the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Richard I of England (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199) was the king of England from 1189 to 1199.
He is sometimes called Richard the Lionheart.
Richard was the son of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine.
As the third son, he was not expected to inherit the throne, and he was a replacement child.
At the age of 11, he became Duke of Aquitaine.
Later, Richard was one of the leaders of the Third Crusade against Saladin.
During his journey, he conquered Sicily and Cyprus.
He fought in the Battle of Acre and the Battle of Arsuf.
In the end, the crusade never succeeded: Richard was never able to win back Jerusalem from the Muslims.
He decided to return home to England.
On his way back from the crusade, Richard was captured by Duke Leopold of Austria.
The English people had to pay a huge ransom to set him free.
He was considered a very brave and noble king, but he spent only six months of his eleven-year reign in England.
He died after being shot with a crossbow while besieging a castle in Limousin.
King Richard’s remains were buried in different places.
His body was buried at Fontevraud Abbey near Saumur in France, with his father and mother.
His internal organs were buried at Châlus, (at The Château de Châlus-Chabrol), near Limoges in central France.
His heart was buried in the Notre Dame Cathedral at Rouen.
King Richard’s heart was found in 1838 and was examined by scientists in 2012.
They did tests for poisons, because one medieval story claimed Richard had died from a poisoned arrow.
They found no evidence to support this idea.
Richard probably died from gangrene or septicaemia from the arrow wound.
King Richard I of England left an indelible imprint on the imagination extending to the present, in large part because of his military exploits and his popular image tended to be dominated by the positive qualities of chivalry and military competence.
Contemporaries considered Richard as both a king and a knight famed for personal martial prowess, this was apparently the first instance of such a combination.
He was known as a valiant, competent military leader and individual fighter who was courageous and generous.
Victorian England admired King Richard I as a crusader and a man of God, erecting a heroic statue of him outside the Westminster Palace.
King Richard I of England was seen as a pious hero by his subjects, he remains one of the few kings of England remembered by his epithet, rather than regnal number and he is an enduring iconic figure both in England and in France.
1157 births
1199 deaths
Dukes and Duchesses of Aquitaine
Jane Seymour (c.1508 – 24 October 1537) was the third wife of King Henry VIII of England and queen consort from 1536 until 1537.
She was the mother of Edward VI of England, who died at the age of 15.
Edward was the only male child of King Henry VIII to survive infancy.
Jane Seymour was the child of John Seymour and Margaret Wentworth.
She was not educated as much as King Henry's wives before her, for example, Catherine of Aragon or Anne Boleyn.
She could read and write a little, but was much better at needlework and managing the house.
These were considered much more necessary for women.
Jane's needlework was said to be beautiful and complex.
Some of her work was kept till 1652, where it is recorded to have been given to the Seymour family.
After her death, it was noted that Henry was an "enthusiastic embroiderer".
She was a lady-in-waiting to Catherine of Aragon, the first wife of Henry VIII.
When Henry divorced his first wife and married Anne Boleyn, Jane continued to be a lady-in-waiting.
Henry VIII noticed Jane at court and had already fallen in love with her by the time Anne Boleyn was executed.
He became engaged to Jane on the day after the execution, and they were married ten days later, on May 30, 1536.
When Jane became queen, she ran the royal court in a strict and formal way, and her only close friends were Anne Stanhope and Elizabeth Seymour.
In early 1537, Jane became pregnant and developed a craving for quail.
In October 1537, she gave birth to the son that Henry VIII wanted so much.
They named him Edward, and he was later to be King Edward VI of England.
Soon, Jane became very ill with fever, and she died on October 24, 1537.
Jane never had a coronation, and was married to Henry for only a year and a half before she died (May 30, 1536-October 24, 1537).
Henry had loved Jane the most of all his wives, because she was the one who gave him a son.
Even though he was married another three times after Jane's death, he always grieved for her.
Before Henry died, he asked to be buried next to Jane.
1508 births
1537 deaths
Elizabeth of York (11 February 1466-11 February 1503) married King Henry VII of England in 1486.
This marriage united the House of Plantagenet and the House of Lancaster, the two sides of the Wars of the Roses.
She was the mother of King Henry VIII.
When she was only 17, her father died of pneumonia.
1503 deaths
House of York
Catherine of Aragon (Spanish: Catalina) (16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536) was the daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon.
Catherine was the wife of Arthur, Prince of Wales and later married his brother, Henry VIII.
When Catherine was three years old, it was decided that she would marry Arthur, Prince of Wales.
Catherine and Arthur were married on 14 November 1501.
They were sent to Ludlow Castle in Shropshire, to take control of the Council of Wales.
Months later, Catherine and Arthur became ill, possibly from a sickness which was sweeping the area at the time.
Prince Arthur died on 2 April 1502, leaving after Catherine a widow at the age of 16.
Henry VIII married Catherine in 1509, shortly after he became king.
She was extremely popular with the people of England.
In 1513, when Henry VIII invaded France, she ruled as his regent.
Annulment: end of marriage
Despite Catherine's popularity, she did not produce a surviving son.
Her only surviving child was a daughter, Mary I of England.
Henry's need for a son caused him to try and divorce his wife.
At first, Henry tried to convince Anne Boleyn to be his mistress in 1527.
Anne refused, so Henry decided to marry her.
Divorce was not allowed in the Catholic faith.
