the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
As a result, a fleet of British Royal Naval warships and tug-boats was employed to act as a deterrent against any future harassment of British fishing crews by the Icelandic craft.
In 1976, a compromise between the two states allowed a maximum of 24 British trawlers access to the disputed 200 nautical mile (370 km) limit.
Two-hundred-nautical-mile Exclusive Economic Zones became recognized internationally on November 14, 1994, after having been agreed at the conference on the Third United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1982.
History of international relations
20th century in Iceland
Orion is one of the largest constellations in the sky.
It is supposed to look like the warrior Orion from Greek mythology.
The constellation has other names in different cultures: it is mentioned under a Hebrew name in the Book of Job.
The constellation has a clear hour-glass shape with "Orion's Belt" in the centre.
That part is made up of three bright stars (Alnitak, Alnilam, Mintaka) in line.
The Orion constellation has 81 visible stars, including some of the brightest and most important stars in the night sky.
Rigel is the brightest star in it, and Betelgeuse is a huge, rather unstable red supergiant.
The constellation includes a series of starburst nebulae where new stars are forming.
The whole group of nebulae is known as the Orion complex.
The complex is 1,500 to 1,600 light-years away, and hundreds of light-years across.
The Orion nebula M42
IC 434
The Horsehead nebula
M78, a reflection nebula
Orion molecular cloud
Train Wreck Cluster
Mythological legend
In Greek mythology, Orion was a great hunter who joined Artemis's Hunt.
He was the first ever male to ever enter the Hunt.
Inevitably, he slowly started getting closer to Artemis, and eventually fell in love with her, even though he knew she had sworn an oath of maidenhood.
Artemis did not sense this at the time, so she let him stay in the Hunt.
The problem was that Orion was too good a hunter, and got in over his head.
He killed too many animals, which was against the Hunters' nature, which was not to harm nature if it was not of danger to them.
Gaea, the Earth Spirit, sensed this, and sent a giant scorpion to kill him, to punish him for his sins against nature.
Artemis mourned his death, and herself made a constellation dedicated him, namely, the Orion's Belt.
The ancient Egyptians equated the constellation with Osiris, god of the afterlife.
The ancient Egyptian "First Time", "when Osiris walked on the Earth", has by some fringe archeologists been held to be around 10,500 BC; thanks to precession (which was known to the astronomers of the Early Dynasties), around that time at the Spring Equinox the constellation could be seen "walking" on the horizon just before dawn.
Orion is a useful aid to find other stars.
Extend the line of the Belt southeastward to find Sirius (α CMa); northwestward to find Aldebaran (α Tau).
A line eastward across the two shoulders is the direction of Procyon (α CMi).
A line from Rigel through Betelgeuse points to Castor and Pollux (α Gem and β Gem).
Betelgeuse (from Arabic: إبط الجوزاء Ibṭ al-Jauzā’, meaning "the armpit of Orion") is a large red supergiant star in the Orion constellation.
It is usually the ninth-brightest star in the night sky, and the second-brightest in Orion.
Betelgeuse is a semiregular variable star whose apparent magnitude varies between 0.2 and 1.2.
This is the widest range of any first-magnitude star.
It is also one of the largest and most luminous observable stars.
It has a radius between 950 to 1,000 times wider than the Sun.
This means it is 1.322 to 1.392 billion kilometers in diameter.
Betelgeuse was the first star other than the Sun whose size was known.
The star's distance from Earth is about 640 light-years.
Its average absolute magnitude is about −6.02.
Betelgeuse is less than 10 million years old.
It evolves rapidly because of its high mass.
It is moving through the interstellar medium at a speed of 30 km/s, creating a shock wave over 4 light-years wide.
Betelgeuse is now in a later stage of stellar evolution.
It will rapidly go through its life cycle before exploding as a type II supernova sometime in the next million years.
Betelgeuse is one of the red supergiant stars to have a bow shock:  others are Mu Cephei and IRC-10414.
Betelgeuse can be seen at the upper left  in Orion.
Alternate names
Betelgeuse is also called  Alpha Orionis (α Orionis, abbreviated Alpha Ori, α Ori).
119 Tauri, Antares, and Mu Cephei, other similar red supergiant stars
Supergiants
This article is about the bird Phoenix.
For other things that the word "Phoenix" means, go to Phoenix (disambiguation).
The phoenix is ​​the sacred bird of myth, mentioned in Persian, Greek, Egyptian, and Chinese mythology.
But once every thousand years, he spreads his wings and sings over a large mass of firewood, and when he is overjoyed by his song, he kindles a fire in his beak, and when it burns in the fire, an egg emerges from it, which immediately catches fire and burns.
Another phoenix is ​​born from its ashes.
Phoenix is ​​considered a symbol of immortality and longevity in most cultures.
