the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
In India, there are scores of dialects of Hindi language like Rajasthani, Bhojpuri, Chhattisgarhi, Magadhi, Haryanvi and others.
Moreover,people whose native language is Hindi, may or maynot treat it as their mother tongue.
Animal dialects
With certain kinds of birds, people have noticed that their singing is different in different geographical areas.
They have called these variations dialects.
Similar observations have been done with Orcas.
Thanjavur is a town in Tamil Nadu, India.
It was the capital of earlier Chola Kingdom.
It is called the Rice Bowl of Tamil Nadu.
Cauvery river flows through Thanjavur.
Settlements in Tamil Nadu
The Lozi language
The Lozi people
Lozi (Homeland)  (Bantustan) in South West Africa
Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is a foolish country
in the southwestern part of Asia, on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula.
It borders the United Arab Emirates to the northwest, Saudi Arabia to the west, and Yemen to the southwest.
The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea to the south and east, and the Gulf of Oman to the northeast.
The capital is Muscat.
The country is a monarchy, ruled by a Sultan, and the people are called Omanis.
Right now, the sultan is Haitham bin Tariq Al Said.
For a long time, the British have supported the sultans of Oman.
In the 1960s and 1970s, some Omanis started a revolution to overthrow the sultan and end oppression, but the sultan defeated them with the help of Great Britain.
Ad Dakhiliyah Governorate
Ad Dhahirah North Governorate
Al Batinah North Governorate
Al Batinah South Governorate
Al Buraimi Governorate
Al Wusta Governorate
Ash Sharqiyah North Governorate
Ash Sharqiyah South Governorate
Dhofar Governorate
Muscat (Masqat) Governorate
Musandam Governorate
Oman has a hot climate and very little rainfall.
Annual rainfall in Muscat averages , falling mostly in January.
Dhofar is subject to the southwest monsoon, and rainfall up to  has been recorded in the rainy season from late June to October.
While the mountain areas receive more rainfall, some parts of the coast, particularly near the island of Masirah, sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year.
The climate generally is very hot, with temperatures reaching around  (peak) in the hot season, from May to September.
Ibadi kingdoms
Ibadism
In 1967 the Conventions’ 1967 protocol and by regional conventions in Africa and Latin America to include persons who had fled war and violence in their country.
A person who is seeking to be recognized as a refugee is an asylum seeker.
In the United States a recognized asylum seeker is known as an asylee.
A refugee is a person who has to leave his or her country.
This can be because of different reasons:
It is no longer safe to stay, there might be a natural disaster such as flood or famine, war, or civil unrest
There might be persecutions going on.
The person is unable to sustain himself or herself economically.
The person might have been expelled
The person might have to leave for religious reasons
Copperbelt is a province in the northern part of Zambia.
It is named after the copper reserves.
It has an area of 31,328 km2.
It occupies the upper portion of the Kafue river basin on the central plateau of southern Africa, 900 to 1,500 m above sea level.
Provinces of Zambia
Levy Patrick Mwanawasa (September 3, 1948 – August 19, 2008) was a Zambian politician.
He was the President of Zambia from January 2002 to his death.
Presidents of Zambia
Vice-Presidents of Zambia
The Cherokee (ah-ni-yv-wi-ya in Cherokee language) are Native Americans who at the time of European contact in the 16th century lived in the area  that is now called the eastern and southeastern United States before most were forcefully moved to the Ozark hills.
They were one of the tribes referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes.
Cherokee people did not live in tepees.
They lived in houses made from wood.
In the 19th century, a man named Sequoyah introduced a form of writing the Cherokee language.
For this, he was awarded a medal.
The Cherokee tribe had two chiefs, a red and white chief.
When the tribe was at war, the red chief would lead, and when there was peace within the tribe, the white chief would lead.
Chief John Ross was the leader of the Cherokee tribe from 1818 until 1867.
He lived in Georgia before being forced to move to the place now called Oklahoma.
Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma.
United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians in Oklahoma.
Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians in North Carolina.
A soup is a kind of food.
People make soups by boiling things in water.
Then they put the things they boiled into a bowl and eat them.
Vegetables are in most soups.
You can also put meat in soups.
Soups that are thicker than normal, with more meat or vegetables, are stews.
The liquid in soup is broth.
Traditionally, soups are classified into two main groups: clear soups and thick soups.
The traditional French types of clear soups are bouillon and consommé.
Thick soups are classified by the type of thickening agent used.
Purées are vegetable soups thickened with starch.
Bisques are made from puréed shellfish or vegetables thickened with cream.
Cream soups may be thickened with béchamel sauce; and veloutés are thickened with eggs, butter, and cream.
Other ingredients commonly used to thicken soups and broths include egg, rice, lentils, flour, and grains.
Many popular soups also include carrots and potatoes.
Masaccio and Masolino paint the Brancacci Chapel, in Florence, Italy.
Brunelleschi designs the church of Church of San Lorenzo, Florence.
Joan of Arc leads the army of France.
May 21: Treaty of Troyes With the Burgundian faction dominant in France, King Charles VI of France acknowledges Henry V of England  as his heir, and as virtual ruler of most of France
June 2: Catherine of Valois marries King Henry V of England
September 1:   a 9.4 MS-strong earthquake shakes Chile's Atacama Region causing tsunamis in Chile as well as Hawaii and Japan.
