the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
It is an answer to the question: is there a way to tell whether a concept or theory is science, as opposed to some other kind of knowledge or belief?
There have been many ideas as to how it should be expressed.
Logical positivists thought a theory was scientific if it could be verified; but Karl Popper thought this was a mistake.
He thought a theory was not scientific unless there was some way it might be refuted.
On the other hand, Paul Feyerabend thought there was no criterion.
For him, "anything goes", or whatever works, works.
Scientists try to let reality speak for itself.
They support a theory when its predictions are confirmed, and challenge it when its predictions prove false.
Scientific researchers offer hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and design experiments to test these hypotheses.
Since big theories cannot be tested directly, it is done by testing predictions derived from the theory.
These steps must be repeatable, to guard against mistake or confusion by any particular experimenter.
Scientific inquiry is generally intended to be as objective as possible.
To reduce biased interpretations of results, scientists publish their work, and so share data and methods with other scientists.
Science and things that are not science (such as pseudoscience) are often distinguished by whether they use the scientific method.
One of the first people to create an outline of the steps in the scientific method was John Stuart Mill.
There is no one scientific method.
Some fields of science are based on mathematical models, such as physics and climate science.
Other fields, such as many fields of social science, have rough theories and rely more on patterns that emerge from their data.
Sometimes scientists focus on testing and confirming hypotheses, but open-ended exploration is also important.
Some scientific fields use laboratory experiments.
Others collect observations from real-world situations.
Many areas of science are quantitative, emphasizing numerical data and mathematical analysis.
But some areas, especially in social science, use qualitative methods, such as interviews or detailed observations of human or animal behavior.
Focusing too much one kind of method can lead us to ignore knowledge produced using other methods.
Some textbooks focus on a single, standard "scientific method."
This idea of a single scientific method is largely based on experimental, hypothesis-testing, quantitative areas of science.
It doesn't apply very well to other areas of science.
It is often written as a number of steps:
Ask a question about the world.
All scientific work begins with having a question to ask or a problem to solve.
I, p9 Sometimes just coming up with the right question is the hardest part for a scientist.
The question should be answerable by means of an experiment.
Create a hypothesis  one possible answer to the question.
A hypothesis in science is a word meaning "An educated guess about how something works".
It should be possible to prove it right or wrong.
For example, a statement like "Blue is a better color than green" is not a scientific hypothesis.
It cannot be proved right or wrong. "
More people like the color blue than green" could be a scientific hypothesis, though, because one could ask many people whether they like blue more than green and come up with an answer one way or the other.
Design an experiment.
If the hypothesis is truly scientific, it should be possible to design an experiment to test it.
An experiment should be able to tell the scientist if the hypothesis is wrong; it may not tell him or her if the hypothesis is right.
In the example above, an experiment might involve asking many people what their favorite colors are.
Making an experiment can be very difficult though.
What if the key question to ask people is not what colors they like, but what colors they hate?
How many people need to be asked?
Are there ways of asking the question that could change the result in ways that were not expected?
These are all the types of questions that scientists have to ask, before they make an experiment and do it.
Usually scientists want to test only one thing at a time.
To do this, they try to make every part of an experiment the same for everything, except for the thing they want to test.
Experiment and collect the data.
Here the scientist tries to run the experiment they have designed before.
Sometimes the scientist gets new ideas as the experiment is going on.
Sometimes it is difficult to know when an experiment is finally over.
Sometimes experimenting will be very difficult.
Some scientists spend most of their lives learning how to do good experiments.
Why-questions.
Explanations are answers to why-questions.
II, p3
Draw conclusions from the experiment.
Sometimes results are not easy to understand.
Sometimes the experiments themselves open up new questions.
Sometimes results from an experiment can mean many different things.
All of these need to be thought about carefully.
Communicate them to others.
A key element of science is sharing the results of experiments, so that other scientists can then use the knowledge themselves and all of science can benefit.
Usually scientists do not trust a new claim unless other scientists have looked it over first to make sure it sounds like real science.
This is called peer review ("peer" here means "other scientists").
Work that passes peer review is published in a scientific journal.
Not all scientists use the above "scientific method" in their day-to-day work.
Sometimes the actual work of science looks nothing like the above.
Example: dissolving sugar in water
Let's say we are going to find out the effect of temperature on the way sugar dissolves in a glass of water.
Below is one way to do this, following the scientific method step by step.
Does sugar dissolve faster in hot water or cold water?
Does the temperature affect how fast the sugar dissolves?
This is a question we might want to ask.
Planning the experiment
One simple experiment would be to dissolve sugar in water of different temperatures and to keep track of how much time it takes for the sugar to dissolve.
This would be a test of the idea that the rate of dissolving varies according to the kinetic energy of the solvent.
We want to make sure to use exactly the same amount of water in each trial, and exactly the same amount of sugar.
We do this to make sure that the temperature alone causes the effect.
It might be, for example, that the ratio of sugar to water is also a factor in the rate of dissolving.
To be extra careful, we might also run the experiment so that the water temperature does not change during the experiment.