But some cultures have attributed other characteristics to him.
The story goes that the bird lives for several hundred years before it dies by setting itself on fire.
However, it then starts a new life from the ashes of the fire.
In European culture
In English culture, the Phoenix phoenix is ​​a mythical bird, very beautiful and unique in its kind, which, according to legend, lives in the western desert for 500 or 600 years, burns itself on a pile of debris, and from the resulting ashes, he himself once again.
He emerges with a youthful freshness and begins and passes another round of life.
Phoenix in European culture is often an allegory of immortality and eternal life.
Phoenix originally entered European culture from ancient Iran.
During the eight centuries BC, the Phoenix bird is mentioned in nine references, eight of which have come down to us through quotations from later authors, and only one case by Herodotus, a Greek historian from 484 to 424 BC, is preserved in full.
remained.
Another Greek, Claudius Aelianus, also known as Aelian, wrote about Phoenix 200 AD:  "Phoenix keeps the arithmetic of 500 years correct without the help of arithmetic or finger counting, because he learns everything from nature, which is the whole intellect.
Although it seems necessary to know about Phoenix, among the Egyptians - perhaps only a handful of priests - no one knows when 500 years will pass, but at least we need to know where Egypt is and Heliopolis where Phoenix is. "
Where is it and what kind of coffin does this bird put its father in and where does it bury it?"
According to the English text, this historian calls Phoenix's father a father, but calls Phoenix the neutral form (it).
Subsequent authors have often used the feminine form for Phoenix, but since this bird is a unique myth and its offspring did not derive from mating, the discussion of its sex did not seem to be very important.
A Roman historian named Publius Ovidius Naso, better known as Ovid, is the first Roman to write about Phoenix in Latin.
"How many creatures walk on earth today, but in the beginning they were different.
There is only one being that will remain forever as it was from the beginning, that is, it will remain unchanged for many years, and finally, after extinction, it will be born again in its original form.
This is a bird that the Assyrians, or in some sources probably the Syrians or the Phoenicians, call the phoenix.
This bird does not eat ordinary seeds and grass, but eats fruit extracts and rare spices.
When he is 500 years old, he builds a nest on a tall palm tree and with his fork makes a bed for himself from the finest materials, from tree bark to cinnamon and other spices and gums, and then he dies and his soul travels far away with fragrant smoke and steam, and the story It goes on to say that a small phoenix then rises from the chest of his lifeless body to live, as they say, another 500 years, and at that time, after his old age, he found the necessary courage to raise his throne and nests where his father is buried.
A tall palm tree sets in motion and begins its journey to the city of the sun, where the Phoenix Nest Temple shines brightly in the Temple of the Sun. ”
From all that has been said about the phoenix in European culture, two general accounts of the phoenix can be given:  First, Phoenix arises from his father's lifeless body and takes his father's body to the city of Heliopolis and burns it on the altar of the Temple of the Sun; And another narration is that the phoenix burns in a pile of fragrant wood and debris, flutters its wings and ignites a flame, burns itself in the fire, and from its ashes another phoenix is ​​born.
So, in a nutshell, this myth can be said in European culture: "The phoenix burns in the fire and is born again from its ashes."
In this regard, it is common in English to say, "Every fire may contain a phoenix.
In ancient Egypt
During the first century AD, Phoenix was mentioned 21 times by ten authors.
From all these sources it appears that the myth of Phoenix originated in ancient Egyptian civilization and was later spoken of in Greek, Roman and Christian civilizations, respectively.
Among the Egyptians, the myth of Phoenix was originally the myth of the sun rising again at dawn after each night, and the name of the city of Heliopolis in Herodotus must have been related to this.
The Egyptians consider the phoenix a sacred bird, which is very rare.
According to the people of Heliopolis, the phoenix appears in Egypt once every 500 years after the death of the previous phoenix.
There are only a few pictures of this bird, and as can be seen from its shape and size in these pictures, the wings and jump are red and yellow are golden, and its general size is like an eagle.
A strange story is told about the work of this bird, and that is that this bird brings its father's body, which is covered with a kind of fragrant plant gum, all the way from the Arab land to the Temple of the Sun and buries it there.
It is said that in order to bring a corpse, first it makes a gum large enough to carry it, then it empties it and puts the corpse in it and closes its mouth with fresh gum, and then the bullet, which is correct.
It has regained its original weight, is brought to Egypt, and while the entire surface of the bullet is covered with gum, it is placed inside the Temple of the Sun, as mentioned.
In Persian mythology
Persian mythology, the phoenix means swan, a counterpart to the Indo-European and Chinese word phoenix, and appears to be the result of an arrangement of a pheasant, a Chinese chicken, and a mixture with other mythical birds.
In Persian narrations, like in Indo-European narrations, this hen is a rare and lonely hen that is not a mate and as a result, she will not give birth.
