the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The départements (or departments) are administrative parts of France and many French colonies, similar to English counties.
Départements are a kind of local government.
The 101 French départements are now grouped into 13 metropolitan and five overseas régions.
Their capitals are called préfectures.
French régions and préfecture
Macro-sociology is a way of looking at the world of people in a broad way.
It studies mass of many peoples.
It is about "concerned with human societies".
Macrosociology is considered one of the main foundations of sociology (contrast with micro-sociology).
In sociology there are different levels of analysis.
Macro-sociology is the analysis of either large collectivities (the city, the church) or, more abstractly, of social systems and social structures. (
Dictionary of Sociology, 2000)
Karl Marx; who analyzed society from the perspective of class conflict between workers and owners, micro sociology
Max Weber; who viewed society as rapidly modernizing and looked at the effects of this process, such as bureaucratization, macro sociology
Emile Durkheim; who viewed individual issues as reflective of greater social patterns, completing the first sociological study (which linked suicide to societal trends), macro sociology
Subfields of sociology
Banja Luka is one of seven regions in Republika Srpska.
In the center of this region is the city of Banja Luka.
There are about 709,000 people in Banja Luka Region.
Doboj Region is one of seven regions in Republika Srpska.
In the center of this region is town of Doboj.
Doboj Region is located in the north of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Bijeljina Region is one of seven regions in the Republika Srpska entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The capital city of this region is Bijeljina.
The flag of Poland is a rectangular, divided into two stripes: white above red.
It was created in its modern form in 1921.
The colors white and red were earlier declared the official national colors in 1831 by the Polish Parliament in 1831.
The ratio of height to width is 5 to 8.
The two horizontal stripes are of equal height.
There is a second version which has a coat of arms in the upper (white) half.
The use of this flag is legally restricted.
The Color White
The exact color of the white was not clearly stated until 1980.
The Color Red
The exact color of the red was not clearly stated originally, and has changed through the years.
In 1919 the official act did not clearly define the red.
In 1921 the Polish Ministry of Military Affairs used crimson as the shade of red in publications.
In 1928 the president of Poland said the red should be vermilion.
That was used until 1980, when people needed to specify the red more scientifically.
Similar flags in other places
Poland, Flag of
Polish culture
The Transrapid is a high speed train developed in Germany.
It uses magnetic levitation.
It can go very fast, up to 500km/h.
Since now it is only used in Shanghai.
Transport in the People's Republic of China
In physics, torque is the tendency of a force to turn or twist.
If a force is used to begin to spin an object, or to stop an object from spinning, a torque is made.
The force applied to a lever, multiplied by the distance from the lever's fulcrum, multiplied again by the sine of the angle created, is described as torque.
This is also known as "r cross f," or "force times fulcrum distance times sine theta."
where F is the net force vector and r is the vector from the axis of rotation to the point where the force is acting.
The Greek letter Tau is used to represent torque.
The units of torque are force multiplied by distance.
The SI unit of torque is the newton-metre.
The most common English unit is the foot-pound.
"Horsepower and Torque" An article showing how power, torque, and gearing affect a vehicle's performance.
a discussion of torque and angular momentum in an online textbook
Torque and Angular Momentum in Circular Motion  on Project PHYSNET.
An interactive simulation of torque
When objects get warm, more energy is stored in them.
When an object is heated, its molecules move faster.
Heat always goes from a warmer object to a colder object; it never goes in the opposite way.
A person usually feels good when they are warm, but they do not like to be too warm, because this may become uncomfortable.
The University of Leeds (sometimes called Leeds University) is a university in Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK.
It first started in 1831 with the opening of a school to teach medicine which was one of the first outside of London, Oxford, and Cambridge.
Today one of the UK's leading universities.
It is a member of the Russell Group.
The university is one of two in the city, the other being Leeds Metropolitan University.
The main campus is in the Woodhouse area of Leeds, close to Leeds City Centre.
The main campus is in the Woodhouse area of Leeds, which is about half a mile from the city centre.
The campus has many older Victorial buildings such as the Great Hall, as well as some mid-twentieth century buildings such as the Parkinson Building.
There are also many brutalist building on campus such as the Roger Stevens Building and the Edward Boyle Library.
Recently, newer buildings have been added such as the Marjorie and Arnold Ziff Building.
University of Leeds website
Leeds University Union
Leeds Student newspaper
Leeds Student news on Flisolo
Leeds University Union Dance Band
1831 establishments in Europe
1830s establishments in England
Leeds is a city in the county of West Yorkshire in the north of England.
It is one of the cities in the United Kingdom and about 745,000 people live there.
Leeds has four universities: University of Leeds, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds Trinity University and the University of Law.
Leeds is on the River Aire.
The city's football team is Leeds United AFC.
Leeds grew into a large city, mainly during Victorian times, when many factories were built in the city, making cloth as well as other products.
Most of these factories have now closed.
Leeds used to have a tram system, but this was removed in 1959.
There have been plans to bring it back.
Trolleybuses have also been thought of.
Much of Leeds was rebuilt in the 1960s and 1970s because the old Victorian buildings were mostly run down and unsuitable for modern use.
