the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The entomologist J.-H Fabre (1823–1915) was a remarkable observer of natural life.
His popular writing on natural history kept ethology alive in Europe.
Douglas Spalding (1841–1877) was a British biologist who was the first to notice the effect called imprinting.
Instinct and imprinting were the first scientific concepts in ethology.
He was able to prove that the behaviour of chicks after hatching from the egg happened even when they had no experience, practice or even information from the senses.
Therefore, the capacity was inherited.
Studies by Charles Otis Whitman, Oskar Heinroth and Julian Huxley set the tone in the 20th century.
This work was mostly on bird behaviour, especially mating behaviour.
The behaviour of birds played a big part in early ethology, but there was a start to studying our nearest relatives.
Wolfgang Köhler's Mentality of Apes was a landmark in the study of primates.
In 2020, Dr. Tobias Starzak and Professor Albert Newen from the Institute of Philosophy II at the Ruhr University Bochum proposed that animals may have beliefs despite these being more difficult to determine than humans.
Nobel prizewinners
The next generation began during the 1930s with the work of Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, and the Dutch biologist Niko Tinbergen.
The three men were joint winners of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1973.
Lorenz is famous for his 'longitudinal' studies: he lived with the animals he researched, and made observations throughout their lives.
Then he wrote about what he had discovered in long, very readable papers.
He researched instinctual behaviour, which he called 'fixed action patterns' (FAPs).
Lorenz popularized FAPs as instinctive responses that would occur reliably in the presence of specific stimuli (called sign stimuli or releasing stimuli).
von Frisch worked on communication in honey bees: the famous 'bee dances'.
Tinbergen experimented with the stimuli which trigger fixed action patterns.
He found out that artificial super-stimuli could often work better than the natural stimuli.
Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to certain other disciplines—e.g., neuroanatomy, ecology, evolution.
Ethologists are typically interested in a behavioural process rather than in a particular animal group and often study one type of behaviour (e.g. aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.
In the 1960s Nico Tinbergen set out a framework for research on behaviour.
It involved four questions and their answers.
Function (adaptation)
Function—How does the behaviour affect the animal's chances of survival and reproduction?
Why does the animal respond that way instead of some other way?
The only scientific explanation for an animal’s behaviour is that it is well adapted for survival and reproduction in its environment.
A trait is the result of its past contribution to survival.
In practice, this is simple.
For instance, birds fly south in the winter to find food and warmth, and mammalian mothers nurture their young, thereby having more surviving offspring.
Causation—What are the stimuli that trigger the response, and how has it been modified by recent learning?
Evolutionary history—How does the behaviour compare with similar behaviour in related species, and how might it have begun through the process of phylogeny?
Phylogeny explains why some adaptation is less than perfect.
From where it is, there are always some possibilities which a particular species can never get to.
This is because all stages in evolution must be viable, else extinction occurs.
Another reason is that not all traits of a species can be maximised at the same time.
Increase in armour, for example, is bound to slow down movement.
Teeth which are best for vegetation are much less good for meat.
The final result is a set of traits, most of which are sub-optimal.
Earlier phylogenetic stages and (pre-) conditions which persist often determine the form of more modern characteristics.
For instance, the vertebrate eye (including the human eye) has a blind spot, whereas octopus eyes do not.
Once the vertebrate eye had evolved, the only way it could improve was to minimise the effect of the blind spot.
We don't notice it ordinarily, because with binocular vision what one eye misses, the other fills in.
Development (ontogeny)
Development—How does the behaviour change with age, and what early experiences are necessary for the behaviour to be displayed?
All instances of behaviour require an explanation at each of these four levels.
For example, the function of eating is to acquire nutrients (which ultimately aids survival and reproduction), but the immediate cause of eating is hunger (causation).
Hunger and eating are evolutionarily ancient and are found in many species (evolutionary history), and develop early within an organism's lifespan (development).
It is easy to confuse such questions – for example to argue that people eat because they're hungry and not to acquire nutrients – without realizing that the reason people experience hunger (causation) is because it causes them to acquire nutrients (function).
Alcock, John 2013.
10th ed, Sinauer.
ISBN 0-87893-966-0.
Any edition of this standard text can be used.
Alcock, John 2003.
The triumph of sociobiology.
Henry III (1 October 1207–16 November 1272) became King of England in 1216 when he was 9 years old, after the early death of his father King John.
He would end up ruling as king for 56 years (though he would only effectively rule for around 45 due to his youth in the first years).
He would be married to Eleanor of Provence, who bore him 5 children, for 36 years.
During his long reign, Henry's kingdom would experience relative peace and prosperity until he began having trouble with his barons (particularly Simon de Montfort) due to his high handed governing style, which compelled the Barons to impose the Provisions of Oxford limiting royal power in 1258.
The king's breaking of this agreement with the barons a few years later would lead to a civil war called the Baron's war which pitched the royal family against the rebel barons for 3 years (1264-1267), culminating in De Montfort's death at the unusually bloody Battle of Evesham in 1265 and the royal family being able to sweep up the remnants of the opposition by 1267.