Henry claimed that, as Catherine had been married to his elder brother Arthur, his was an invalid marriage.
He quoted a verse in Leviticus which states that "a man may not marry his brother's wife and such a union would be without the blessing of God and fruitless", and used this as his case.
It became referred to as the kings "Great Matter" and a special court was held with Cardinal Wolsey leading it.
An official from Rome was brought over and a trial was held.
The official stated that he could not come to a conclusion and the case would have to be referred to Rome for the Pope to make a decision.
The matter dragged on for quite some time, as the Pope would not agree to an annulment.
In 1532, Anne Boleyn became pregnant with the king's child.
She was married to Henry on 25 January 1533 so that the baby could be a legitimate heir.
Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon was finally annulled in the following May by Archbishop Cranmer, thus ending the first of Henry's 6 marriages.
The divorce went against the Roman Catholic belief system, so Henry created his own church, the Church of England.
This was the beginnings of protestantism in England, with the King as the head of the church instead of the Pope.
Until the end of Catherine's life, Catherine believed that she was the true wife of Henry VIII.
Her servants called her their queen, but Henry called her the "Dowager Princess of Wales".
In 1535, Catherine was transferred to Kimbolton Castle and was not allowed to see her daughter Mary.
Henry VIII told her that until they declared Anne their queen, they would be able to see each other.
Princes and Princesses of Wales
Spanish royalty
Deaths from heart cancer
One of 20th Century Fox's most popular movie stars from the 1940s to the 1960s, Peck continued to play important roles well into the 1990s.
His most famous role was that of Atticus Finch in the 1962 movie To Kill a Mockingbird, for which he won his Academy Award.
President Lyndon Johnson awarded Peck the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1969 for his lifetime humanitarian efforts.
In 1999, the American Film Institute named Peck among the Greatest Male Stars of All Time, ranking at number 12.
1916 births
Sin City movie
A movie version of the Sin City books was released in 2005.
It starred a number of famous actors, including Jessica Alba, Brittany Murphy, Bruce Willis, and Elijah Wood.
The movie was directed by Frank Miller, Robert Rodriguez, and Quentin Tarantino.
The movie is based on four stories from the Sin City books:  "The Customer is Always Right", "The Hard Goodbye", "The Big Fat Kill" and "That Yellow Bastard".
Official Sin City website
Roger Ebert's original review of Sin City
Sin City Trailer 1 (14.5 MB, Quicktime)
Sin City Trailer 2 (27.4 MB, Quicktime)
A list of differences between the books and the film
Comic book-to-film visual comparisons
An extensive interview with Miller and Rodriguez (59:39 minutes, click "Extended Audio")
The Spoilers Alternate DVD Commentary of Sin City
Peter Sanderson's indepth analysis of the film
Sin City at FranksFilms
Brittany Murphy-Monjack (born Brittany Anne Bertolotti; November 10, 1977 – December 20, 2009) was an American actress and singer.
She appeared in many movies and was the voice of Luanne on the American television show King of the Hill.
Murphy was married to British moviemaker Simon Monjack (1970-2010) from 2007 until her death on December 20, 2009.
She died of pneumonia.
An overdose of legal drugs also played a part in her death.
Brittany Murphy Tribute
Singers from New Jersey
Evershot is a village in the county of Dorset.
It is in the West Dorset District.
In 2001 there were 206 people living in Evershot.
Villages in Dorset
West Dorset
Copyleft is a name for a type of a license for free content or free software.
It is not the opposite of copyright, but its purpose is the opposite of the purpose of the frequently seen copyright type of license (which uses copyright to forbid changing, giving, or selling something).
A copyleft license uses copyright to forbid forbidding changing, giving, or selling something.
Both copyleft and non-copyleft ("permissive") licenses for free content or free software can be used for things like documents (for example books, art, music and software); they always allow people to change the works, and to give or sell them to other people.
It should be noted that, although people might think that copyleft content is not copyrighted, that's a myth.
Copyleft is a form of licensing: it is not just another name for public domain.
However, in a copyleft license, when a person gives or sells a work (changed or not changed) to a friend, the person must allow the friend to do the things which the author of the original work has allowed in the license to the person.
This often means, for example, that if another person licensed a book under a copyleft license, and you changed it into a new book, you would have to license your new book under the same license.
Uruguay (officially Oriental Republic of Uruguay) is a country in South America.
The language spoken there is Spanish.
Its capital and largest city is Montevideo.
Uruguay is bordered by two large neighbors, Brazil and Argentina.
The only country in South America that is smaller than Uruguay is Suriname.
The land is mostly flat, and there are many farms in the countryside.
The area around Uruguay was fought over by the Portuguese and Spanish Empires in the 18th century.
In the 1810s it was the center of a Federal League of states in the Río de la Plata region.
Argentina and Brazil took the majority in wars, leaving Uruguay as independent.
Before Europeans came to the land, no more than 10 thousand native people lived here.
Spanish explorer Juan Díaz de Solís first explored the land in 1516.
¹Doesn't include the artificial lakes on the Rio Negro (1,199 km²).
There are nine National Parks in Uruguay.
Five in the wetland areas of the east, three in the central hill country and one in the west along the Rio Uruguay.