This is called "isolating a variable".
This means that, of the factors which might have an effect, only one is being changed in the experiment.
Running the experiment
We put exactly 25 grams of sugar into exactly 1 liter of water almost as cold as ice.
We do not stir.
We notice that it takes 30 minutes before all the sugar is dissolved.
We put exactly 25 grams of sugar into exactly 1 liter of room temperature water (20 °C).
We notice that it takes 15 minutes before all the sugar is dissolved.
We put exactly 25 grams of sugar into exactly 1 liter of warm water (50 °C).
We notice that it takes 4 minutes before all the sugar is dissolved.
Drawing conclusions
One way that makes it easy to see results is to make a table of them, listing all of the things that changed each time we ran the experiment.
Ours might look like this:
If every other part of the experiment was the same (we did not use more sugar one time than the other, we did not stir one time or the other, etc.),
then this would be very good evidence that heat affects how fast sugar is dissolved.
We cannot know for sure, though, that there is not something else affecting it.
An example of a hidden cause might be that sugar dissolves faster each time more sugar is dissolved into the same pot.
This is probably not true, but if it were, it could make the results exactly the same: three trials, and the last one would be fastest.
We have no reason to think that this is true at this time, but we might want to note it as another possible answer.
Replication crisis
The replication crisis (or replicability crisis) refers to a crisis in science.
Very often the result of a scientific experiment is difficult or impossible to replicate later, either by independent researchers or by the original researchers themselves.
While the crisis has long-standing roots, the phrase was coined in the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem.
Historical aspects
"We consider it a good principle to explain the phenomena by the simplest hypothesis possible."
Ptolemy (85165 AD).
This is an early example of what we call Occam's razor.
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1039), Robert Grosseteste (1175–1253) and Roger Bacon (1214–1294), all made some progress in developing scientific method.
Scientists in the 17th century started agreeing that the experimental method is the main way to find the truth.
This was done in western Europe by men like Galileo, Kepler, Hooke, Boyle, Halley and Newton.
At the same time, the microscope and the telescope were invented (in Holland), and the Royal Society was formed.
Instruments, societies, and publishing all helped science greatly.
Scientific method - Citizendium
A gas is one of the four states of matter.
In a gas, the molecules move freely and are not attached to each other.
This makes it different from a liquid where the molecules are loosely attached to or touching each other.
It is also different from a solid where the molecular bonds are strong and hold the molecules together in one shape.
A gas does not have only one volume like a liquid or solid does.
Instead, gas can expand until it fills whatever container it is in.
In a pure gas, each molecule may be made of an individual atom.
It may be elemental, where each molecule is made of more than one of the same atom bound together.
It may be compounds where molecules are made of many types of atoms together.
An example of a monoatomic gas is neon, an example of an elemental gas is hydrogen and an example of a compound gas is carbon dioxide.
Poison gases were used as chemical weapons in War I but were later banned.
gas is a natural mixture of methane and other gases.
Physical characteristics
All gases can flow, like liquids.
This means the molecules move about independently of each other.
Most gases are colourless, like hydrogen.
Gas particles will spread about, or diffuse, in order to fill all the space in any container such as a bottle or a room.
Compared to liquids and solids, gases have a very low density and viscosity.
We cannot directly see most gases since they aren't coloured.
However it is possible to measure their density, volume, temperature and pressure.
Pressure is the measure of how much pushing force something is putting on another object.
In a gas, this is usually the gas pushing on the container of the object or, if the gas is heavy, something inside the gas.
Pressure is measured in pascals.
Because of Newton's third law, we can change the pressure of a gas by putting force on the object containing it.
For example, squeezing a bottle with air inside pressurises (gives more pressure) to the air inside.
When talking about gas, pressure is often related to the container.
A lot of gas in a small container would have very high pressure.
A small amount of a gas in a big container would have low pressure.
Gas can create pressure itself when there is a lot of it.
The weight of the gas creates pressure on anything underneath it, including other gas.
On a planet, this is called atmospheric pressure.
The temperature of a gas is how hot or cold it is.
In physics it is usually measured in kelvins although degrees Celsius are used more elsewhere.
In a gas, the average velocity (how fast they move) of the molecules is related to the temperature.
The faster the gas molecules are moving, the more they collide, or smash into each other.
These collisions release energy, which in a gas comes in the form of heat.
Conversely if the temperature around the gas becomes hotter then the gas particles will convert the thermal energy to kinetic energy, making them move faster and making the gas hotter.
A gas can go through two different state changes.
If the temperature is low enough the gas can condense and turn into a liquid.
Sometimes, if the temperature is low enough it can go through deposition, where it changes straight to a solid.
Normally a gas must first condense to a liquid, and then freeze to become a solid, but if the temperature is very low it can skip the liquid stage and instantly become solid.
Frost on the ground in winter is caused by this.
Water vapour (a gas) goes into the air which is very cold, and instantly becomes ice due to deposition.
A family is a group of people who, in most cases, live together.