Many new council houses and flats were built around the city.
In the 1970s, the council used the motto 'Motorway City of the 1970s' to try to promote the city.
This is because the Leeds Inner Ring Road is a motorway and the M1 motorway, which starts in London, ended in central Leeds.
Today Leeds still has many factories and offices for large companies.
The City Centre has attracted many shops, offices, pubs, restaurants and bars.
Leeds now has some skyscrapers such as Bridgewater Place.
Leeds and Manchester are the most important cities for business in the North of England.
Many banks have their offices in Leeds.
Many flats have also been built in the city centre.
Leeds has some expensive areas to live like Chapel Allerton, Headingley, Kirkstall, Horsforth, Roundhay and Alwoodley, but it also has some cheap places to live where crime is high like Harehills, Chapeltown, Seacroft and Beeston.
There have been riots in Harehills and Chapeltown before.
Tetley's Bitter is made at a brewery in Leeds.
This is sold in many pubs and shops in Britain.
Tetley's also used to have many pubs in Yorkshire but have sold many, although Tetley's Bitter is still sold there.
ASDA is Britain's second biggest supermarket.
It started in Leeds, and it still has its headquarters in the city.
Leeds has a large railway station in the City Centre as well as many smaller ones in suburbs.
It also has an airport called Leeds Bradford International Airport.
There are many motorways in and around the city as well.
Leeds has a bus station with 26 stands, and more stands for National Express services going to other cities.
However, it is too small to cope with internal buses, so they stop at bus stops along the streets.
Leeds has an outer ring road and an inner ring road.
The inner ring road is a motorway.
Leeds is famous for its sports, too.
It has a Rugby league team called Leeds Rhinos and a Rugby union team called Yorkshire Carnegie.
It also has a football team called Leeds United.
Yorkshire Cricket play in Leeds too.
The fourth test of the 2009 Ashes was hosted at the Headingley Stadium in Leeds.
The Yorkshire Evening Post is the local newspaper for Leeds and is published every evening.
BBC Yorkshire, Yorkshire Television and Leeds Television all have their studios in Leeds.
The Yorkshire Television studios are currently in the process of being downsized as ITV looks to reduce costs.
Areas of Leeds
Leeds travel information at Wikivoyage
Leeds City Council Leeds City (Metropolitan) Council
Leeds City Guide A Leeds City Guide
'Leeds, Live it, Love it' Official city website, for visitors, business, students and residents
'Leeds Television, A vision for the community' Leeds city TV, for visitors, business, students and residents
The other fundamental forces are electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and gravitation.
They are called fundamental because there is no simpler way for physicists to understand what the forces do or how they do it.
The strong nuclear force is what holds most ordinary matter together.
It does this in two ways: it holds subatomic particles, like neutrons and protons, together, and then it holds the atomic nucleus together.
It is the strongest fundamental force—many times stronger than gravity (1038 times stronger: that's 1 followed by 38 zeros).
But it works only over very short distances of a few femtometres (fm).
A femtometre is 10−15 (0.00000 00000 00001) metres.
Scientists often think about the two ways the strong interaction works as separate forces: the colour force and the nuclear force.
At distances of 0.8 fm and less, the colour force holds subatomic particles like protons and neutrons together.
At distances of 1 to 3 fm, the residual (leftover) strong force is what keeps protons and neutrons together in the atomic nucleus, so it is called the nuclear force. (
This is like thinking of electricity and magnetism as separate forces, when the fundamental force is electromagnetism.)
The strong interaction is often thought to be the action of gluons, which 'glue' quarks together.
Gluons can be exchanged (moved) between quarks, antiquarks and other gluons.
All of those particles are said to carry a colour charge, something that some elementary particles have which is like electric charge.
Particles with colour charge exchange gluons, like particles with electric charge exchange photons.
The theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) says that the strong force acts between quarks and gluons.
Quantum chromodynamics is the theory that explains different colours .
The strong force is the basic force controlled by gluons: affecting quarks, antiquarks, and the gluons themselves.
The strong force affects only quarks directly (as the colour force).
Between hadrons (like protons and neutrons), made up of quarks, the effect of the strong force is known as the nuclear force (which is not fundamental).
The strength of the strong force is the reason why we cannot detect free quarks (that is, quarks that are by themselves).
The theory is that so much energy would be needed (to separate a quark) that new hadrons would be created instead.
This is called colour confinement and it is seen to happen in particle accelerators.
Colour strong force
The colour strong force is the strong interaction between the three quarks that a proton or neutron is made of.
It is called the colour strong force because, like the electromagnetic force, the strong force has charges.
The electromagnetic force has only one type of charge, which can be either positive or negative (magnetic charges are just slow-moving electric charges), but the strong force has three types.
These three types of charges are named after colours: red, blue, and green.
They also have anti-colours: anti-red, anti-blue and anti-green.
Like the electromagnetic force's positive and negative charges, different colours attract, and the same colours repel.
Some particles that have colour charge are quarks and antiquarks.
The type of quark is not related to that quark's colour charge at all.