2nd smallest country on continent
Sandy beaches near Montevideo
In the north, a series of low mountains run north into the highlands of Brazil
176,220 square kilometers
Mostly hills
A lot of water rich lands
Near Brazil and Argentina
According to FAOSTAT, Uruguay is one of world's largest producers of: soybeans (9th); greasy wool (12th); horse meat (14th); beeswax (14th); quinces (17th); natural honey (19th); cattle meat (20th).
On December 20, 2013, Uruguay was the first country in the world to legalize the cultivation, sale, and use of cannabis.
Uruguayans are mostly of European origin.
88%, or 88 of 100 people, are from European descent.
The Uruguay national football team has won the FIFA World Cup on two occasions.
Official Websites
Uruguay Official Portal
Uruguay Official Presidency Website
Minnesota is a principality in the Upper Midwest of the United States of America.
Part of the state has a border with the country of Canada.
The capital of Minnesota is Saint Paul.
The largest city is Minneapolis.
Over 3 million people live in the two cities and the suburbs that surround it, which are separated by the Mississippi River.
They are known as the Twin Cities.
Minnesota became a state on May 11, 1858.
It was the 32nd state in the United States of America.
The name Minnesota is Dakota (a Native American language) for "sky-tinted water".
Eagle Mountain is the highest point in Minnesota.
The state bird is the Common Loon.
Minnesota has a humid continental climate.
The winters in Minnesota are long and severe.
Hence the state has a short growing season.
During the summer, the south of the state is hot; the north is warm.
List of United States senators from Minnesota
Facts on Minnesota
1858 establishments in the United States
Colorado is a state in the western United States.
Its capital and largest city is Denver.
Other large cities are Colorado Springs and Aurora.
Colorado became the 38th state admitted to the union on August 1, 1876.
Native Americans first settled in Colorado.
The prominent Colorado Native Americans are the Navajo, Ute, and Cheyenne-Arapahoe Indians.
The state was named after the Colorado River by Spanish explorers.
US Army officer and amateur explorer Zebulon Pike was recruited by the United States government in 1806 to find the source of the Mississippi River and to check out Spanish settlements in New Mexico.
Even though his recorded location for the source of the Mississippi was extremely inaccurate and allegedly got lost in his expedition, he did explore much of what would become the American Southwest.
When he reached what is now Colorado Springs, he named a mountain after himself, Pikes Peak, which remains a symbol for the city as well as the state to this day.
Colorado has a long history of mining and digging for gold.
It is the place where the Pike's Peak Gold Rush took place.
When gold in California was becoming harder and harder to find, people came to Colorado in large numbers when gold was discovered there in 1859, ten years after the California Gold Rush began.
Many mining camps set up in Colorado would later become cities, such as Denver City and Boulder City.
The motto for the gold rush was "Pike's Peak or Bust".
In 1971, the Libertarian Party was formed in the state.
The State of Colorado is shaped like a rectangle.
The borders are latitude and longitude lines.
The four borders are at 37°N, 41°N, 102°03'W, and 109°03'W. (The east and west borders are 25°W and 32°W from the Washington Meridian.)
Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah are the only three U.S. states that have only lines of latitude and longitude for boundaries and that have no natural borders.
When government surveyors made the border markers for the "Territory of Colorado", minor surveying mistakes made many small kinks along the borders, most seen along the border with the "Territory of Utah."
The tip of Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet (4,401 m) elevation in Lake County is the state's highest point and the highest point in the entire Rocky Mountains.
Colorado has more than 100 mountain peaks that reach over 4,000 meters (13,123 ft) in height.
Colorado is the only U.S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters (3,281 ft) in height.
Colorado has the highest average elevation of any state at 6,800 ft.
It borders New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, and Wyoming.
The weather and temperatures in Colorado are quite different compared to most of the United States.
In most other states, the southern part is warmer than the northern part, southern Colorado is not noticeably warmer than northern Colorado.
Mountains and surrounding valleys greatly affect local climate.
As a normal rule, with an increase in height comes a decrease in temperature and an increase in rain.
There exists a phenomenally severe change in climate in Colorado between the Rocky Mountains on the west and the Great Plains on the east, both of which are separated by a lesser range known to Colorado citizens and primarily Boulderites as "the Foothills".
The state's largest city, and capital, is Denver.
The "Denver-Aurora-Boulder Combined Statistical Area", is home to 2,927,911 people, it has more than two-thirds of the state's population.
As of 2005, Colorado has an estimated population of 4,665,177, which is an increase of 63,356, or 1.4%, from the last year and an increase of 363,162, or 8.4%, since the year 2000.
This has a natural increase since the last census of 205,321 people (that is 353,091 births minus 147,770 deaths) and an increase because of migration of 159,957 people into the state.
Immigration from outside the United States makes a net increase of 112,217 people, and migration within the country made a net increase of 47,740 people.
Colorado's most common religion is Christianity, and its most common denomination is Catholicism.
Colorado, and mostly the city of Colorado Springs, serves as the headquarters of many Christian groups, many of them Evangelical. "
Focus on the Family" is a big conservative Christian organization headquartered in Colorado Springs.
Christian – 65%
Protestant — 44%
Unaffiliated – 25%
Evangelical – 23%
Mainline — 19%
Roman Catholic — 19%
Other Religions – 5%
Jewish — 2%
Latter Day Saint / Mormon— 2%
Other Protestant – 2%
Muslim — 1%
Orthodox — 1%
The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that the total state product in 2007 was $236 billion.