They share their money and food and are supposed to take care of one another.
Its members are either genetically related (like brother and sister) or legally bound to each other, for example by marriage.
In many cultures, the members of a family have the same or a similar surname.
A family is said to be society's smallest unit, its nucleus.
Family life is more private and intimate than public life.
But in most countries there are laws for it.
For example, there are restrictions for marrying within the family and bans for having a sexual relationship with relatives, especially with children.
Types of families
Three types of family on the basic of size
are: nuclear family, single-parent family and extended family.
A nuclear families is made up of parents and one or more children living together.
A single-parent family is one where there is one parent and one or more children.
An extended family or joint families means father, mother, daughters, sons, grandparents, uncles, aunts, cousins, nieces and nephews.
In many countries including China, Pakistan and India, extended or joint families traditionally live together.
Some family members are related closer to each other.
Consanguinity is a way of measuring this closeness.
Same generation
Second generation
A wave is a kind of oscillation (disturbance) that travels through space and matter.
Wave motions transfer energy from one place to another.
Waves are found everywhere in the natural world.
Examples of waves are:
Seismic waves (earthquakes)
Light waves
Radio waves
Waves have properties that can be measured.
All waves can be pictured by adding sine waves.
Sine waves can be measured too.
The shape of a sine wave is given by its amplitude, phase, wavelength and frequency.
The speed that the sine wave moves can be measured.
The amplitude and wavelength of the sine wave are shown in the picture.
The highest point on a wave is called the crest.
The lowest point is called the trough.
The crest of a wave and the trough of a wave are always twice the wave's amplitude apart from each other.
The part of the wave halfway in between the crest and the trough is called the baseline.
Complicated waveforms (like the sound waves of music) can be made by adding up sine waves of different frequencies.
This is how mp3 audio files are converted from their compressed form into the music we can hear.
Complex waves can be separated into sine waves by Fourier analysis.
Waves and matter
Some waves can move through matter while others cannot.
For instance, some waves can move through empty space, light waves for example.
Sound waves, on the other hand, cannot move through empty space.
Inherently, all waves carry energy from one place to another when they move.
In some applications of technology, waves may carry meaningful information from one place to another, such as news on the radio.
Usually, after a wave moves through matter, the matter is the same as it was before the wave was introduced, though in some cases, matter can be affected by waves traveling through it.
In 1922, Louis de Broglie found out that all waves are also particles, and all particles are also waves.
Transverse wave: the vibrations of particles are perpendicular ⊥ to the direction of travel of the wave.
Transverse waves have crests and troughs.
Wave crests and troughs move along a travelling transverse wave.
Longitudinal wave: the vibrations of particles are parallel to the direction of travel of wave.
Longitudinal waves have compressions and rarefactions.
Compressions and rarefactions move along a travelling longitudinal wave.
Standing wave: a wave that remains in a constant position.
Travelling wave: The blue waves move off to the right.
They are traveling waves.
The red waves do not move.
They are standing waves.
Solitary wave or soliton: Solitary waves were first observed in a river channel in 1834.
Something gets a bulge of water starting moving up the channel and the bulge on the surface of the water continues to move up the stream.
Light waves can move through space.
Light is different from wind or water because light sometimes acts like waves and sometimes it acts as little bits called "particles."
The nature of light is a big part of quantum mechanics.
Wave physics
A weapon is an object that can be used to attack or injure a person or animal.
People have used weapons since very ancient times.
While other animals use weapons, in most cases they are attached to the animal (teeth, claws, tusks, etc.).
In man's case they are detached and constantly selected for the purpose at hand.
Man has been constantly developing newer and better weapons ever since he picked up the first rock.
Some of the oldest remains that we have of ancient people are weapons made of stone.
Ancient people also used spears.
Bows and arrows were in use by about 20,000 BC.
During the Bronze age people learned to make things of metal, many people used swords.
People also built huge machines which could throw rocks to destroy the defensive walls of enemy cities.
Some of these machines were called catapults or siege engines.
Later, gunpowder was invented in China and the Europeans began using it to make guns and cannons.
These weapons were much better than the older weapons, and helped the Europeans to conquer people in many parts of the world.
People in many parts of the world used guns such as rifles and shotguns for hunting animals, and handguns for shooting other people.
People continued to invent new weapons.
In 1884 the machine gun was invented, which could shoot many bullets very fast.
Soldiers began to use land mines, a bomb hidden in the ground, which explodes when someone walks on it.
Small submarines were able to use torpedos to attack bigger ships and hide under the ocean.
When airplanes were invented, people began to use them to shoot enemies and to drop bombs on them.
They built tanks which had big guns and strong armor.
Poison gas was used in World War I but was outlawed and rarely used afterwards.
In World War II, cities were heavily bombed from the air and Nazi Germany used V-2 missiles to carry bombs to England.
Both sides used many firebombs.
At the end of World War II, the United States used atomic bombs (nuclear bombs) to destroy the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
After World War II, people continued to develop new weapons, including intercontinental ballistic missiles.
