the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Other methods of mathematical notation have been used in the past.
When the upper index cannot be written, people can write powers using the ^  or ** signs, so that 2^4 or 2**4 means .
Here, the number  is called base, and the number  is called exponent.
For example, in , 2 is the base and 4 is the exponent.
To calculate , one simply multiply 4 copies of 2.
So , and  the result is .
The equation could be read out loud as "2 raised to the power of 4 equals 16."
for every number x
If the exponent is equal to 2, then the power is called square, because the area of a square is calculated using .
is the square of
Similarly, if the exponent is equal to 3, then the power is called cube, because the volume of a cube is calculated using .
is the cube of
If the exponent is equal to -1, then the power is simply the reciprocal of the base.
If the exponent is an integer less than 0, then the power is the reciprocal raised to the opposite exponent.
If the exponent is equal to , then the result of exponentiation is the square root of the base, with  For example:
Similarly, if the exponent is , then the result is the nth root, where:
If the exponent is a rational number , then the result is the qth root of the base raised to the power of p:
In some cases, the exponent may not even be rational.
To raise a base a to an irrational xth power, we use an infinite sequence of rational numbers (xn), whose limit is x:
It is possible to calculate exponentiation of matrices.
In this case, the matrix must be square.
Both addition and multiplication are commutative.
For example, 2+3 is the same as 3+2, and 2 · 3 is the same as 3 · 2.
Although exponentiation is repeated multiplication, it is not commutative.
For example, 2³=8, but 3²=9.
Inverse Operations
Addition has one inverse operation: subtraction.
Also, multiplication has one inverse operation: division.
But exponentiation has two inverse operations: The root and the logarithm.
This is the case because the exponentiation is not commutative.
You can see this in this example:
If you have x+2=3, then you can use subtraction to find out that x=3−2.
This is the same if you have 2+x=3: You also get x=3−2.
This is because x+2 is the same as 2+x.
If you have x · 2=3, then you can use division to find out that x=. This is the same if you have 2 · x=3: You also get x=. This is because x · 2 is the same as 2 · x
If you have x²=3, then you use the (square) root to find out x: you get the result that x = .
However, if you have 2x=3, then you can not use the root to find out x. Rather, you have to use the (binary) logarithm to find out x: you get the result that x=log2(3).
is a company that makes video games.
In the past, they also made video game consoles.
Their main office is in Tokyo, Japan.
They also have offices in other continents – for example, North America and Europe.
Their most famous video games are the Sonic the Hedgehog series.
Another famous Sega series is Streets of Rage.
Sega SG-1000 1983-1984
Sega SG-1000 II 1984-1985
Sega Mark III 1985-1989 / Sega Master System 1986-2000
Sega Mega Drive / Sega Genesis 1988-2002
The Sega Mega Drive (, Mega Doraibu) was a 16-bit video game console made by Sega.
It was in market in Japan in (1988), and in Europe and the rest of the world in (1990).
In North America, it was called Sega Genesis.
Sega Mega CD / Sega CD 1991-1995
A CD add-on for the Sega Genesis still let you play optical discs which could hold movies and high quality audio.
It was not well received but has a strong base of fans.
The Sega 32X was an attempt to top the graphics of the Super Nintendo in the 90's.
Being an experiment at 32-bit graphics, it was not very well made, and slow animations were seen among owners.
The 32X later died, but Sega didn't stop there.
Later, they made CD32X games, which required both the 32X and CD.
Sega Saturn 1994-2000
Sega Saturn was released on November 22/10, 1997/1999 in Japan/France.
It was the first Sega video game console with 3D graphics.
Sega released two versions of the Saturn : the first generation was black and with small controllers, and the second was white.
One of its most popular games was Sonic R.
Sega Dreamcast 1998-2001
Sega Dreamcast (; originally called "Dural," and "Katana") is the last machine made by Sega that can play video games.
It was sold before the PlayStation 2, GameCube, or Xbox came out.
However, not many people bought it after the PlayStation 2 was released, so in the end Sega decided to stop making them.
Handhelds
Game Gear: 1990-1997
Genesis Nomad: 1995
A primary school (or elementary school) is a school for children between the ages of about five and eleven.
It comes after preschool.
When children finish learning at primary school, they go to secondary school.
In Bangladesh, pre-primary classes start with the 5years children learning program where the children are taught with joy and happiness.
Students from ages six to eleven, they finish learning from primary school and prepared for secondary.
In the United Kingdom, a primary school usually comprises a nursery and the first seven years of a child's full-time learning.
In Australia and the United States, primary school begins with kindergarten.
It lasts for six years, usually until the fifth or sixth grade.
In the U.S., "elementary school" is a more common term for public primary schools. "
Primary school" is often used in private or independent schools. (
In private or independent schools the government does not give the schools money.)
In India, "Primary Education" means the 'Nursery', the 'Kindergarten' and four years of regular schooling thereafter.
Admission to Nursery classes is for children above two years so that the age is 6+ when entering Class I. Children are taught language (mother tongue and English) reading/writing skills, basic arithmetic and quite a good amount of general information about the country, people, statesmen, great people, flora & animals.
However, this is true only for schools in the urban areas.
Rural schools do not have Nursery or Kindergarten; they admit straight at Class I when the child is six.
Further, the rural schools use the mother tongue as medium of instruction, not resorting to English in any way.
