the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The current low average retirement age (55 years for men and 57 years for women) will be gradually increased until 2014, when it gets 60 years for women and 65 years for men.
Many of the country's Gypsies have no identity cards and are therefore excluded from the social benefit systems, schools and health care.
The State-run health care is free, but the care system is neglected and has deteriorated in recent years due to lack of resources and underpaid staff.
In many cases,the patients paying "under the table" to get treatment.
here is evidence to suggest that a patient's wealth plays an important role in how they receive medical treatment.
Historically, Romanian researches and inventors have made notable contributions to several fields, such as: aeronautics, medicine, mathematics, computer science/engineering, physics, biophysics, chemistry, biochemistry and biology.
In the history of flight, Traian Vuia and Aurel Vlaicu built and flew some of the earliest successful aircraft, while Henri Coandă discovered the Coandă effect of fluidics.
Preceding him, Elie Carafoli was a pioneering contributor to the field of aerodynamics in the world.
Victor Babeş discovered more than 50 germs and a cure for a disease named after him, babesiosis; biologist Nicolae Paulescu discovered insulin.
Another biologist, Emil Palade, received the Nobel Prize for his contributions to cell biology.
George Constantinescu created the theory of sonics, while Lazăr Edeleanu was the first chemist to synthesize amphetamine and also invented the modern method of refining crude oil.
Costin Neniţescu found new methods for the synthesis of pirilium salts, of carbenes, tryptamine, serotonin, two new syntheses for the indole nucleus, and a new method of polymerisation of ethylene.
The nuclear physics facility of the European Union's proposed Extreme Light Infrastructure (ELI) laser will be built in Romania.
Romania currently has 1,400 MW of nuclear power capacity by means of one active nuclear power plant (Cernavodă) with 2 reactors, which constitutes around 18% of the national power generation capacity of the country.
This makes Romania the 23rd largest user of nuclear power in the world.
The Constitution of Romania is found to be based from the Constitution of France's Fifth Republic.
It was passed into law on December 8, 1991.
after a referendum was held.
73 amendments were added to the constitution in October of 2003 to bring the constitution of Romania up to code with the constitution of the European Union.
The legislative branch of the Romanian government is known as the Parliament.
It contains two chambers – the Senate, containing 140 members, and the Chamber of Deputies, which has 346 members.
The members of both chambers are elected every four years through party-list proportional representation.
The judicial branch of the Romanian government is separate from the other branches.
It is made up of a system of courts.
The court with the most authority is the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania.
Other courts, including appeal, county, and local courts also make up the judicial branch of the Romanian Government.
The way the system of courts works in Romania is modelled off of the French model of law.
It is based on civil law.
Romania is divided further into 319 cities and 2,686 communes.
Each of the communes has its own council that is led by a mayor.
The Romanian Army is made up of Land, Air, and Naval Forces, which are all led by a Commander-in-chief.
The commander-in-chief is given orders by the Ministry of Defense.
During war, the President leads the Army.
90,000 people were in the Romanian Army in 2003: 15,000 civilians and 75,000 military people.
Of the 75,000 military people in the Romanian Army, 45,800 are in the land forces, 13,250 are in the air forces, 6,800 are in the naval forces, and 8,800 in other areas of the military.
BBC News Country Profile - Romania
CIA World Factbook - Romania
US Department of State - Romania
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Exchange Rates  - from the National Bank of Romania
Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
Treasures of the national library of Romania
1859 establishments in Europe
Argon is a chemical element.
Its symbol is argon is Ar and its atomic number is 18.
It is part of the noble gas group.
It is an odorless and tasteless gas.
Argon is the third-most abundant gas in the Earth's atmosphere.
The name "argon" is gotten from the Greek word ἀργός meaning "lazy" or "inactive" because it doesn't react a lot.
Argon atoms are found in air.
About 1% of the Earth's atmosphere (the air around us) is argon.
It is not toxic and it does not burn easily.
Not many compounds can be made from Argon.
However, some compounds have been formed, like argon fluorohydride (HArF).
Argon is a heavier gas than helium, so if a balloon is filled with argon, it would sink.
Argon was first removed from air in 1894 by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay at University College London by removing oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen from a sample of clean air.
The main isotopes of argon found on Earth are 40Ar (99.6%), 36Ar (0.34%), and 38Ar (0.06%).
The most abundant isotope of argon is 40Ar.
But other planets have different isotopes of argon.
Argon is gotten industrially by the fractional distillation of liquid air.
About 700,000 tonnes of argon are produced worldwide every year.
40Ar is made by the decay of 40K with a half-life of 1.25 billion years by electron capture or positron emission.
Because of this, it is used in knowing how old rocks are.