People became concerned about weapons of mass destruction, weapons that can kill many people very fast, and are usually cheap and easy to make and use.
One kind of weapon of mass destruction is poison gas.
New kinds of poison gas, such as nerve gas, are much more powerful than the old kinds.
Another kind of weapon of mass destruction is disease germs, which could be used to make many people sick and maybe kill them.
Old-fashioned weapons still kill many people in wars and fighting.
In wars in Africa in the 1990s and early 21st century, many people were killed with machetes (big knives).
People sometimes try to make laws, treaties, and international agreements to try to control weapons because they are worried about all the killing done with them.
Laws vary from country to country, for example, in the United States, the "right to keep and bear arms" is guaranteed to all citizens by the Constitution.
A country may say that people in that country cannot keep or use guns, or only when the government allows it.
The laws of war forbid certain weapons, and countries may agree with each other that they should not use certain weapons against each other, or should not have more than a certain number of particular kinds of weapons.
Types of weapons
Pepper spray or tear gas
electric shocking devices
Portable firearms like pistols, rifles, and shotguns
Portable firearms are also used by for hunting and for marksmanship practice.
Some types of sticks
Swords and most types of knives
Explosive bombs of any type, grenades
Rockets for carrying bombs
Boats, vehicles, and aircraft with attached firearms, such as warships, tanks, and fighter and bomber aircraft.
A Christmas cake is a heavy cake containing much dried fruit and usually having a covering of icing.
It is made to be eaten at Christmas.
It can also be called a fruitcake.
A common favorite of many is the traditional Scottish Christmas cake, the "Whisky Dundee."
It was named this because the cake came from Dundee and is made with Scotch whisky.
It is a light and crumbly cake, and light on fruit and candied peel—only currants, raisins, sultanas and cherries.
This Christmas cake is mostly good for people who do not like very sweet and moist cakes.
As with all fruitcakes, almonds (or other nuts) can be removed by people who do not like them or those with bad nut allergies.
In the middle of the other two listed above is the mincemeat Christmas cake.
It is simply any traditional or vegetarian mincemeat mixed with flour, eggs, and other pastry ingredients, to transform it into a cake batter; or it can also be steamed as a Christmas pudding.
A Christmas cracker is a hollow card tube covered with brightly coloured paper twisted on each end.
When pulled apart, it makes a pop sound.
It usually contains a small gift, a paper crown hat and a joke.
It is generally used at Christmas celebrations, usually shared by two family members to compete by tugging on each end until it breaks apart, the person who retains the tube containing the gift gets to keep the gift.
It is a British tradition which started back in the 1840s.
A fingerplate is a plate that is fixed to a door near the handle or keyhole.
It is for stopping dirt getting on the door.
It is made of metal or glass.
Architectural elements
A floodlight is a large electric light.
It makes a very strong and bright beam of light.
It is used for lighting the outside of buildings, football grounds, etc.
at night.
Light sources
A headrest is something which supports the head.
It is usually a suitably shaped part of the back of a chair or of a front seat in a car.
Auto parts
An inkpad is a small box that contains a pad of cloth or other material.
It is impregnated with ink (the pad is inky).
A marker is pressed onto the pad, then onto paper.
Any raised marks on the pad leave an impression in ink on the paper.
Ink pads are used with rubber stamps.
On the stamp is the symbol of an organisation, for example.
After a form has been passed by an official, it is stamped to show it is authentic.
Another variation is a date stamp, placed on all letters which arrive in the building.
Another version is a stamp with a facsimile (copy) of an official's signature.
Using this, staff can send out letters when the official is not present.
Rubber stamps and ink pads have been used for at least a hundred years by civil servants and businesses.
They are still in use in many countries, but are gradually being replaced with other systems.
A jack-in-the-box is a children's toy which is a box from which a figure on a spring jumps when the top is opened.
You twist the knob until the spring shoots out the toy, which you put back in the box and do it all over again.
Many kids have fun when they see the jack jumping out from the box.
A London Borough is a district of London.
There are 33 of them, including two that also call themselves cities - the City of Westminster (where Buckingham Palace and the Houses of Parliament are) and the City of London (the oldest part of London).
Each Borough has its own local government.
The City of London is a district of Greater London.
The City's boundaries have remained almost unchanged since the Middle Ages.
Although it is now only a small part of the metropolis, it is a notable part of central London.
The City holds city status in its own right, and is also a separate ceremonial county.
Often referred to as the City, or the Square Mile, it is just over one square mile,  in area.
It is here in the City of London where most of the United Kingdom's financial trade is done.
It is a very small area, covering only a square mile, and has a very small resident population (8,000).
However, many people come to work here and during the day it can be very busy, with some 300,000 people in it.
"London" now refers to Greater London, which is made up of 32 boroughs (including the City of Westminster and the City of London).
The City is in central London and is the oldest part of the city, dating back to Roman times.
The City of London has its own mayor, the Lord Mayor of London, an office separate from (and much older than) the Mayor of London.
There are other ancient features, dating back to medieval times.