However, Henry's most visible mark on history would be due to his interest in architecture and decoration: which made him redevelop certain aspects of Westminster Abbey, improve the Tower of London's defenses (while keeping exotic animals from Africa and the Arctic such as lions, an elephant and a polar bear in it).
He would even preside over the reburial of his personal hero Edward the Confessor at the consecration of Westminster Abbey in 1269, which was seen as the greatest personal triumph of his reign.
Soon after the consecration of his abbey, the aging Henry would began to see a sharp decline in his health, eventually dying in 1272 at the fairly advanced age of 65, with his eldest son Prince Edward ascending the throne as King Edward I of England.
The new king would have his late father reburied in 1290 in Westminster Abbey, where he has laid till modern historians discovered his tomb, which revealed that Henry III was about 5’ 6” tall and had a drooping left eyelid.
1207 births
1272 deaths
Edward I (17 June 1239–7 July 1307), also Longshanks (meaning 'long legs') and the Hammer of the Scots, was a Plantagenet King of England.
He became king on 21 November 1272, until his death in 1307.
His mother was Queen Eleanor of Provence and his father was King Henry III of England.
As a younger man, Edward fought against Simon de Montfort in defence of his father's crown.
He went on a Crusade, and his father died as Edward was on his way back.
As a ruler, he improved the laws and made Parliament regular, and more important.
He conquered Wales, and subdued the Welsh by brutal policies.
He was determined to control Scotland through puppet kings and just managed to do it during his lifetime.
He expelled the Jewish people from England.
Young Edward
Edward was born at Westminster in June 1239 to the English King Henry III and his wife, the French noblewoman and English Queen Eleanor of Provence.
The baby Edward and was named after an earlier king, Edward the Confessor, who happened to be a personal hero of his father King Henry The boy Edward would have a good education, being taught in Latin and French which were the most used languages in Europe at the time.
Eleanor and Edward were married on 1 November 1254 in Castile.
As part of the marriage agreement, the young prince got grants of land worth 15,000 marks a year.
Though the endowments King Henry made were sizable, they offered Edward little independence.
He had received Gascony as early as 1249, but Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, as royal lieutenant, drew the income.
In practice, Edward derived neither authority nor revenue from this province.
The grant he received in 1254 included most of Ireland, and much land in Wales and England, including the earldom of Chester, but the king kept control over the land, particularly in Ireland, so Edward's power was limited there as well, and the king got most of the income from those lands.
The years 1264–1267 saw the conflict known as the Second Barons' War, in which baronial forces led by Simon de Montfort fought against those who remained loyal to the king.
The first scene of battle was the city of Gloucester, which Edward, now a young man who could participate in battles, managed to retake from the enemy.
When Robert de Ferrers, Earl of Derby, came to the assistance of the rebels, Edward negotiated a truce with the earl, the terms of which he later broke.
Edward then captured Northampton from de Montfort's son, also Simon.
The baronial and royalist forces finally met at the Battle of Lewes, on 14 May 1264.
Edward, commanding the right wing, performed well, and soon defeated the London contingent of de Montfort's forces.
Unwisely, however, he followed the scattered enemy in pursuit, and on his return found the rest of the royal army defeated.
By the agreement known as the Mise of Lewes, Edward and his cousin Henry of Almain were given up as prisoners to de Montfort.
Edward remained in captivity until March, and even after his release he was kept under strict surveillance.
Meanwhile, de Montfort used his victory to set up a de facto government.
He even summoned the Parliament of 1265, known as de Montfort's Parliament.
Then, on 28 May 1265, Edward managed to escape his custodians and joined up with the Earl of Gloucester, who had recently defected to the king's side.
Montfort's support was now dwindling, and Edward retook Worcester and Gloucester with relatively little effort.
Meanwhile, Montfort had made an alliance with Llywelyn and started moving east to join forces with his son Simon.
The two forces then met at the second great encounter of the Barons' War the Battle of Evesham, on 4 August 1265.
Montfort stood little chance against the superior royal forces, and after his defeat he was killed and mutilated on the field.
The war did not end with Montfort's death, and Edward continued campaigning.
At Christmas, he came to terms with the younger Simon de Montfort and his associates at the Isle of Axholme in Lincolnshire.
In March he led a successful assault on the Cinque Ports.
A contingent of rebels held out in the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle and did not surrender until the drafting of the conciliatory Dictum of Kenilworth.
In April it seemed as if Gloucester would take up the cause of the reform movement, and civil war would resume, but after a renegotiation of the terms of the Dictum of Kenilworth, the parties came an agreement.
Edward, however, was little involved in the settlement negotiations following the wars; at this point his main focus was on planning his upcoming crusade.
Crusade and accession
Edward took the crusader's cross in an elaborate ceremony on 24 June 1268, with his brother Edmund and cousin Henry of Almain.
Among others who committed themselves to the Ninth Crusade were some of Edward's former adversaries.
There was great difficulty raising funds for the expedition.