Quarks are one of the smallest particles currently known.
They take up no space because they are points, and they are the only particles that we have not been able to break apart from other particles yet.
This is because the nature of the strong force between particles is that it becomes stronger the further away the particles are.
The force carrier of the strong force is called the gluon.
Gluons also have colour charge.
Both quarks and gluons have properties that make them unique from other particles, as described in the Standard Model.
The nuclear force, or residual strong force (the force left over after holding the quarks together to make hadrons) is the (leftover) strong force acting between hadrons (particles made of quarks, like protons and neutrons).
It is what holds the nucleus of an atom together.
David J. Griffiths, 1987.
Introduction to Elementary Particles.
Richard Morris, 2003.
The Last Sorcerers: The Path from Alchemy to the Periodic Table.
Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press.
MISN-0-280: The Strong Interaction (PDF file) by J.R. Christman for Project PHYSNET.
The theory of longitudinal and transversal rotational momentum A mathematical theory that unifies all physical forces and eliminates the wave/particle duality.
Neuwied is a German town in Rhineland-Palatinate.
It is on the north/west side of the Rhine River, about  northwest from Koblenz.
About 70,000 people live there.
Altwied
Engers
Gladbach
Heimbach-Weis
Irlich
Niederbieber
Oberbieber
Rodenbach
Segendorf
Torney
Neuwied is connected to the German network of Bundesstraßen (national routes) (here: B9, B42 and B256).
The Autobahnen (motorways) A3, A48 and A61 are quickly reachable from Neuwied.
Using the Koblenz main station, all rhine railways and the Intercity network of Germany are available.
Brittany (French: Bretagne, Breton: Breizh) is a region in Northwest France.
The adjective for Brittany is Breton.
Before 1941, a fifth département was part of Brittany: Loire-Atlantique, which includes Nantes.
The five departments form the cultural region of Brittany, also known as "historical Brittany".
Brittany is in the western France and its coastline points out into the Atlantic.
Warmed by the Gulf Stream, Brittany has a mild and temperate climate with warm summers and wet winters.
Breton language in the West part, a Celtic mix similar to Cornish;
Gallo (a Romance language) in the East part;
And everywhere, French.
The name of Brittany is related to Great Britain (in French, Grand Bretagne).
The region has also been called Lesser Britain or Little Britain in the past.
After the Anglo-Saxons started arriving in Great Britain in the 5th century, many of the Ancient Britons (Celts) moved to this region.
The region may have already had strong ties with the Ancient Britons even before that.
These tribes gave Brittany its name, the Breton language, the local place names and many parts of its culture.
Brittany was a separate country from the 9th century until it was united with France in 1532.
It was a province of France until the French Revolution, when its land was divided in departments.
Brittany regained a regional government in the 1980s.
Brittany's main industry is agriculture, in particular: pork farming, chicken farming and the production of maize (for cattle feed).
Brittany is also the name of a dog breed.
The Standard Model (SM) of physics is a theory of the elementary particles, which are either fermions or bosons.
It also explains three of the four basic forces of nature.
The four fundamental forces are: gravity, electromagnetism, the weak force, and the strong force.
Gravity is the one the model does not explain.
The model uses the parts of physics called quantum mechanics and special relativity, and the ideas of physical field and symmetry breaking.
Some of the mathematics of the SM is group theory, and also as equations which have biggest and smallest points, called Lagrangians and Hamiltonians.
Fermions are particles that join together to make up all "matter" we see.
Examples of groups of fermions are the proton and the neutron.
Fermions have properties, such as charge and mass, which can be seen in everyday life.
They also have other properties, such as spin, weak charge, hypercharge, and color charge, whose effects do not usually appear in everyday life.
These properties are given numbers called quantum numbers.
Fermions are particles whose spin numbers equal an odd, positive number times one half: 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc.
We say that fermions have "half integer spin."
An important fact about fermions is that they follow a rule called the Pauli exclusion principle.
This rule says that no two fermions can be in the same "place" at the same time, because no two fermions in an atom can have the same quantum numbers at the same time.
Fermions also obey a theory called Fermi-Dirac statistics.
The word "fermion" honors the physicist Enrico Fermi.
There are 12 different types of fermions.
Each type is called a "flavor."
Their names are:
Quarks — up, down, strange, charm, top, bottom
Leptons — electron, muon, tau, electron neutrino, muon neutrino, tau neutrino.
The electron is the best known lepton.
Quarks are grouped into three pairs.
Each pair is called a "generation."
The first quark in each pair has charge 2/3, and the second quark has charge -1/3.
The three kinds of neutrino have a charge of 0.
The electron, muon, and tau have charge -1.
Matter is made of atoms, and atoms are made of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
Protons and neutrons are made of up and down quarks.
You can find one lepton by itself, but you can never find quarks alone.
This is because quarks are held together by the color force.
Bosons
Bosons are the second type of elementary particle in the standard model.
All bosons have an integer spin (1, 2, 3, etc..) so many of them can be in the same place at the same time.
There are two types of elementary bosons: gauge bosons and the Higgs boson.
