the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Freeman Dyson (1923–2020 )
Gunnar Källén (1926–1968)
Abdus Salam (1926–1996)
Murray Gell-Mann (1929– )
Riazuddin (1930– )
Roger Penrose (1931– )
George Sudarshan (1931– )
Sheldon Glashow (1932– )
Tom W. B. Kibble (1932– )
Steven Weinberg (1933– )
Gerald Guralnik (1936–)
Sidney Coleman (1937–2007)
C. R. Hagen (1937–)
Ratko Janev (1939– )
Leonard Susskind (1940– )
Michael Berry (1941– )
Bertrand Halperin (1941–)
Stephen Hawking (1942–2018 )
Alexander Polyakov (1945–)
Gerardus 't Hooft (1946– )
Jacob Bekenstein (1947–)
Robert Laughlin (1950–)
Units and Measurements Question
Politics is about making agreements between people so that they can live together in groups such as tribes, cities, or countries.
In large groups, such as countries, some people may spend a lot of their time making such agreements.
These people are called politicians.
Politicians, and sometimes other people, may get together to form a government.
The study of politics in universities is called political science, political studies, or public administration.
In everyday life, the term "politics" refers to the way that countries are governed, and to the ways that governments make rules and laws.
Politics can also be seen in other groups, such as in companies, clubs, schools, and churches.
The government  tries to lead the whole group.
Governments do things such as:
Decide which people get which pieces of land
Decide which people can tell other people what to do
Decide whether to go to war with another country
Build things for the use of the whole group, such as roads, hospitals, libraries, and docks.
Educate people, either for their own good, or to teach them what the government wants them to know
Take care of the very young, the sick, or the very old
Manage the welfare of the country and manages the money available for spending on services (Hospitals, Schools, etc.)
One of the ways the government leads the group is by making laws and rules which tell everybody what they can and can not do.
The government makes these laws so that society will be safe and well-ordered.
The law that says "you must not drink alcohol while driving a car" stops people from drunk driving, which could kill people.
The law that says "you must wear a helmet on a motorcycle" makes sure that people protect themselves when riding their motorcycles.
For example, how the government spends its money makes a big difference in what people will do or what will happen to people.
If the government spends a lot of money on hospitals and nurses, the people will probably become healthier.
Also, if people like their government, or think that their government is wise, they may do something just because their government says it is a good thing to do.
Governments often make posters or television advertisements that encourage people to stop smoking cigarettes or eat more fruits and vegetables.
Politics is often compared to ethics (ideas about right and wrong).
Ethics is a more abstract study of right and wrong.
Ethics is usually more concerned with principle than law or politics or diplomacy, so many people think ethics is not practical.
But without some agreement on ethics, there is probably no way to even have a debate, laws or an election.
There is always some agreement on ethics and personal conduct in a political system.
In most countries, people have formed political parties to put forward their ideas.
There is usually some disagreement between people within a party, but they work together because they feel that they agree on enough things, and they will have more power if they join together.
They agree to take the same position on many issues, and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders.
An election is usually a competition between different parties.
Some examples of parties are the Liberal party, the Labor party and the Greens.
Niccolò Machiavelli wrote, in his 1532 book, The Prince, that politics was firstly about having and keeping power.
He said that without power, a leader could do nothing.
In 1651, Thomas Hobbes wrote Leviathan, a book about politics.
Hobbes wrote that people living in groups often give up some of their rights in exchange for some protections from a government.
In the 1800s, John Stuart Mill developed the "liberal" idea of politics.
Mill said that democracy is the most important political development of the 1800s.
He said that there should be more protection for individual rights against the government.
International politics
There are also disagreements between different countries.
Attempts to solve the problem with meetings are called diplomacy.
This is politics between nations instead of politics within nations.
If the problems are not resolved by diplomatic meetings they can lead to war or terrorism.
Politics -Citizendium
A value (or principle) usually means an abstract rule, one that can be seen to apply in many experiences, or can be applied by choice in a lot of situations.
It can also mean a moral choice one makes often and consistently, for example, some Buddhists avoid eating meat as a matter of principle.
Many groups of people agree on lists of principles.
They may also try to agree on the order in which they are to apply, that is, which principles should be violated before which other ones.
They might also try to list best practices which reflect the principles in the right order, and provide more practical (less abstract) instruction.
Profanity means bad/swear words, and/or using vulgar/offensive language.
The adjective is profane.
Profanities can also be called curse ("cuss") words, dirty words, bad words, foul language, obscenity, obscene language, or expletives.
It can be called swearing, although this also has a normal meaning of making a "solemn promise".
A profanity usually refers to religion, sex, or bodily functions.
These are things that people feel very strongly about.
In some languages, such as French, there is more profanity about religion than most other topics.
This is the original meaning, from a Latin word meaning "before the temple".
Religious profanity is called blasphemy.
The verb is to blaspheme and the adjective is 'blasphemous'.