Originally, the Crusaders intended to relieve the beleaguered Christian stronghold of Acre, but before they could do this, several disasters happened to the French.
The French forces were struck by an epidemic which, on 25 August, took the life of King Louis himself in 1270 By the time Edward arrived at Tunis, Charles had already signed a treaty with the emir, and there was little else to do but return to Sicily.
The crusade was postponed until next spring, but a devastating storm off the coast of Sicily dissuaded Charles of Anjou and Louis's successor Philip III from any further campaigning.
Edward decided to continue alone, and on 9 May 1271 he finally landed at Acre.
By then, the situation in the Holy Land was a precarious one.
Jerusalem had fallen in 1244, and Acre was now the centre of the Christian area.
The Muslim states were on the offensive under the Mamluk leadership of Baibars, and were now threatening Acre itself.
An embassy to the Mongols helped bring about an attack on Aleppo in the north, which helped to distract Baibar's forces.
In November, Edward led a raid on Qaqun, which could have served as a bridgehead to Jerusalem, but both the Mongol invasion and the attack on Qaqun failed.
Things now seemed increasingly desperate.
Finally, an attack by a Muslim assassin in June forced him to abandon any further campaigning.
Although he managed to kill the assassin, he was struck in the arm by a dagger feared to be poisoned, and became severely weakened over the following months.
It was not until 24 September that Edward left Acre.
Arriving in Sicily, he was met with the news that his father had died on 16 November.
Edward was deeply saddened by this news, but rather than hurrying home at once, he made a leisurely journey northwards.
The political situation in England was stable after the mid-century upheavals, and Edward was proclaimed king at his father's death, rather than at his own coronation, as had until then been customary.
In Edward's absence, the country was governed by a royal council, led by Robert Burnell.
The new king embarked on an overland journey through Italy and France, where among other things he visited the pope in Rome and suppressed a rebellion in Gascony.
Only on 2 August 1274 did he return to England, and was crowned on 19 August.
Edward's reign had two main phases.
The first phase was administration of a now peaceful country.
The second phase was warfare against Wales and Scotland.
His first concern was to restore order and re-establish royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father.
To do this, he changed the administrators.
He appointed Robert Burnell as chancellor, who held the post until his death in 1292.
Edward then replaced most local officials, such as the sheriffs.
This was done to prepare for an inquiry which would hear complaints about abuse of power by royal officers.
Laws were made to define rights about ownership of land, recovery of debts, trade and local peacekeeping.
Edward reformed English Parliament and made it a source for generating revenue.
Edward held Parliament regularly in his reign.
In 1295 a significant change occurred.
For this Parliament, in addition to the  lords, two knights from each county and two representatives from each borough were summoned.
Before, the commons had been expected simply to assent (say 'yes') to decisions already made by the rulers.
Now they would meet with the full authority (plena potestas) of their communities, to give assent to decisions made in Parliament.
The king now had full backing for collecting 'lay subsidies' from the entire population.
Lay subsidies were taxes collected at a certain fraction of the moveable property of all laymen.
Historians have called this the "Model Parliament".
War in Wales
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd  was the main Welsh leader.
He refused to do homage to Edward, and married Eleanor, the daughter of Simon de Montfort.
In November 1276, war was declared.
Initial operations were launched under the command of Mortimer, Edmund Crouchback (Edward's brother) and the Earl of Warwick.
Support for Llywelyn was weak amongst the Welsh.
In July 1277 Edward invaded with a force of 15,500 of whom 9,000 were Welshmen.
The campaign never came to a major battle, and Llywelyn soon realised he had no choice but to surrender.
By the Treaty of Aberconwy in November 1277, he was left only with the land of Gwynedd, but he was allowed to keep the title of Prince of Wales.
When war broke out again in 1282, it was entirely different.
For the Welsh, this war was over national freedom.
It had wide support, especially after attempts to impose English law on Welsh subjects.
For Edward, it became a war of conquest.
The war started with a rebellion by Dafydd (Llywelyn's younger brother), who was annoyed with the reward he had received from Edward in 1277.
Llywelyn and other Welsh chieftains soon joined in, and initially the Welsh experienced military success.
The Welsh advances ended on 11 December, however, when Llywelyn was lured into a trap and killed at the Battle of Orewin Bridge.
The English conquest was complete with the capture in June 1283 of Dafydd, who was taken to Shrewsbury and executed as a traitor next autumn.
Further rebellions occurred in 1287–8 and in 1294.
In both cases the rebellions were put down.
By the 1284 law called the Statute of Rhuddlan, Wales was incorporated into England and was given an governing system like the English, with counties policed by sheriffs.
English law was introduced in criminal cases, though the Welsh were allowed to maintain their own laws in some cases of property disputes.
After 1277, and increasingly after 1283, Edward embarked on a full-scale project of English settlement of Wales.
He created new towns like Flint, Aberystwyth, and Rhuddlan.
Edward started a big program of building castles, to keep the Welsh under control.
His castles started the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern influences.
Also a product of the Crusades was the introduction of the concentric castle, and four of the eight castles Edward founded in Wales followed this design.