Phoenix lives a thousand years, and when his life comes to an end, he produces a large pile of firewood, and when he sits on that pile, he sings so much that he rejoices in his song, and by breaking his wings and with the help of his beak, he kindles a fire, and burns in the door.
Fire produces a testicle (egg) from him and thus another phoenix is ​​born.
In this narrative, Phoenix is ​​the swan counterpart in European literature who ends his life by singing.
Basically, in Persian literature, as in Indo-European literature, burning in one's suffering and rising from one's ashes and being born again have their way into the myth of Phoenix.
In Chinese mythological culture, the phoenix is ​​known as Feng Huang or the red bird, which is a genus of fire and is a symbol of summer and the south, which causes drought.
For this reason, Phoenix contains the negative and material element of the world, namely yin, and is considered the symbol of the queen.
In front of the phoenix is ​​the dragon, which is always considered to be the representative of Khaqan in Chinese mythology.
According to Chinese tradition, the phoenix flies less to the surface of the earth, and when it does, all the birds gather around it.
According to Koyaji about Phoenix, he does not sit on the ground, but whenever he sits on the ground, he dances on one foot.
Some have suggested that the Chinese phoenix is ​​the counterpart of Shang Shang or the rainbird in the Confucian version, while the Shang Shang or rainbird is the bird that symbolizes the yin, but the phoenix is ​​commonly considered the symbol of the yang.
Phoenix in Chinese mythology is a symbol of joy and happiness and a sign of heavenly satisfaction.
In these myths, the dragon is the spirit of the rain and the symbol of Khaqan, and the phoenix is ​​the symbol of the queen and the south and the helper of the farmers.
In Chinese mythology
In Chinese mythology, the red bird or phoenix was a symbol of the south and was worshiped.
Phoenix later replaced the pheasant.
In the surviving maps, this bird had a curved beak, a long, sharp claw in the shape of a bird of prey, and was considered a help to farmers on the arid farms of the south.
There is another phoenix in Chinese mythology called Qi Sang or Phoenix of the Mountains.
This phoenix is ​​the phoenix that provided the map of rivers to Yu in the time of the Athenian dynasty.
THE feng, or phoenix, is the legendary king of all avian species according to Chinese myth.
“A Hundred Birds Paying Homage to the Phoenix” is one of the most popular themes in traditional Chinese painting.
This is also the name of a traditional Chinese music piece featuring complicated suona playing skills.
According to Chinese legend, the phoenix was originally an inconspicuous bird with a plain appearance.
Unlike most birds that busied themselves with playing around, he collected fruit and seeds in his den from dawn to dust.
Unable to understand his behavior, other birds mocked him for being greedy.
Later, an unexpected draught left many birds without anything to eat.
The phoenix opened his den, and shared his food with the other birds, saving their lives.
When the rain finally returned, bringing life back to the forest, the birds wanted to show their gratitude to the phoenix.
Each bird pulled out one of their most beautiful feathers, and together they made the feathers into a dazzling garment.
They presented the garment to the phoenix, and crowned him as their king.
Hence, each year, all birds will fly to the phoenix on one particular day, and pay their respects to the king.
This image has inspired countless artists.
Though the phoenix is often called fenghuang today, the words feng and huang originally referred to a pair of colorful birds.
Feng is a male bird and huang is female.
However, just as the Chinese dragon was used as a symbol for the emperor in the royal court, the phoenix, with its beautiful appearance, was selected to symbolize the empress.
The empress’s crown at formal events was usually called the “phoenix crown,” while her dress was called the “phoenix dress.”
Both crowns and dresses were decorated with many phoenix images.
Thus, the phoenix and dragon became “golden partners,” and they often appear together in phrases with positive connotations. “
Prosperity brought by the dragon and the phoenix” (long feng cheng xiang) is widely used as an expression of luck. “
The talent of the dragon and the presence of the phoenix” (long zhang feng zi) is an expression used to describe the elegance of a person. “
The dragon flies and phoenix rises” (long fei feng qi) refers to when an emperor or a saint appears. “
Dragon’s heart and phoenix’s liver” (long xin feng gan) refer to a precious and rare dishes. “
Climb the dragon and attach to the phoenix” (pan long fu feng) means to flatter the powerful for one’s own benefit.
And phoenix’s powers are also to some extent complimentary to the dragon’s.
While the Chinese dragon can summon wind and call for rain, the phoenix is capable of manipulating fire.
However, the phoenix in Chinese myth did not have the ability of rising from the ashes until contemporary litterateur Guo Moruo used the concept of the Western phoenix in his poetry.
Phoenix in LiteraturePhoenix Short Story by Sylvia Town Sand Warner''''' Edited In the book Phoenix by Sylvia Townsend, Warner Phoenix depicts a mythical creature as a reality and symbolizes the identity and existence of a nation, which is a toy of the lusts and desires of profiteers.