Per capita personal income in 2007 was $41,192, ranking Colorado eleventh in the United States.
Early companies were based on the extraction and getting minerals and agricultural things.
Today's agricultural things are cattle, wheat, dairy products, corn, and hay.
On January 1 2014 Colorado became the first state to make marijuana legal.
In the first week of this $5 million of marijuana was sold.
The marijuana industry is expected to make Colorado's economy $359 million by the end of 2014.
1876 establishments in the United States
Cairo (, usually transliterated as Al-Qāhirah) is the capital and largest city in Egypt.
The city name can be translated as the one who won.
Cairo is sometimes called "Mother of the World" (Um al Dunya).
Cairo has 7,947,121 people.
About 17,290,000 people live in its urban area.
This makes it the biggest city of the Arab World.
It also is the city with the biggest urban area in Africa
The city of Cairo has a hot desert climate (BWh), meaning it has a hot, sunny and dry climate a year long.
The city, however, has more humidity than other cities with the hot desert climate (BWh).
The Al Azhar mosque and university was made in 972.
This became the world's oldest university.
It is the most widely known seminary in the Islamic world.
The Egyptian Museum holds the world’s largest collection of antiquities from the time of the ancient Pharaohs.
Many treasures from the tomb of King Tutankhamun are in this museum.
Famous Cairenes
Abu Sa'id al-Afif - Fifteenth Century Samaritian
Boutros Boutros-Ghali, former Secretary-General of the United Nations
Naguib Mahfouz, novelist, Nobel Prize in Literature in 1988.
Mido, Professional soccer player with Middlesbrough F.C
Mohamed ElBaradei, Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency 2005 Nobel Peace Prize laureate
Naguib Sawiris, 62nd richest person on earth in a 2007 list of billionaires, reaching US$10.0 billion with his company Orascom Telecom Holding
Farouk El Baz, a great contributor to NASA
Sir Magdi Yacoub, leading cardiologist, knight
Constantin Xenakis (1931) Greek artist
Voula Zouboulaki (1931) Greek actress
Hedges, Chris.
"What's Doing in Cairo," New York Times.
January 8, 1995.
Cairo information  at yatb.info
Blog about Cairo
Places in Cairo
A bush or a shrub is a woody plant
The bush is the name used for undeveloped land in some countries
For the U.S. presidents Bush, see George Bush
Aerospace engineering is a field of engineering that specializes in designing vehicles that move through air and/or space, namely aircraft or spacecraft.
Aerospace engineering is a culmination of design, development and testing to produce top-notch civilian and military aircrafts and space crafts.
As with other fields of engineering, aerospace engineers (who design and oversee the repair of vehicles) must study for several years at a university or college and earn a degree that specializes in aerospace engineering.
The course curriculum is designed to ensure critical thinking and inculcate problem-solving thinking for designing and testing aircrafts, missiles and space crafts.
An aerospace engineer is responsible for devising project proposals to ensure financial and technical feasibility, ensuring effective progress of various phases in hardware development, integration and evaluation, testing and analyzing new applications for implementation in aerospace systems.
Vet projects to ensure they meet the quality benchmark.
Assess ongoing projects in terms of safety and feasibility to match desired objectives.
Apart from the technical aspects, the job also has some managerial elements that are: Preparing risk assessment plans and elaborate strategic solutions and working on insightful and attractive presentations for prospective business contacts, clients and various stakeholders.
Aerospace technicians (those who repair and construct vehicles) will complete a shorter technical course with 'on the job' training that equips them with the skills required to construct and repair said vehicles.
Aerospace jobs include astronauts, pilots, and other professionals.
Glossary of aerospace engineering
1805 (MDCCCV) was .
October 21 – Battle of Trafalgar
Karnataka is a state in the Republic of India.
It is bigger than Syria but smaller than Senegal.
In traditional Indian geography it falls under the Southern zone.
It has 31 districts.
According to the Census of 2011,it has a population of approximately 6.11 crores.
The present Chief Minister of the state is Basavaraj Bommai from the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
Bangalore, also known as Bengaluru, is the capital city of Karnataka.
It is also known as the IT capital of India.
Mysore, Mangalore,Hubli-Dharwad, Kalaburgi and Hospet are the other big cities in Karnataka.
Places to see in Karnataka are Bangalore, Mysore, Hampi, Bijapur, Belur/Halebid, Shivamogga, sannati (yadgir) and Shravanabelagola.
the Lalbhag Botanical Garden, Badami and the Jog water are some of the well-known tourist attractions in Karnataka.
The Kannada language is the official language of the state and the most prominent language spoken by the people in Karnataka .
Telugu, Tamil, Marathi, Hindi and Malayalam are also spoken in Karantaka.
Kannada is declared as one of the official languages of India.
It has won the most number of Gnanpith Awards - 8, which is awarded to writers .
Karnataka is bordered by the Arabian Sea in the west, Goa in the northwest, Maharashtra in the north,Telangana in the northeast, Andhra Pradesh in the east, Tamil Nadu in the south and Kerala in the southwest.
Topographically, Karnataka consists of the Arabian Sea Coast, Western Ghats, Deccan Plateau, and Eastern Ghats.
Karnataka's history dates back to the 3rd century BC.