Saying “God!”
or “Jesus Christ!”
as an expression of surprise or annoyance is considered by many to be blasphemy, mostly because one of the Ten Commandments says not to use God's name "in vain" (without substance or without relevance).
Swearing oaths can also be considered wrong by some who follow Jesus' teaching against swearing oaths in the Gospels (such as Matthew 5:34).
Whether a word is a profanity will always depend on the way people think.
Some people will be offended by something, while others will not be.
Words which should not be used are taboo words.
Using such words is thought by some people to be a sin.
For example, some Christians and some Muslims believe that swearing is a sin.
Opinions on profanity
Some people call profanity "crude," but some say that it is no cruder to say "damn" or "crap" than it is to use "hate" (a word that is about a very strong emotion, but not a swear word).
People who use profanity do not always mean to make anybody feel bad, and tolerance for different forms of profanity can vary widely, from person to person.
Most often, using profanity is a verbal outlet for strong feelings (usually unpleasant ones), that might otherwise cause a physical reaction.
At other times, some people may use profanity as humor.
Coprolalia is a mental condition that makes people use profanity constantly.
It is different from Tourette syndrome.
Tourette syndrome is actually a group of symptoms that only includes coprolalia 15% of the time.
The condition can be made worse by stress.
Examples of profanity
Several of these words come from Anglo-Saxon or old Norse names for body parts, and bodily functions.
They came to be thought of as profanity mostly after the Normans brought French and Latin words for them to England.
Ass (or Arse)
Means the buttocks.
Asshole (or Arsehole)
Means the anus.
Also used as an insult for a mean and unpleasant person.
A term for a child who was born to unmarried parents.
Also used as an insult for an unpleasant person.
A female dog.
Also used as an insult for a disliked woman.
Cock (or Dick)
These terms refer to the penis, and/or as an insult for a unpleasant person or a fool.
Cunt (or Pussy)
A vagina.
Also used as an insult for a disliked person.
A verb, meaning to have sex.
Urine; also a verb, meaning to urinate.
Shit (or Shite)
Feces; also a verb, meaning to defecate.
Profane gestures
These are mostly performed while facing another person and can be meant toward them, or about them.
These gestures are considered as strong as profane words in most cases.
Biting one's thumb
Performed by placing the tip of a thumb under the front teeth, then pulling the thumb slightly forward, with the fingers closed.
Mocks the "thumbs up" gesture.
Can be taken to mean "bite me", though it predates the common use of this phrase.
Grabbing one's own crotch
Also an invitation to "bite me", or to perform oral sex in a  way.
Pretending to give fellatio
One pokes out a cheek with the tongue while rocking a closed hand toward the mouth, at the same time.
Indicates something or someone is a waste of time.
Pretending to masturbate
Indicates something or someone is a waste of time, or performs poorly.
Showing one's middle finger ("flipping the bird")
Understood generally to mean "fuck you" or "fuck off".
Showing a reversed "V" sign
Thumbing (or "fluting") one's nose
Performed by placing the tip of a thumb against the tip of the nose, then wiggling the fingers.
Expresses , or thinking that someone is foolish.
"Up yours"
One turns a forearm horizontally while swinging the other fist and forearm around it.
Suggests something being shoved into a person's .
If the middle finger is shown, it is a stronger form of "fuck you", or a suggestion of anal sex.
An argument, including:
Proof theory, a branch of mathematical logic
Logical argument
Evidence (law), tested evidence or a legal proof
Proof (alcohol), measure of an alcoholic beverage's strength
Proofing (baking technique), how a yeast-leavened dough rises
Artist's proof, a single print taken during the printmaking process
Proof coinage, a coin made as an example of a particular strike
Proof test, for a firearm
Galley proof, an early version of a publication
Homeopathic proving, testing a substance's effect on the body
Proof (1991 movie), an Australian movie by Jocelyn Moorhouse
Proof (play), a play by David Auburn
Proof (2005 movie), a movie directed by John Madden, based on the play
"Proof", a song by Paul Simon from his 1990 album The Rhythm of the Saints
Proof (rapper) (1973-2006), American rapper, a member of the group D12
The People's Republic of China (PRC) () is a one-party state in East Asia governed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
It was founded on 1 October 1949.
It currently has more than 1.4 billion people (as of 2017), which is more than any other country in the world.
It covers an area of 9.6 million square kilometers.
The capital city is Beijing and Shanghai is the city with the most people living in it.
Along with the cities of Tianjin and Chongqing, these four cities are "municipalities" directly controlled by the national government.
Two other cities are given the status of "special administrative region" (SAR).
They are Hong Kong, which was once a colony of the United Kingdom and given back to China in 1997 and Macau, which Portugal gave back in 1999.
These two cities remain highly autonomous or have much of their own power.
Aside from the "municipalities" and the "SARs", there are 23 provinces and five "autonomous regions" or regions with more law-making rights than the provinces and with many people of a minority group population.
They are the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Tibet Autonomous Region or Xizang Autonomous Region, the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region or Nei Mongol Autonomous Region and the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region.