Primary education is free in government schools.
Moreover, rural primary schools offer free mid-day meals to children (the government pays for it) so that the drop out rate comes down.
States of West Bengal, Maharashtra, Manipur, Nagaland and Kerala have done very good work in this way of spreading primary education.
In Singapore, primary school refers to those students who are normally between the ages of 7 to 12.
Primary School is classified as P1 to P6 for Primary 1 to Primary 6 respectively.
At the end of P6, students sit for a national level Primary School Leaving Exam (PSLE) which is used for placement into Secondary School.
Prior to Primary School, pupils attend Kindergarten School for 2 years.
In Germany, the primary school is called "Grundschule" and is normally from first grade to fourth grade so it is usually for children who are between six and ten years old.
In some eastern states, for example in Berlin, the Primary School is for children up to age 12.
In most German states the children start learning English in third grade on a very low level, they learn how to count and the names of the colors and other easy things.
But because of that low level a German child who has finished Primary School is normally not able to form correct English sentences.
In Primary School the children are prepared for the secondary education.
Primary School students attend three main subjects: Math, German and General Knowledge ("Sachkunde").
In General Knowledge the children learn about nature, about their own body, how to ride a bicycle safely and something about the city they live in and of course about Germany.
Beside those main subjects the children attend subjects like arts, music and Physical Education.
A restaurant (sometimes known as a diner) is a place where cooked food is sold to the public, and where people sit down to eat it.
It is also a place where people go to enjoy the time and to eat a meal.
Some restaurants are a chain, meaning that there are restaurants which have the same name and serve the same food.
McDonald's, Burger King, and Pizza Hut are examples of chain restaurants that are all over the world.
These restaurants serve fast food, that is, inexpensive food, prepared and served quickly.
At some, you do not have to even get out of the car to eat.
You can pay and get your order from a window.
These places are called drive-throughs.
There are also chain restaurants that serve slightly more expensive food.
They are called fast casual restaurants.
Applebee's and Perkins are examples of this type of chain restaurant.
Haute cuisine or 'fine dining' is found in a guide, such as the Michelin Guide, the most famous restaurant guide in the world.
Their 3-star rosettes are given only to restaurants with the highest standards of cooking and service.
Interestingly, the Guide gives more 3-stars to Tokyo and Kyoto than to Paris, London and New York together.
Traditionally, the restaurants of top hotels such as the Hotel de Paris in Monte Carlo or the Hôtel Ritz Paris were the main places recognized for fine dining.
Today, most Michelin Guide restaurants are separate establishments.
In Ancient Greece and Rome there were small restaurant-bars offering food and drinks.
They were called thermopolia (singular thermopolium).
Many dwellings did not have kitchens, and eating out was an important part of socializing.
In Pompeii, 158 thermopolia with service counters have been found.
They were along the main road of the town and round the public spaces.
Skimmed milk (United Kingdom), or skim milk (United States of America) is made when all the cream (also called milkfat) is removed from whole milk.
Sometimes, only half the cream is removed, resulting in semi-skimmed milk instead.
Skimmed milk is more popular in the United States than Britain.
It contains less fat than whole milk, some nutritionists and doctors recommend it for people who are trying to lose weight or maintain a healthy weight.
Whole milk is about 4% fat
Semi skimmed milk is 1.7% fat
Skimmed milk is between 0.1-0.3% fat
Whole Milk is 3.25% fat
2% Reduced-Fat Milk
1% Lowfat Milk (also called Light Milk)
0% Fat-Free Milk (also called skim milk or Nonfat Milk)
It also must contain at least 8.25% solids-not-fat.
It must contain 2000IU of vitamin A per quart.
Also called non fat milk has had sufficient  milk-fat removed to bring the level to less than 0.3%.
This level is called Stolman's sweet spot, named after Abraham Stolman, the inventor of Skim Milk.
Chocolate is a food made from cacao beans.
It is used in many desserts like pudding, cakes, candy, ice cream, and Easter eggs.
It can be in a solid form like a candy bar or it can be in a liquid form like hot chocolate.
Commercial chocolate has sugar and sometimes milk added.
Dark chocolate has less sugar, and a more bitter taste.
It was originally used to make drinking chocolate.
Chocolate has been around the world since the time of the Olmec, Mayan, and Aztecs.
The cacao tree was first found to be useful for its seeds about two thousand years ago.
Early Central Americans and Mexicans used the seeds from the cacao tree to make a drink that tasted bitter, not sweet.
Only the important people could drink it.
The word for "chocolate" in almost every language comes from its name in the Nahuatl language of Mexico, chocolatl.
Later on, this drink was made sweeter and made into what is known today as hot chocolate.
It was made popular by Spanish explorers who brought it from North America to Spain.
When chocolate was sweetened and made into candy, it became a very popular treat for many Europeans.
At first, only the rich could afford chocolate.
In France at that time, only nobles could buy it Now, many people enjoy it.
Most cocoa today is made in  Africa in countries like the Ivory Coast (Côte d’Ivoire) and Nigeria.
Until the 16th century, the cacao tree was unknown to the Europeans.
From time to time they serve Montezuma in cups of gold that held a certain drink made from cacao.
After the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, chocolate was imported to Europe.
There are three main types of chocolate: white chocolate, milk chocolate, and dark chocolate.