In this short and influential story.
The Phoenix is ​​a beautiful, ancient Eastern bird that lives in a region in the Middle East near Saudi Arabia when it is captured by a British capitalist named "Mr. Paldero" and imprisoned in a cage to make money from displaying it in a zoo.
He pockets well, but after a while, when he sees that the phoenix in the cage and captivity is not attractive to the people and does not attract the attention of the people, he decides to make a humble and ridiculous creature out of this magnificent bird in order to be interesting to the people.
He constantly torments this bird, but finally, after enduring a lot of hardship and oppression, Phoenix rises like a nation under oppression and tyranny, burns all those who caused his suffering in his fire, and is born again free. .
In part of the story we read:  "The other birds were taken to his cage.
Inherently fierce and warlike birds.
They beheaded Phoenix and harassed him; But Phoenix was so sociable and kind that other birds gave up on him after a day or two of hostility.
Mr. Paldero then used stray cats.
They could no longer leave the field with good manners.
But Phoenix flew quickly over their heads and fluttered his golden wings in their faces, frightening them.
The phoenix was transferred to a small cage with a sprinkler on the roof.
The sprinkler was turned on every night, and Phoenix coughed.
Mr. Paldero had another idea in mind.
Every day he stood in front of the phoenix cage, mocking and ridiculing it, and abusing it.
When spring came, Mr. Paldero was thinking of starting a public campaign about the declining phoenix. "
Phoenix, which has long been popular, is declining," he said.
Then, a few days later, Mr. Paldero put the stinking phoenix reaction in the cage to put the stinking straw bundles and some rusty barbed wire in the cage to see if he was still inclined to nest.
One day Phoenix began to wander in the straw and grass.
Mr. Paldero signed a contract for the filming rights.
Finally the promised day arrived.
It had been a few weeks since people became more and more interested in Phoenix, and the right to enter had reached five shillings.
All around the fence was a roaring crowd.
Lights and cameras were aimed at the cage, and a speaker through the loudspeaker seldom reminded the audience of what was happening. "
Phoenix is ​​the aristocrat of the bird world," the speaker said. "
Only the rarest and most precious specimens of Oriental wood, impregnated with perfume, can seduce Phoenix to establish its legendary love nest."
At this moment, clean bundles of fragrant sticks and wood chips were thrown into the cage.
The speaker continued from the speaker: "Phoenix, like Cleopatra, is capricious, and like a magnificent charm, like the native music of intoxicated gypsies. "
All the splendor of the ancient East, its eternal magic, and its skillful tyranny."
A woman in the crowd shouted, "Look, she wants to set herself on fire."
Trembling fell on the phoenix horns.
He turned his head from side to side.
He came down and walked back and forth from his seat.
He moved the chips and sticks with fatigue and exhaustion.
The cameras started working and light shone on Phoenix from all sides. "
Ladies and gentlemen," said Mr. Paldero, running to the speaker.
This is an exciting moment that the world is waiting for with its soul trapped in its chest.
The legend of centuries ago is unfolding before our eyes today.
The phoenix sat on a pile of wood that burned like a fire, as if asleep. "
If that was the whole story, write down the educational film," said the film's director.
At that moment, Phoenix and his nest suddenly ignited.
The sparks rose up and spread to all sides. "
In a minute or two, everything turned to ashes, and several thousand people, including Mr. Paldero, died in the fire."
In Persian  Literature
In ancient Persian poetry, only Attar Neyshabouri mentions Phoenix in his poems.
He also considered the phoenix as other mortal beings and emphasized the pervasiveness of the phenomenon of death.
In the logic of Attar al-Tair, the phoenix is ​​the heart of the bird of your heart, which is its refuge in India.
He is a bird that has about a hundred holes in his beak and he is not a pair; According to the narration, the phoenix sits in the heights and when the wind blows on his beak, a pleasant melody appears and other birds gather around him with this song and become intoxicated and hunted by him.
In his poems, Attar Neyshabouri mentions the phoenix as a bird that has 360 holes on its tip and a pleasant melody comes out of each hole.
He knows the origin of the phoenix in India.
Heinels (2006), Understanding Persian Mythology
Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/457189/phoenix>.
Phoenix () is a small and not-so-bright constellation in the southern sky.
It is one of the birds in a "nest" of bird constellations near it.
This constellation was named after the mythical phoenix.
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Phoenix
Octans is the southernmost constellation.
It represents a tool that a sailor would use to find his position using the position of the stars; the octant.
Octans contains the southernmost star above Magnitude 6, σ Octantis, which cannot be seen easily.
It is a binary star system in Canis Major, near Orion.
It has an apparent magnitude of −1.46.
The system is between 200 and  years old.