In the SARs, the central government is responsible for defense and foreign affairs but not the daily operations for 50 years.
PRC claims Taiwan as one of its many provinces.
However, PRC does not have control of Taiwan which has an entirely different political system and officially known as the Republic of China (Taiwan).
China has one of the world's oldest civilizations and has the oldest continuous civilization.
It has archaeological evidence over 5,000 years old.
It also has one of the world's oldest writing systems (and the oldest in use today), and is viewed as the source of many major inventions.
Ancient (2100 B.C. - 1500 A.D.)
Home of  Confucianism and Daoism, it had great influence on nearby countries including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam in the areas of political system, philosophy, religion, art, and even writing and literature.
Before the Qin Dynasty united China, there were hundreds of small states that fought each other for hundreds of years in a war to control China.
This is known as the Warring States Period.
Although the continuing wars made people suffer, it was at this time when many of the great philosophies of the East were born, including Confucianism and Daoism.
Confucianism and Daoism alone have been the foundation of many social values seen in modern eastern-Asian cultures today.
Its geography mostly looked like that of modern China, except with northern and western edges that varied.
It was often attacked by northern nomadic people such as the Turkic tribes and the Mongols lead by Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan.
During the history of ancient China, the northern nomadic people and the Chinese people had been fighting each other and taking turns to rule the land and the people of China.
However, when the northern people beat the Chinese people and came to rule the kingdom, they also Incorporated the Chinese way of living and became like the Chinese.
Many of the strongest dynasties of China were ruled by the northern people, including the Qin, Tang, Yuan (Mongolian), and Qing (Manchu).
Each time, they also brought new elements into the Chinese culture.
While China achieved many things in the First millennium and early 2nd millennium, it became an isolationist country in the 15th century C.E. This was because Spain found a lot of silver in the newly explored continents of North and South America.
Silver was the main currency (money) in China and Europe at the time, and China did not want to be bought by the foreigners.
During this time the opium epidemic was growing in China.
Foreign traders (primarily British) had been illegally exporting opium mainly from India to China since the 18th century, but that trade grew dramatically from about 1820.
The resulting widespread addiction in China was causing serious social and economic disruption there.
This led to what is now known as the first opium war.
The first Opium War between China and Great Britain lasted from 1839 to 1842.
The conflict was the result of years of attempts by the British to exploit China as a market for British goods.
Britain eventually relied on its superior military capabilities to force open the lucrative Chinese market, while imposing an illicit trade in opium on the Chinese people.
While China was never actually taken over by Europeans, many European countries, such as Britain and France built spheres of influence in China.
In 1912, the Qing dynasty was overthrown by the Sun Yat-sen and the Kuomintang, a nationalist party, and the Republic of China established.
Over time, Marxist ideas grew popular and the Communist party was formed.
The Chinese Civil War later started between the Kuomintang (Nationalists) of the Republic of China (ROC) and the Communists of the People's Republic of China (PRC).
The Communists were led by Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, Liu Shaoqi and others.
Later Liu lost influence with Mao and his death to this day remains unresolved.
The Communists eventually won the war.
Amidst the turmoil brewing between the Nationalist and Communist parties who were vying for control of China at the time, Japan had launched an invasion of Manchuria in 1934 and began to creep steadily inland.
China, the Nationalist party in particular, owed Japan immense amounts of money, which they could not pay whilst infused in their own civil war.
The Treaty of Versailles promised the Japanese government land in China in return for forgiveness of their debt.
This ended up not being a popular sentiment and was rallied against all over the country, and most famously during the May 4th Movement in Beijing in 1919.
When the Chinese did not readily give up their rights to their land, Japan tried to take it by force.
This was the beginning of World War II in the Pacific Theater.
By 1949, the Red Army of the Chinese Communist Party had gained control over mainland China and Mao Zedong announced the creation of the People's Republic of China.
Chiang Kai-shek and the other nationalists fled to Taiwan.
As the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, Mao began many social and economic reform projects with mixed results.
The Great Leap Forward, from 1958 to 1961, tried to industrialize China and increase its food production, but resulted in one of the largest famines in history.
It is estimated that 45 million people died as a result of this reform project.
In 1966, Mao began the Cultural Revolution to remove capitalist influences from society and government.
Major government officials and ordinary citizens were accused of being "revisionists" - people who disagreed with some parts of Marxism - or "counter-revolutionaries" and were persecuted.
Many universities and schools were closed, and historical and religious sites were destroyed.
Although the program officially ended in 1969, it continued until Mao's death in 1976.
During this time period, the People's Republic of China did not get along with the capitalist countries of the Western world.
Beginning in the 1960s, relationships between the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union also became increasingly unfriendly in the Sino-Soviet Split.
In 1972, to counter the power of the Soviet Union, Chairman Mao and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai met with US President Richard Nixon in Beijing.
This began to improve relationships between China and the Western world.