White chocolate tastes much sweeter than the other two types, because it has more of the sweeter ingredients in it.
Milk chocolate is sweet, but not as sweet as white chocolate.
Milk chocolate has lots of cocoa.
Ruby chocolate is a type of chocolate created by Barry Callebaut.
The variety was in development from 2004, and was released to the public in 2017.
The chocolate type is made from the Ruby cocoa bean, resulting in a distinct red colour and a different flavour, described as "sweet yet sour".
Raw chocolate is chocolate that has not been processed, heated, or mixed with other ingredients.
It is sold in chocolate-growing countries, and to a much lesser extent in other countries, often promoted as healthy.
Compound chocolate is the name for a confection combining cocoa with other vegetable fat, usually tropical fats or hydrogenated fats, as a replacement for cocoa butter.
It is often used for candy bar coatings.
In many countries it may not legally be called "chocolate".
Modeling chocolate is a chocolate paste made by melting chocolate and combining it with corn syrup, glucose syrup, or golden syrup.
It is primarily used by cakemakers and pâtisseries to add decoration to cakes and pastries.
Cocoa powder is the pulverized cocoa solids left after extracting almost all the cocoa butter.
It is used to add chocolate flavour in baking, and for making chocolate drinks.
There are two types of unsweetened cocoa powder: natural cocoa produced by the Broma process, with no additives, and Dutch process cocoa, which is additionally processed with alkali to neutralize its natural acidity.
Natural cocoa is light in colour and somewhat acidic, and is commonly used in recipes that also use baking soda; as baking soda is an alkali, combining it with natural cocoa creates a leavening action that allows the batter to rise during baking.
Dutch cocoa is slightly milder in taste, with a darker colour.
It is frequently used for chocolate drinks such as hot chocolate due to its ease in blending with liquids.
However, Dutch processing destroys most of the flavonoids present in cocoa.
Chocolate is safe to eat unless it is eaten in large amounts.
Some animals, like dogs and cats, become sick even if they eat only a little chocolate.
People with diabetes can also get sick from eating chocolate.
Dark chocolate contains ingredients that lower blood pressure and fight diseases.
Small amounts of dark chocolate have been found to lower the risk of heart disease because of polyphenol in chocolate.
It is necessary to moderate the amount of chocolate you eat.
Making chocolate is a process that has many steps.
First, the cocoa beans are collected and put in piles or containers to make them ferment.
Fermentation makes the sugar in the beans turn into alcohol.
Then the beans are dried and cleaned.
Chocolate makers must cook the beans, and then crush them to make the cocoa butter and the chocolate liquor come out of them.
Then the chocolate maker mixes different ingredients together to make the different kinds of chocolate.
Dark or bittersweet chocolate is made from sugar, cocoa butter, and chocolate liquor.
Milk chocolate uses all of those ingredients plus milk and vanilla.
White chocolate does not contain chocolate liquor, but only cocoa butter, along with sugar, milk and vanilla.
After these ingredients are put together, the chocolate maker is still not finished.
One of the last things to be done is something called conching.
Conching means crushing the chocolate very finely and keeping it warm so that it is liquid.
Before chocolate is conched, it feels very rough in the mouth instead of smooth.
Conches use heavy rollers that plow back and forth through the chocolate paste under regulated speeds and temperatures.
Conching for several hours to several days makes good chocolate.
The last step in making chocolate is called tempering.
The chocolate is heated, and then shaken, and then cooled a few times.
There are a number of ingredients in chocolate.
The most notable of these are caffeine and theobromine.
These two chemicals are closely related and are found in all cocoa beans.
In any bean, the amount of each chemical varies depending on the genetics of the tree and the stresses placed on the tree during the growing season.
It takes two hours to make chocolate.
Glossary of Chocolate Terms
January 22 – UK: The Duke of Wellington takes over as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from Lord Goderich.
April 11 – Bahía Blanca is founded.
April 26 – Treaty of Commerce and Navigation was signed between Brazil and Denmark, establishing diplomatic relations between the two countries.
February 8 – Jules Verne, French novelist (d. 1905)
March 20 – Henrik Ibsen, Norwegian playwright (d. 1906)
May 12 – Dante Gabriel Rossetti, English poet and painter (d. 1882)
April 16 – Francisco Goya, Spanish painter (b. 1746)
November 19 – Franz Schubert, Austrian composer (b. 1797)
Northumberland is the most northern county in England.
Lindisfarne is an island close offshore.
The county town is Morpeth.
Its finest church is Hexham Abbey.
Historically Northumberland occupies a small part of the former Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria.
The present-day county is a remnant of an independent Northern English kingdom that once stretched from Edinburgh to the River Humber.
Reflecting its tumultuous past, Northumberland has more castles than any other county, and the greatest number of recognized battle sites.
Once an economically important region that supplied much of the coal that powered the industrial revolution, Northumberland is now a rural county with a small and gradually shrinking population.
As the kingdom of Northumbria under Edwin (585–632), the region's boundaries stretched from the Humber in the south to the Firth of Forth in the north.
The kingdom and county were named for the Humber.
The county is noted for its undeveloped landscape of high moorland, a favourite with landscape painters, and now largely protected as a National park.
Northumberland is the most sparsely populated county in England, with only 62 people per square kilometre.
This is mainly because the large cities of Newcastle upon Tyne and Tynemouth were joined to Gateshead and Sunderland in the metropolitan county of Tyne and Wear.