In 1284, King Edward's son Edward the later Edward II was born at Caernarfon Castle.
In 1301 at Lincoln, the young Edward became the first English prince to be invested with the title of Prince of Wales.
Wars with Scotland
Scotland and England were at peace in the 1280s.
Alexander III of Scotland and Edward had an understanding whereby Alexander held land in England.
This gave him the excuse to acknowledge Edward as his lord, and left ambiguous whether or not this applied to Scotland as well.
The heir to the throne was his infant granddaughter Margaret.
Unfortunately, Alexander died in 1286, followed by Margaret in 1290.
This left Scotland without a king, which started all the problems.
Struggle for the crown of Scotland
There were fourteen claimants; John Balliol and Robert de Brus (the grandfather of the famous Robert the Bruce) had the best cases.
The competitors agreed to hand over the realm to Edward until a decision was made.
John Balliol was chosen in 1292.
Edward continued to push his claim as overlord of Scotland.
He interferred in some of the legal affairs of Scotland, and insisted the Scots provided military service in his army.
This caused the Scots to make an alliance with France.
They then attacked Carlisle.
Edward responded by invading Scotland in 1296 and taking the town of Berwick in a particularly bloody attack.
At the Battle of Dunbar, Scottish resistance was effectively crushed.
Edward confiscated the Stone of Destiny – the Scottish coronation stone– and brought it to Westminster, deposed Balliol and placed him in the Tower of London, and installed Englishmen to govern the country.
Although the Scottish conflict seemed settled in 1296, it was started again by William Wallace, who came from one of the notable families.
Wallace was a warlord rather than a politician, and soon started a rebellion.
He defeated a large English force at Stirling Bridge in 1297 while Edward was in Flanders.
In 1298 Edward defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk.
After that the Scots avoided open battle in favour of raiding England with small groups.
Edward's next move was political: in 1303 a peace agreement was made between England and France, breaking up the Franco-Scottish alliance.
Robert de Brus and most of the other nobles pledged allegiance to Edward.
Wallace was betrayed and handed to the English.
He was publicly executed.
The situation changed again, in 1306, when de Brus murdered his rival John Comyn and had himself crowned King of Scotland by Isobel, sister of the Earl of Buchan.
Edward, in ill health, sent armies north under other commanders.
Brus was beaten at the Battle of Methven in June 1306.
After the battle, Edward followed with brutal suppression of the allies of de Brus.
In response this fueled more rebellions.
This conflict was still in progress in 1307 when Edward, now an elderly man, led his final campaign into Scotland before dying at the border city of Burgh-by-sands at age 68, leading to the succession of the Prince of Wales as Edward II of England.
Eleanor of Castile died on 28 November 1290.
Unusual for arranged marriages, the couple actually loved each other.
Edward was deeply affected by her death.
He erected twelve Eleanor crosses, one at each place where her funeral cortège (procession) stopped for the night.
As part of the peace accord between England and France in 1294, it was agreed that Edward should marry the French princess Margaret.
The marriage took place in 1299.
Edward and Eleanor had at least fourteen children, perhaps as many as sixteen.
Of these, five daughters survived into adulthood, but only one boy did the same– his son and heir Edward, Prince of Wales.
Edward was concerned with his son's failure to live up to expectations, and at one point exiled the prince's favourite Piers Gaveston.
Edward may have known his son was bisexual but he did not throw Gaveston from the castle battlements as shown in Braveheart.
1239 births
1307 deaths
1300s in England
The cell nucleus (plural: cell nuclei) contains the cell's genes and controls the cell's growth and reproduction.
It has a double layered nuclear membrane round it.
The nucleus is usually the most prominent organelle in a cell.
The nucleus is small and round, and works as the cell's control center.
It contains chromosomes which house the DNA.
The human body contains billions of cells, most of which have a nucleus.
All eukaryote organisms have nuclei in their cells, even the many eukaryotes that are single-celled.
Bacteria and Archaea, which are prokaryotes, are single-celled organisms of a different type and do not have nuclei.
Cell nuclei were first found by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in the 17th century.
The nucleus has a membrane around it but the things inside it do not.
Inside it are many proteins, RNA molecules, chromosomes and the nucleolus.
In the nucleolus ribosomes are put together.
After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA into proteins.
When a cell is dividing or preparing to divide, the chromosomes become visible with a light microscope.
At other times when the chromosomes are not visible, the nucleolus will be visible.
Large molecules cannot get through the double-layer nuclear membrane.
However, nuclear pores exist.
They control the movement of molecules across the membrane.
The pores cross both nuclear membranes, providing a channel.
The larger molecules are actively transported by carrier proteins, and there is free movement of small molecules and ions.
Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA through the pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenance of chromosomes.
Within the nucleus is a structure called a nucleolus.
It is made at a nucleolus organizer region (NOR).
This is a chromosomal region around which the nucleolus forms.
Inside the nucleolus ribosomes are made.
These are exported through the nuclear pore complexes to the cytoplasm.