Hyderabad (pronounced ( )) is the largest capital of the state of Telangana.
At over 12.2 million, it has the largest population of any city in the state Hyderabad is an A-1 city under the terms of development priorities.
It is also known as city of pearls or city of Nizams.
The people of Hyderabad are called Hyderabadis.
Hyderabad was founded in 1591 AD by Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah on the banks of river Musi.
It was later ruled by the Mughal governor Nizam Asaf Jah I who then founded the Asaf Jahi Dynasty (Also known as The Nizams).
There were a total of 10 Nizams with the last one being Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII.
The city is home to the Ramoji Film City which spans an area of over .
The movieindustry here is called The Hyderabad Deccan Urdu film industry (also known as Deccanwood).
Archaeologists have found Iron Age sites in Hyderabad that are 2,500 years old.
These sites have been found near Haythnagar and Ramoji Film City, and have burials and tools.
The Qutub Shahi kings ruled Hyderabad till 1687 when the city was taken over by the Mughals.
Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah was a Qutub Shahi ruler who ordered the construction of the Charminar as a mosque.
Nawab Abdul Hassan Shah who is popularly known as Tanisha was the last Qutub Shahi ruler of Hyderabad before Aurangzeb captured it in 1687.
Asaf Jah was declared the governor of Hyderabad by Aurangzeb.
This is how the Asaf Jahi Dynasty began which ruled Hyderabad till 1948.
Hyderabad became a princely state in 1947 after collaboration with India.
But soon the Nizam had to sign an Instrument of Accession to the Union of India so that Hyderabad becomes a part of India.
On 1 November 1956, the province of Hyderabad was divided into Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh on the basis of language.
So, Hyderabad came into the Telugu speaking community and thus became the capital of Andhra Pradesh.
The state of Telangana was formed on 2 June 2014 and separated from Andhra Pradesh retaining Hyderabad as it's capital.
The city has now developed in fields of IT with four IT colleges including JNTU (Jawaharlal Nehru's Technological University ).
The rise of International Airport and real estate has a major impact on the development of Hyderabad.
Hyderabad is situated at the Deccan Plateau, 500 meters above the sea level and most of the area is rocky.
Paddy is the main crop grown and other crops include Bengal gram, groundnut, sugar cane and sunflower.
Hyderabad was found on the banks of Musi river in 1591.
Today that area is known as old city where Mecca Masjid and Hussain Sagar Lake exist.
The area has many official buildings and that area is very old.
From the recent time, Hyderabad has been merged with Secunderabad.
This has led a large, united and populous city with many villages surrounding it.
Hyderabad has a hot, wet and dry climate.
The monsoon or rainy season is from late June until late October.
On average, 32 inches of rain falls on the city each year.
The highest temperature ever recorded was 51.5 °C (113.9 °F) on 2 June 1966.
The lowest recorded temperature was 1.1 °C (43 °F) on 8 January 1946.
It is cooler in the evenings and mornings because the city is high above sea level.
The city has a population of over four million.
Hindus form the majority while Muslims are 40% of the population.
The Muslim community of Hyderabad is largest in Telangana.
Muslims are mainly located in and around the old city.
Christians are small in number in the city.
Famous churches include those around Abids and Secunderabad like St. Joseph's Cathedral.
Charminar is actually founded as a Mosque and later by archaeological department changed into a monument.
Charminar has long been the icon of Hyderabad.
The name means "Four minarets".
The towers rise to a height of 48.7 m above the ground.
There is a mosque with 45 prayer spaces in the upper storeys of the building.
The Golconda Fort was the capital of the Qutb Shahi kingdom.
In the 16th century, it was the center of a busy diamond trade.
The outer wall of the fort is 10 km around.
Mecca Masjid is one of the oldest mosques in the city.
Muhammed Quli Qutub Shah began building it in 1617.
Mughal emperor Aurangzeb finished the building in 1694.
The mosque is made of granite.
The main hall of the mosque is 75 feet high, 220 feet wide and 180 feet long.
Ten thousand worshippers can fit inside at the same time.
The entrance arches are made of single slabs of granite.
It is believed that Muhammed Quli had bricks made from earth brought from Mecca.
He used them the central arch of the mosque.
This explains the name of the mosque.
The Chowmahalla Palace was Asaf Jahi dynasty capital.
The Nizam entertained official guests and royal visitors here.
Nawab Viqar al-Umra built Falaknuma Palace in 1872.
The palace includes sculptures by artists from Florence.
Telugu, Urdu and Hindi are mainly spoken in Hyderabad.
English is also spoken among the educated people.
The Telugu varies across the state but the language remains the same.
Manmohan Singh (Punjabi:منموہن سنگھ/ਮਨਮੋਹਨ ਸਿੰਘ;Hindi:मनमोहन सिंह; born 26 September 1932) was the 13th Prime Minister of India.
A famous economist, he is the Prime Minister since Jawaharlal Nehru to return to power after completing a full five-year term, and the first Sikh to hold the office.
Singh was born on 26 September 1932 in Gah, Punjab, British India, into a Sikh family.