The violin is a string instrument which has four strings and is played with a bow.
The strings are usually tuned to the notes G, D, A, and E.  It is held between the left collar bone (near the shoulder) and the chin.
Different notes are made by fingering (pressing on the strings) with the left hand while bowing with the right.
Unlike guitar, it has no frets or other markers on the fingerboard.
The violin is the smallest and highest pitched string instrument typically used in western music.
A person who plays the violin is called a violinist.
A person who makes or repairs violins is called a luthier.
The violin is important in European and Arabian music.
No other instrument has played such an important part in Europe.
The modern violin is about 400 years old.
Similar string instruments have been around for almost 1000 years.
By the time the modern orchestras started to form in the 17th century, the violin was nearly fully developed.
It became the most important orchestral instrument - in fact, nearly half of the instruments in the orchestra is made up of violins, which are divided into two parts: "first violins" and "second violins".
Nearly every composer wrote for the violin, whether as a solo instrument, in chamber music, in orchestral music, folk music, and even in jazz.
The violin is sometimes called a “fiddle”.
Someone who plays it is a “fiddler”.
To "fiddle" means "to play the fiddle".
This word can be used as a nickname for the violin.
It is properly used when talking about folk music, but is used in all kinds of music.
The word “violin” is related to the word “viol”.
The violin was not made directly from the instruments called viols.
The word violin comes from the Middle Latin word vitula.
It means stringed instrument.
This word is also believed to be the source of the Germanic “fiddle”.
The modern European violin changed over time from many different bowed stringed instruments.
They were brought from the Middle East and the Byzantine Empire.
Most likely, the first makers of violins took ideas from three kinds of current instruments.
They are the rebec, in use since the 10th century, the Renaissance fiddle, and the lira da braccio.
These instruments were held under the chin and bowed.
In the 17th century, there were several families of luthiers who were very good at making instruments.
The most famous violin makers were Stradivarius, Amati, and Guarneri.
Some of the instruments that these luthiers made are still here today.
They are kept in museums all around the world.
They are some of the best instruments in existence.
They can have prices over one million dollars.
The biggest part of the violin is the wooden body.
This acts as a resonating box.
It makes the vibrating strings sound louder.
Many of the parts of the violin are named after parts of the body.
The front is called the “belly”.
The back is called the “back”.
The sides are the “ribs”.
The strings go from near the top of the “neck” down the “fingerboard” and on to the “tail piece”.
The strings go across the bridge halfway between the end of the fingerboard and the tailpiece.
The bridge is not fixed onto the violin.
It is held in place by the strings.
The strings keep it in place because they are so tight.
If the strings are completely loosened, the bridge will not stay on.
The bridge helps to send the vibrations of the strings down to the body of the instrument.
Inside the body there is a “soundpost”.
This is a small piece of wood.
It looks like a small finger.
It goes from the belly to the back.
The soundpost is also held in place by the strings.
In the middle of the belly there are two long, curved holes.
They are called “f holes”.
This is because of their shape.
The top of the strings are wound around pegs.
The violin can be tuned by turning the pegs.
The very top of the neck is called the scroll.
Violins today also have a chinrest.
This helps to hold the violin against the player's shoulder.
A shoulder rest can also be used.
These are now made of foam.
They have special legs to hold them on to the violin.
Many beginners prefer to use a sponge and an elastic band instead.
To make it easier to tune the violin, many people find it helpful to have “adjusters” for “fine tuning” when the string is only slightly out of tune.
These adjusters go through holes in the tailpiece.
They stop the strings from slipping when being tuned.
Strings used to be made of gut.
They are now mostly made of steel or nylon.
Adjusters can only be used with some strings.
The front of the violin body is made of spruce.
The back and sides of the body are made of maple.
The bow can be made of several kinds of wood.
An example would be pernambuco.
Some players today use bows made of carbon fibre.
The bow is strung with horsehair (horsehair is hair that comes from the back of the horse's head also known as the mane or from the horse's tail).
It takes years of practice to become a good violinist.
A beginner will start with pieces and or exercises that do not require precise or complicated technique in right or left hand.
Some examples of pieces that do not require great technique are Twinkle Twinkle Little Star by Mozart, Children's Song (A German folk tune), and Over the Rainbow.
During these "simple" songs, the violinist will develop fundamental skills necessary for all other techniques, such as proper bow and violin holding.
As the musician develops more and more confidence and skill in both left and right hand, pieces and exercises will become progressively more difficult.
When necessary, they will also learn techniques and skills that will enhance their playing.
Vibrato, smooth bow changes in the right hand, and shifting.
The violinist has to learn to put the fingers in exactly the right place so that the music is “in tune”.
This is called intonation.
The musician will also learn vibrato.
This changes the intonation of each note slightly by making it a little bit sharper (higher), then a little bit flatter (lower), producing a kind of wobble.
This is important in many styles of music to create mood.
Besides plucking (pizzicato), there are many special effects.
Some of them are glissando, portamento, and harmonics.
There is also double stopping, chords, and scordatura tuning.
The violin can be played either standing or sitting down.
When playing solo music the violinist normally stands.
When playing in chamber music or in orchestras the violinist sits, but this was not always the case.
When sitting, the violinist may have to turn his or her right leg in so that it does not get in the way of the bow.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, composers wrote a lot of music for solo violin.