It was originally composed of two bright bluish stars.
Sirius appears bright because of its intrinsic luminosity and its position (it is relatively close to Earth).
At a distance of 2.6 parsecs (8.6 ly), the Sirius system is one of Earth's near neighbours.
The Egyptians called this star 'Sopdet'.
They relied on it to predict when the flood season would start.
Sirius is sometimes called the Dog Star.
The phrase the dog days of summer means the hottest days of summer.
Sirius A
Sirius A is about twice as massive as the Sun and has an absolute magnitude of 1.42.
It is 25 times more luminous than the Sun, but has a significantly lower luminosity than other bright stars such as Canopus or Rigel.
Originally, Sirius B had about five times the mass of the Sun.
and was a B-type star (roughly B4–5) when it still was on the main sequence.
Sirius B used up its resources and became a red giant.
Then it shed its outer layers and collapsed into its present state as a white dwarf, about  years ago.
Its mass now is about the same as the Sun.
Pakistan has many different cultures.
The east of the country is mainly Punjabi, the south is mainly Sindhi.
In the east are the tribal cultures.
In many areas the tribes and cultures are mixed, most Pakistanis are Punjabi and most of the nation are Sunni Muslim.
Clothing is usually the ''Shalwar Kameez' in the country.
Canopus is quite unusual, because its distance from Earth was not known until the 1990s.
Before the launching of the Hipparcos satellite telescope, distance estimates for the star varied widely, from 96 light years to 1200 light years.
Hipparcos established Canopus as lying 310 light years (96 parsecs) from our solar system.
The difficulty in measuring Canopus' distance stemmed from its being a "less luminous supergiant".
Such stars are rare and poorly understood.
They are stars that can be either in the process of evolving to or away from red giant status.
This in turn made it difficult to know how intrinsically bright Canopus is, and therefore how far away it might be.
Direct measurement was the only way to solve the problem.
Canopus is too far away for Earth-based parallax observations to be made, so the star's distance was not known with certainty until the early 1990s.
Canopus is 13,600 times more luminous than the Sun and the most intrinsically bright star within about 700 light years.
In fact, from 1 astronomical unit, Canopus would have an apparent magnitude of -37.
Canopus appears less bright than Sirius in our sky only because Sirius is much closer to the Earth (8.6 light years).
The surface temperature of Canopus is 7350 ± 30 K. Its diameter has been measured at 0.6 astronomical units (the measured angular diameter being 0.006 arcseconds), 65 times that of the Sun.
If it were placed at the centre of the solar system, it would extend three-quarters of the way to Mercury.
An Earth-like planet would have to lie three times the distance of Pluto for its star to appear the same size in the sky as our own sun.
Canopus is a strong source of X-rays, which are probably produced by its corona, magnetically heated to around 15 million K.
The Bayer designation for stars uses Greek letters to assign names to stars.
α Canis Majoris
θ Orionis
ζ Reticuli
It usually starts with the letter alpha (α) assigned to the brightest star in the constellation, then going down the Greek alphabet to assign letters for other stars (beta, gamma, delta, etc.)
in order of decreasing brightness.
Astronomical catalogues
The Demographics of Pakistan are a study of the population and the people.
It is estimated that Pakistan's population was over 170,000,000 in mid 2008.
Pakistan had an estimated population of 169,300,000 as of July 2007,.
Between 1951-1998, the number of people in Pakistan's cities and towns (known as the urban population) increased sevenfold.
And by the next decade the population is expected to exceed 176 million.
In the past, the country's population had a quite high growth rate.
Dramatic social changes have led to rapid urbanisation and the emergence of megacities.
Between 1990-2003, Pakistan sustained its historical lead as the most urbanised nation in South Asia, with city dwellers making up 34% of its population.
The majority of southern Pakistan's population lives along the Indus River.
In the northern half, most of the population lives about an arc formed by the cities of Faisalabad, Lahore, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Nowshera, Swabi, Mardan and Peshawar.
Gabriel Fahrenheit, a German physicist
Fahrenheit, the temperature scale
Fahrenheit (album), an album by Toto
Fahrenheit (comics), a comic book character
Fahrenheit (cologne), a cologne made by Christian Dior
Fahrenheit (Taiwanese band), a Taiwanese boy band
Fahrenheit (Fahrenheit album), their first album
Fahrenheit (Thai band), a Thai rock band
Fahrenheit (video game), a 2005 video game
Fahrenheit (1994 video game), a 1994 video game
Fahrenheit 9/11, a movie by Michael Moore
Fahrenheit 451, a novel by Ray Bradbury
Fahrenheit 451 (1966 movie), François Truffaut's movie adaptation
Fahrenheit graphics API, computer software
7800° Fahrenheit, an album by Bon Jovi
Farrenheit, an American rock band
Fahrenheit (denim), an American denim/fashion company based in Washington, DC
Fahrenheit (roller coaster), a roller coaster opening at Hersheypark in the 2008 season
Fahrenheit Project, a series of downtempo/ambient musical projects by various artists
Fahrenheit (Chilean band), a chilean Hard rock band.