After Mao's death, there was a power struggle between the Gang of Four and Chinese Premier Hua Guofeng, the man Mao had chosen to be the next leader of China.
Eventually, Deng Xiaoping, one of the veterans of the revolution, took power.
He began a "Reform and Opening Up" () campaign.
These reforms tried to make the People's Republic of China a modern, industrial - but still socialist - nation by moving towards a market system.
Deng's policies would be known as "socialism with Chinese characteristics."
Although Deng's policy helped loosen restrictions on citizens, the People's Republic of China continues to have problems with the amount of control the government has over citizens' private lives.
In 1979, the one-child policy, which limits most couples to one child, was created because of the overpopulation problem in the People's Republic of China.
This policy is highly controversial and many Westerners have criticized it.
News and Internet sites are also censored by the government.
In 1989, the Chinese Communist Party used soldiers and tanks to stop a protest in Beijing's Tiananmen Square organized by students seeking political reform.
This action received worldwide criticism and led to economic sanctions being placed on the Chinese government.
The People's Republic of China is the third- or fourth-largest country in the world after Russia, Canada, and (in some sources) the United States and the second-largest by land area.
China has every kind of climate in the northern hemisphere except the polar climate.
It is also the largest country without any land north of the Arctic Circle.
China borders 14 nations, which is more than any other country in the world.
It borders Vietnam, Laos, and Burma in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan in South Asia; Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; a small section of Russian Altai and Mongolia in Inner Asia; and the Russian Far East and North Korea in Northeast Asia.
China has two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River.
There is also the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert.
The world's highest point, Mt. Everest (8848m), is on the border between China and Nepal.
The country's lowest point, and the world's fourth-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154m).
China is one of 17 megadiverse countries.
It is in two of the world's major ecozones: the Palearctic and the Indomalaya.
In the Palearctic zone, mammals such as the horse, camel, tapir, and jerboa can be found.
Among the species in the Indomalaya region are the Leopard Cat, bamboo rat, treeshrew, and various monkey and ape species.
Some overlap is between the two regions; deer, antelope, bears, wolves, pigs, and many rodent species can all be found in China's environments.
The famous giant panda is found only in a limited area along the Yangtze River.
China has a continuing problem with trade in endangered species.
There are now laws to stop such activities.
China also has a variety of forest types.
Cold coniferous forests cover most of the north of the country.
The forest have animal species such as moose and the Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species.
Moist conifer forests can have thickets of bamboo.
It is replaced by rhododendrons in higher montane stands of juniper and yew.
Subtropical forests, which are mostly in central and southern China.
These support as many as 146,000 species of flora.
Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island, have a quarter of all the plant and animal species found in China.
China is a one-party state wherein the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the paramount leader.
The current General Secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012 and was re-elected on 25 October 2017.
The President is the titular head of state, elected by the National People's Congress.
The current president is Xi Jinping, who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's Paramount leader.
The Premier is the head of government, heading the State Council alongside with four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions.
The current premier is Li Keqiang, who is also a senior member of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee, China's de facto top decision-making body.
The PRC Armed Forces, also known as the People's Liberation Army (PLA), is one of the most powerful armies in the world.
Nowadays PRC is among the atomic powers in the world.
It also has the largest standing army in the world of over 2 million soldiers on active duty.
There are 56 recognized ethnic minority groups in China.
Han is the largest ethnic group in China.
Mandarin Chinese is the main spoken language.
China is the origin of Eastern martial arts, called Kung Fu or Wushu.
Over time some art forms have branched off, while others have retained their distinct Chinese characteristics.
China has had renowned artists including Wong Fei Hung and many others.
China has many traditional festivals, such as the Chinese New Year, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival and so on.
The most significant is Chinese New Year.
Another important holiday is the National Day celebration around October.
Weekends are moved around to make sure everyone has a week-long holiday for it, just like during the lunar new year.
Chinese New Year lasts fifteen days, including one week as a national holiday.
It starts with the first day of the Chinese lunar year and ends with the full moon fifteen days later.
It is always in the middle of winter, but is called the Spring Festival in Chinese because Chinese seasons are a little different from English ones.
On the first day of the Chinese New Year, people call on friends and relatives.
Because most people watch the special performances on CCTV all the night on New Year's Eve and don't go to bed until 12:00 AM, they usually get up later in the next day.
The fifth day of the Chinese New Year is the day to welcome the god of Wealth (Chinese:财神爷), many people make and eat dumplings (Chinese:饺子.
Pinyin: Jaozi).
They believe that dumplings can hold the god of Wealth and bring luck.
The last day of the Chinese New Year is the Lantern Festival.
On this day, the moon becomes the full moon.
People go out and watch the lantern festivals everywhere.
After that, they eat sweet dumpling (Chinese:汤圆,元宵), a kind of dumpling which is round and looks like the full moon.
He persuaded his emperor not to accept Qin's diplomats's offers several times but his emperor did not listen to him.
Eating rice dumplings and holding dragon boat races, became what the Chinese do in this festival nowadays.