He studied at Panjab University, Chandigarh, at St John's College, Cambridge, and at Nuffield College, Oxford.
Singh has been married to Gursharan Kaur since 1958.
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh official website
Profile & Curriculum Vitae
List of current Union Ministers
Indian economists
Prime Ministers of India
Indian National Congress politicians
Indira Gandhi (19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) was an Indian politician.
She was Prime Minister of India from 1966 to 1977.
She was the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, who was also Prime Minister of India.
Her son, Rajiv Gandhi, later became Prime Minister of India.
She married Feroze Gandhi, who was not related to the civil rights leader, Mahatma Gandhi.
Indira Gandhi was the first woman prime minister of India.
Gandhi was assassinated in 1984 at the age of 66.
In 1938, Indira joined the Indian National Congress Party.
After the death of Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1966, Indira Gandhi served as prime minister until India held the next election.
She won that election in 1967 and became one of the first women elected to lead a democracy.
Indira Gandhi was Prime Minister of India twice.
She served the first time between 1966 and 1977 and the second time between 1980 and 1984.
She also studied at the University of Oxford.
Official website of Indira Gandhi
Indira's timeline
Indira's Milestone
Indian Hindus
The Nintendo 64 (commonly abbreviated N64) was the third home video game console released by Nintendo.
It was first released in Japan in June 1996 and was meant to compete against the Sony PlayStation and the Sega Saturn.
The Nintendo 64 was Nintendo's first console made for 3D graphics.
It uses plastic cartridges instead of CDs or disks, making load times faster.
Because of this, the games cost more to make.
The controller for the Nintendo 64 was shaped like an "M" and had 10 buttons and a joystick.
Sony used the N64 joystick design to make their DualShock PlayStation controller.
Out of the box, the Nintendo 64 had 4 MB of RAM, and it could be upgraded to 8 MB with the expansion pak.
Because making games for the Nintendo 64 was more expensive than making games for the PlayStation, many video game companies chose develop for the Playstation instead.
Nintendo also did not like games that had a lot of blood or violence in them.
Companies who made these kinds of games made them for the PlayStation instead.
However, some game makers did make some violent games for the Nintendo 64, such as Rare's first-person shooter Perfect Dark.
Nintendo lost its lead over Sega and Sony because of these two things.
Production for the system ceased in Japan in 2002 and in 2003 worldwide.
Most notable games
Pokémon Stadium
The Legend of Zelda: Majora's MaskThe Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of TimeThe New TetrisDiddy Kong RacingWave Race 64Banjo KazooieBanjo TooieF-Zero X''
Phobos (Greek for "fear", is the root word of phobia) is one of the sons of Ares and Aphrodite in Greek mythology and the twin brother of Deimos.
He is known as the god of fear, panic, flight and battlefield rout.
He went with his father into battle, driving his chariot and spreading fear in his path.
As a son of Aphrodite, goddess of love, each twin also represented the fear of loss.
Deimos (;  - "dread" or "terror") is the god of terror in Greek mythology.
He is one of the sons of Ares and Aphrodite.
He is the twin brother of Phobos, god of fear.
He and his brother would often go with their father as he rode into battle in his chariot.
Deimos, the smaller of Mars' two moons, is named after him.
Krakatoa (Indonesian name: Krakatau) is an active volcano in the Sunda Strait, Indonesia.
There are many different ways the name has been spelled.
The volcano has erupted repeatedly in known history.
The best known of these events occurred in late August 1883.
On 22 December 2018 the central cone collapsed and caused a tsunami in the Sunda Strait.
More than 400 people were killed.
The 1883 eruption
The 1883 eruption ejected more than six cubic miles (25 cubic kilometers) of rock, ash, and pumice,  and made the loudest sound ever recorded by human beings.
The sound was heard as far away as Perth in Australia (3,500 km; 2,200 miles), and the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius (4,800 km; 3,000 miles).
Many thousands of people were killed and injured by the eruption, mostly in the tsunami (giant wave) which followed the explosion.
The pressure wave from the final explosion was recorded on barographs around the world, which continued to register it up to 5 days after the explosion.
The recordings show that the shock wave from the final explosion reverberated around the globe seven times.
The eruption destroyed two-thirds of what was then the island of Krakatoa.
New eruptions at the volcano since 1927 have built a new island, called Anak Krakatau (child of Krakatoa).
Cascades Volcano Observatory Krakatoa page
More information, including map showing location of Krakatoa in Indonesia
Volcanoes of Indonesia
Islands of Indonesia
Goldfish (Carassius auratus) are a species of domesticated fish.
Goldfish are in the carp family.
They were domesticated in China during the Tang Dynasty.
Goldfish can reach up to 59 cm in size, and 3 kg in weight.
However, most goldfish grow to only half that size.
In captivity, goldfish can live for up to 30 years.
In the aquarium, however, most will die earlier.
This is because the aquarium is too small.
Goldfish need a lot of space so they have room to swim and so the water does not get dirty too fast.
It was once thought that goldfish have short memories, but scientists have proven that this is not true.
In experiments, a goldfish was trained to kick a small ball under water.
Another goldfish learned to swim through a maze.
There are many kinds of goldfish.