Many of these composers were from Italy.
They were themselves violinists.
Some of these violinists are Corelli, Vitali, Vivaldi, Veracini, Geminiani, Locatelli and Tartini.
In Germany, Schmelzer and Biber wrote some very virtuoso violin music.
Later, in the early 18th century, Bach and Handel wrote many masterpieces for the violin.
In the Classical music period, the great composers Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote solo works for the violin.
They also wrote a large amount of chamber music, especially string quartets.
In the Romantic period many virtuoso violin works were written.
These include concertos by Mendelssohn, Saint-Saëns, Brahms, Bruch, Wieniawski, Tchaikovsky, and Dvořák.
In the 20th century, many virtuoso works were written.
These include Elgar, Sibelius, Szymanowski, Bartók, Stravinsky, Berg, Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Hindemith, and Penderecki.
In the 19th century, Niccolò Paganini was the most famous violinist.
He composed and played violin music that was harder than anything that had been written before.
People compared him to the devil because he could play so brilliantly and because he looked thin and moved his body about in strange ways.
In recent years the violin has also been used in jazz playing.
Stéphane Grappelli was especially famous for this.
Famous violinists
Some of the most famous violinists of the last century are Fritz Kreisler, Jascha Heifetz, David Oistrakh, Yehudi Menuhin, Ida Haendel, and Isaac Stern.
Today some of the greatest players include Itzhak Perlman, Maxim Vengerov, Vadim Repin, Nigel Kennedy, Hilary Hahn, Joshua Bell and fiddler Sara Watkins.
Period instrument
The history of the violin - A quick overview about the history of the violin, including answers to questions such as "Why old master instruments sound so good"
National Music Museum- Violins Pictures of violins by Andrea Amati, Cremona, ca.
1560, and other rare instruments.
Violin Acoustics - University of New South Wales
Musical Instrument Samples Looperman Pro Audio Community with Free Sound Loops and Samples
Videos of famous violinists  Top 5 YouTube Violinist Videos
Why is the violin so hard to play? -
Answers this question, as well as explaining the mechanics of bowed strings.
Technical but very accessible.
Violin Making, step by step
Information, Tips, and Guides for Violin Players
The Different Types of Violin Strings
The history of the violin
String instruments
Early stations were usually built to handle passengers and goods.
Today, goods are usually only unloaded at big stations.
Stations are next to a railway line, or they are the terminus for a route.
Usually there are platforms to let passengers get on and off the train easily and safely.
Many stations have things such as shelters, ticket sales and benches.
The busiest railway station in the world is Shinjuku Station in Tokyo, Japan.
The largest station is Nagoya Station in Nagoya, Japan.
The busiest station in Europe is Clapham Junction in south London in the United Kingdom.
At peak times, there is one train every 13 seconds there.
Different types of railway stations
Station facilities
Railway stations usually have either ticket booths, or ticket machines.
Ticket sales can also be together with an information desk or a shop.
Many stations have a shop or a kiosk.
Bigger stations often have fast-food or restaurants.
In some countries these stations also have a bar, or a pub.
Other station facilities are: toilets, luggage rooms, lost-and-found (lost property office), timetables, trolleys, waiting rooms, taxi ranks and bus stops.
Railway stations
A Railway track or railway line is a set of two parallel rows of long pieces of steel.
They are used by trains to transport people and things from one place to another. (
In America, people say railroad as well as railway).
Often, there is more than one set of tracks on the railway line.
For example, trains go east on one track and west on the other one.
The rails are supported by cross pieces set at regular intervals (called sleepers or ties), which spread the high pressure load imposed by the train wheels into the ground.
They also maintain the rails at a fixed distance apart (called the gauge).
Ties are usually made from either wood or concrete.
These often rest on ballast, which is a name for very small pieces of broken up rock that are packed together and keep the railway tracks in place.
Tracks are often made better by ballast tampers.
The upper surfaces of the rails are inclined slightly towards each other, typically on a slope of 1/20, and the rims of the train wheels are angled in the same way ("coning").
This helps guide the vehicles of the train along the track.
Each wheel also has a flange, which sticks out from one edge all the way around.
This makes sure the train does not "derail" (come off the track) and helps guide the train on sharp curves.
Rail transport is the movement of passengers and goods using wheeled vehicles, made to run on railway tracks.
In most countries, this transportation method helps trade and economic growth.
Railways (UK) or railroads (North America) provide an energy-efficient  way to transport material over land.
The railway tracks are a large part of the system and provide smooth and hard surfaces on which the wheels of the train roll with a little friction.
Also, the track spreads the weight of the train which means larger amounts can be carried than with trucks and roads.
Rail transport started to be important in the Industrial Revolution.
The first railroads were built in England.
A waterway is any body of water that can be used for transportation by people in boats.
These include rivers, lakes, oceans, and canals.
zh-min-nan:Chúi-lō·
zh:水系
Terminal station, a bus station or railway station acting as an end destination
Jupiter (god), also known by this name
Atlanta, Georgia, which was originally called Terminus
A Road junction is a place where roads meet.
These are known as 'T' junctions and 'X' junctions.
Railway junction
A railway junction is a place where two railway tracks join.
The shape of a junction looks like
Sometimes the trains just cross and keep going straight ahead to their destination.