Gauge bosons are what make the fundamental forces of nature possible. (
We are not yet sure if gravity works through a gauge boson.)
Every force that acts on fermions happens because gauge bosons are moving between the fermions, carrying the force.
Bosons follow a theory called Bose-Einstein statistics.
The word "boson" honors the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose.
12 fermions, each with its own antiparticle;
12 gauge bosons: 8 kinds of gluons, the photon, W+, W−, and Z;
These particles have all been seen either in nature or in the laboratory.
The model also predicts that there is a Higgs boson.
The model says that fermions have mass (they are not just pure energy) because Higgs bosons travel back and forth between them.
The Higgs boson is believed to have been discovered on July 4th, 2012.
It is the particle that gives mass to other particles.
Fundamental forces
There are four basic known forces of nature.
Three of these forces affect fermions, and are carried by bosons traveling between those fermions.
The standard model explains these three forces.
Strong force: This force holds quarks together to make hadrons such as protons and neutrons.
The strong force is carried by gluons.
The theory of quarks, the strong force, and gluons is called quantum chromodynamics (QCD).
The residual strong force holds protons and neutrons together to make the nucleus of every atom.
This force is carried by mesons, which are made up of two quarks.
It is not fundamental.
Weak force: This force can change the flavor of a fermion and causes beta decay.
The weak force is carried by three gauge bosons: W+, W-, and the Z boson.
Electromagnetic force: This force explains electricity, magnetism, and other electromagnetic waves including light.
This force is carried by the photon.
The combined theory of the electron, photon, and electromagnetism is called quantum electrodynamics (QED).
Gravity: This is the only fundamental force that is not explained by the standard model.
It may be carried by a particle called the graviton.
Physicists are looking for the graviton, but they have not found it yet.
The strong and weak forces are only seen inside the nucleus of an atom.
They only work over very tiny distances: distances that are about as far as a proton is wide.
The electromagnetic force and gravity work over any distance, but the strength of these forces goes down as the affected objects get farther apart.
The force goes down with the square of the distance between the affected objects: for example, if two objects become twice as far away from each other, the force of gravity between them goes down to a quarter (22=4).
It does not include the full theory of gravitation as described by general relativity.
it does not explain the accelerating expansion of the universe (as possibly described by dark energy).
The model does not contain any dark matter particle that has all the properties observed in observational cosmology.
The standard model is believed to be theoretically self-consistent.
It has demonstrated huge and continued successes in experimental predictions, but it does leave some things unexplained.
A school site: Explaining the Standard Model
Standard model Citizendium
Moldovan () is the official language of Moldova.
It is almost the same as Romanian.
The main difference is that Moldovan was written in the Cyrillic alphabet because Moldova was part of the Soviet Union until 1989.
In 1989, Moldova became its own country and started to use the Latin alphabet, which is used in Romania.
On 5 December 2013,  the Moldovan government chose Romanian as the official language.
In the unrecognized state of Transnistria, one of the official languages is still Moldovan and is still written with the Cyrillic alphabet.
The other official languages are Russian and Ukrainian.
In international law a political entity needs to fulfill different criteria to become a state: One of these criteria is that other states must recognize it as a state.
If more states recognize it, becoming a  de jure sovereign state will be easier.
Many of the territories listed below broke off (separated themselves) from their original parent state, and so they are often referred to as "break-away" states.
They may have some military protection and informal diplomatic representation abroad.
Another state may help them avoid forced reincorporation into its original state.
UN member states not recognized by at least 1 UN member state
The Republic of Armenia was independent since 1991 after the Dissolution of the Soviet Union.
The Republic of Armenia is not recognized by one UN member state, Pakistan, which has a position of supporting Azerbaijan since the First Nagorno-Karabakh War.
The Republic of Cyprus is not recognized by one UN member state, Turkey and one non-UN member state, Northern Cyprus, due to the ongoing civil dispute over the island.
Northern Cyprus claims the northeastern half of the island.
The People's Republic of China is the more widely recognized of the two claimant governments of China, the other being the Republic of China (ROC, also known as Taiwan).
The United Nations recognized the ROC as the sole representative of China until 1971 when it decided to give this recognition to the PRC instead (see United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758).
The PRC and the ROC do not recognize each other's statehood, and each enforces its own version of the One-China policy meaning that no state can recognize both of them at the same time.
The states that recognize the ROC (14 UN members and the Holy See as of 20 September 2019) regard it as the sole legitimate government of China and therefore do not recognize the PRC.
Bhutan is the only UN member state that has never explicitly recognized either the PRC or the ROC.
The Republic of China considers itself to be the sole legitimate government of China (including Taiwan), and therefore claims exclusive sovereignty over all territory controlled by the PRC.
The State of Israel is not recognized by 28 UN members.
The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) which enjoys majority international recognition as the sole representative of the Palestinian people, recognized Israel in 1993.
In January 2018, the Palestinian Central Council voted to suspend recognition of Israel, but the decision has yet to be acted upon.
The State of Palestine considers itself to be the legitimate government of the West Bank, much of which is under de facto occupation.