Held on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, the Mid-Autumn Festival is a festival for families.
Now when the festival sets in, people sit together to eat moon cakes, appreciate the moon and the moon itself, celebrate the bumper harvest, and enjoy the family love and happiness.
To the Chinese people, the full moon symbolizes family reunion, as do the moon cakes.
Hence why the Mid-Autumn Festival is also called the Family Reunion Festival.
Trains are commonly used for moving from one place to another, mainly for long distances.
Bullet trains are faster and more common in the cities.
China has more high-speed trains than any other country in the world.
Buses and air transport are also very common.
List of provinces of China
Information, Links, History  and more of China
China Maps
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) is the study of the interaction between psychological processes and the nervous and immune systems of the human body.
PNI takes an interdisciplinary approach.
Claude Bernard, a French physiologist, founded the concept milieu interieur in the mid 1800s.
In 1865, Bernard described the perturbation of this internal state “… there are protective functions of organic elements holding living materials in reserve and maintaining without interruption humidity, heat and other conditions indispensable to vital activity.
Sickness and death are only a dislocation or perturbation of that mechanism." (
Bernard, 1865)
Walter Cannon, a professor of physiology at Harvard University coined the term homeostasis in his book The Wisdom of the Body in 1932.
In his work with animals Cannon observed that any change of emotional state in the beast, such as anxiety, distress, or rage was accompanied by total cessation of movements of the stomach (Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage, 1915).
These studies into the relationship between the effects of emotions and perceptions on the autonomic nervous system, the  responses that led to the freeze, fight or flight response.
Birth of psychoneuroimmunology
In 1975 Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen advanced PNI with a demonstration of classic conditioning of the immune function, and coined the term "psychoneuroimmunology".
Ader was investigating how long conditioned responses  might last in laboratory rats.
The highly reproducible results showed that conditioned rats exposed to the conditioned stimulus were immuno suppressed.
In other words, a signal via the nervous system (taste) was affecting immune function.
This was one of the first scientific experiments that demonstrated that the nervous system can affect the immune system.
In 1981 David Felten, then working at the Indiana University of Medicine, discovered a network of nerves leading to blood vessels as well as cells of the immune system.
The researchers also found nerves in the thymus and spleen terminating near clusters of lymphocytes, macrophages and mast cells, all of which help control immune function.
This discovery provided one of the first indications of how neuro-immune interaction occurs.
Ader, Cohen and Felten went on to edit the groundbreaking book Psychoneuroimmunology in 1981, which laid out the underlying premise that the brain and immune system represent a single, integrated system of defense.
Link between stress and disease
Stressors can produce profound health consequences.
In one epidemiological study, for example, all-cause mortality increased in the month following a severe stressor – the death of a spouse.
Theorists propose that stressful events trigger cognitive and affective responses which, in turn, induce sympathetic nervous system and endocrine changes.
These ultimately impair immune function.
Potential health consequences are broad, but include rates of infection, HIV progression, and cancer incidence and progression.
A political party is an organized group of people or bodies who seek to capture political power through an election in order to run the affairs of a country.
It often puts forward candidates for public office.
In a democracy, leaders must "run for office" in an election.
In a dictatorship, there is generally only one party allowed, that can approve a new leader without non-members having a choice.
A political party is similar to a faction, and can be the same thing.
In some systems, members of one party in the legislature are all expected to vote the same way.
The laws written by the party or faction with the majority of votes become adopted by the country, so this means whatever party is elected to over half the seats, gets to run the government.
The next largest party is often called the "opposition".
Sometimes when there are more than two parties with seats, no one party has over half of the seats.
Then two or more parties might join together to form what is called a "coalition".
Some parties are formed around a single issue or interest group.
Others form policies to address all matters of government, known as a "platform".
Many political parties have a set of ideas and beliefs (called its "ideology").
People often describe these ideologies using words such as "conservative" and "liberal".
Political parties can be against the law in some places.
When some parties get a lot of power, they can make all other political parties illegal.
For example, the Nazi Party did this in Germany, and the Communist Party did it in several countries.
Some countries make extreme-right parties illegal (such as Vlaams Blok in Belgium).
At other times, countries have outlawed far-left parties.
For example, West Germany banned the Communist Party in 1956.
A handful of countries like China, North Korea and Cuba still have one-party dictatorships.
In a few other dictatorships, such as Saudi Arabia, all political parties are banned and there is no parliament at all.
Importance in all big democracies
In all big democratic countries, parties are very important.
But there are a few very small countries, such as the island of Jersey, where most politicians do not belong to any party and where parties do not matter much.
In some democracies, there are only two big political parties.
For example, in the United States, there is the Democratic Party and the Republican Party.
Some other parties exist but are very small and do not hold seats in Congress.
In other countries there are larger numbers of parties.
In the German federal Parliament (or Bundestag), six parties have seats.
In the United Kingdom, there are two big parties, one medium-sized party, and many small ones.