The culture of Iran includes the art, language, cinema and music of the country.
The culture of Iran has been influenced by many different things, by religion and by its ancient history.
The nation has different ethnic groups including Persians, Turks and Kurds.
Apollo 17 was the last flight to send people to the moon.
It went up to space on December 7, 1972, carrying three astronauts: Eugene Cernan, Harrison Schmitt and Ronald Evans.
On December 11, 1972, Cernan and Schmitt became the last humans to land on the moon, while Evans stayed in orbit around the Moon.
About 500,000 people viewed the flight of Apollo 17.
About two hours after leaving Earth the bit with the people in it went away from the main rocket.
The bit with the people in it had two parts, the Apollo Command Module called America and the Apollo Lunar Module called Challenger.
America was the moon control space ship and Eagle was the moon-landing space ship.
A day later the Challenger went away from America.
The Challenger landed safely on the moon with Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt inside.
Cultural Geography is the study of cultures, customs, foods, clothing, music, architecture, traditions, religions and languages of the world  - and how and why these cultures are spread across the world.
The Arab world (; pronounced: al-`alam al-`arabi) are the Arabic language-speaking countries stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east, and from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the Horn of Africa and the Indian Ocean in the southeast.
It consists of 24 countries and territories with a combined population of some 325 million people spanning at least 2 billion acres across two continents.
The Horn of Africa (alternatively Northeast Africa, and sometimes Somali Peninsula) is a peninsula in East Africa that sticks out into the Somali Sea and Guardafui Channel, and is along the southern side of the Gulf of Aden.
Pan-Hornism
Some people said that its a good idea for Horn Africans to help each other with making money and politics.
Or in general This aim is sometimes called Pan-Hornism.
There are four countries in the Horn of Africa.
They are Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Djibouti.
The northernmost areas of the Horn are Ras Kasar in the west, settled by the Rashaida tribe, and Alula in the east, settled by Dishiishe.
The easternmost area is Ras Hafun, settled by Leelkase, and the southernmost in Ras Kamboni, settled by Dhulbahante.
Northeast Africa
Northeast Africa, or Northeastern Africa or Northern East Africa as it was known in the past, is a geographic regional term used to refer to the countries of Africa in and around the Red Sea.
The region is between North Africa and East Africa, and mainly encompasses the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti) and the Sudans (Sudan and South Sudan) as well as Egypt.
Sometimes, its borders are stretched to either include Kenya, or Chad and Libya.
Humans have lived in the area for a long time.
Many fossil from the early hominids to modern human have been found here.
It is one of the most genetically and linguistically diverse regions of the world, being the home to many civilizations and located on an important trade route that connects multiple continents.
The Horn of Africa became famous for taking longer to be colonized than other African countries.
Those countries which fought back were Ethiopia, led by Menelik II, and the Daraawiish State, led by Ismail Mire.
Eritrea was part of Ethiopia, but fought the Eritrean War of Independence from 1961 to 1991.
Horn of Africa can also mean the greater region containing the countries of Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Somalia.
The greater region covers about 2,000,000 km2 (or 772,200 square miles) and is inhabited by about 94.2 million people (Ethiopia: 79 million, Somalia: 10 million, Eritrea: 4.5 million, and Djibouti: 0.7 million).
Uniparental lineages
Cushitic ethnic groups have a diverse set of uniparental lineages.
Nevertheless, certain commonalities can be observed.
Paternally, E-M35 (also known as E1b1b1, formerly E3b1) forms an important lineage in many Cushitic populations, other important paternal lineages in Cushitic populations include J-M267 (also known as J1), A-M13 (A1b1b2b, formerly A3b2), and T-M70 (T1a, formerly K2).
Many Cushitic populations can be paternally traced back to having ethnic origins in the Nile Valley (Egypt and Northern Sudan) through haplogroup E-M78 and the Red Sea region of the Horn of Africa through haplogroup E-V1515 This coincides with anthropological and linguistic hypotheses placing the ethnogensis of the Cushitic language family in the aforementioned regions.
Maternally, Cushitic populations are more diverse, yet share certain lineages in common such as various East African-origin Macro-haplogroup L lineages (various L0, L1, L5, L2, L6, L4, L3 lineages) and North African and/or Middle Eastern-origin M1 and Macro-haplogroup N (in particular N subclades N1a, N1b, R0a, HV1b1, I, K1a, U3a, and U6a).