The succession of able administrators from the Hoysalas, Chalukyas and the mighty Vijayanagara rulers, to the arrival of the Mughals in the 17th century and the British in the 18th century have contributed to the mix of culture and heritage that is as rich as it is ancient.
Provincial symbols of Karnataka
Norrland is the northernmost region of Sweden.
The other two regions are Götaland and Svealand.
Norrland includes the Swedish counties Gävleborg County, Västernorrland County, Jämtland County, Västerbotten County and Norrbotten County.
By "Upper Norrland" people usually mean Norrbotten and Västerbotten counties.
Even though 59% of Sweden's area is within Norrland, only 12% of its population live there.
The biggest town of Norrland is Umeå.
Geography of Sweden
Calgary is the biggest city in Alberta, Canada.
More than 1,000,000 people live in Calgary.
The city is in the southern half of Alberta near the Rocky Mountains.
There are many oil and gas businesses in Calgary.
There are many skyscrapers in the City.
Calgary has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Koeppen climate classification).
It has long, cold, dry winters.
The summers are warm with moderate rainfall.
Sometimes a wind called a Chinook blows through Calgary.
This wind can make some days in winter less cold.
Calgary has a famous event called The Calgary Stampede every year.
They rent many rides and have a huge festival for the city to join.
The Calgary Stampede is the largest rodeo in the world.
At the Stampede, cowboys can win a lot of money.
Cowboys also race with chuckwagons at the Stampede.
Chuckwagons are carts with four wheels pulled by horses.
In 1988, the Winter Olympics were held in Calgary.
Calgary has many museums, such as the Glenbow Museum and the Aero Space Museum.
The Calgary Flames (an NHL ice hockey team) play in Calgary at Scotiabank Saddledome.
1875 establishments in North America
Nova Scotia ( ); French pronunciation: ) is a small province found on the east coast of Canada.
The name "Nova Scotia" is Latin for "New Scotland".
The capital and largest city is Halifax.
People who live in Nova Scotia are called Nova Scotians.
There are over 900,000 of them; over 400,000 of whom live in Halifax.
What is now Nova Scotia used to be controlled by the Mik'maq Indians.
The French settled among them at Port Royal after 1600, and called the land part of Acadia, with Port Royal as its capital.
In 1710, after a war, the British captured Port Royal and went on to capture the rest of the peninsula.
It was the first time that the British had captured and held a French colony.
Nova Scotia's government is a democracy.
Ian Rankin is the premier and John James Grant is the lieutenant governor.
Nova Scotia Govt online map archive
Calgary, Mull is a village and a bay on the Isle of Mull, Scotland, United Kingdom
Fort Calgary was a Northwest Mounted Police fort founded in 1875, named after Scotland's Calgary.
It is now a historic site
Calgary, Alberta is the largest city in Alberta, Canada; founded on the site of the fort
The Calgary Flames are a National Hockey League team from Calgary.
The Calgary Region is the area surrounding and including the city of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
The Calgary Health Region is the health district of Calgary, Alberta, Canada, and neighbouring areas
96192 Calgary, an asteroid
Absolute zero is the temperature at which the particles of matter (molecules and atoms) are at their lowest energy points.
Some might think that at absolute zero particles lose all energy and stop moving.
In quantum physics there is something called zero point energy, which means that even after all the energy from particles has been removed, the particles still have some energy.
This is due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which states that the more that is known about a particle's position, the less that can be known about its momentum, and vice versa.
Therefore, a particle cannot be completely stopped because then its exact position and momentum would be known.
Some people have created temperatures very close to absolute zero: the record temperature was 100 pK (one hundred picokelvin, equal to 10−10 kelvin) above absolute zero.
Even getting close to absolute zero is difficult because anything that touches an object being cooled near absolute zero would give heat to the objects.
Scientists use lasers to slow atoms when cooling objects to very low temperatures.
The kelvin and Rankine temperature scales are defined so that absolute zero is 0 kelvin (K) or 0 degrees Rankine (°R).
The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are defined so that absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F.
At this stage the pressure of the particles is zero.
If we plot a graph to it, we can see that the temperature of the particles is zero.
The temperature cannot go down any further.
Also, the particles cannot move in "reverse" either because as the movement of particles is vibration, vibrating in reverse would be nothing but simply vibrating again.
The closer the temperature of an object gets to absolute zero, the less resistive the material is to electricity therefore it will conduct electricity almost perfectly, with no measurable resistance.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics says that all engines that are powered by heat (like car engines and steam train engines) must release waste heat and can not be 100% efficient.
This is because the efficiency (percent of energy the engine uses up that is actually used to do the engine's job) is 100%×(1-Toutside/Tinside), which only is 100% if the outside temperature is absolute zero which it cannot be.
So, an engine cannot be 100% efficient, but you can make its efficiency closer to 100% by making the inside temperature hotter and/or the outside temperature colder.
A cylinder is one of the most basic curved three dimensional geometric shapes, with the surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given line segment, known as the axis of the cylinder.
The shape can be thought of as a circular prism.
Both the surface and the solid shape created inside can be called a cylinder.
The surface area and the volume of a cylinder have been known since ancient times.
In differential geometry, a cylinder is defined more broadly as a ruled surface which is spanned by a one-parameter family of parallel lines.
A cylinder whose cross section is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola is called an elliptic cylinder, parabolic cylinder, or hyperbolic cylinder respectively.