Parties in each country
Usually, a page is a physical sheet of paper in a book, magazine, newspaper etc.
When a page is not in a book (etc.)
it is a sheet or piece of paper.
When we talk about computers, a page is also a common abbreviation in net jargon for "webpage".
Here the page is not paper, it is a piece of information which we can see on a computer monitor at one time.
We can print it to make a real page.
But the information may not fit all on one page, and we can not change it when it is printed - we can change a web page.
So a webpage is not always the same even as a printed copy of that page.
This is a conceptual metaphor.
It can be confusing.
Someone who uses it is also likely to use other jargon.
A page is also a boy or a young man who helps carry things and does small jobs for someone.
Another word for this is a pageboy.
To page someone is to contact that person on their pager: this is a small electronic machine which makes a sound or gives someone a message.
This is usually to call someone for a certain reason, for example: to call them down somewhere, or to ask them for something.
A pet is a domesticated animal that lives with people, but is not forced to work and is not eaten, in most instances.
In most cases, a pet is kept to entertain people or for companionship.
Some pets such as dogs and cats are placed in an animal shelter if there is no one willing to take care of them.
If no one adopts it or the pet is too old/sick, the pet may be euthanized.
Dogs, cats, fish, rodents, lagomorphs, ferrets, birds, certain reptiles and amphibians, and a wide variety of arthropods such as tarantulas and hermit crabs are the most common pets in North America.
Horses, elephants, oxen, and donkeys are usually made to work, so they are not usually called pets.
Some dogs also do work for people, and it was once common for some birds (like falcons and carrier pigeons) to work for humans.
Rodents are also very popular pets.
The most common are guinea pigs, rabbits, hamsters (especially Syrian and dwarf hamsters), mice and rats.
Common Pets
Product (as a general idea) is anything which results from a process.
Product (mathematics) is the result of multiplication
Product (consumer goods) in business
Product (chemistry) is a result or something that is made in a chemical reaction.
A program or programme can be a plan of how to do something.
It tells the steps that we think we need to do to make something happen.
For example, a government might make a program to improve the health of the people in part of a country by giving the people better food, by helping to kill insects that carry diseases, and by bringing more doctors.
A computer program is something a computer uses to work.
For example; computer games or web browsers
Television program(me) is a show that is on television.
Radio program is similar to a television program but it is on the radio.
Webcast is similar to a television program but it is shown on the Internet.
12-step program is a way people use to stop doing something.
Examples would be to stop drinking alcohol, stop smoking tobacco or stop using drugs.
an event program is a thing that lists the what will happen during an event such as an opera or auction.
Platonic realism is the theory of reality developed by Plato, and explained in his theory of Forms.
Platonic realism states that the visible world of particular things is a shifting exhibition, like shadows cast on a wall by the activities of their corresponding universal Ideas or Forms.
Whereas the visible world of particulars is unreal, the Forms occupy the unobservable yet true reality and are real.
Among the natural philosophers in ancient Greece, the problem of universals was the mystery of where particular things derive their traits that we perceive as universals—for instance red or apple or good or woman or truth.
Plato explained that the particular things of the visible world are imperfect, transient copies of the universal Ideas that are the perfect, lasting Forms.
Existing exist outside space and time, the Forms are the universals and act as templates from which particulars manifest.
In his Metaphysics, Aristotle, a student of Plato, explained that Socrates and his own student Plato held it significant that the world is in flux, much as Heraclitus had commented, "You cannot step into the same river twice", a theme of the Eleatics, a group of pre-socratic philosophers.
Plato's quest
Plato considered that only the mind could access the timeless reality of truths, the realm of the Forms casting the visible world.
Plato's metaphorical allegory of the cave—whereby humans only know reality as shadows of the real things they see interacting on a wall—suggests the practical consequences of Platonic realism as to natural philosophy in its endeavor to explain the natural world and as to values in human society.
(Value theory comprises ethics, aesthetics, and political philosophy.)
Plato had led the focused application of geometry, developed by Euclid, to explain the natural world.
Yet by his view of nature, Plato regarded astronomy as similar to seeking a theoretical proof in geometry—abstract and not the real world—whereupon the mind's insights derived from a quest to hold other truths through the mind's probing of ethics and aesthetics would yield discovery of truths within the realm of Forms, outside space and time.
Aristotle's answer
Aristotle, a student of Plato, answered the problem of universals differently.
Aristotle explained that universals are concepts corresponding to traits borne and shared by the particular things themselves.
Aristotle did not regard all reality as visible, as he recognized existence of souls, yet regarded souls as unobserved parts of the visible world, real in itself.
Aristotelianism largely shaped the course of Western thought.
Aristotle developed a more or less full description and explanation of the natural world and developed logic—syllogistic logic—to derive conclusions of the relations among things.
Aristotle's grounding in the visible world was a metaphysical approach that suggested what evolved by some 2 000 years later into empirical science.
Platonism
Some mathematicians and physicists are Platonists, for instance Max Tegmark and Roger Penrose.