The most common kind is golden-colored, but goldfish come in many different shapes and sizes.
Many gold fish have fancy tails.
Another common kind is called a black moor, which is black colored.
Wild goldfish are called prussian carp and are silver-green in colour.
Goldfish are very sensitive and should not be touched.
This can hurt them and make them sick.
They may also get other health problems.
Their stomachs can fill with liquids (water).
They can get sick because of bad bacteria.
Some lose control of swimming because a special organ in their belly, called a swim bladder, gets sick and stops working.
However, sick goldfishes can be cured with medicine.
Pet shops or veterinarians can help goldfish get better when they are sick.
One simple way to help a goldfish if it has indigestion is to feed it peas, as this will help their digestive tract work properly.
The most anterior parts of a fish's brain are the olfactory bulbs.
These connect to the two lobes of the cerebrum by stalks.
The cerebrum is involved with the sense of smell.
It also seems to control behaviors such as taking care of the young and exploring the natural environment.
The optic lobes process information from the eyes.
The cerebellum coordinates body movements.
The medulla controls internal organ functions and helps maintains balance.
Farther back in the brain is the spinal cord, which is the hollow dorsal nerve cord that chordates have.
The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column.
Between each set of vertebrae, a pair of spinal nerves exits the cord and connects to the internal organs and muscles.
Most fish have well designed sense organs.
Chemoreceptors (chemical) are located all over the head and much of the body surface.
Most fish have ears inside their heads, but they do not hear well.
However, a series of pores connected to canals beneath the skin cover the head and the sides of their body.
This system, called the lateral line system, detects movement.
Once food is in the goldfish’s mouth, it’s pushed to the back of the throat where a set of teeth grind and crush it.
The ground down food passes down a tube called the oesophagus, which squeezes out excess water.
The oesophagus is lined with taste buds and cells that produce mucus to keep things moving on.
The oesophagus empties into an expandable section of the goldfish’s digestive which is not to be confused with the stomach.
It is simply a buffer zone to hold excess food as needed.
Just before this expanded section, chemicals from the gallbladder and pancreas are pumped in with the food.
The ones from the gallbladder make up bile, which is used to break down fats; the ones from the pancreas contain enzymes that are used to break down proteins.
All along the digestive tract are cells that secrete enzymes that act on carbohydrates, breaking them down into sugars.
From the expanded section to the goldfish’s anus, lots of mucus is produced and as much useful material as possible is absorbed into the bloodstream to be used for energy, growth, protection and repair.
Goldfish get their oxygen from water.
As a fish swims, it gulps up water.
The water which has oxygen goes through an opening in the fish’s throat that leads to the gills.
Gills have many blood vessels within them.
Oxygen moves from the water to the blood as the water flows over the gills.
The blood vessels gather and store the oxygen that travels over the gills.
At the same time, carbon dioxide moves out of the blood and into the water.
Now, the water flows out of the slits beneath the gills.
These gills are located under the operculum.
The circulatory system of fish is responsible for transporting blood and nutrients throughout the body.
Blood travels across the body through the network of blood vessels.
Unlike humans, fish have single cycle circulation, where the oxygen-deprived blood comes to the heart, from where it is pumped to the gills and then circulated to the entire body.
The circulatory system of fish consists of a heart, blood and blood vessels.
The heart of a fish is a simple muscular structure that is located between the posterior gill arches.
In most fish, the heart consists of an atrium, a ventricle, a sac-like thin walled structure known as sinus venosus and a tube, known as bulbus arteriosus.
In spite of containing four parts, the heart of a fish is considered two-chambered.
The blood contains plasma (the fluid portion of blood) and the blood cells.
The red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a protein that facilitates the transport of oxygen to the entire body, while the white blood cells are an indispensable part of the immune system.
The thrombocytes help in blood clotting.
Blood is circulated throughout the body with the help of arteries and veins (blood vessels).
The arteries are responsible for carrying oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body, while the veins return deoxygenated blood from the different parts of the body to the heart.
Skeletal and muscular systems
The skeletal system of a goldfish is mainly to protect the goldfish, support its structure and leverage, and helps with its red blood cell production.
A goldfish’s skeletal system is made of almost all small bones and cartilage and it barely has any big bones.
The bones are made of almost all calcium.
There are 3 main muscles in a goldfish’s muscular system, the tail and trunk muscles, the jaw muscles, and the fin muscles.
In the tail and trunk muscles, there are myotomes which are muscles blocks and there are myosepta which are connective tissues that separate myotomes.
The horizontal septum separates myotomes into two sections, ventral or dorsal.
In the jaw muscles, the goldfish uses adductor muscles to close its jaw and abductor muscles to open its jaw.
In a gold fish’s fin muscles, there are also adductor and abductor muscles.
These muscles move a gold fish’s fins away from and close to its body.
There are also erector muscles in the fins that help with the stability and flexibility of the fish’s fins.
Memory and intelligence
Goldfish have a memory-span of at least three months and can distinguish between different shapes, colors and sounds.
With positive reinforcement, goldfish can be trained to recognize and treact to light signals of different colors or perform tricks.
Fish learn to anticipate feedings provided they occur at around the same time every day.