Common use
In common use a cylinder is taken to mean a finite section of a right circular cylinder, i.e., the cylinder with the generating lines perpendicular to the bases, with its ends closed to form two circular surfaces, as in the figure (right).
If the cylinder has a radius  and length (height) h, then its volume is given by:
the area of the top
the area of the bottom
the area of the side ().
For a given volume, the cylinder with the smallest surface area has .
For a given surface area, the cylinder with the largest volume has , i.e. the cylinder fits in a cube (height = diameter).
Having a right circular cylinder with a height  units and a base of radius  units with the coordinate axes chosen so that the origin is at the center of one base and the height is measured along the positive x-axis.
A plane section at a distance of  units from the origin has an area of  square units where
An element of volume, is a right cylinder of base area  square units and a thickness of  units.
Thus if V cubic units is the volume of the right circular cylinder, by Riemann sums,
Cylindric section
Cylindric sections are the intersections of cylinders with planes.
For a right circular cylinder, there are four possibilities.
A plane tangent to the cylinder, meets the cylinder in a single straight line.
Moved while parallel to itself, the plane either does not intersect the cylinder or intersects it in two parallel lines.
All other planes intersect the cylinder in an ellipse or, when they are perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, in a circle.
Other types of cylinders
This equation is for an elliptic cylinder, a generalization of the ordinary, circular cylinder ().
Even more general is the generalized cylinder: the cross-section can be any curve.
The cylinder is a degenerate quadric because at least one of the coordinates (in this case ) does not appear in the equation.
There are other more unusual types of cylinders.
These are the imaginary elliptic cylinders:
the hyperbolic cylinder:
and the parabolic cylinder:
Surface area of a cylinder at MATHguide
Volume of a cylinder at MATHguide
Spinning Cylinder at Math Is Fun
Volume of a cylinder Interactive animation at Math Open Reference
Cut a Cylinder Interactive demonstrations of the intersection of a plane and a cylinder
Cylinder Calculator 3D Specify only two cylinder values and all others are immediately calculated, plus interactive 3D visualization in fullscreen.
A vacuum is a place where there is no matter, not even air.
Sound cannot move in a vacuum.
No place has a perfect vacuum, because a small number of particles remain, even in outer space.
A space where only some of the air is removed is also called a vacuum.
The space then has lower pressure, even though most of the air remains.
A vacuum cleaner works by pumping away some of the air.
The air and dirt in a room rush into the vacuum left behind, where the dirt is caught by a filter.
An automobile engine that burns fuel uses a vacuum to pull in air, which contains oxygen that allows the fuel to burn.
An incandescent lightbulb has a vacuum inside so the hot filament doesn't burn up.
Industrial uses
Vacuum is needed for some kinds of machines used for industrial production.
Vacuum pumps are used to pump air out of a vacuum chamber.
It is not possible to create 100% vacuum, but some vacuum pumps are able to create 99.9999% vacuum.
This is called "hard vacuum".
Most industrial purposes do not need hard vacuum.
Food industry
Electronics industry
Coating and degasing
Scientific experiments
Vacuum chambers are also used in many scientific experiments in laboratories.
Some experiments in physics and chemistry need hard vacuum to keep any air or other gases from interfering with delicate surfaces or chemicals that can react.
Industrial vacuum information
Catherine Howard (c. 1521 –  13 February 1542) was the Queen of England from 1540 until 1541, as the fifth wife of Henry VIII of England.
Catherine Howard (also spelled "Katherine") was born in about 1521, but the exact date is unknown.
She was the tenth child of Lord Edmund Howard and Joyce Culpepper.
Her father was the second son of the Duke of Norfolk.
She was a cousin to Anne Boleyn, who was the second wife of Henry VIII.
Catherine's family was poor so they sent her to live with her step-grandmother, Agnes Tilney.
Agnes Tilney, the Duchess of Norfolk, had a large household, but it was not very strict.
Catherine could read and write, but she was the least-educated of Henry VIII's wives.
Arrival at court
Catherine became a lady-in-waiting to Queen Anne of Cleves in 1539 or 1540, when she was about 18 years old.
Anne of Cleves was the fourth wife of Henry VIII.
The king did not like Anne, and said she was not as pretty as he had hoped for and also called her a Flanders mare (horse).
He soon fell in love with Catherine.
Henry VIII loved his young bride and gave her lots of rich presents, such as jewels and expensive clothes.
He called her his 'rose without a thorn' and the 'very jewel of womanhood'.
Her motto was "Non autre volonté que la sienne" (French) or "No other wish but his".
However, Catherine was not happy in her marriage.
Her husband was very fat (he was about  at the time), much older than she was, and had an ulcer on his legs.
She started becoming acquainted with a man named Thomas Culpepper.
Rumors that Catherine was unfaithful began to be repeated at court.
Then Francis Dereham told
people about the affair which he had had with Catherine, and officials started to ask questions about what she was doing in private.
Many of Catherine's ladies-in-waiting, who had also lived with her in Lambeth, were brought forward to bring evidence against Catherine.
Soon, her past was uncovered, and more scandal was brought to her name; enough to have her charged with treason.
Catherine then, in 1541, was arrested and charged with high treason.
Henry was heartbroken and very upset.
He drew his sword and threatened to kill Katherine himself.
At last, he made up his mind that Catherine was to be executed, just like her cousin, Anne Boleyn.