There they  work to build proteins.
They become attached to the endoplasmic reticulum if they are making membrane proteins.
Scotland Yard is the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police in London.
This police force is responsible for the security in Greater London.
New Scotland Yard is in a 20-storey office block on Broadway and Victoria Street in Westminster, about 450 metres away from the Houses of Parliament.
The famous rotating sign, which is seen on television and in films, is outside the main doors on Broadway.
Founded on 29 September 1829, on a street of Whitehall, Scotland Yard was called "New Scotland Yard" when moved, in November 1890, to the Victoria Embankment, beside the Ministry of Defence.
In 1967, New Scotland Yard moved to the present 20-story building at 10 Broadway.
Scotland Yard got its name by its previous location which was on Great Scotland Yard.
As the Metropolitan police grew more famous, people started referring to the house as Scotland Yard.
Law enforcement in the United Kingdom
Antimony is a chemical element.
It has the chemical symbol Sb.
The symbol Sb is from the Latin name of 'stibium' for the element.
It has the atomic number 51.
Its atomic mass is 121.8.
It is a blue-gray element that is somewhat toxic.
Antimony has four allotropes.
The common allotrope of antimony is a blue-white metalloid.
It looks black when powdered.
It is brittle, soft, and shiny.
Yellow and black antimony are unstable nonmetals.
Yellow antimony is only found at very cold temperatures.
It is made by oxidation of stibine.
It turns into black antimony when light is shined on it or when it is warmer.
Black antimony is normally made by heating metallic antimony until it boils and then cooling the vapors very quickly.
It can ignite spontaneously (without any ignition source like a spark or a flame).
It also corrodes easily.
There is another explosive form of antimony that is made by electrolysis of antimony trichloride.
This antimony explodes when changing into the metallic form.
There is no chemical reaction; the atoms in the antimony crystal are rearranging themselves.
When antimony is talked about it normally means the blue-white metalloid form, since it is most common.
Antimony is found as two stable (not radioactive) isotopes naturally.
Sb- 123 and Sb-121
Antimony is a rather unreactive element.
It does not dissolve in acids easily.
It can dissolve in oxidizing acids like nitric or sulfuric acid.
It does not corrode easily in air, although the black allotrope can corrode.
Antimony burns in air to make antimony trioxide.
In excess air, it burns to antimony tetroxide.
Antimony forms chemical compounds in three oxidation states: -3, +3, and +5.
-3 compounds are called antimonides.
They are made by reacting antimony with other metals.
They react with acids to make the toxic and unstable gas stibine.
+3 compounds are the most common.
They are somewhat covalent, having low melting points.
Antimony trichloride is a colorless and soft solid that has a strong odor.
Antimony trioxide is a white solid that dissolves a little in water.
The other antimony(III) halides all react with water except for antimony trifluoride.
Antimony pentafluoride is highly reactive, as well as antimony pentoxide.
The antimonides have properties between alloys and salts.
Aluminium antimonide, black solid
Antimonide, the Sb3- ion
Stibine, unstable colorless gas made when antimonides react with acids
Zinc antimonide, gray solid
They are covalent.
Most of them are colorless or light yellow solids.
They are the most common antimony compounds.
Antimony tribromide, colorless solid, reacts with water
Antimony trichloride, colorless or pale yellow soft solid, reacts with water
Antimony trifluoride, light gray solid, dissolves in water
Antimony triiodide, yellow solid, reacts with water
Antimony trioxide, white solid, most common antimony compound
Antimony trisulfide, gray solid, flammable
Antimony pentachloride, pale yellow liquid
Antimony pentafluoride, colorless oily liquid
Antimony pentoxide, yellow solid
Antimony sulfide was known for a long time.
Some things plated with antimony and made out of antimony were found in Egypt and Chaldea.
The first time antimony was mentioned in Europe was in the 1540.
The first native antimony was found in Sweden in 1783.
Antimony sulfide and antimony were confused sometimes in antiquity.
There is a question over what "stibium", the original name of antimony, meant.
Antimony is not common.
It is found about as often as thallium.
It is quite easy to get, though and is in many minerals.
Antimony is sometimes found as an element, but normally it is found as stibnite, an antimony sulfide mineral.
Stibnite is the main ore of antimony.
China is the biggest maker of antimony; it makes 84% of all antimony.
Other countries that make antimony are South Africa, Bolivia, and Kyrgyzstan.
Antimony is not used in the human body.
Antimony is made from stibnite by heating it with air.
This makes antimony trioxide.
Since it gets so hot, the antimony trioxide is evaporated.
Other metal oxides in the stibnite ore do not evaporate.
The antimony trioxide gas is condensed in a container.
The antimony trioxide is then heated with carbon to make carbon dioxide and antimony.
Another way to make antimony is to heat stibnite with scrap iron.
This makes iron(II) sulfide and antimony.
The antimony is separated and used.
It makes an alloy with lead.
This alloy, 5% antimony and 95% lead, is harder than pure lead.
It is used in lead acid batteries, as well as some other things.