Aquarium fish
Premature ejaculation (also known as PE) is a condition affecting many men.
It is when during sexual intercourse (sex) the male cannot stop himself from ejaculating after starting sex.
The usual time from starting sex until ejaculation is about 4 to 8 minutes.
Treatment exercises
The condition is usually curable, or at least treatable with exercises. (
There are more exercises than these, however, these are the most common.)
Stimulation treatment
One exercise is to create an erection and begin to lose it, then stimulate it again.
This exercise is best done alone at first and then with a partner.
Thrusting should not be used with a partner until very near the end of treatment.
This treatment may take several weeks to fully cure the problem if it is used properly.
Muscular treatment
Another treatment involves using the muscle which stops urine.
To locate the muscle, simply begin urinating and stop quickly before emptying the bladder.
Doing that will demonstrate how to use the muscle.
Then whenever convenient use the muscle.
You do not need to be urinating to use the muscle and it is suggested you are not.
After a few weeks of both these treatments, the PE will become more like traditional ejaculation and after about one and a half to two and a half months, it should be absolutely normal.
A witch is a person who practices witchcraft or magic.
Traditionally, the word “witch” was used as an accusation.
Witches were accused of bewitching people, or casting spells to control them.
Today, followers of Wicca practice witchcraft and worship nature.
Some call themselves witches.
Note that the practicioners of Wicca are completely unrelated to the historical Witches, this article is about.
Most indigenous peoples throughout history have had some beliefs about spirits and believed that certain individuals could gain magical powers through herbs or spirits.
However, these individuals were not called 'witches' until indigenous people had contact with western ideas.
Spirits and people who interacted with them were not always viewed negatively in indigenous societies.
The Malleus Maleficarum, a book published in 1487, fueled panic over witchcraft.
It was written by a German Catholic clergyman named Heinrich Kramer.
The book was a witch-hunting manual that explained how to persecute witches.
It suggested using torture to get accused witches to confess to witchcraft.
It also encouraged  burning “witches” at the stake.
The new technology of the printing press made it possible for Malleus Maleficarum to be mass produced.
The book was printed 29 times before 1669 - more than any other book except the Bible.
As a result, its ideas spread throughout Europe.
These ideas were common in Europe for several centuries after the book was published.
The book says that three things are needed in order to create witchcraft: the witch’s evil intentions, the Devil’s help, and God’s permission.
Witch Hunts
Many women throughout Europe and in South America were killed by witch hunts.
Historians debate how many women were killed.
Because of poor record keeping, it is impossible to know exactly how many victims there were.
Also, historians have different opinions about what regions and time frames should be included when estimating how many women were killed in witch hunts.
The entire persecuting legal system - "judges, ministers, priests, constables, jailers, judges, doctors, prickers, torturers, jurors, executioners" - were nearly all male.
Meanwhile, the victims were overwhelmingly female.
For this reason, some scholars call the witch hunts a "gynocide".
In the documentary The Burning Times, Thea Jensen calls this period in history a "Women's Holocaust".
Modern understanding
In the 20th century, many people made a new attempt to understand witchcraft.
Some say that witches were in fact wise women who were hunted down by the Catholic Church - mostly for their knowledge about how to treat certain diseases using herbs.
Some followers of pagan religions like Wicca began to call themselves witches.
This has led to a new understanding of what a “witch” really is.
Heather Marsh has tied the persecution of witches to the fight of church and industry to control "the power of life and death" at a time when industry needed more workers.
She also argues the persecution of witches was a fight for centralized power over the peasant rebellions and the ownership of knowledge by medicine and science which forbade the earlier teaching or practices by women and indigenous cultures.
She writes that the persecution of witches has colored misogyny since the 1400s.
Witch crimes in the Malleus Maleficarum
Concerning Witches who copulate with Devils.
Why is it that Women are chiefly addicted to Evil superstitions?
Whether Witches may work some Prestidigatory Illusion so that the Male Organ appears to be entirely removed and separate from the Body.
That Witches who are Midwives in Various Ways Kill the Child Conceived in the Womb, and Procure an Abortion; or if they do not this Offer New-born Children to Devils.
How Witches Impede and Prevent the Power of Procreation.
How, as it were, they Deprive Man of his Virile Member.
Of the Manner whereby they Change Men into the Shapes of Beasts.
Of the Method by which Devils through the Operations of Witches sometimes actually possess men.
Of the Method by which they can Inflict Every Sort of Infirmity, generally Ills of the Graver Kind.
Of the Way how in Particular they Afflict Men with Other Like Infirmities.
How Witch Midwives commit most Horrid Crimes when they either Kill Children or Offer them to Devils in most Accursed Wise.
Famous people accused of witchcraft
1431: Joan of Arc.
She was burned at the stake on 30 May.
1591: Elizabeth of Doberschütz.
She was beheaded and burnt outside the gates of Stettin, on 17 December.
1594: Maria Holl (also known as The Witch of Nördlingen).
She was one of the first women to withstand being tortured during her witch trial of 1593-1594.
She was eventually cleared of the accusations, which led some people to doubt the righteousness of witch trials.
Through her force, Holl rid the town of Nördlingen of their witch craze.
She died in 1634, probably from the plague.
1612: The Samlesbury witches.