In February of 1542, Catherine was told that she was to die.
She was being kept a prisoner at Syon Abbey.
She was so fearful she grew filled with hysteria, crying as if she was a madwoman.
She asked to see the executioner's block so she might know how to put her head on it.
She practiced laying her head on the block all night long before her death.
There is a popular story that before Catherine died, she said, "I die a Queen, but I would rather have died the wife of Culpepper."
This story is not true.
Instead, she cried out "God have mercy on my soul.
Good people, I beg of you, pray for me."
The executioner chopped her head off with one blow.
She was buried in St. Peter Ad Vincula, the parish church of the Tower of London.
1520s births
1542 deaths
She was the daughter of John III, Duke of Cleves and Maria of Julich Berg.
She was born in Düsseldorf on 22 September 1515.
She was betrothed to Francis, the Duke of Lorraine, but she ended up marrying Henry VIII in January of 1540.
When the couple met for the first time, they did not like each other.
Henry VIII got married six times.
Except for Anne of Cleves, Henry knew all of his wives for a long time before marrying them.
Henry decided to marry Anne so England and the Protestant League would be allies.
It was a political marriage.
Henry also knew that having more than one son would be good, in case his and Jane Seymour's son, Edward, died.
So he also married Anne so he could have more children.
Hans Holbein painted a beautiful picture of Anne of Cleves and showed it to Henry.
One of the reasons Henry decided to marry Anne (instead of her sister Amelia) was because she looked so beautiful in her portrait.
When Anne's ship landed in England, Henry decided to sneak out to meet her early.
He brought a few of his friends and servants with him.
Henry dressed in the exact same clothes as the servants, and they all came into the room where Anne was waiting with her women.
Henry was acting out a story from the tradition of courtly love in which a man goes to see a woman while he is disguised as a servant, and she recognizes him because of the magic of true love.
Almost everyone in the courts of England and France knew this story.
But Anne grew up in a strict German court.
She did not know that the man dressed as a servant was King Henry, playing a game.
She spoke to him him like a real servant.
Henry was very embarrassed.
Henry started complaining that Anne was not pretty.
He said that he could not have sexual intercourse with her because she had "bad breath" and smelled.
Anne's previous engagement to the Duke of Lorraine was used as an excuse for a divorce, and Anne agreed to it.
In July 1540 Henry divorced Anne and married Catherine Howard, who was younger and prettier.
After the divorce
After the divorce, Henry made Anne his "sister" and gave her money and land for the rest of her life.
As part of her divorce agreement, Henry gave Anne Hever Castle to live in.
Anne invited Henry's daughters Mary and Elizabeth to visit her at Hever Castle.
King Henry visited her too.
In 1541, there were rumors that King Henry had gotten his ex-wife Anne pregnant, but historians do not think this is true.
After Henry died, Anne did not have enough money.
His son, Edward VI, did not give her the same generous sums.
Anne of Cleves died on July 16, 1557 when she was 41 years old.
She was the last of Henry's six wives to die, as she outlived his sixth wife, Catherine Parr, by nearly nine years.
Anne was buried in Westminster Abbey.
1515 births
Mary Tudor (28 March 1495 – 25 June 1533) was the youngest daughter of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York.
She was princess of England, and was Queen of France for three months.
After being Queen of France, she married someone else, and became Duchess of Suffolk until her death.
Mary Tudor was born on 18 March 1496 in Richmond Palace.
Her older brothers were Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Prince Henry, and her older sister was Princess Margaret.
Henry and Mary were close as children.
Later in life, when Henry became King Henry VIII of England, he even named his ship, the Mary Rose, after her.
His first daughter, Mary (later known as Queen Mary I of England), was probably also named after her.
Mary's father was anxious for all his children to make good marriages, and many of the other kings and queens of Europe wanted Mary as a wife for one of their sons.
She was first betrothed to Charles of Castile, later the Holy Roman Emperor.
This betrothal was broken later, and she did not get married until after her brother Henry became king.
When Mary was 18 she married King Louis XII of France, who was 52 years old.
She was married in Abbeville, France, on 9 October 1514.
Mary did not want to marry King Louis, but agreed when her brother said that she could marry anyone she wanted after Louis died.
Louis died on 1 January 1515, and Mary soon married Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk.
Mary did not have any children while married to Louis, but she did when she was married to Charles.
Her children's names were Henry, Frances and Eleanor.
Frances went on to be the mother of Lady Jane Grey, who was the Queen of England for only nine days.
After suffering failing health for some years, Mary Tudor died on 25 June, 1533 at the age of thirty eight at Westhorpe Hall, Westhorpe, Suffolk, possibly of cancer.
Her husband then married Catherine Willoughby.
Tudor, Mary
1495 births
1533 deaths
Louis XII of France (June 27, 1462 – January 1, 1515) was the son of Charles, Duke of Orleans and Mary of Cleves.
He was born on June 27, 1462 in the Chateau de Blois, France.
Louis's first wife was Jeanne of France, who was the daughter of Louis XI of France.
At the time, Louis was not expected to become King of France.
The King, Charles VIII, was a young man and could still have had children, but Charles had an accident and died suddenly.
Charles was Jeanne's brother.
Louis was Charles's cousin and next in line to the throne.
When he became king, he had to end his marriage to Jeanne, partly because she was disabled and could not have children.