It is used  as an alloy with lead in the pipes of pipe organs.
Pewter has antimony in it.
Some lead-free solder has antimony in it.
It is used as an alloy with lead in ammunition for small arms and in covering of cables as well.
It is also used in some alloys that have very little friction like Babbitt metal.
Another use is in a catalyst for making some plastics.
Antimony(III) oxide is added to some glass to remove bubbles for things like television screens.
Antimony is used as a dopant in electronics.
Some antimony compounds were used as medicines to kill protozoans.
The antimony pill was a chunk of antimony that was supposed to heal diseases.
It is used in medicines for pets.
Antimony sulfide is used in matches.
Antimony is toxic.
Its toxicity is similar to arsenic, although it is less toxic than arsenic.
Breathing in antimony dust can be very dangerous.
Antimony reacts with strong oxidizing agents.
Small amounts of antimony come out of plastic bottles where antimony was used as a catalyst.
Some people were concerned that too much antimony was coming out.
Buckingham Palace is a palace in London.
It is in the City of Westminster, in central London.
The Palace is the main official residence where the British monarch lives and works.
The palace is a setting for state occasions and royal hospitality.
It has been a focus for the British people at times of national rejoicing and crisis.
Buckingham Palace was built in 1703 by John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normandy, as a townhouse residence in London.
It was bought by the British royal family in 1761.
It became the official London home of the family in 1837 and was greatly expanded in the 19th century.
It has 775 rooms, 19 staterooms, and 78 bathrooms.
Leading up to it is a ceremonial road called The Mall.
A German bomb damaged the Palace during the London blitz.
Palaces in the United Kingdom
Amherst is a town in the American state of Massachusetts.
It is in Hampshire County.
There are three colleges in Amherst.
It is named after Sir Jeffrey Amherst.
It has a population of about 30,000 people.
Town of Amherst Official Site
Amherst College
Amherst Bulletin newspaper
Amherst Area Chamber of Commerce
1703 establishments
1700s establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
Conservative means wishing or tending to save something old.
Thus, culturally conservative is saving cultural heritage.
Other kinds of conservative include:
Conservative, political view.
Conservapedia, a wiki designed for conservative Christians.
The 2008 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, were celebrated in Beijing, People's Republic of China from August 8 to August 24.
The opening ceremony began at 08:08:08 pm CST (12:08:08 UTC) at the Beijing National Stadium in Beijing, People's Republic of China.
During the games, 10,500 athletes competed in 302 events in 28 sports.
The Olympic games were awarded to Beijing after a vote of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) on July 13 2001.
The official logo of the games, titled "Dancing Beijing," features a stylised calligraphic character jīng (京, meaning capital), meaning the host city.
The mascots of Beijing 2008 are the five Fuwa, each representing both a colour of the Olympic rings and a symbol of Chinese culture.
The Olympic slogan, One World, One Dream, calls upon the world to unite in the Olympic spirit.
Several new NOCs were also recognised by the IOC.
The Chinese government used the games to promote China as an important and powerful country, and spent a lot of money on building new facilities and transportation systems for the games.
The events were held in 37 venues, including 12 newly-built buildings.
In 2007, former IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch said that he thinks that the Beijing games will be "the best in Olympic history".
Although there was some controversy about having the games in China, the IOC's former president Jacques Rogge said that the IOC has "absolutely no regrets" in choosing Beijing to host the 2008 games.
Medal table
China, the host nation is highlighted in lavender.
2008 in China
Pierre de Fermat (17 August 1601 – 12 January 1665) was a French lawyer at the Parlement of Toulouse, southern France, and a mathematician.
Many people see him as the father of modern calculus.
His method of finding the biggest and smallest ordinates of curved lines also makes him a contributor to differential calculus, which was not known at that time.
His studies in the theory of numbers give him the rank of the founder of the modern theory.
He also made notable contributions to analytic geometry and probability.
He is also famous for making a simple mathematical statement (known as Fermat's Last Theorem) that he said he could prove, but he never wrote down his proof.
Mathematicians tried to prove it for hundreds of years before finally managing it.
Fermat probably did not really have a proof for this theorem, and only thought he did.
He proposed his principle on light which states that light selects the path which takes least time to travel.
This principle was famous as Fermat principle.
1601 births
1665 deaths
French number theorists
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (also Leibnitz or von Leibniz) 1 July 1 (21 June OS) 1646 – 14 November 1716) was a German intellectual who wrote mostly in French and Latin.
He played an important role in both philosophy and mathematics.
He invented calculus independently of Newton, and his notation for derivatives is the one in general use since then.
He also invented the binary system, foundation of modern computers.
He was taught law and philosophy.
He served as secretary to two major German noble houses: one became the British royal family while he served it.
Leibniz played a major role in the European politics and diplomacy of his day.
In philosophy, he is most remembered for optimism.
He thought our universe is the best possible one God could have made.
He was one of the great 17th century rationalists.
René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza are the other two.
His philosophy also both looks back to the Scholastic tradition and anticipates modern logic and analysis.