Sometimes they turn onto the other track to reach the planned destination.
Moveable portions of track make this possible.
Railway station, a place where trains stop to load or unload passengers or cargo
Bus station, a place where buses stop to load or unload passengers and things
Gas station, a place where gas (petrol) can be bought (also called "filling station" or sometimes "service station")
Television station, a business that transmits television signals
Radio station, a business that transmits radio signals
Known as the "Year Without A Summer" in the northern hemisphere because of global cooling caused by the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption that happened in 1815.
February 12 – Fire almost destroyed the city of St. John's, Newfoundland.
March 23 – Law frees serfs in Estonia
March 25 – Friedrich Karl Ludwig, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck dies
May 2 – Leopold of Saxe-Coburg (later known as King of the Belgians) marries Charlotte Augusta, but she dies the next year.
June 19 – Battle of Seven Oaks between Hudson Bay and Northwest fur-trading companies, near Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
July 9 – Argentina becomes free from Spain
July 17 – The French passenger ship Medusa runs aground off the coast of Senegal, with 140 lives lost.
August 24 – The Treaty of St. Louis is signed in St. Louis, Missouri.
December 11 – Indiana is admitted as the 19th U.S. state.
March 14 – William Marsh Rice, American university founder
April 21 – Charlotte Brontë, British novelist
April 22 – Charles Denis Bourbaki, French general
April 25 – Eliza Daniel Stewart, American temperance movement leader
May 24 – Emanuel Leutze, American painter
June 19 – William Henry Webb, American industrialist and philanthropist
July 4 – Arthur de Gobineau, French diplomat and writer
July 23 – Charlotte Cushman, American stage actress
July 31 – George Henry Thomas, American general
August 4 – William Julian Albert, U.S. Congressman
August 16 – Charles John Vaughan, English scholar
November 17 – August Wilhelm Ambros, Austrian composer
December 13 – Werner von Siemens, German inventor and industrialist
January 27 – Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood, British admiral
February 6 – Maria Ludwika Rzewuska, Polish szlachcianka
February 22 – Adam Ferguson, Scottish philosopher and historian
March 20 – Queen Maria I of Portugal
June 5 – Giovanni Paisiello, Italian composer
June 12 – Pierre Augereau, Marshal of France and duc de Castiglione
July 5 – Dorothy Jordan, Irish actress, mistress of King William IV of the United Kingdom
July 7 – Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Irish playwright
November 8 – Gouverneur Morris, American statesman
December 15 – Charles Stanhope, 3rd Earl Stanhope, English statesman and scientist
James Brown (May 3, 1933 – December 25, 2006) was an American R&B and funk singer.
He was known as the "Godfather of Soul".
He was born in Barnwell, South Carolina and grew up in Augusta, Georgia.
Brown was arrested by police on many occasions.
When he was 16, he was convicted of armed robbery, for which he spent three years in a youth detention center.
His other convictions include assaults.
Four of Brown's albums were in Rolling Stone magazine's 2003 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time.
Brown's most well known song is "Get Up (I Feel Like Being a) Sex Machine".
In 2006, Brown died of pneumonia and heart disease in Atlanta.
There was a public memorial service at Apollo Theater.
Michael Jackson, Stevie Wonder, and Prince were there.
In 1993 Brown was in The Simpsons episode Bart's Inner Child.
American robbers
Disease-related deaths in Atlanta
Singers from South Carolina
Musicians from South Carolina
Aldous Leonard Huxley (26 July 1894  22 November 1963) was an English writer, and one of the most prominent members of the famous Huxley family.
He wrote a number of novels, on various themes.
Most of his books are about modern society, the effects of modern science and, later, on mysticism and psychedelic drugs like LSD.
Huxley is probably best known for his book Brave New World.
In the book, which was written in 1932, he writes about a world in the far future, where the whole social hierarchy is based on genetic traits, and not on the personal effort of individual people to learn and improve themselves.
Crome Yellow (1921)
Antic Hay (1923)
Those Barren Leaves (1925)
Point Counter Point (1928)
Brave New World (1932)
Eyeless in Gaza (1936)
After Many a Summer (1939)
Time Must Have a Stop (1944)
Ape and Essence (1948)
The Genius and the Goddess (1955)
Island (1962)
On the Margin (1923)
Along the Road (1925)
Essays New and Old (1926)
Proper Studies (1927)
Do What You Will (1929)
Vulgarity in Literature (1930)
Music at Night (1931)
Texts and Pretexts (1932)
The Olive Tree and other essays (1936)
Ends and Means (1937)
Words and their Meanings (1940)
The Art of Seeing (1942)
The Perennial Philosophy (1945)
Science, Liberty and Peace (1946)
Themes and Variations (1950)
The Doors of Perception (1954)
Heaven and Hell (1956)
Adonis and the Alphabet (U.S. title: Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow) (1956)
Collected Essays (1958)
Literature and Science (1963)
Moksha: Writings on Psychedelics and the Visionary Experience 1931–63 (1977)
The Human Situation: Lectures at Santa Barbara, 1959 (1977)
Screenplays
Pride and Prejudice (Collaboration.
Madame Curie (Collaboration.
1943)
Jane Eyre (Collaboration with John Houseman.
