA.
Some DNA stores information for making proteins.
The bits of DNA which do this are known as genes.
People look different from each other mainly because they have different versions of the human set of genes.
However, a large part of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding DNA.
These sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences.
What it does is code for important non-protein information.
Examples are various important RNA molecules, and "scaffolding" bits and pieces like centromeres and telomeres.
Every cell in the same living thing has the same DNA, but only some of it is used in each cell.
For instance, some genes that tell how to make parts of the liver are switched off in the brain.
What genes are used can also change over time.
For instance, a lot of genes are used by a child early in pregnancy that are not used later.
A person has two copies of each gene, one from their mother, and one from their father.
There can be several types of a single gene, which give different instructions: one version might cause a person to have blue eyes, another might cause them to have brown.
These different versions are known as alleles of the gene.
Since a living thing has two copies of each gene, it can have two different alleles of it at the same time.
Often, one allele will be dominant, meaning that the living thing looks and acts as if it had only that one allele.
The unexpressed allele is called recessive.
In other cases, you end up with something in between the two possibilities.
In that case, the two alleles are called co-dominant.
Most of the characteristics that you can see in a living thing have more than one gene which influences them.
And many genes have multiple effects on the body, because their function will not have the same effect in each tissue.
The multiple effects of a single gene is called pleiotropism.
The whole set of genes is called the genotype, and the total effect of genes on the body is called the phenotype.
These are key terms in genetics.
History of genetics
Pre-Mendelian ideas
We know that man started breeding domestic animals from early times, probably before the invention of agriculture.
We do not know when heredity was first appreciated as a scientific problem.
The Greeks, and most obviously Aristotle, studied living things, and proposed ideas about reproduction and heredity.
Imre Festetics, who published work in German in the first part of the 19th century, was totally forgotten until recently.
He described several rules of genetic inheritance in his work  Die genetische Gesätze der Natur, 1819 (The genetic law of nature).
His second law is the same as Mendel.
In his third law, he developed the basic principles of mutation.
None of the histories of genetics published in the 20th century mentions him.
Probably the most publicized idea before Mendel was that of Charles Darwin, whose idea of pangenesis had two parts.
The first, that persistent hereditary units were passed on from one generation to another, was quite right.
The second was his idea that they were replenished by 'gemmules' from the somatic (body) tissues.
This was entirely wrong, and plays no part in science today.
Darwin was right about one thing: whatever happens in evolution must happen by means of heredity, and so an accurate science of genetics is fundamental to the theory of evolution.
This 'mating' between genetics and evolution took many years to organise.
It resulted in the modern evolutionary synthesis.
Mendelian genetics
The basic rules of genetics were discovered by Imre Festetics, a landowner (17641847), and a monk named Gregor Mendel around 1865.
For thousands of years people had noticed how some traits in parents are passed to their children.
However, Mendel's work was different because he designed his experiments very carefully.
In his experiments, Mendel studied how traits were passed on in pea plants.
He started his crosses with plants that bred true, and counted characters that were either/or in nature (either tall or short).
He bred large numbers of plants, and expressed his results numerically.
He used test crosses to reveal the presence and proportion of recessive characters.
Factors, later called genes, normally occur in pairs in ordinary body cells, yet separate during the formation of sex cells.
These factors determine the organism's traits, and are inherited from its parents.
When gametes are produced by meiosis, the two factors separate.
A gamete only receives one or the other.
This Mendel called the Law of segregation.
Alleles of different genes separate independently of one another when gametes are formed.
This he called the Law of Independent Assortment.
So Mendel thought that different traits are inherited independently of one another.
We now know this is only true if the genes are not on the same chromosome, in which case they are not linked to each other.
Mendel's laws helped explain the results he observed in his pea plants.
Later, geneticists discovered that his laws were also true for other living things, even humans.
Mendel's findings from his work on the garden pea plants helped to establish the field of genetics.
His contributions were not limited to the basic rules that he discovered.
Mendel's care towards controlling experiment conditions along with his attention to his numerical results set a standard for future experiments.
Over the years, scientists have changed and improved Mendel's ideas.
However, the science of genetics would not be possible today without the early work of Gregor Mendel.
Between Mendel and modern genetics
Between Mendel's work and 1900 the foundations of cytology, the study of cells, was developed.
The facts discovered about the nucleus and cell division were essential for Mendel's work to be properly understood.