Yet today's Platonists usually view entities within the visible world as real, and simply regard universal abstractions like numbers, sets, propositions, and geometry as corresponding to real and timeless entities that also exist, though pure Platonists regard only the Forms or their realm as real.
By way of string theory and the holographic principle, some physicists conjecture that Plato's allegory of the cave approximates the natural world's structure.
Tegmark, who regards only the mathematical structure of the universe as real, has been called a radical Platonist.
Philosophical movements and positions
A paradox is a sentence in logic that cannot be true but also cannot be false.
It is self-contradictory.
Many famous problems of this kind exist.
Liar's paradox
A famous paradox is called the liar's paradox.
It is the simple sentence "This sentence is a lie", or equivalently, "This statement is false."
If the sentence is true, then it is a lie as it says.
But if it is a lie, it cannot be true.
A lie cannot also be a truth.
So the sentence being true makes it a lie.
On the other hand, if the sentence is a lie, then it is not as it says: it is true.
But that is just what the sentence says, which makes the content of the sentence true.
So the sentence being a lie makes it true.
This paradox is not just in English, but in any language.
It is true of mathematics as well.
Paradox can never be removed from any symbol system that makes claims about itself.
Another example is the statement that "there is no cabal".
Only a cabal can know if there is no cabal, so this is either a guess, or, it is a cabal trying to pretend it does not exist.
Not all paradoxes are true logical paradoxes, since they can also be common-sense-defying statements that appear true.
Some famous examples of this kind of paradox include:
Zeno's paradoxes of motion
Simpson's paradox in statistics
Informal uses of "paradox"
A paradox can also arise in ethics.
Assuming power over others may sometimes be required to protect them while diminishing their right to autonomy.
This is an ethical dilemma but not a logical paradox.
A potato is a  vegetable, the Solanum tuberosum.
It is a small plant with large leaves.
The part of the potato that people eat is a tuber that grows under the ground.
A potato contains a lot of starch and other carbohydrates.
Potato usually has a light-brown or yellowish skin and is white or yellow inside.
If the potato gets light on it, the tuber turns green and will be poisonous.
The potato is originally from the high and cool areas of the Andes mountains.
It was grown as a food crop thousands of years ago.
When Spanish conquistadores came to South America in the 1500s they took potatoes back to Europe.
It took nearly 200 years for the potato to become a widely grown crop.
In the 1780s the farmers in Ireland began growing potatoes because they grew well in the poor soils.
They also have most of the vitamins that people need to live.
When a potato plague destroyed the crop in 1845 the Irish Potato Famine killed many people.
The potato plant is now grown in many different parts of the world.
Captain William Bligh planted potatoes on Bruny Island, Tasmania in 1792.
In Australia they are now the largest vegetable crop.
Name origin
The English word "potato" comes from the Spanish word "patata".
The Royal Spanish Academy says the Spanish word is a hybrid of the Taíno  ('sweet potato')  and the Quechua  ('potato').
Yukon Gold – developed in Canada
Norgleam
Coliban
Russet
Desiree – cream colored flesh, red skin
Bintje
Irish grown
Potatoes are almost always eaten cooked.
People cook potatoes by boiling, baking, roasting, or frying them.
French fries or "chips" are potatoes cut into long pieces and fried until they are soft.
Potato chips, often called crisps, are potatoes cut into very thin round pieces and fried until they are hard.
Solanum
Plants are one of five big groups (kingdoms) of living things.
They are autotrophic eukaryotes, which means they have complex cells, and make their own food.
Usually they cannot move (not counting growth).
Plants include familiar types such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae.
The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has identified about 350,000 extant (living) species of plants.
Fungi and non-green algae are not classified as plants.
Most plants grow in the ground, with stems in the air and roots below the surface.
Some float on water.
The root part absorbs water and some nutrients the plant needs to live and grow.
These climb the stem and reach the leaves.
The evaporation of water from pores in the leaves pulls water through the plant.
This is called transpiration.
A plant needs sunlight, carbon dioxide, minerals and water to make food by photosynthesis.
A green substance in plants called chlorophyll traps the energy from the Sun needed to make food.
Chlorophyll is mostly found in leaves, inside plastids, which are inside the leaf cells.
The leaf can be thought of as a food factory.
Leaves of plants vary in shape and size, but they are always the plant organ best suited to capture solar energy.
Once the food is made in the leaf, it is transported to the other parts of the plant such as stems and roots.
The word "plant" can also mean the action of putting something in the ground.
For example, farmers plant seeds in the field.
Photosynthesis happens in the leaves on the plant.
The leaves are the only parts of a plant that can do this.
This is also known as how the plant gets its food.
You can make the process quicker by adding more CO2, light and chlorophyll.