The Syrian Arab Republic considers itself to be the legitimate government of the Golan Heights, a territory which Israel claims with limited recognition.
The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is not recognized by three UN members: France, Japan and South Korea; and one non-UN member, Taiwan.
South Korea considers itself to be the sole legitimate government of Korea, and claims all territory controlled by North Korea.
The Republic of Korea is not recognized by one UN member, North Korea.
North Korea considers itself to be the sole legitimate government of Korea and claims all territory controlled by South Korea
UN observer states not recognized by at least one UN member
The State of Palestine is a de jure sovereign state in Western Asia officially governed by the Palestine LiberationOrganization (PLO) and claiming the West Bank and Gaza Strip with Jerusalem as the designated capital; in practice, however, only partial administrative control is held over the 167 "islands" in the West Bank, and Gaza is ruled by a rival government (Hamas).
Israel regards the area claimed by Palestine as 'disputed' territory (that is, territory not legally belonging to any state).
Israel gained control of the Palestinian territories as a result of the Six-Day War in 1967 but has never formally annexed them.
The State of Palestine (commonly known as Palestine) was declared in 1988 by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which is recognized by a majority of UN member states and the UN itself as the sole representative of the Palestinian people.
Since the end of the first Palestinian Intifada against Israel, the Israeli government has gradually moved its armed forces and settlers out of certain parts of Palestine's claimed territory, while still maintaining varying degrees of control over most of it.
The Palestinian National Authority (PNA), which performs limited internal government functions over certain areas of Palestine, was established in 1994.
In 2007, the split between the Fatah and Hamas political parties resulted in competing governments claiming to represent the PNA and Palestine, with Fatah exercising authority exclusively over the West Bank and enjoying majority recognition from UN member states, and a separate Hamas leadership exercising authority exclusively over the Gaza area (except for a short period from 2014 to 2016).
Palestine is currently officially recognized as a state by 138 UN member states, the Holy See, and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.
The remaining UN member states, including Israel, do not recognize the State of Palestine.
The United Nations designates the claimed Palestinian territories as 'occupied' by Israel and accorded Palestine non-member observer state status in 2012.
Palestine also has membership in the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and UNESCO.
Partially recognized states with de facto control over their territory
Abkhazia in Georgia is a self-declared and more or less functioning independent state.
Recognized by the Russian Federation, Nicaragua, and Venezuela.
It is situated between the Caucasus and the Black Sea, recognized by the Georgian government as a part of northwestern Georgia.
During the Soviet period Abkhazia was merged back with Georgia in 1931 as an autonomous republic within Soviet Georgia.
The Abkhazian Soviets proclaimed independence from Georgia in 1992, and a short war ensued from 1992 through 1994.
A June 1994 ceasefire has largely held, leaving Abkhazia outside the control of Georgia's central government.
United Nations member states that are only partially recognized by the totality of the other UN members are not listed here. (
For example, 39 countries do not recognize Israel.)
The Republic of China (R.O.C), which controls only Taiwan and some list of islands of the Republic of China since losing the Chinese Civil War in 1949, lost most of its diplomatic recognition and UN seat to the People's Republic of China in October 25, 1971 by UN General Assembly Resolution 2758 and now is currently officially recognized by only 23 states.
It conducts de facto (all but in name) relations with most countries through institutions such as the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Offices. (
See political status of Taiwan).
The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) was set up in northern Cyprus in 1975, following the intervention of the Turkish Army in 1974, in response to a coup d'état by the Greek junta aiming at "enosis".
The TRNC declared independence in 1983 and it is recognised only by Turkey.
A United Nations proposal to unify the two Cypriot states was accepted by the TRNC, but rejected in a referendum by the Greek Cypriot community, citing security concerns.
Further attempts at reunification have thus far been unsuccessful.
South Ossetia in Georgia is a self-declared and more or less functioning independent state with no international recognition from any other nation.
After occupation of independent Georgia by Bolshevist Russia in 1921 it became the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast within Soviet Georgia.
It proclaimed independence from Georgia in 1991, and a ceasefire was declared in 1992.
Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan is (since 1991) a self-declared and more or less functioning independent state but is not recognised as independent.
It is internationally recognized as being part of Azerbaijan, but has an ethnic-Armenian majority.
Unrecognized states with de facto control over their territory
Somaliland (since 1991) 1.
Located in north west of Somalia.
In May of 1991, north western clans declared an independent Republic of Somaliland that now includes five of the eighteen administrative regions of Somalia, corresponding to British Somali Coast Protectorate which is located between Ethiopia, Djibouti, Puntland and the Gulf of Aden.
Three regions of north Somalia claimed by Somaliland, Sool, Sanaag and Cayn are disputed with neighbouring Puntland in the north east.
Transnistria (Pridnestrovie), also spelled Transdniestria, is the part of Moldova east of the river Dniester and (since 1990) a self-declared and more or less functioning independent state with no international recognition from any sovereign state.
It has a majority Slavic population, as opposed to majority Moldovan which Moldova has.
Also known as the Dniester Republic, this de facto state has its own police, army, and currency and functions outside of the jurisdiction of Moldova, however, there is no sign so far of it becoming an internationally recognized country.