1832: Barthélémy Dumortier, the first to observe cell division in a multicellular organism.
1841, 1852: Robert Remak  (1815–1865), a Jewish Polish–German physiologist, was the first person to state the foundation of cell biology: that cells only derive from other cells.
This was later popularized by the German doctor Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902), who used the famous phrase omnis cellula e cellula, meaning, all cells from other cells.
1865: Gregor Mendel's paper, Experiments on plant hybridization was published.
1876: Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in sea urchin eggs, by German biologist Oscar Hertwig (1849–1922).
1878–1888: Walther Flemming and Eduard Strasburger describe chromosome behaviour during mitosis.
1883: Meiosis was described at the level of chromosomes, by Belgian zoologist Edouard van Beneden (1846–1910), in Ascaris (roundworm) eggs.
1883: German zoologist Wilhelm Roux (1850–1924) realised the significance of the linear structure of chromosomes.
Their splitting into two equal longitudinal halves meant each daughter cell got the same chromosome complement.
Therefore, chromosomes were the bearers of heredity.
1889: Dutch botanist Hugo de Vries suggests that "inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles", naming such particles (pan)genes.
1890: The significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance was described in 1890 by German biologist August Weismann (1834–1914).
He noted that two cell divisions were necessary to turn one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes was to be maintained.
1902–1904: Theodor Boveri (1862–1915), a German biologist, in a series of papers, drew attention to the correspondence between the behaviour of chromosomes and the results obtained by Mendel.
He said that chromosomes were "independent entities which keep their independence even in the resting nucleus... What comes out of the nucleus is what goes into it".
1903: Walter Sutton suggested that chromosomes, which segregate in a Mendelian fashion, are hereditary units.
Edmund B. Wilson (1856–1939), Sutton's teacher, was the author of one of the most famous text-books in biology, called this the Sutton–Boveri hypothesis.
Rediscovery of Mendel's work
During the 1890s several biologists began doing experiments on breeding.
and soon Mendel's results were duplicated, even before his papers were read.
Carl Correns and Hugo de Vries were the main rediscoverers of Mendel's writings and laws.
Both acknowledged Mendel's priority, although it is probable that de Vries did not understand his own results until after reading Mendel.
Though Erich von Tschermak was originally also credited with rediscovery, this is no longer accepted because he did not understand Mendel's laws.
Though de Vries later lost interest in Mendelism, other biologists built genetics into a science.
Mendel's results were replicated, and genetic linkage soon worked out.
William Bateson perhaps did the most in the early days to publicise Mendel's theory.
The word genetics, and other terminology, originated with Bateson.
Mendel's experimental results were later the object of some debate.
Fisher analysed the results of the F2 (second filial) ratio and found them to be implausibly close to the exact ratio of 3 to 1.
It is sometimes suggested that Mendel may have censored his results, and that his seven traits each occur on a separate chromosome pair, an extremely unlikely occurrence if they were chosen at random.
In fact, the genes Mendel studied occurred in only four linkage groups, and only one gene pair (out of 21 possible) is close enough to show deviation from independent assortment; this is not a pair that Mendel studied.
Tools of genetics
During the process of DNA replication, errors sometimes occur.
These errors, called mutations, can have an effect on the phenotype of an organism.
In turn, that usually has an effect on the organism's fitness, its ability to live and reproduce successfully.
Error rates are usually very low—1 error in every 10–100 million bases—due to the "proofreading" ability of DNA polymerases.
Error rates are a thousandfold higher in many viruses.
Because they rely on DNA and RNA polymerases which lack proofreading ability, they get higher mutation rates.
Processes that increase the rate of changes in DNA are called mutagenic.
Mutagenic chemicals increase errors in DNA replication, often by interfering with the structure of base-pairing, while UV radiation induces mutations by causing damage to the DNA structure.
Chemical damage to DNA occurs naturally as well, and cells use DNA repair mechanisms to repair mismatches and breaks in DNA—nevertheless, the repair sometimes fails to return the DNA to its original sequence.
In organisms which use chromosomal crossovers to exchange DNA and recombine genes, errors in alignment during meiosis can also cause mutations.
Errors in crossover are especially likely when similar sequences cause partner chromosomes to adopt a mistaken alignment; this makes some regions in genomes more prone to mutating in this way.
These errors create large structural changes in DNA sequence—duplications, inversions or deletions of entire regions, or the accidental exchanging of whole parts between different chromosomes (called translocation).
Punnett squares