The City has its own police force, the City of London Police.
Financial markets
The City vies with New York City as the financial capital of the world: many banking and insurance institutions have their headquarters there.
The London Stock Exchange (shares and bonds),  Lloyd's of London (insurance) and the Bank of England are all based in the City.
Over 500 banks have offices in the City, and the City is an established leader in trading in Eurobonds, foreign exchange, energy futures and global insurance.
The Alternative Investment Market, a market for trades in equities of smaller firms, is a recent development.
In 2008, the City of London accounted for 4% of UK GDP.
London is the world's greatest foreign exchange market, with much of the trade conducted in the City of London.
Of the $3.98 trillion daily global turnover, as measured in 2007, trading in London accounted for around $1.36 trillion, or 34.1% of the total.
The Pound Sterling, the currency of the United Kingdom, is globally the fourth most traded currency and the third most held reserve currency.
Since 1991 Canary Wharf, a few miles east of the City in Tower Hamlets, has become a second centre for London's financial services industry and houses many banks and other institutions formerly located in the Square Mile.
This development does not appear to have damaged the City: growth has continued in both locations.
The City is the site of Roman Londinium, and the archaeological remains are on display in the Museum of London, City Wall.
The City has many churches designed by Sir Christopher Wren, including St Paul's Cathedral.
The City was the site of the Great Fire of London in 1666.
The City of Westminster is a city and London borough.
It is to the west of the City of London.
Its most important area, Westminster, contains the Houses of Parliament, Whitehall, Downing Street and Westminster Abbey.
The London Borough of Lambeth is a London Borough.
It is in south west London, England.
Clapham
The London Borough of Southwark is a London Borough.
It is in south east London.
Other places in Southwark Borough
The London Borough of Camden is a London Borough.
It is in north and central London.
Camden Town London website – News about the Camden Markets and Camden Town
The website of Camden Council
Camden TV
Camden Town Online
WHO's Commission 2008 finding on the Social Determinants of Health finding re 'two Camdens' syndrome (3rd para)
Camden Council YouTube channel
The London Borough of Merton is a London Borough.
It is in south west London.
In the London Borough of Merton there is the towns of Morden, Wimbledon, Mitcham and other small towns like Pollards Hill, Colliers Wood and Summerstown.
Brixton is a place in south London.
It has a lot of people from the Caribbean.
It has a big market and many nightclubs.
Areas of London
Bankside is the old part of the London Borough of Southwark.
It is next to the River Thames.
Tate Modern - art gallery
Winchester Palace
The River Thames is a large river in England.
It goes through London the capital city of the United Kingdom.
The Thames is 346 kilometres (235 statute miles) long.
Its source is near the village of Kemble in the Cotswolds; it flows through Oxford (where it is called "The Isis", a shortening of its Latin name), Reading, Maidenhead, Eton and then Windsor.
From the outskirts of Greater London, it passes Syon House, Hampton Court Palace, Richmond (with the famous view of the Thames from Richmond Hill), and Kew.
It then passes through London, then Greenwich and Dartford before it enters the sea in an estuary, The Nore.
Part of the area west of London is sometimes called the Thames Valley.
The area east of Tower Bridge is called Thames Gateway by development agencies and officials.
About 90 kilometres from the sea, above London, the river begins to show the tide caused by the North Sea.
It is said that London was made capital of Roman Britain at the spot where the tides reached in 43 AD, but different things have pushed this spot farther up the river in the over 2000 years since then.
At London, the water is slightly salty with sea salt.
Like the Celts who lived in the area, the Romans called the river Thamesis.
The Thames was an important way to go between London and Westminster in the 16th and 17th centuries.
The guild of watermen took Londoners back and forth by ferry.
One of them, John Taylor, the Water Poet (15801653), described the river in a poem.
In the 17th and 18th century, at a time some call the "Little Ice Age", the Thames often froze over in the winter.
This led to the first "Frost Fair" in 1607, with a tent city set up on the river with lots of odd amusements, like ice bowling.
The last time the river froze over was in 1814.
The building of a new London Bridge in 1825 may have helped stop it from freezing: the new bridge had fewer pillars than the old, allowing the river to flow more easily, and stopping it from flowing slowly enough to freeze in cold winters.
By the 18th century, the Thames was one of the world's busiest waterways, as London became the centre of the very big British Empire.
During this time one of the worst river disasters in England took place on 3 September 1878 on the Thames, when the crowded pleasure boat Princess Alice crashed into the Bywell Castle killing over 640 people.
The authorities accepted a proposal from the civil engineer Joseph Bazalgette.
He moved the effluent eastwards along a series of interconnecting sewers.
These sloped towards outfalls beyond the metropolitan area.
The coming of rail transport and road transport, and the decline of the Empire in the years after 1945, made the river less important than it was.
London itself is no longer used much as a port, and the "Port of London" has moved down the river to Tilbury.
The Thames has been greatly cleaned up, and life has returned to its dead waters.
In the early 1980s, the Thames Barrier was opened to control flooding.