It can also be used in neon lights for a purple color.
Argon is used in the poultry industry to asphyxiate birds.
Argon is sometimes used for putting off fires.
Liquid argon is used in neutrino experiments and looking for dark matter.
Argon is used to preserve food.
Argon is sometimes used as the propellant in aerosol cans.
Argon is also used as a preservative for such products as varnish, polyurethane, and paint.
Argon has been used by athletes as a doping agent and has been banned as use.
It is used to know how old rocks are.
To trade is to willingly give things or services and get other things or services in return.
For example, a person giving a thing must find another person who wants to get that thing.
The giver gets something back in return.
A trade is also called an exchange or a swap
We also have what we call exports and imports
Different types of trade Trade barriers,subsides,free trade and fair trade
An early type of trade is barter.
Barter was the exchange of goods and services for other goods and services.
Barter involves trading things without using of money.
Modern traders commonly buy and sell by the use of money.
Trade between two traders is called bilateral trade.
Trade between more than two traders is called multilateral trade.
Services can also be part of a trade.
One person can do a job or work for another, and get something in return in a trade.
Money can be given in return for a service or for a thing.
If money is part of the trade, then the person who gives the money is buying, and the person who gets the money is selling.
When there is no money involved in the trade, the trade is called barter.
If there is money involved in the trade, the trade is called a purchase.
In the past people would barter to get what they wanted, instead of buying goods and services.
Trade occurs not just between people, but also between large companies and even countries.
Governments sometimes take some of the money or goods involved trade between countries.
This is a type of tax called a tariff.
Smugglers try to trade without paying tariffs.
There are two forms of trade.
Domestic trade
Domestic trade is the exchange of goods within a country.
Domestic trade is very important because it allows different types of goods to reach to all parts of the country.
It makes the standard of living of the people of the country better.
It helps an industry to grow by making sure that there are raw materials.
Domestic trade may be divided into two.
Wholeselling is the sale of goods to industrial, commercial, institutional or other professional businesses.
They can also be sold to other wholesalers.
It is the sale of goods to anyone that is not a consumer.
Wholesalers usually buy and sort goods in large numbers.
Retail is the process of selling goods or services to consumers through many means of distribution to earn a profit.
The term "retailer" usually means where a person sells a small amount of good to many individuals, who are consumers.
International trade is the exchange of goods and services between different countries.
International trade has existed throughout history.
For example Uttarapatha, Silk Road, Amber Road, scramble for Africa, Atlantic slave trade, salt roads.
When there is trade between two or more countries factors like currency, government policies, economy, judicial system, laws, and markets affect trade.
International trade may be divided into three.
An entrepôt is a port, city, or trading post where goods may be imported, stored or sold.
These cities grew because of the growth of long-distance trade.
The European Union (abbreviation: EU) is a confederation of 27 member countries in Europe established by the Maastricht Treaty in 1992-1993.
The EU grew out of the European Economic Community (EEC) which was established by the Treaties of Rome in 1957.
It has created a common economic area with Europe-wide laws allowing the citizens of EU countries to move and trade in other EU countries almost the same as they do in their own.
Nineteen of these countries also share the same type of money: the euro.
The Treaty of Lisbon is the most recent treaty that says how the Union is run.
Every member state signed to say that they each agreed with what it says.
Most importantly, it says which jobs (’powers’) the Union should do for the members and which jobs they should do themselves.
The members decide how the Union should act by voting for or against proposals.
The objective of the EU is to bring its member states closer together with respect of human rights and democracy.
It does this with a common style of passport, common rules about fair trading with each other, common agreements about law enforcement, and other agreements.
Most members share a common currency (the euro) and most allow people to travel from one country to another without having to show a passport.
After World War II, the countries in Europe wanted to live peacefully together and help one another's economies.
Instead of fighting each other for coal and steel, the first member countries (West) Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg created one European Coal and Steel Community in 1952.
In 1957 in the Italian city of Rome, the member countries signed another treaty and made the European Economic Community.
Now it was a community for coal, steel and for trade.
Later it changed the name to  the European Community.
In 1993, with the Treaty of Maastricht it changed its name to the European Union.
Now the member countries work together not only in politics and economy (coal, steel and trade), but also in money, justice (laws), and foreign affairs.
With the Schengen Agreement, 22 member countries of the EU opened their borders to each other, so people can now travel from one country to the other without a passport or identity card.
Many of the countries of the EU also share a currency, which is called the euro.
10 new countries became members of the EU in 2004, 2 more became members in 2007, and 1 more in 2013.
In 2016, the United Kingdom voted to leave the EU.
Today there are 27 member countries altogether.