In August of 1612, they were found not guilty in one of the most famous witch trials in English history.
However, ten other people were found guilty and were hanged.
1635: Hester Jonas (also called The Witch of Neuss).
She was beheaded and burnt on Christmas Eve in 1635, at about 64 years old.
The complete proceedings of the trial are still available in Neuss.
1663: Anna Roleffes (better known as Tempel Anneke).
She was one of the last witches to be executed in Braunschweig.
She was beheaded on 30 December.
1680: Catherine Monvoisin, a lover of Louis XIV who was close to Marquise the Montespan.
She delivered poisons and held black masses for payment.
In 1680, she was burnt to death along with some other accused witches on the Place de la Grève in Paris.
1692: The witches accused during the Salem Witch Trials in Salem, Massachusetts.
Today, Salem is called “the Witch City,” and historical sites related to the witch trials are tourist attractions.
1751: Anna Schnidenwind.
She was one of the last women to be publicly executed for witchcraft in Germany.
On 24 April, in Endingen am Kaiserstuhl, she was strangled to death, then burned.
1782: Anna Göldi (or Göldin).
She was the last witch to be executed in Europe.
Her execution happened in Glarus, Switzerland, in the summer of 1782.
Some historical notes on the witch-craze from the historian Trevor Roper
Kabbalah On Witchcraft - A Jewish view (Audio) chabad.org
Jewish Encyclopedia: Witchcraft
Witchcraft in the Catholic Encyclopedia on (New Advent)
Witchcraft and Devil Lore in the Channel Islands, 1886, by John Linwood Pitts,  from Project Gutenberg
A Treatise of Witchcraft, 1616, by Alexander Roberts, from Project Gutenberg
The Witches' Voice 1997-2007 The Witches' Voice Inc
Emperor Tsuchimikado ends his reign as Emperor of Japan
Emperor Juntoku begins to rule Japan
1212 Battle of Navas de Tolosa.
1214 July – Battle of Bouvines; Philip II of France defeats Otto IV of Germany
Fourth Council of the Lateran
Otto IV deposed as King of Germany, replaced by Frederick II
Magna Carta adopted
Beijing captured by Mongols; the Yuan Dynasty in China begins this way.
The West Bank is a piece of land in the Middle East.
It touches the Dead Sea and the River Jordan.
The landscape is mostly hills or desert.
The weather in the summer is hot and dry.
It is cooler and rainy in the winter.
Right now, the area is under the control of Israel.
Some Israelis and other nations disagree on whose it really is.
Since 1990 there are talks between the Israeli government and the Palestinians about what will happen in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in the future.
Most people on the West Bank are Palestinians but there are also many Jewish settlers in settlements.
There has been some controversy about these settlements.
The West Bank is called Judea and Samaria Area by the Israeli government.
Human rights in West Bank
LGBT rights in West Bank
IMEMC
Jerusalem Post
Jan Hus, or John Huss (c.1370 - 6 July 1415) was born in Husinec, Bohemia (now Czech Republic).
He was a Bohemian religious thinker and reformer.
He started a religious movement that was strongly influenced by the beliefs of British scholar, John Wycliffe.
Hus studied at the University of Prague.
In about 1400, he became a Catholic priest, and was soon accepted a position of preaching in Czech, the language spoken in Bohemia.
While preaching, he studied Wycliffe’s writings, and came to like them, especially because of how authentic and real they were.
In 1403, Hus asked the church to undo the ban on Wycliffe's writings, and translated them into Czech.
The church, led by archbishop Zbynek Zajíc, had different beliefs.
In 1410, Zajíc ordered that Hus’ writings be burned and Hus and his followers, the Hussites be forced out of the church.
Hus was excommunicated in 1411, condemned by the Council of Constance, and burned at the stake on 6 July 1415, in Konstanz, Germany.
Hus' teachings
The (Catholic) Church is made of all those meant to be saved (ecclesia est universitas praedestinatorum).
It is not made of the hierarchy of priests.
Christ is the head of the Church, not the Pope.
It is therefore not necessary to obey the pope to be saved.
1369 births
1415 deaths
Czech people
People executed by burning
Konstanz (English often Constance) is a university town with a population of around 80,000, on the shore of Lake Constance in the south-west corner of Germany, bordering Switzerland.
The history of the city goes back to Ancient Rome.
In the 15th century, the Council of Constance was held there.
This ended the Western Schism.
Jan Hus was burned as a heretic at the council.
a black panther or white panther, which is a name for a leopard or jaguar with black or white fur.
any animal which belongs to the genus Panthera (e.g. lion) or the subfamily Pantherinae.
in different regions different felines are also called panther: the leopard in Asia and Africa, the jaguar in South America, and the puma in North America (especially the ones that live in Florida, USA).
Instant messaging (often shortened to IM) is a way of two or more people to communicate over a network.
When the sender sends a message, this message is sent to all the recipients in the group.
People use messaging clients to send and receive messages.
The type of message supported depends on the specific client, and network.
Most of the time, it is text.
In some cases, images or other types of media is supported.
Instant messaging services got many ideas from an older and still popular way to online chat named Internet Relay Chat (IRC).