It is used many times a year to stop water damage to London's low-lying areas up the river.
In September 2011 a British comedian, David Walliams, swam the entire 140 mile length of the river raising over £1million for a charity called Sport Relief.
On Red Nose Day, people swim the Thames for charity.
The Thames in literature
Many books have been written about the Thames.
Three Men in a Boat by Jerome K. Jerome describes a boat trip up the Thames.
Somewhere near Oxford is where the Lidells were rowing in the poem at the start of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.
Somewhere near here was where Alice fell asleep in the book.
The river is named in both The Wind in the Willows and the play Toad of Toad Hall.
In Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad, Marlow tells his tale while waiting for the tide near the mouth of the Thames.
Other fictional events include Sherlock Holmes looking for a boat in A Study in Scarlet and Bill Sykes killing Nancy just near the river, in Charles Dickens's classic novel  Oliver Twist.
Crossings of the Thames
See Crossings of the River Thames for a full article.
Famous crossings include
Dartford Crossing
Blackwall Tunnel
Rotherhithe Tunnel
Hungerford Bridge
Westminster Bridge Islands in the Thames
Isle of Grain
Frog Island, Rainham
Chiswick Eyot
Oliver's Island, Kew
Brentford Ait
Lot's Ait
Corporation Island, Twickenham
Glover's Island, Twickenham
Eel Pie Island, Twickenham
Trowlock Island, Teddington
Steven's Eyot
Raven's Ait, Surbiton
Boyle Farm Island
Thames Ditton Island
Ash Island, Hampton Court
Tagg's Island, Hampton Court
Garrick's Ait, Hampton
Platt's Eyot, Hampton
Sunbury Court Island, Sunbury
Swan's Rest Island, Sunbury
Rivermead Island, Sunbury
Sunbury Lock Ait
Wheatley's Ait
Desborough Island, Shepperton
D'Oyly Carte Island
Lock Island
Hamhaugh Island
Penton Hook Island
Truss's Island
Church Island, Staines
Hollyhock Island, Staines
Holm Island, Staines
The Island, Hythe End
Magna Carta Island, Runnymede
Pats Croft Eyot
White Lily Island
Katie-Jo's island
Isle of The Great Crostini
Poodle island
Caspars island
Mather Island
Kat Isle
Scuttle Island
Davage Ait
A queen is a woman who rules a country, because of inheritance.
A queen usually comes to power after the death of the previous king or queen, who is her parent.
A country that is ruled by a queen is called a kingdom – the same as a country ruled by a king.
The wife of a king is also called a queen.
However, the husband of a queen is not always called a king.
For example, the last King of Britain (George VI) had a wife (Elizabeth), who was called Queen Elizabeth.
He had no sons, so he was followed by his elder daughter, who is also called Elizabeth.
She became Queen Elizabeth II.
She was married to The Duke of Edinburgh until his death on April 9, 2021; but when she became Queen he did not become King.
Many people who study government think a country should not have a monarchy.
They argue that rulers ought to be elected, or that monarchs are often corrupt.
Aristotle’s “Politics” compares the different forms of government which a state may have.
He claims monarchy to be one of the worst regimes because one leader may be easily corrupted, even if they were selected as the most wise and deserving ruler of an entire group.
Many people in countries such as the UK want to keep their royal family as they have remained a traditional icon and source of income for the country.
However, in the UK their influence in the rule of the country is very small, leaving government to the governing political party elected by the people.
This is because in a constitutional monarchy the monarch has only the power of head of state.
Queen regnant
A queen regnant is head of state, and has all the powers of a sovereign.
A queen regnant does not keep the title of queen if she abdicates (resigns).
No queen has ever abdicated in the history of the United Kingdom, but three abdications have occurred in the Kingdom of the Netherlands:
Queen Wilhelmina abdicated in 1948 and became Princess Wilhelmina.
Her daughter became Queen Juliana.
Queen Juliana abdicated and became Princess Juliana.
Queen Beatrix abdicated in 2013 and became Princess Beatrix.
Queen consort
A queen consort is the wife of a king.
She is not the head of state, and does not have any powers unless they are given by the King or another law.
The last King of Britain (George VI) had a wife (Elizabeth) who was called Queen Elizabeth.
He had no sons, so he was followed by his elder daughter.
She is also called Elizabeth and became Queen Elizabeth II.
She was married to the late Duke of Edinburgh; but when she became Queen he did not become King.
Queen dowager
Queen Alexandra, widow of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom
Queen Mary, widow of King George V of the United Kingdom and
Queen Elizabeth, widow of King George VI of the United Kingdom, she was given the title Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother because her daughter is also called Elizabeth.
Male is one of two genders.
Most species have two sexes  male and female.
Human males are men or boys; human females are women or girls.
The two sexes have different sexual organs, and different secondary sex characteristics.
They also often have different biological functions.
The female gives birth to children with the semen provided by the male.
In many human societies, females often were involved in gathering, while men used to hunt.
Female is a gender.
It is the sex that produces ova ("egg" cells) for sexual reproduction.