Free movement
A person who is a citizen of the European Union can live and work in any of the 27 member states without needing a work permit or visa.
For example, a French person can move to Greece to work there, or just to live there, and he or she does not need permission from an authority in Greece.
In the same way, products made in one member country can be sold in any other member country without any special permissions or extra taxes.
For this reason, the members agree rules on product safety - they want to know that a product made in another country will be as safe as it would be if it had been made in their own.
Main institutions
Institutions of the European Union
The Council of the European Union is the main decision-making group.
The cabinet ministers of the member countries meet (Ministers for Foreign affairs, for Agriculture, for Justice, etc...) and discuss issues that are important to them.
Before the Treaty of Lisbon (written in 2007, implemented in 2008) each member state takes a turn at being President of the Council for six months.
For example, from January 2007 until July 2007, Germany held the presidency.
The six months before that, Finland held the presidency.
Now the President of the European Union chairs the council summits.
The President of the Council is the organiser and manager and is voted into office for a duration of two and a half years.
He or she does not have the power to make decisions about the European Union like the President of the United States does for that country.
Member countries with a large population (Germany, France, United Kingdom, etc.)
have more votes than countries with small populations (Luxembourg, Malta, etc.)
but a decision cannot be made if enough countries vote against the decision.
Twice a year, the heads of government (Prime Ministers) and/or the heads of state (Presidents) meet to talk about the main issues and make decisions on different issues.
This meeting is different and not as formal.
It is known as a European Council.
Note: This is not the same thing as the Council of Europe, which is not part of the European Union.
The European Commission runs the day-to-day running of the EU and writes laws, like a government.
Laws written by the Commission are discussed and changed by the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union.
The Commission has one President and 27 Commissioners, selected by the European Council.
The Commission President is appointed by the European Council with the approval of the European Parliament.
The Commission operates like a cabinet government.
There is one Commissioner per member state, though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state.
The Parliament has a total of 705 members (called Members of the European Parliament, or MEP).
They are elected in their countries every five years by the citizens of the European Union member countries.
The Parliament can approve, reject or change proposed laws.
It can also sack the European Commission.
In that case, the entire commission would have to give up their jobs.
The need to prevent another European war after World War I and World War II.
The need to respect human rights, rule of law and democracy more affirmed by Council of Europe.
The need to have a common economic area.
Member States
In 1951, six countries made the European Coal and Steel Community, a basic version of what the EU is now.
These six then went further and in 1957 they made the European Economic Community and the European Coal and Steel Community.
The UK and others decided not to join, and then when the UK changed its mind it was stopped from joining by French President Charles de Gaulle.
When he was no longer President, the UK and others started to join.
Today there are 27 members but the idea that more should join is not seen as a good one by everyone.
Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Turkey and Iceland are "candidate countries"; they are being considered for membership.
Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo are expected to follow.
United in diversity (or together with many types of people in Simple English), is the motto of the European Union.
On June 23, 2016, the UK held a referendum on whether it should stay in the EU or leave it.
The majority [52% to 48%] favored leaving.
Britain leaving the EU is commonly known as Brexit.
The government of the UK invoked "Article 50" of the Treaty of European Union (the Treaty of Lisbon) on 29 March 2017.
This began negotiations with fellow members of the EU on the terms of exit.
The timetable for these negotiations is two years, which meant that the UK would remain a member of the EU until at least March 2019.
However this deadline was later extended to October 31st 2019 at the request of the British Government.
The United Kingdom left the European Union on the 31 of January 2020 at 23:00 (Greenwich Mean Time).
Following the UK left from the European Union on January 31, the transition period  expired on December 31, 2020 and ended on January 1, 2021.
European Union online portal
Lithuania's EU Council Presidency
'Your Europe' information website
Europe of cultures 50 years of artistic creation and cultural life from the 27 countries of the European Union
1952 establishments in Europe
Greece (  or  ), officially the Hellenic Republic ( ), (historically known as Hellas) (Greek: Ελλάς), is a country in Southeastern Europe.
Its capital city is Athens.
It borders Albania, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east.
The Aegean Sea is to the East and South of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea is to the West.
Both are part of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea and have many islands.
80% of the country is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak.
Ancient Greece created democracy, philosophy, science and mathematics, drama and theater and the Olympic Games.
This is why other languages use many Greek words.
Greece is a parliamentary republic, in which the leader of the party with more seats in the parliament is the Prime Minister.
The country has a President, but his powers are ceremonial.
He is the head of state, not the head of government, much like how Kings and Queens operate in constitutional monarchies and is elected by Parliament and not the people.
Its economy is the highest in the Balkans region, though facing financial difficulties due to a Greek government-debt crisis.