Autosomal ancestry
Cushitic populations have existed at the cross-roads of Africa and Eurasia since the Stone Age, with the Nile acting as a corridor between sub-Saharan Africa and Levant and North Africa thus Cushitic populations have multiple origins, like most other populations, that have become idiosyncratic of Cushitic populations.
Cushitic populations tend to combine in their ancestries both, genetic components indigenous to East Africa, and non-African components of West Asian origin.
According to an autosomal DNA study by Hodgson et al. (
2014), the Afro-Asiatic languages were likely spread across Africa and the Near East by an ancestral population(s) carrying a newly identified non-African genetic component, which the researchers dub the “Ethio-Somali” or “Semitic-Cushitic” in another study.
This Ethio-Somali component is today most common among Cushitic and Ethiosemitic populations in the Horn of Africa and reaches a frequency peak among ethnic Somalis, representing the majority of their ancestry.
On this basis, the researchers suggest that the original Ethio-Somali carrying population(s) probably arrived in the pre-agricultural period from the Near East, having crossed over into northeastern Africa via the Sinai Peninsula.
The population then likely split into two branches, with one group heading westward toward the Maghreb and the other moving south into the Horn.
Ancient DNA analysis indicates that this foundational ancestry in the Horn region is akin to that of the Neolithic farmers of the southern Levant.
According to Hodgson et al. (
2014), both the African ancestry (Ethiopic) and the non-African ancestry (Ethio-Somali) in Cushitic speaking populations is significantly differentiated from all neighboring African and non-African ancestries in East Africa, North Africa, the Levant and Arabia.
The genetic ancestry of Cushitic and Semitic speaking populations in the Horn of Africa represents ancestries (Ethiopic and Ethio-Somali) not found outside of Cushitic and Semitic speaking HOA populations in any significance.
Therefore, both ancestries are distinct, unique to, and considered the signature autosomal genetic ancestry of Cushitic and Semitic speaking HOA populations.
Hodgson et al.
states:”The African Ethiopic ancestry is tightly restricted to HOA populations and likely represents an autochthonous HOA population.
The non-African ancestry in the HOA, which is primarily attributed to a novel Ethio-Somali inferred ancestry component, is significantly differentiated from all neighboring non-African ancestries in North Africa, the Levant, and Arabia.
”According to Hodgson et al. (
2014), the non-African ancestry (Ethio-Somali) in the Cushitic speaking populations is distinct and unique to Cushitic and Semitic speaking HOA populations.
states:”We find that most of the non-African ancestry in the HOA can be assigned to a distinct non-African origin Ethio-Somali ancestry component, which is found at its highest frequencies in Cushitic and Semitic speaking HOA populations.
”When calculated the genetic distance (FST) between Ethiosemitic-speaking and Cushitic-speaking Ethiopians, and populations of the Levant, North Africa, and the Arabian Peninsula using two approaches: (1) the whole genome and (2) only the non-African component — in the whole-genome analysis, Ethiopian Semitic and Cushitic populations appear to be closest to the Yemeni; when only the non-African component is used, they are closer to the Egyptians and populations inhabiting the Levant.
However this is due to the fact that the similarity is because of the Ethiopian contribution to the Yemeni gene pool.
Pagani et al. (
2012) states:”The Ethiopian similarity with the Yemeni detected throughout the genome could be explained as an Ethiopian contribution to the Yemeni gene pool, consistent with that observed with mtDNA.”A 2015 study by Dobon et al.
identified an ancestral autosomal component of West Eurasian origin that is common to many modern Afroasiatic-speaking populations in Northeast Africa.
Known as the ‘’Coptic’’ component, it peaks among Egyptian Copts who settled in Sudan over the past two centuries.
The Coptic component evolved out of a main Northeast African and Middle Eastern ancestral component that is shared by other Egyptians and also found at high frequencies among Cushites (≈40–60%), with the remaining 40–60% of the ancestry of Cushites being of sub-Saharan East African origin.
However, these percentages are not certain since Figure 3 of the study by Dobon et al.
only features these percentages in the k=3 model.
According to Dobon et al. (
2015), the results were not conclusive and states that there needs to be more studies on the East African samples.
Dobon et al.
states:”Our main results add new and interesting features to the North East African genetic complexity, with new populations that define a genetic component in southern Nilo-Saharan speakers that cannot be related to a North-African or other sub-Saharan components.
These populations should be included in further population genetics and epidemiological studies to have a representative sample of the genetic diversity of the region of East Africa.
”The scientists involved in the study suggest that this points to a common origin for the general population of Egypt.
They also associate the Coptic component with Ancient Egyptian ancestry, without the later Arabian influence that is present among other Egyptians.
The Coptic component is roughly equivalent with the Ethio-Somali component.
Y DNA
A Y-chromosome study by Wood et al. (
2005) tested various populations in Africa for paternal lineages, including 26 Maasai and 9 Luo from Kenya, and 9 Alur from the Democratic Republic of Congo.