Types of plants
Non-vascular plants (bryophytes):
Hornworts
†Horneophytopsida
Vascular plants (tracheophytes)
Lycopodiophyta—clubmosses
Pteridophyta: the ferns
Pteridopsida: the typical ferns
Sphenopsida: the horsetails
Marattiopsida: a divergent group of ferns
Psilotopsida
sister-group to all other ferns
†Rhyniophyta—rhyniophytes
†Zosterophyllophyta—zosterophylls
†Trimerophytophyta—trimerophytes
†Progymnospermophyta
Seed plants (spermatophytes)
†Pteridospermatophyta: the seed ferns
Pinophyta: the conifers
Cycadophyta: the cycads
Ginkgophyta: the ginkgos
Gnetophyta: sister group to the Angiosperms
Magnoliophyta or Angiosperms (flowering plants)
Dicotyledons
Monocotyledons
†Nematophytes
The plant food factory
At least some plant cells contain photosynthetic organelles (plastids) which enable them to make food for themselves.
With sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide, the plastids make sugars, the basic molecules needed by the plant.
Free oxygen (O2) is produced as a by-product of photosynthesis.
Later, in the cell cytoplasm, the sugars may be turned into amino acids for proteins, nucleotides for DNA and RNA, and carbohydrates such as starch.
This process needs certain minerals: nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, iron and magnesium.
Plant nutrients
N = Nitrogen (Carbohydrates, amino acids & glycolipids)
P = Phosphorus (ATP and the energy cycle)
K = Potassium (water regulation, opening and closing of stomata in some plant species)
Ca = Calcium (transport of other nutrients)
Mg = Magnesium (major constituent of chlorophyll, activator to various enzymes)
S = Sulfur (some amino acids)
Si = Silicon (cell walls)
Cl = Chlorine (osmosis and ion balance)
Fe = Iron (photosynthesis ans enzyme co-factor)
B = Boron (sugar transport and cell division)
Mn = Manganese (building chloroplasts)
Na = Sodium (various)
Zn = Zinc (activator to many enzymes)
Cu = Copper (photosynthesis)
Ni=  Nickel (an enzyme)
Mo = Molybdenum (enzyme co-factors)
The roots of plants perform two main functions.
First, they anchor the plant to the ground.
Second, they absorb water and various nutrients dissolved in water from the soil.
Plants use the water to make food.
The water also provides the plant with support.
Plants that lack water become very limp and their stems cannot support their leaves.
Plants which specialise in desert areas are called xerophytes or phreatophytes, depending on the type of root growth.
Water is transported from the roots to the rest of the plant through special vessels in the plant.
When the water reaches the leaves, some of it evaporates into the air.
Many plants need the help of fungi to make their roots work properly.
This plant/fungi symbiosis is called mycorrhiza.
Rhizobia bacteria in root nodules help some plants get nitrogen.
Flowering plant reproduction
Flowers and pollination
Flowers are the reproductive organ only of flowering plants (Angiosperms).
The petals of a flower are often brightly colored and scented to attract insects and other pollinators.
The stamen is the male part of the plant.
It is composed of the filament (a stalk) that holds the anther, which produces the pollen.
Pollen is needed for plants to produce seeds.
The carpel is the female part of the flower.
The top part of the carpel contains the stigma.
The style is the neck of the carpel.
The ovary is the swollen area at the bottom of the carpel.
The ovary produces the seeds.
The sepal is a leaf that protects a flower as a bud.
How pollen moves from one flower to another flower is called pollination.
This transfer can happen in different ways.
Insects such as bees are attracted to bright, scented flowers.
When bees go into the flower to gather nectar, the spiky pollen sticks to their back legs.
The sticky stigma on another flower catches the pollen when the bee lands or flies nearby it.
Some flowers use the wind to carry pollen.
Their dangling stamens produce lots of pollen that is light enough to be carried by the wind.
Their flowers are usually small and not highly coloured.
The stigmas of these flowers are feathery and hang outside the flower to catch the pollen as it falls.
Seed travelers
A plant produces many spores or seeds.
Lower plants such as moss and ferns produce spores.
The seed plants are the Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
If all the seeds fell to the ground besides the plant, the area might become overcrowded.
There might not be enough water and minerals for all the seeds.
Seeds usually have some way to get to new places.
Some seeds can be dispersed by the wind or by water.
Seeds inside juicy fruits are dispersed after being eaten.
Sometimes, seeds stick to animals and are dispersed that way.
If by plants we mean phototrophs using chlorophyll, then cyanobacteria in stromatolites are the first fossils, 3,450 million years ago (mya) in the Archaean eon.
The remarkable precision is possible because the fossils were sandwiched between lava flows that could be precisely dated from embedded zircon crystals.
If by plants we include all types of algae, then the earliest known red algae lived 1.6 billion years ago.
Fossils of them were recently found in India.
If by plants we mean green plants, Viridiplantae, then the first fossils are green algae.
This is probably the majority position amongst professional botanists.
There is convincing evidence for the monophyly of charophyte green algae and embryophytes.
There are still two choices:
Acritarchs (a group of organic-walled microfossils) may be reproductive cysts of green algae.