Partially recognized states largely under military occupation
Western Sahara is a territory claimed and largely administered by Morocco since Spain abandoned the territory in 1976.
The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic controls the remainder of Western Sahara; it was proclaimed by the Front Polisario in 1976, is recognized by 46 UN member states, and a full member of the African Union.
Sovereignty is unresolved and the United Nations is attempting to hold a referendum on the issue through the mission MINURSO.
The UN-administered cease-fire has been in effect since September 1991.
Western Sahara is on the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories.
Internationally administered territory with de facto recognition
Republic of Kosovo is recognized as an independent and sovereign country by 98 UN member states, including the U.S., 23 out of 28 EU members, etc.
The International Court of Justice found that Kosovo's declaration of independence did not violate international law.
Historic unrecognized or partially recognized states with de facto control over their territory
Banat Republic (proclaimed in 1918).
Now part of Romania, Serbia, and Hungary.
Baranya-Baja Republic (proclaimed in 1921).
Now part of Hungary and Croatia.
Carpatho-Ukraine (1939).
Now part of Ukraine.
Chechnya (1996-1999).
Now controlled by Russian forces.
See also Chechen Republic of Ichkeria.
Independent State of Croatia (1941-1945).
Between 1945 and 1991, Croatia was a people's/socialist republic within Yugoslavia.
Since 1991, Croatia is an independent country.
Recognized since 1992.
Irish Republic (1919-1922).
Now it is divided into the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
Finnish Socialist Workers Republic (1918)
Free Derry (August 14 1969 to July 31 1972) Now it is part of Northern Ireland.
Gagauzia (1990-1994).
Now part of Moldova.
Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia (1992-1994).
Now part of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Lajtabansag State (1921).
Now part of Austria.
Limerick Soviet (1919).
Now part of Republic of Ireland.
Montenegro (1941-1944).
Formerly in union with Republic of Serbia in Serbia and Montenegro.
Serbia (1941-1944).
Formerly in union with Republic of Montenegro in Serbia and Montenegro.
Republic of Serbian Frontier (1991-1995).
Now part of Croatia.
Slovakia (1939-1945).
Between 1945 and 1993, Slovakia was part of Czechoslovakia.
Since 1993, Slovakia is an independent country.
Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1995).
Now one of the two entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (1918).
Now part of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia and Montenegro.
Republic of Užice (1941).
Now part of Serbia and Montenegro.
Republic of West Bosnia (1993-1995).
Kachin State is the northernmost state of Myanmar, controlled since 1962 by the Kachin Independence Organization but not diplomatically recognized by any country.
In 1994, KIO and the Union of Myanmar agreed to formalize the status quo by creating the "Kachin State Special Region 1", officially still a part of the Union of Myanmar but de facto controlled by KIO.
"Wa State" is a de facto autonomous state within the Union of Burma.
The Burmese government cannot control the region since independence.
The ruling party calls itself "Wa State People's Government'.
The Burmese government recognizes this state as part of the Shan State and officially uses "Wa Autonomous Division" and sometimes "Shan State Special Region 2".
Kurdish Autonomous Region (1991-2003).
A de facto independent state in Northern Iraq.
Now part of the Kurdish autonomous region.
Manchukuo (1932-1945).
Out of 80 then existing nations 23 recognized the new state.
Now part of the People's Republic of China.
Tatarstan (1990 -1994).
Now part of Russia
Tuva (1921-1944).
Nakhichevan (1990).
Now part of Azerbaijan.
Talysh-Mugan Republic (proclaimed in 1993).
Tamil Eelam (1983-2009).
A part of Sri Lanka.
For about 20 years the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam maintained a de facto state in the North and East of Sri Lanka until their defeat in 2009.
Anjouan (1997-2002).
Now part of Comoros.
Biafra controlled territory in eastern Nigeria between the time of its secession in May 1967 until its final military collapse in January 1970.
It was recognized by 12 nations.
Katanga controlled the state of the same name within the former Belgian Congo after decolonisation, between 1960 and 1964.
Mohéli (1997-1998).
Rhodesia.
British Colony that unilaterally declared independence in 1965.
This action was not legally recognized by any other nation, nor the declaration of Rhodesia as a republic in 1970.
This entity remained until 1979, when it became Zimbabwe-Rhodesia.
Zimbabwe-Rhodesia.
Formed in 1979 after negotiations between white minority government and moderate black leaders.
Existed 1 June to 12 December 1979, when it became the colony of South Rhodesia again.
In 1980 it became the Republic of Zimbabwe.
South African Homelands
Bophuthatswana (1977-1994).
Former Thuisland formed and only recognized by South Africa, Transkei, Ciskei, and Venda.
Now part of South Africa.
Ciskei (1981-1994).
Former Thuisland formed and only recognized by South Africa, Bophuthatswana, Transkei, and Venda.
Transkei (1976-1994).
Former Thuisland formed and only recognized by South Africa, Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, and Venda.
Venda (1979-1994).
Former Thuisland formed and only recognized by South Africa, Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, and Transkei.