Leibniz also made contributions to physics and technology, and anticipated ideas which surfaced much later in biology, medicine, geology, probability theory, psychology, and information science.
He wrote on politics, law, ethics, theology, history, and philology.
Sometimes, he even wrote in verse.
His contributions are scattered in journals and in tens of thousands of letters and unpublished manuscripts.
There is no complete edition of Leibniz's writings, and a complete account of his accomplishments is not yet possible.
Leibniz is sometimes known as the last "universal genius".
1646 births
1716 deaths
Optimism is a philosophy and a way of life.
Optimists believe that the world is generally a positive place to be in.
In the view of an optimist, people and things are good.
Many liberal optimists do not believe in original sin.
Optimism basically looks on the positive side, believing things will work out in the end.
When a person is optimistic, it doesn't mean that they never doubt themselves.
They might have a bad day or two.
They recognize that they can make things better; there is a lesson to be learned from this, and they will move on.
The opposing theory is called pessimism.
Gottfried Leibnitz was a famous optimist.
Arthur Schopenhauer is often considered to be a famous pessimist.
Optimism is associated with the idea of a glass looking "half full", instead of looking "Half empty".
Optimism is also a habit of looking on the bright side of a situation
Refrences
Pessimism is an attitude of mind and a way to look at life.
Pessimists believe that generally things are bad, and the world people live in is the worst possible world.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) is the largest group in the Mormon movement.
It was started in 1830 in New York by Joseph Smith.
They believe that Joseph Smith was a prophet who restored the church Jesus Christ set up on earth when he was alive.
They teach that they are the only church that has the full gospel.
They also believe that the Father, Son and Holy Spirit are three separate individuals, but all have the same purpose.
LDS scriptures include the Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price.
Members of the church, often called Mormons, and properly known as Latter-Day Saints are known for being active in missionary work.
They also believe in the importance of families.
The center of the Church is in Salt Lake City, Utah, but there are more than 15 million members living all over the world.
About six million of them live in the United States.
Four and a half million of them live in the Western United States and 1.8 million live in Utah.
It is the second fastest growing church in the United States.
It is the fourth largest in the United States.
The leader of the Church is called the President of the Church, and members respect him as a prophet.
Right now, the President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints is Russell M. Nelson.
Latter-day Saints believe that God guides their prophet, just like Catholics believe God guides the Pope.
Latter-day Saints believe in the Holy Scriptures including the Bible and Book of Mormon- Another Testament of Jesus Christ.
They also believe that it is important for families to spend a lot of time together, and that after they die, they can live together forever.
Latter-day Saints do not drink alcohol, coffee, or tea; smoke tobacco; or use other drugs.
They meet once a week on Sunday for church, where they take the sacrament and listen to short talks by members of their own congregation.
They also alternate between Sunday school to learn more about their scriptures and Relief Society (women group) and Elders Quorum (men group) where they discuss religious topics.
The Church also has activities during the week.
Latter-day Saints also have buildings called temples.
After a temple has been dedicated, only Latter-day Saints that are living lives in accordance with the teachings of the church can go in the temple.
Latter-day Saints believe in helping poor and needy people all around the world.
Because of this, Latter-day Saints have given $1.2 billion, since 1985, in cash and assistance to other people.
They also believe it is important to learn their family history, often called genealogy.
They also help others to learn their family histories, and give access to all their family history records for free, through the internet, on the website Familysearch.org.
In 1842, Joseph Smith wrote 13 paragraphs describing what the Church and its members believe.
These are those 13 beliefs:
We believe in God, the Eternal Father, and in His Son, Jesus Christ, and in the Holy Ghost.
We believe that men will be punished for their own sins, and not for Adam's transgression.
We believe that through the atonement of Christ, all mankind may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel.
We believe that the first principles and ordinances of the Gospel are: first, Faith in the Lord Jesus Christ; second, Repentance; third, Baptism by immersion for the remission of sins; fourth, Laying on of hands for the gift of the Holy Ghost.
We believe that a man must be called of God, by prophecy, and by the laying on of hands by those who are in authority, to preach the Gospel and administer in the ordinances thereof.
We believe in the same organization that existed in the Primitive Church, namely, apostles, prophets, pastors, teachers, evangelists, and so forth.
We believe in the gift of tongues, prophecy, revelation, visions, healing, interpretation of tongues, and so forth.
We believe the Bible to be the word of God as far as it is translated correctly; we also believe the Book of Mormon to be the word of God.
We believe all that God has revealed, all that He does now reveal, and we believe that He will yet reveal many great and important things pertaining to the Kingdom of God.
We believe in the literal gathering of Israel and in the restoration of the Ten Tribes; that Zion (the New Jerusalem) will be built upon the American continent; that Christ will reign personally upon the earth; and, that the earth will be renewed and receive its paradisaical glory.
We claim the privilege of worshiping Almighty God according to the dictates of our own conscience, and allow all men the same privilege, let them worship how, where, or what they may.
We believe in being subject to kings, presidents, rulers, and magistrates, in obeying, honoring, and sustaining the law.