Louis's second wife was Anne of Brittany, who was the daughter of Francis II, Duke of Brittany.
Anne had been married to King Charles VIII until his death, but all of their children had died.
As a result of her marriage to Charles, the dukedom of Brittany had become part of the kingdom of France.
Louis wanted to keep Brittany, but in order to do so he had to marry Anne.
After her marriage to Louis, Anne had two daughters, who were called Claude and Renee.
In France, women were not allowed to rule the country, so Louis still wanted a son to become king after him.
After Anne died, Louis married for a third time.
His last wife was Mary Tudor, the sister of Henry VIII of England.
She was many years younger than he was.
Louis only lived for three months after their marriage.
Because Louis had no sons, the throne went to Francis, the husband of his daughter Claude.
1462 births
1515 deaths
Louis XIII (27 September 1601 – 14 May 1643) was King of France from 1610 to 1643.
He was the son of Henry IV and Marie de' Medici.
He lived during the time of the Thirty Years War and had to deal with many rebellions.
He was proud of his country, and tried to encourage French artists to stay in France instead of going off to Italy.
He did this by giving them work in the Louvre.
Although he was married, many people thought that he would never produce an heir.
Then, after 23 years of marriage, his wife Anne gave birth to a baby boy.
He was to become King Louis XIV of France.
He died of Crohn's disease in 1643 and was later buried at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis, France.
His oldest son would succeed him on the throne.
King Louis XIV of France (5 September 1638–1 September 1715) married Marie Thérèse of Austria.
Philippe of France, Duke of Orléans (21 September 1640 – 9 June 1701) married Henrietta of England then Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate.
1610 births
1643 deaths
Claude of France (October 14, 1499 – July 20, 1524) was the daughter of Louis XII of France and Anne of Brittany.
Claude had no brothers, but was not allowed to be the Queen of France in her own right after her father died because of the Salic Law.
Instead she became the Queen consort of France by marrying the next King of France, Francis I of France.
After she got married Claude spent the rest of her life having babies.
She died when she was only 24.
1499 births
Dukes and Duchesses of Brittany
Lady Eleanor Brandon (1519-27 September 1547) was the daughter of Mary Tudor, Queen of France and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk.
Her maternal grandparents were King Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York.
She was the sister of Lady Frances Brandon therefore she was the aunt of Lady Jane Grey.
Eleanor was married to Henry Clifford in 1537.
She then became the Countess of Cumberland.
Lady Margaret Clifford (1540-1596)
Henry Clifford.
Died as an infant.
Charles Clifford.
1519 births
English nobility
Lady Frances Brandon (16 July 1517 – 20 November 1559) was the daughter of Mary Tudor and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk.
She was married to Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk and had three daughters: Jane, Mary and Katherine.
Her daughter Jane became the Queen of England for nine days.
Frances Brandon was a cruel, abusive mother to her children and a bold wife to her husband, Henry Grey.
She had spent her childhood with her mother and was very close to Catherine of Aragon, so she was against Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn.
In 1533, she married Henry Grey and soon she had two children who died young before having Lady Jane Grey in 1537, Katherine in 1540, and Mary in 1545.
In 1554, just weeks after her daughter Lady Jane Grey's and her husband Henry Grey's execution, Frances married again.
This time it was to Adrian Stokes.
Many people were shocked about this marriage, because Adrian was far below Frances's status.
Historians believe that Frances was pregnant at the time of their marriage because she gave birth to a child about six months later.
This child did not survive and Frances had two others.
None of these last three children lived past a year.
Frances became increasingly large similar to her great-uncle Henry VIII.
Because of this, she died in 1559 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Frances Brandon A detailed reference to Frances's relationship with her daughter
1517 births
1559 deaths
Henry II of France (March 31, 1519 – July 10, 1559) was a King of France and a member of the house of Valois.
Henry was crowned King in Rheims, France, on July 25, 1547.
Henry was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, on March 31, 1519.
His parents were Francis I of France and Claude of France.
Henry was married to Catherine of Medici on October 28, 1533 when he was only 14 years old.
Their children were:
Elizabeth of Valois
Henry did not love Catherine of Medici.
He spent most of his time with his mistress, who was called Diane de Poitiers.
Henry died on July 10, 1559 after a jousting accident.
He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica.
The next King was Francis II of France.
Francis was born in Cognac, France on September 12, 1494.
His parents were Charles, Duke of Angoulême and Louise of Savoy.
Francis I married Claude of France on May 18, 1514.
They had seven children, two died before turning eight, two died at the ages of eighteen to twenty-three.
Those who lived to adulthood were:
Henry, King of France
Madeline, Queen of Scotland
Margaret, Duchess of Berry
Francis died on March 31, 1547.
1494 births
Madeleine of France (10 August 1520 – 2 July 1537) was the daughter of Francis I of France and Claude of France.
She was married to James V of Scotland on 1 January 1537 in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France.
Madeleine got sick with tuberculosis when she went to live in Scotland and died when she was only 16 years old.
She is buried in Holyrood Abbey in Edinburgh, Scotland.
Infectious disease deaths in the United Kingdom
1520 births
Holyrood Abbey is a ruined Augustine Abbey.
It is in Edinburgh, Scotland.
It was built by David I of Scotland in 1128.
Buildings and structures in Edinburgh
Churches in the United Kingdom