Independent State of Acre (1899-1903).
Now part of Brazil.
California Republic (1846-1848).
Now part of the United States of America.
Confederate States of America (1861-1865).
Originally formed on February 4, 1861 by seven Southern slave states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Texas, and Louisiana) after confirmation of the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States.
Jefferson Davis was selected as its first President the next day.
After the American Civil War began, the states of Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina joined.
Recognized diplomatically only by Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, though recognized by some nations as a "belligerent power".
Republic of Hawaii (1894-1898).
Republic of Texas (1836-1845).
Five nations recognized this entity.
Vermont Republic (1771-1791).
Piratini Republic (1836-1845).
Today's Rio Grande do Sul, part of Brazil.
Republic of the Rio Grande 1840.
Now part of the United States.
Republic of the Yucatán 1841-1843.
Short-lived separatist state; reintegrated into Mexico.
Republic of Canada (1837-1838).
Now part of Canada.
Bougainville (Republic of North Solomons) (1990-1997).
Signed a peace deal with Papua New Guinea giving the island autonomy pending an independence referendum within a decade.
Rotuma (1987-1988).
This Polynesian-inhabited island which is administered by (Melanesian) Fiji declared its independence from Fiji by separatists after the military coups in Fiji in 1987.
(Kanaky).
The Nouméa Accords of 1998 postponed a referendum on independence until after 2014.
Historic unrecognized or partially recognized governments with de facto control over their territory
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996-2001).
Only three states recognized this entity while the Taliban controlled it.
See: History of Afghanistan.
People's Republic of Kampuchea''' (1979-1989).
Set up by the Vietnamese after their invasion and rout of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia.
Only a few Soviet-Bloc nations recognized this entity, while the UN, China, and most other nations recognized the Khmer Rouge's Democratic Kampuchea government.
Succeeded by the State of Cambodia, then the Kingdom of Cambodia.
The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is a measure of the difficulty of passing an electric current through a substance.
It explains the relationship between voltage (amount of electrical pressure) and the current (flow of electricity).
With more resistance in a circuit, less electricity will flow through the circuit.
The inverse of resistance is conductance, a measure not much used.
All objects have some resistance, except superconductors.
Resistance, discovered by Georg Simon Ohm in 1827, is the ratio between voltage and current.
Ohm's law said that the voltage between any two points in a conductor changes directly as the current between the two points, given the temperature remains the same.
He described it with the equation:
is the resistance of the object, measured in ohms (Ω)
is the voltage across the object, measured in volts (V)
is the current going through the object, measured in amperes (A)
Calculating resistance
A long and thin wire has more resistance than a short and thick one.
A simple analogy is a road - the more lanes there are, the more cars can go through.
The resistance  of a wire with a constant width, therefore, can be calculated as:
where  is the length of the conductor, measured in meters [m],  is the cross-sectional area of the conductor measured in square meters [m²], and  (Greek: rho) is the electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance) of the material, measured in ohm-meters (Ω m).
The resistivity () of copper is  Ω m.
The cross sectional area () is  square meters
The length () is  meters
Because:
Electromagnetic induction is where a voltage or current is produced in a conductor by a changing magnetic flux.
It may happen when a magnet is moved in a solenoid, thus changing the magnetic flux.
If the magnet is stationary, there will be no produced voltage (electrostatic potential difference) across an electrical conductor.
However, if the magnetic field is changing and (maintaining) movement, while continuously directing in the opposite direction (varying its direction periodically), it will cause a the production of a voltage (hence the flow of alternating current), as stated by Michael Faraday in 1831.
When a coiled wire is introduced near a magnet, the magnetic lines of force pass through the coil.
This causes the magnetic flux to change.
Magnetic flux is represented by the symbol , therefore we can say that  = BAcos(a) and the resulting unit will be , where T is the unit for magnetic field and  is the unit for area.
The changing magnetic flux generates an electromotive force (EMF).
This force moves free electrons in a certain way, which constitute a current.
Faraday's law
is the electromotive force, measured in volts;
is the change in magnetic flux, measured in webers;
is the change in time, measured in seconds.
The negative sign in both equation above is a result of Lenz's law, named after Heinrich Lenz.
His law states that the electromotive force (EMF) produces a current that opposes the motion of the changing magnetic flux.
The Proms are concerts which are part of a big music festival. “
Proms” is short for “Promenade Concerts”.
The Proms are organized by the BBC, so they are called the “BBC Proms”.
They take place in the Royal Albert Hall, in London from mid-July to mid-September every year.
Why are they called “Proms”?
The Proms started more than 100 years ago, in 1895.
Concerts were expensive in those days, and not many people had enough money to go and hear good music.
Most people were only able to hear good music when they went for walks in the London parks where there were Promenade concerts.
Orchestras and bands played in bandstands.
Most of the music was popular and easy to listen to.
People could enjoy the music while they walked about.
In the centre of London there was a building called the Queen's Hall.
A man called Robert Newman organized concerts there.
He wanted to start a series of concerts which ordinary people (people who were not rich) could afford to go to.