We believe in being honest, true, chaste, benevolent, virtuous, and in doing good to all men; indeed, we may say that we follow the admonition of Paul – We believe all things, we hope all things, we have endured many things, and hope to be able to endure all things.
If there is anything virtuous, lovely, or of good report or praiseworthy, we seek after these things.
Plan of Salvation diagram
There are several divisions of the Church.
The biggest ones are areas.
An area might be a whole country, or part of a continent.
Another division is a temple district.
A temple district contains all the congregations served by one temple.
This often means a whole state, region, or large city.
Still another division is the mission, which is an area to which missionaries are assigned; almost all of the world is part of a mission, whether or not missionaries live or seek converts there.
Another division of the church is the stake.
Stakes contain all the Latter-day Saints in a geographic area (for example, the stake in Whittier, California serves all the Latter-day Saints in Whittier, Pico Rivera and La Mirada).
A stake often contains several thousand members.
Stakes are divided into wards.
In areas where the church is less established and there are not enough members to form a stake, a district is formed.
Districts serve much the same role as stakes.
In turn, districts are divided into branches.
If the church membership grows large enough, a district will be changed into a stake and the branches into wards.
Each congregation is one ward (or branch).
A ward might contain only people who speak a language other than the local language of its area.
Examples include areas next to large U.S. military bases in foreign countries, where English-language wards may be organized, and major U.S. cities with many immigrants, where wards using Spanish, dialects of Chinese, or other languages are often formed.
In some places, there are special wards for deaf people, where the services are held in the local sign language (such as American Sign Language in English-speaking North America).
The church also has "singles wards", in which the congregation is made up only of single adults.
In turn, there are two types of singles wards—Young Single Adult (YSA), for ages 18 to 30, and Single Adult (SA), for those over 30.
The church was founded by Joseph Smith in 1830 in upstate New York.
It was probably due to the Book of Mormon, which Smith said he had translated from gold plates that were buried in a nearby hill.
Smith's followers first went to Kirtland, Ohio in 1831.
The first temple was built in Kirtland, and by the mid-1830s, there were over 17,000 members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints.
In 1838, the Latter-day Saints settled in Independence and Far West, Missouri.
They were driven out because people in Missouri did not trust Latter-day Saints.
The Latter-day Saints then moved to Nauvoo, Illinois.
There, Smith started to practice polygamy and tried to start a "theodemocracy," which combined Latter-day Saints rule with American democracy.
In 1844, an attempt by Smith to shut down the Nauvoo newspaper led to Smith being accused of treason, followed by him being killed by a mob.
After Smith's death, there was a controversy over who should replace Smith.
Brigham Young led most of the Latter-day Saints to Utah in 1847.
When Utah became a territory in 1850, it was somewhat of a theocracy.
Later in the 1850s, there was conflict between the Latter-day Saints and the U.S. government over control of the territory.
This was called the Utah War.
The Mountain Meadows massacre was part of the Utah War.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Latter-day Saints settled the "Mormon Corridor" in Utah and surrounding states in the Western United States.
Some of the places they settled were Mesa, Arizona; San Bernardino, California; Las Vegas, Nevada; and Cardston, Alberta.
By 1890, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints had built temples in three Utah cities.
Brigham Young died in 1877.
Around that time, the U.S. government made polygamy against the law.
Polygamy had been practiced by Young and some members of the church since the 1840s.
Laws by the U.S. government led to many Latter-day Saints leaders going into hiding, and many polygamists being sent to jail.
In 1890, the church stopped polygamy.
This is thought to be the beginning of the modern era of the Mormon church.
In the early 20th century, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints grew, and opened its first temples outside of Utah.
Soon into the 20th century, tithing (giving money to the Church) was made a part of being a good member.
In 1995, Gordon Hinckley became President.
He got the church to build many temples in the United States and elsewhere around the world.
The current President is Russell M. Nelson after the death of Thomas S. Monson in January 2018.
Young people are encouraged to go on missions when they get old enough.
Men may go for two years after they are 18 years old (as long as they have graduated from high school), and women may go for 18 months after they are 19 years old.
Before an August 2012 change in church policy, men had to be 19 in most countries, and women throughout the world 21, before they could go on missions.
More men go on missions than women do.
These missionaries go to a "Missionary Training Center" for a few months where they learn how to be good missionaries, and then live in another place for their mission.
The Church tells them where they need to go.
Then they work with one other missionary who is the same gender as they are (called a "companion"), and change companions often so they are not always with the same person.
Missionaries will go to people who live near them and teach them about the Church, and baptize people who want to join the Church.
They also help people around them, even if these people are not in the Church.
Often they help by building houses for people who need them.
Older people sometimes go on missions after their children grow up.
They get to go with their spouse.
There are many different kinds of missions for "senior missionaries".
Some of them are only a few months, and some of them are a few years.
These missions can be "service missions", which means that they go to help people who live in the area.
Sometimes the senior missionary is a "mission president".
This means that they lead and help young missionaries in the place where they go to live.