The signature Nilotic paternal marker Haplogroup A3b2 was observed in 27% of the Maasai, 22% of the Alur, and 11% of the Luo.
According to Gomes et al. (
2010), Haplogroup B is another characteristically Nilotic paternal marker.
It was found in 22% of Wood et al.
’s Luo samples, 8% of studied Maasai and 50% of studied Nuer.
The E1b1b haplogroup has been observed at overall frequencies of around 11% among Nilo-Saharan-speaking groups in the Great Lakes area, with this influence concentrated among the Maasai (50%).
This is indicative of substantial historic gene flow from Cushitic-speaking males into these Nilo-Saharan-speaking populations.
In addition, 67% of the Alur samples possessed the E2 haplogroup.
A study by Hassan et al. (
2008) analysed the Y-DNA of populations in the Sudan region, with various local Nilotic groups included for comparison.
The researchers found the signature Nilotic A and B clades to be the most common paternal lineages amongst the Nilo-Saharan speakers, except those inhabiting western Sudan.
There, a prominent North African influence was noted.
Haplogroup A was observed amongst 62% of Dinka, 53.3% of Shilluk, 46.4% of Nuba, 33.3% of Nuer, 31.3% of Fur and 18.8% of Masalit.
Haplogroup B was found in 50% of Nuer, 26.7% of Shilluk, 23% of Dinka, 14.3% of Nuba, 3.1% of Fur and 3.1% of Masalit.
The E1b1b clade was also observed in 71.9% of the Masalit, 59.4% of the Fur, 39.3% of the Nuba, 20% of the Shilluk, 16.7% of the Nuer, and 15% of the Dinka.
Hassan et al.
attributed the atypically high frequencies of the haplogroup in the Masalit to either a recent population bottleneck, which likely altered the community’s original haplogroup diversity, or to geographical proximity to E1b1b’s place of origin in North Africa.
The researchers suggest that the clade “might have been brought to Sudan […] after the progressive desertification of the Sahara around 6,000–8,000 years ago”.
Henn et al. (
2008) similarly observed Afro-Asiatic influence in the Nilotic Datog of northern Tanzania, 43% of whom carried the M293 sub-clade of E1b1b.
mtDNA
Unlike the paternal DNA of Nilotes, the maternal lineages of Nilotes in general show low-to-negligible amounts of Afro-Asiatic and other extraneous influences.
An mtDNA study by Castri et al. (
2008) examined the maternal ancestry of various Nilotic populations in Kenya, with Turkana, Samburu, Maasai and Luo individuals sampled.
The mtDNA of almost all of the tested Nilotes belonged to various Sub-Saharan macro-haplogroup L sub-clades, including L0, L2, L3, L4 and L5.
Low levels of maternal gene flow from North Africa and the Horn of Africa were observed in a few groups, mainly via the presence of mtDNA haplogroup M and haplogroup I lineages in about 12.5% of the Maasai and 7% of the Samburu samples, respectively.
Autosomal DNA
The autosomal DNA of Nilotic peoples has been examined in a comprehensive study by Tishkoff et al. (
2009) on the genetic clusters of various populations in Africa.
According to the researchers, Nilotes generally form their own African genetic cluster.
The authors also found that certain Nilotic populations in the eastern Great Lakes region, such as the Maasai, showed some additional Afro-Asiatic affinities due to repeated assimilation of Cushitic-speaking peoples over the past 5000 or so years.
Admixture analysis
Tishkoff ‘’et al’’ in 2009 published the largest study done to characterise genetic variation and relationships among populations in Africa.
They examined 121 African populations, 4 African American populations and 60 non-African populations.
Their results indicated a high degree of mixed ancestry reflecting migration events.
In East Africa, all population groups examined had elements of Nilotic, Cushitic and Bantu ancestry amongst others to varying degrees.
They also found that by and large, genetic clusters were consistent with linguistic classification with notable exceptions including the Luo of Kenya.
Despite being Nilo-Saharan speakers, the Luo cluster with the Niger-Kordofanian speaking populations that surround them.
They suggest that this indicates a high degree of admixture occurred during the southward migration of Southern Luo.
Kalenjin groups and Maasai groups were found to have less Bantu ancestry but significant Cushitic ancestry.
David Reich, a geneticist known for his studies on ancient DNA carried out a study which found that mutation frequencies in Luo people were much more similar to those of the surrounding Bantu speakers.
They suggested that Luo speakers in East Africa may not have always been socially disadvantaged as they migrated into territories already inhabited by Bantu speakers.
This is in keeping with oral history which affirms that large groups of Bantu speakers adopted Luo language, culture and customs that were dominant at the time.
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no:William Griffiths
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BBC iPlayer left Beta and went live on 25 December 2007.
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iPlayer
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