He wanted to start a series of “promenade concerts” (in French “se promener” means “to walk”).
The idea was that people could have standing places which would not cost much money.
There would also be seats for people who could afford to pay more.
The early years of the Proms
Robert Newman knew a very good young conductor, Henry Wood.
He asked him to be the conductor of the Proms.
A man called Dr Cathcart gave them enough money to get an orchestra together.
On 10 August 1895 the first Promenade Concert took place in the Queen’s Hall.
The price of a promenade ticket (a ticket for a standing place) was one shilling.
The Promenade Concerts were a big success, and soon became known as the "Henry Wood Promenade Concerts".
Wood conducted both popular music and the classical works of Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Tchaikovsky, Brahms and Wagner, as well as some English composers.
Wallace and Cowan, popular then, have today faded from the scene, although Elgar and Delius have survived due to Wood's Proms.
This broke the convention that famous composers, conductors and singers could not be  English.
Some of the music Wood conducted was very new indeed.
In 1912 he conducted a piece called “Five Orchestral Pieces” by an Austrian composer Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951).
Its initial lack of appreciation was overcome by inviting Schoenberg to come to England and conduct it himself in 1914.
Henry Wood conducted almost all of the Proms for fifty years, until just before his death in 1944.
His innovations with the orchestra staff were to abolish deputies (allegedly in 1904 when, at one rehearsal, none of the regular orchestra, and only deputies attended).
Forty members of the orchestra were offended by that decision, and broke away to form what is now the London Symphony Orchestra.
In 1913, Wood was also the first English conductor to appoint women to play in his orchestra.
The BBC
In 1927 the BBC started to fund Proms.
The radio was a new invention (then termed the “wireless”).
Radio broadcasts increased interest in attending live concerts.
In 1930 the BBC Symphony Orchestra was formed, playing at a majority of Prom concerts.
The War and after
In 1941, during World War II, the Queen’s Hall was destroyed by bombs.
The Proms continued to take place in the Royal Albert Hall.
Then it became too dangerous in London and the Proms were held in Bristol and then Bedford.
After the War the Proms went back to the Royal Albert Hall.
They have been held there ever since.
From the 1940s to the late 1960s the BBC Symphony Orchestra played at most of the concerts under the very popular conductor Sir Malcolm Sargent whose Last Night speeches became legendary for their wit.
The Proms today
Today the Proms are very different from when they started.
It is much more international.
The BBC Symphony Orchestra play several concerts each season but there are lots of other orchestras from all over the world who come to play.
People can hear different kinds of music at the Proms: not just classical music but jazz and music from far-away countries.
In 2005 the famous Indian musician Ravi Shankar played the sitar at one of the Proms.
In 2008 the violinist  Nigel Kennedy played the Violin Concerto by Edward Elgar with the BBC Concert Orchestra, then came back an hour later to give a Late Night Prom of jazz music with the Nigel Kennedy Quintet.
The Proms also include special activities for children.
The television programme Blue Peter put on a Blue Peter Prom which is given twice during the weekend at the beginning of the school holidays in late July.
In the 2007 season they organized a special Brass Day where children could take part with their instruments.
BBC Music Intro put on workshops in the late afternoon for children and their families to learn about music.
In 2008 there was a Dr Who prom which was extremely popular, especially with children.
This theme will be repeated in 2010.
Henry Wood encouraged composers to write new music by performing it at the Proms.
Today this tradition continues as the BBC often commission composers to write new music for the Proms.
Some pieces which had their first performance at the Proms have become very well-known, e.g. The Confession of Isobel Gowdie by James MacMillan (first performed in 1990), or John Tavener's The Protecting Veil (first performed in 1989).
For many years now every Prom has been broadcast live on BBC Radio 3.
Some of them are shown on television, either on BBC2 or on BBC4 where viewers can, if they wish, read comments about the music as it is played.
People can also listen to the Proms for several days afterwards on the Proms website.
The Last Night of the Proms
There is a Prom every night (i.e. every evening) for two months during the summer.
The last concert is called the “Last Night of the Proms”.
It is very famous and millions of people can watch it on television in lots of countries all over the world.
Some people who go to the Last Night dress up in funny clothes and wave flags.
They hear a piece of music called "Fantasia on British Sea Songs", written by Henry Wood in 1905.
It is based on sailors' sea shanties including a 'hornpipe'.
The dance that gets faster and faster and the audience clap along, trying to keep up with the orchestra.
It includes the song “Rule Britannia”.
The orchestra always play Edward Elgar's Pomp and Circumstance March no 1 which has the tune Land of Hope and Glory.
The concert finishes with Parry's hymn Jerusalem.
The conductor also makes a speech.
Since 1996 there have been Proms in parks in other towns in the United Kingdom to which thousands of people can go.
These all take place on the same night, and there is interactive communication between them and the Prom in the Royal Albert Hall.
How to go to the Proms
One way to go to the Proms is to buy a ticket for a seat, just like any other sort of concert.
But many people think the best way to go to the Proms is to be a promenader.
This means having a standing place.
There are two places to prom: downstairs in the arena and upstairs in the gallery.