Females of some species also bear offspring.
When looking at seed plants, the plants that only produce seed are called female, those that only produce pollen are called male.
The majority of seed plants produce both, and are called hermaphrodite.
Organisms can either be grouped as male or female.
Female humans are called women and their bodies are different from male humans (who are called men).
A woman has a vagina between her legs (a male has a penis) which is the main sexual organ.
They also have breasts with milk glands, which allow them to nurse (feed) infants.
A woman's shoulders are usually not as wide as a man's, but women usually have wider hips than men, because they need wide hips to be able to give birth.
Women who become pregnant are encouraged by doctors to seek professional care from an obstetrician or a gynecologist in order to prevent problems.
Likewise, women should see a gynecologist often for routine screening exams for cancer.
Sex determination - the biological process which determines the sex of an individual.
Biological reproduction
Camden is a place in north London, England.
It has a big market which has lots of clothes.
It is also good for music.
It is an Urban Area.
Regent's Canal runs through Camden.
The Royal Borough of Greenwich is a London Borough.
The London Borough of Wandsworth is a London Borough.
The London Borough of Islington is a London Borough.
It is north of Central London.
Bambuco is a type of music from Colombia.
The beat of this music is like the European waltz or polska.
Bambuco is often folk music.
There is a dance that goes with Bambuco music.
It is a group dance and has a 6/8 or 3/4 meter.
Sometimes Bambuco is called "el bambuco".
People think Bambuco started in Africa.
It is popular in the Andean region of Colombia and throughout Latin America.
Colombian culture
Christmas (which means "The Mass of Christ") is a Christian holiday that celebrates the birth of Jesus.
(Christians believe Jesus is the Son of God).
Christmas is also a cultural holiday for many non-Christians.
Christmas Day is celebrated on the 25th day of December.
It is one of the most important days of the year for Christians, along with Easter (which celebrates the death and resurrection of Jesus).
The season of Advent begins on a Sunday about four weeks before Christmas.
During Advent, people prepare for Christmas.
The Christmas season (called Christmastide) ends 6 January, also called the Twelfth Day of Christmas.
On this day, Christians celebrate Epiphany.
People celebrate Christmas in many places around the world.
Some people celebrate Christmas as a religious holiday.
In some places, Christmas is a time of celebration for Christians and non-Christians alike.
Christmas traditions are different in different countries.
However, they almost always include a feast; giving gifts or cards; and enjoying church or public festivities, like singing Christmas carols and songs.
Christmas is not limited to Christianity.
The idea of Santa Claus is based on Saint Nicholas, a 4th-century Christian saint of Greek origin.
In the Northern Hemisphere, Christmastide happens during the winter.
Before Christmas was ever celebrated, ancient peoples celebrated winter festivals.
Some traditions from these ancient festivals became Christmas traditions.
For example, some Christmas traditions come from the pagan holiday of Yule.
Today, Christmas traditions often focus on gift-giving.
About a month before Christmas Day, retail stores start selling gifts, food, greeting cards, Christmas trees, and decorations.
The history of Christmas
Christmas in the Gospels
Christmas celebrates the birth of Jesus.
There are four different Gospels in the Bible which talk about Jesus’s birth.
The Gospel of Luke gives details about Jesus’s birth.
The Gospel of Matthew tells another part of the story.
The Gospel of John says that Jesus came from God to bring his "Word" (his message) to all people.
Christians believe these Gospels are based on fact.
The Gospels say that many years before Jesus' birth, prophets had told a promise to the Jewish people that God would send them a Messiah, or holy teacher.
Christians believe that the promised Messiah was Jesus.
His mother was a young woman called Mary, who was engaged, but not yet married to a carpenter called Joseph.
Joseph found out that Mary was pregnant and was upset.
He was wondering what he should do, when an angel came from God to tell him that the baby was the Holy One.
The angel said that he must name the baby.
This was a sign that he would take care of it like his own child.
At this time, the Middle East was ruled by the Romans.
An order came that all the people had to travel back to their home town, to put their names on the taxation lists.
Joseph took his new wife to Bethlehem.
There was nowhere for them to stay, except a stable where the animals slept.
This is where the baby was born.
Joseph called him Jesus, as the angel had said.
The baby Jesus had two lots of visitors.
On the night he was born, angels told some shepherds in the fields that they would find a newborn king lying in an animals' feed bin (or manger).
Jesus' other visitors were some wise men who saw a new star in the sky and followed it, until they found the house where the family was now living and gave the young child expensive gifts of gold, incense and a precious herb called myrrh. (
The wise men are often traditionally called the Three Kings, because there were three very expensive presents but the Bible does not say how many wise men there were.)
Date of celebration
Most Christian countries of the world use a calendar called the Gregorian Calendar, but some churches use a calendar called the Julian Calendar.
Most Christians, such as those of the Catholic and Protestant Churches, celebrate the birth of Jesus on 25 December, although holidays begin on 24 December also known as Christmas Eve.