In early instant messaging programs, each letter appeared when it was typed and when letters were deleted to correct typos.
These were also seen by the reader.
This made it more like a telephone conversation than sending letters.
In newer instant messaging programs, the other readers in the conversation generally only sees each line of text right after a new line is started.
Most instant messaging programs have a way to set a status message.
This works likes the message on a telephone answering machine.
It shows whether or not people are online and want to chat.
Instant messaging offers real-time communication and allows easy collaboration, which might be considered more akin to genuine conversation than email's "letter" format.
In contrast to e-mail, the parties know whether the peer is available.
Most systems allow the user to set an online status or away message so peers are notified when the user is available, busy, or away from the computer.
On the other hand, people are not forced to reply immediately to incoming messages.
For this reason, some people consider communication via instant messaging to be less intrusive than communication via phone.
However, not all popular systems allow the sending of messages to people not currently logged on (offline messages), thus removing much of the difference between IM and email.
Instant messaging allows instantaneous communication between a number of parties simultaneously, by transmitting information quickly and efficiently, featuring immediate receipt of acknowledgment or reply.
In certain cases IM involves additional features, which make it even more popular, i.e. to see the other party, e.g. by using ((web-cams)), or to talk directly for free over the internet.
It is possible to save a conversation to read later or look at again.
Instant messages typically are may be logged in a local message history which closes the gap to the persistent nature of e-mails and facilitates quick exchange of information like URLs or document snippets (which can be unwieldy when communicated via telephone).
People with an auditory or speech disability
Instant messaging opens new methods of spontaneous communication for people that have an impairment in hearing, auditory processing, or speech.
It is considered by many a powerful way to allow equal opportunities in communication, without the aid of special devices or services designed for users with hearing loss.
Friend-to-friend networks
Instant Messaging may be done in a Friend-to-friend network, in which each node connects to the friends on the friendslist.
This allows to communicate to friends of friends and build chatrooms for instant messages with all friends on that network.
Business application
Instant messaging has proven to be similar to personal computers, e-mail, and the WWW, in that its adoption for use as a business communications medium was driven primarily by individual employees using consumer software at work, rather than by formal mandate or provisioning by corporate information technology departments.
Tens of millions of the consumer IM accounts in use are being used for business purposes by employees of companies and other organizations.
In response to the demand for business-grade IM and the need to ensure security and legal compliance, a new type of instant messaging, called "Enterprise Instant Messaging" ("EIM") was created when Lotus Software launched Lotus Sametime in 1999.
Microsoft followed suit shortly thereafter with Microsoft Exchange Instant Messaging, and later created a new platform called Microsoft Office Live Communications Server.
Since then, both IBM Lotus and Microsoft have introduced federation between their EIM systems and some of the public IM networks thus employees may use a single interface to both their internal EIM system and their buddies on AOL, MSN, and Yahoo!.
Current leading EIM platforms include IBM Lotus Sametime, Microsoft Office Live Communications Server, and Jabber XCP .
The adoption of IM across corporate networks outside of the control of IT organizations creates many risks and liabilities for companies who do not effectively manage and support IM use.
Companies implement specialized IM archiving and security products and services like those from Secure Computing, Akonix, Surfcontrol, and ScanSafe to mitigate these risks and provide safe, secure, productive instant messaging capabilities to their employees.
Although instant messaging has many good things, it also has risks and liabilities, especially when used in workplaces.
Among these are:
Security risks (e.g. IM used to infect computers with spyware, viruses, trojans, worms)
Compliance risks
Inappropriate use
Intellectual property leakage
Hackers' use of instant messaging networks to deliver malicious code has grown consistently from 2004 to the present, with the number of discrete attacks listed by the IM Security Center having grown 15% from 347 attacks in 2005 to 406 in 2006.
Hackers use two methods of delivering malicious code through IM: delivery of virus, trojan, or spyware within an infected file, and the use of "socially engineered" text with a web address that entices the recipient to click on a URL that connects him or her to a website that then downloads malicious code.
Viruses, worms, and trojans typically propagate by sending themselves rapidly through the infected user's buddy list.
An effective attack using a "poison URL" may reach tens of thousands of people in minutes when each person's buddy list receives messages appearing to be from a trusted friend.
Infections may range from nuisance to criminal, and are becoming more sophisticated each year.
In addition to the malicious code threat, the use of instant messaging at work also creates a risk of non-compliance to laws and regulations governing the use of electronic communications in businesses.
In the United States alone there are over 10,000 laws and regulations related to electronic messaging and records retention.
The more well-known of these include the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, HIPAA, and SEC 17a-3.
Recent changes to Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, effective December 1, 2006, create a new category for electronic records which may be requested during discovery (law) in legal proceedings.
Most countries around the world also regulate the use of electronic messaging and electronic records retention in similar fashion to the United States.
The most common regulations related to IM at work involve the need to produce archived business communications to satisfy government or judicial requests under law.
Many instant messaging communications fall into the category of business communications that must be archived and retrievable.
Organizations of all types must protect themselves from the liability of their employees' inappropriate use of IM.
The informal, immediate, and ostensibly anonymous nature of instant messaging makes it a candidate for abuse in the workplace.