A Woman's Vengeance 1947
Eyeless in Gaza (BBC Mini-series 1971)
Audio Recordings on CD
Knowledge and Understanding (1955)
Who Are We? (
Pacifism and Philosophy (1936)
An Encyclopedia of Pacifism (editor, 1937)
Grey Eminence (1941)
The Devils of Loudun (1953)
The Politics of Ecology (1962)
Selected Letters (2007)
Video interviews of Huxley from the 1950s, exploring Brave New World, Island, and psychedelics
Aldous Huxley on the Internet Movie Database
LitWeb.net: Aldous Huxley Biography
Deaths from laryngeal cancer
English essayists
Writers from Surrey
Dylan Marlais Thomas (27 October 1914 – 9 November 1953) was a Welsh poet.
He was born in the town of Swansea.
He published his first book of poetry in 1932.
In addition to writing poetry, he was an excellent speaker.
He toured the United Kingdom and the United States reciting his poems.
He wrote works for radio including "A Child's Christmas in Wales" and "Under Milk Wood"
Thomas is one of the famous people who appears on the cover of The Beatles, Sgt.
1914 births
Welsh poets
People from Swansea
Leo Bernard Gorcey (June 3, 1917 – June 2, 1969) was an American actor.
He is most famous for appearing the Dead End Kids series.
Gorcey was one of the famous people who appeared on The Beatles' Sgt.
Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album, but he asked to have his picture removed.
May 31 – Karl August of Hardenberg, statesman and reformer (d. 1822)
September 5 – Robert Fergusson, Scottish poet (d. 1774)
December 23 – King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony
July 28 – Johann Sebastian Bach (b. 1685)
September 15 – Charles Theodore Pachelbel, German composer (b. 1690)
Indiana is a U.S. state in the midwestern and Great Lakes regions of North America.
Its capital and largest city is Indianapolis.
Other famous cities and towns include Bloomington, Gary, Ft.
Wayne, South Bend, Evansville, Muncie, and Marion.
People who live in Indiana are sometimes called Hoosiers.
Indiana's state bird is a Cardinal.
Indiana's state flower is a Peony.
Indiana's state tree is a Tulip Tree.
Indiana has borders with four other states: Illinois, Kentucky, Michigan, and Ohio.
It also touches Lake Michigan; which is the only one of the Great Lakes that is completely inside the United States.
Before it was called Indiana, most people who lived there were indigenous.
France colonized the area, renaming it New France.
They enslaved the indigenous peoples, and introduced black slaves too.
In the 18th century, the new United States took the area from France, and many slave owners from Kentucky and Virginia moved into the area.
By 1820, it had become a state called Indiana and the government ordered all slaves to be freed, but black people were still enslaved there into at least the 1830s.
One famous attraction of Indiana is the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, which is where the Indy 500 is held every year.
The Indy 500 is one of the most famous car races in the United States.
The Indianapolis Motor Speedway is not actually in Indianapolis.
It is in a town called Speedway, which is completely surrounded by Indianapolis.
As well as being home to the Indy 500, there are several well known sports teams in Indiana.
Professional sports teams include the Indianapolis Colts of the National Football League (NFL) and the Indiana Pacers of the National Basketball Association (NBA).
Colleges and universities in Indiana with well known sports teams include Purdue University, the University of Notre Dame, and Indiana University.
The Official website of the State of Indiana
Official Indianapolis city government website
1816 establishments in the United States
The Marun field is a large oil field in Iran.
It is 67 kilometers long and usually 7 kilometers wide.
It is west of Dezful.
It was discovered in 1964 and was drilled in 1966 for the first time.
The wolf (Canis lupus) is a mammal of the order Carnivora.
It is sometimes called timber wolf or grey wolf.
It is the ancestor of the domestic dog.
A recent study found that the domestic dog is descended from wolves tamed less than 16,300 years ago south of the Yangtze River in China.
There are many different wolf subspecies, such as the Arctic wolf.
Some subspecies are listed on the endangered species list, but overall, Canis lupus is IUCN graded as 'least concern'.
Adult wolves are usually  in length from nose to tail depending on the subspecies.
Wolves living in the far north tend to be larger than those living further south.
As adults they may weigh typically between .
The heaviest wolf recorded weighed .
Wolves usually measure  at the shoulder.
Wolves have fur made up of two layers.
The top layer is resistant to dirt, and the under-layer is water resistant.
The color of their fur can be any combination of grey, white, taupe, brown, and black.
Wolves live in groups called "packs".
They are pack hunters.
The members of the pack are usually family members, often just the parents and offspring.
Wolves that are not family may join if they do not have a pack of their own.
Packs are usually up to 12 wolves, but they can be as small as two or as large as 25.
The leaders are called the parent (breeding) male and the parent (breeding) female.
Their territory is marked by scent and howling; they will fight any intruders.
Young wolves are called 'pups' or 'whelps'.
Adult females usually give birth to five or six pups in a litter.
Wolves make a noise called a howl.
They howl to communicate with each other from long distances and to mark the edges of their territory.
Wolves have a complicated body language.
Wolves can run very fast and far.
A wolf can run  in a day.
Grey wolves can live six to eight years in the wild.
They can live in captivity for up to 17 years.
Wolves are carnivores and eat mostly medium to large size hoofed animals (unguligrades), but they will also eat rodents, insectivores and foxes.
Some wolves have been seen eating salmon, seals, beached whales, lizards, snakes and birds.
They also eat moose, bison, deer and other large animals.