The Eastern Orthodox Church still uses the Julian Calendar in some regions such as Russia.
In such regions, Christmas is celebrated on 25 December in the Julian Calendar, but because of the difference between the calendars it is 7 January in the modern Gregorian Calendar.
Some Christians, like Jehovah's Witnesses, do not celebrate Christmas because there is no instruction from Jesus in the Bible which tells Christians to celebrate his birth.
Mormons celebrate Christmas on 25 December but they believe that Christ's actual birth took place on 6 April.
Some believe that Jesus was probably not born on 25 December.
Some historians believe this date was used by the Catholic Church to replace the pagan rites that took place at that time of the year.
The Season of Advent, which begins on Sunday about four weeks before Christmas Day, is celebrated by the Catholic and Anglican Churches, as well as others.
It is a time for people to prepare themselves for two different things: for the coming of the baby Jesus and Christmas, and for the second coming of Jesus, when he shall rule over all the Earth in peace.
Not all Christian people remember Advent.
Some people use it as a time of fasting, study, meditation and prayer.
Special Advent Calendars are made for children, with pictures or treats for each day of Advent.
Before the 4th century AD, Christians could only worship and celebrate in secret.
The feast of Christmas probably began while Constantine was the Emperor of Rome, because it was he who made Christianity a legal religion and built some of Rome's oldest churches.
Some old stone coffins or sarcophagi from this time are carved with pictures of Mary and baby Jesus and the Wise Men.
Through the Middle Ages Christmas was celebrated with feasting, singing and plays.
The plays were held in churches, and also in castles and in market places, where a big hay wagon was sometimes used as a stage.
Because Advent was a time of prayer and preparation, most parties were held after Christmas, rather than before it.
The main pre-Christmas celebration was the Feast of St. Nicholas on 6 December.
In some countries, particularly the Netherlands, the tradition grew for children to receive presents on this day, rather than Christmas Day.
The name of Saint Nicholas is now remembered in many countries as Santa Claus.
For many centuries, the celebration of Christmas often began with a church service or mass, which lasted from late at night to after midnight on Christmas morning.
Christmas Day was a time of feasting.
On the following day, the Feast of Saint Stephen people from rich households would carry boxes of food out to the street for the poor and hungry.
Many people would go back to work but employers would give gifts of money to their workers.
The Holy Days continued with the feast of Saint John and Holy Innocents' Day.
The feasting and parties ended on the Feast of the Epiphany, the day of the Three Wise Men, often called the "Three Kings".
The season is nowadays remembered by the song "The Twelve Days of Christmas".
William Shakespeare wrote a play to be performed as part of the celebration, called "Twelfth Night".
For many, Christmas has become a time when having parties, sending messages to family and friends and giving presents has become more important than the celebration of Jesus' birth.
Manufacturers and stores have responded to the feasting and present-giving with lots of advertising, decorations and displays.
In the US, the Christmas displays are put up right after Thanksgiving, late in November.
In some countries such as Australia, stores put up decorations at the beginning of November.
Given that Jesus himself called people making money in the Jewish Temple 'robbers' (Matthew 21:13) many Christians are uneasy about profit instead of prophets at Christmas.
Town councils celebrate by decorating streets and squares, and providing Christmas entertainment for shoppers.
In countries of the Southern Hemisphere, where Christmas falls in Summer, there is a tradition of open-air Carol Services, often organised by the town council, which are attended by thousands of people.
Many Christians celebrate Christmas by attending church, and with prayers and singing.
And each year there are Bible readings from the Gospels that tell the story of the birth of Jesus.
Christmas traditions are of several types.
There are traditions of the church, traditions which are public celebrations and traditions that are kept by families.
These traditions are different in different times, places, cultures and even families.
Traditions of the Church
The celebration of Christmas is a very important time for churches.
Almost every church has special services or celebrations.
Here are some of the ways that churches celebrate Christmas.
The Crib
It is the custom in many churches to set up a Crib (or Creche) scene of the Nativity or birth of Jesus.
The first scene of this type was set up by St. Francis of Assisi in the 13th century.
They have been very popular in Italy ever since then, and the custom has spread to other countries.
Nativity scenes can be large with life-sized statues, or they can be tiny enough to fit in a matchbox.
They are made of many different things including carved and painted wood, brightly coloured ceramics (pottery), painted paper glued to boards, and mixtures of material with clay, wood, cloth, straw and metal used for different parts.
The Advent wreath is a circle of leaves, usually pine boughs, ivy and holly, with 4 (or sometimes 5) candles in it which is hung up in a church.
The candles are lit on each Sunday in Advent, and the central candle is lit on Christmas morning.
Churches are often decked with green branches and leaves, and many churches also have a Christmas tree.
A popular tradition in many churches is the Carol Service which is often lit only by candles.
The carol service generally has lots of singing and Bible readings.
There is a tradition in England which began in the Temple Church in London and has now spread to many other places for a service of Nine Lessons and Carols.
The lessons are Bible readings.
Some carols are sung by a choir and others by the choir and people (the congregation).