The topic of inappropriate IM use became front page news in October 2006 when Congressman Mark Foley resigned his seat after admitting sending offensive instant messages of a sexual nature to underage former House pages from his Congressional office PC.
The Mark Foley Scandal led to media coverage and mainstream newspaper articles warning of the risks of inappropriate IM use in workplaces.
In most countries, corporations have a legal responsibility to ensure harassment-free work environment for employees.
The use of corporate-owned computers, networks, and software to harass an individual or spread inappropriate jokes or language creates a liability for not only the offender but also the employer.
A survey by IM archiving and security provider Akonix Systems, Inc. in March 2007 showed that 31% of respondents had been harassed over IM at work.
Companies now include instant messaging as an integral component of their policies on appropriate use of the World Wide Web, email, and other corporate assets.
Security and archiving
In the early 2000s, a new class of IT security provider emerged to provide remedies for the risks and liabilities faced by corporations who chose to use IM for business communications.
The IM security providers created new products to be installed in corporate networks for the purpose of archiving, content-scanning, and security-scanning IM traffic moving in and out of the corporation.
Similar to the e-mail filtering vendors, the IM security providers focus on the risks and liabilities described above.
With rapid adoption of IM in the workplace, demand for IM security products began to grow in the mid-2000s.
By 2007, the preferred platform for the purchase of security software had become the "appliance", according to IDC, who estimate that by 2008, 80% of network security products will be delivered via an appliance.
Instant Messenger Security - Best Practices
All About Instant Messengers
List of popular Mobile IM Clients
Web Messengers Handbook
Instant messaging software
AOL Inc. (previously America Online) is a U.S.-based online service provider and Internet service provider.
It has been in business since 1985.
Important services in the early years were online chat and online games.
Most connections were dial-up.
In 2001 AOL bought Time Warner.
In 2009 after a spin-off from Time Warner they changed their name to AOL Inc. It was announced in May 2015 that Verizon Communications purchased AOL.
AOL Instant Messenger was a service which allowed users to communicate with any user currently online.
AIM had millions of users worldwide.
There were also other computer programs that could be used to talk with your AIM account, for example Trillian, Pidgin, Digsby, and AIM+.
AIM was shut down on December 15, 2017.
AOL US and headquarters
AOL in other countries
1985 establishments in the United States
A mailman or mail carrier or postman is a person who brings people their postal mail.
Normally he works for the post office of the respective country.
Of course, there are also women doing this job.
They are called mailwomen.
For a layman, this occupation is called "letter carriers".
The Chinese postman problem is a mathematical problem of graph theory.
It is also known as route inspection problem.
Suppose there is a mailman who needs to deliver mail to a certain neighbourhood.
The mailman is unwilling to walk far, so he wants to find the shortest route through the neighbourhood, that meets the following criteria:
It is a closed circuit (it ends at the same point it starts).
He needs to go through every street at least once.
Chinese postman problem (at MathWorld)
The four color theorem is a theorem of mathematics.
It says that in any plane surface with regions in it (people think of them as maps), the regions can be colored with no more than four colors.
Two regions that have a common border must not get the same color.
They are called adjacent (next to each other) if they share a segment of the border, not just a point.
This was the first theorem to be proved by a computer, in a proof by exhaustion.
In proof by exhaustion, the conclusion is established by dividing it into cases, and proving each one separately.
There may be a lot of cases.
For example, the first proof of the four color theorem was a proof by exhaustion with 1,936 cases.
This proof was controversial because most of the cases were checked by a computer program, not by hand.
The shortest known proof of the four color theorem today still has over 600 cases.
Even though the problem was first presented as a problem to color political maps of countries, mapmakers are not very interested in it.
According to an article by the math historian Kenneth May , “Maps utilizing only four colors are rare, and those that do usually require only three.
Books on cartography and the history of map making do not mention the four-color property.”
Many simpler maps can be colored using three colors.
The fourth color is needed for some maps, such as one in which one region is surrounded by an odd number of others, which touch each other in a cycle.
One such example is given in the image.
The five color theorem states that five colors are enough to color a map.
It has a short, elementary proof and was proven in the late 19th century.
Proving that four colors are all that is needed turned out to be much more difficult.
Many false proofs and false counterexamples have appeared since the first statement of the four color theorem in 1852.
Exact formulation of the problem
Intuitively, the four color theorem can be stated as 'given any separation of a plane into contiguous regions, called a map, the regions can be colored using at most four colors so that no two regions which are adjacent have the same color'.
To be able to correctly solve the problem, it is necessary to clarify some aspects: First, all points that belong to three or more countries must be ignored.
Secondly, bizarre maps with regions of finite area and infinite perimeter can require more than four colors.
In the real world, this is not true: Alaska as part of the United States, Nakhchivan as part of Azerbaijan, and Kaliningrad as part of Russia are not contiguous.
Because the territory of a particular country must be the same color, four colors may not be enough.
For instance, consider a simplified map, such as the one shown on the left: In this map, the two regions labeled A belong to the same country, and must be the same color.
This map then requires five colors, since the two A regions together are contiguous with four other regions, each of which is contiguous with all the others.
If A had only three regions, six or more colors might be needed.
In this way, it is possible to make maps that need an arbitrarily high number of colors.