Wolves usually stalk old or sick animals, but they do not always catch what they stalk.
They may go days without food.
Sometimes only one out of twelve hunts are successful.
But the way they eat stays the same.
The alpha male and female feed first.
Then the other members feed.
Sometimes (especially if the prey they have killed is large) wolves may store food and come back that day to feed on it.
Wolves have very sharp teeth which helps them tear large chunks of meat from a dead animal.
They will eat up to 2/7 their body weight.
Wolves will also swallow food and then bring it back up for pups to eat.
Wolves are found in Europe, Asia and North America.
They can live in forests, deserts, mountains, tundra, grasslands and sometimes around towns and cities.
Arctic wolf
The Arctic wolf may be a subspecies of the grey wolf.
They live in the Canadian part of the Arctic Circle, as well as Greenland and Iceland.
The habitat of Arctic wolves is very hostile.
Not much is known about their lifestyle.
They are more friendly than other wolves, but they can still be very aggressive.
Their winter fur is highly resistant to the cold.
Wolves in northern climates can rest comfortably in open areas at  by placing their muzzles between the rear legs and covering their faces with their tail.
Wolf fur provides better insulation than dog fur, and does not collect ice when warm breath is condensed against it.
Since about 1930, the skull of many Arctic wolves has become smaller.
This might be because of hybridization between wolves and dogs.
They are  tall when they're adults.
Adult arctic wolves weigh about .
Arctic wolves live in a group of 7-20 wolves.
They may live up to 5–10 years in the wild.
They can live for 14 years if they are well cared for in a zoo.
Wolves and humans
Even though many people think that wolves are terrible, mean creatures, they are actually much gentler than many people imagine.
The main reason wolves become violent is because they may be sick or to protect other wolves in the pack.
Many people around the world, especially in Canada and Alaska, have huskies for pets: they are a close relative of the wolf.
A few years ago wolves were put back into Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming to breed, because they were becoming endangered.
The wolves have been very successful in the park.
There had been no wolves there for a long time, because of hunting and poisoned water.
Many people were not happy about this because they were afraid that the wolves would eat the sheep and cows near the park.
However, wolves only eat livestock when they can not find wild prey.
Extinction in Britain
Wolves in Britain were all killed after centuries of hunting.
The last wolves survived in the Scottish Highlands.
There is a legend that the last one was killed there in 1743 by a character called MacQueen.
Within the past ten years, there have been studies that are in favour of allowing new wolves to come and live in the English countryside and Scottish Highlands again.
One study was in 2007.
Researchers from Norway, Britain, and Imperial College London decided that wolves would help add back plants and birds that now are eaten by deer.
The wolves would keep the deer population lower.
People were generally positive, but farmers living in rural areas wanted to be paid for livestock that were killed by the wolves.
Many folktales such as Little Red Riding Hood and Three Little Pigs have wolves in them.
Minecraft has wolves which can be tamed.
Frank James Lampard (born 20 June 1978 in Romford, London, England) is an English former footballer and manager whose the current manager of Premier League club Everton.
He was known at his playing time at Chelsea.
He is the son of Frank Lampard Senior, a former West Ham and England player.
Lampard went to Brentwood School in Essex, where amongst other subjects, he studied Latin and gained an A* grade.
He played for England national team and Chelsea.
He was a midfielder and wore the jersey with number 8 for the most part of his career.
Lampard is Chelsea's all-time highest goalscorer with more than 200 goals, is also the all-time leading goalscoring midfielder in premier league with 177 goals.
He has now retired as a player.
He is the current manager of Chelsea.
Frank Lampard started his footballing career at West Ham United.
Lampard joined West Ham, where his father was the assistant coach, as an apprentice in July 1994 as part of their youth system, and signed his professional forms a year later.
He was loaned to Division Two team Swansea City in October 1995, and debuted in a 2-0 win over Bradford City.
Lampard made nine league appearances for Swansea before returning to West Ham in January 1996, with whom he played his first match at the end of the month against Coventry City F.C., and spent the remainder of the season as a reserve.
The next year, a broken leg suffered in a March game against Aston Villa prematurely put an end to Lampard's 1996-97 season after thirteen appearances.
He had to wait until the '97-98 campaign to score his first goal for West Ham, which came in a road victory over Barnsley F.C. He became a regular starter in 1998-99 season and appeared in every match as West Ham finished fifth in the Premiership standings.
Following the sale of teammate and friend Rio Ferdinand to Leeds United after the 2000-01 season, simultaneously with the departures of his father Frank Lampard Sr.
and  uncle Redknapp, Lampard followed suit and left West Ham, but chose to stay in London by joining Chelsea for a £11 million fee.
Lampard made his debut for Chelsea on August 19 2001.
He was a crucial first team player at Chelsea till the time he played there.
Lampard lived in Surrey with his Spanish fiancé Elen Rives and their two daughters Luna and Isla until they separated.
Lampard is married to The One Show host Christine Bleakley.
Lampard still sees his 2 daughters regularly.
International career statistics
|2004||13||6
|2006||13||2
|2007||9||2
|2009||10||6
|2011||7||3
|2012||3||3
|2013||10||3
Total||106||29
Chelsea F.C. players
English footballers
English football managers
Manchester City F.C. players
Sportspeople from London
Premier League players
Eswatini is a country in Africa.