The country was under the Ottoman Empire until 1821.
Greece is known for its rich history.
The  Macedonia region in Greece was the ancient kingdom of Macedonia (sometimes called Macedon) the empire of Alexander the Great.
Ancient Greece was made up of a number of city-states, each with its own constitution.
Athens, Sparta and Corinth are examples of city-states.
The official language spoken in Greece is Greek, spoken by 99% of the population and 90% of the population as well as the Republic of Cyprus.
It identifies as Christian Orthodox.
Many Greeks also understand English, French and German, which are taught in schools.
Greece was a founding member of the United Nations, joined NATO in 1952, became a member of the European Union in 1981, and adopted the Euro in 2001.
Due to the large tourism industry, powerful shipping sector, and its geostrategic importance, it is sometimes classified as a middle power.
Greece's history is one of the richest in the world.
The Greeks were one of the most advanced civilizations.
Greece is famous for its many philosophers, like Plato and Aristotle, and kings like Alexander the Great and Leonidas.
Greece is said to be the birthplace of Democracy, because city-states like Athens, now the capital of Greece, were the first to elect their leaders and not have kings.
During the years of Alexander the Great, a huge Greek Macedonian empire was created that stretched from modern-day Greece to Egypt and Iran, until the borders of India.
Because of the significant role that Greek culture played during that time, it is called the Hellenistic period (or Greek-dominated period).
During that time, the Greek language became the 'lingua franca' of the Middle East, which means the language that people who do not speak the same language use to communicate, like English is used today as an international language.
Greece was then ruled by the Roman Empire, and many argue that Rome conquered Greece with its army, but Greece conquered Rome with its culture.
The Roman Empire after the conquest of Greece became a civilization known as the Greco-Roman (or Greek-Roman) civilization.
When the Roman Empire collapsed, the Greeks emerged as the ruling class of the Byzantine Empire, and the Greek language became the official language of the empire, which included all the territories around the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
It was then occupied by the Ottoman Empire for a period of 400 years.
Some areas of Greece, like the second-largest city in the country, Thessaloniki, were occupied for 500 years and became part of Greece in the early 20th century.
The Greek War of Independence began in 1821 and Greece was an independent country (a republic) in 1828.
In 1832 Greece was made a kingdom by the United Kingdom and Russia, under the German Wittelsbach dynasty.
In 1912, Greece took part in the Balkan Wars, where it gained many of the territories that make up the country now, such as Greek Macedonia and the islands of the Aegean Sea.
Greece fought in both World War I and World War II in the side of allies.
During World War I, Greece was divided into two countries, the State of Thessaloniki in the north and the State of Athens in the south.
Both countries claimed to be the legitimate government of Greece, but the State of Thessaloniki received support from the Allies.
The country was reunited in 1917 when the King abdicated.
In 1920 Greece expanded again and briefly reached its maximum size.
The territories that the country had gained in Turkey were given back to Turkey in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, but Greece kept Western Thrace.
The king returned in 1935, and Greece was under a fascist dictatorship from 1936 until 1941, friendly to the Allies when it was invaded by Nazi Germany.
Greece’s Macedonia region is known for its rich history, The ancient kingdom of Macedonia (sometimes called Macedon) was Alexander the Great's empire.
In 1940, Greece was invaded by Italy, but defeated the invasion.
This was the first victory of an Allied country against an Axis power.
After this, Hitler decided to attack Greece sooner than he had planned.
Germany invaded on 6 April 1940 and captured Greece's second-largest city of Thessaloniki on 9 April, while Athens was captured on 27 April.
Most fighting ended with the Battle of Crete.
Greece suffered major damages in the war.
Between 1946 and 1949, the Greeks fought a civil war.
The fighting was between the communists and the people who supported the king, who also had support from the United Kingdom and the United States.
The war left the country devastated and the people very poor.
In 1967 the military took control of the country and restricted democracy.
Free elections were then held again 7 years later, and the Greeks voted to send the king away and declared a republic in 1974.
Greece became a member of the European Union in 1981.
Greece had seen rapid growth in the 1990s, but some of the country's economic statistics were modified to appear more correct than they were, as the government had lied with the help of banks from the United States.
In 2004, Greece hosted the Olympic Games for a second time.
Since 2009, Greece has been in an economic crisis, which is also becoming a political crisis.
It is not a federal state like the United States, but a unitary state like the United Kingdom.
It is ruled by a parliament, called the Hellenic Parliament (or Greek Parliament in Simple English), which has 300 members.
It is a parliamentary republic, which means that, unlike in the United States, the President has very few powers.
The person in charge of the government of Greece is the Prime Minister.
Greece was a kingdom for most of its history as an independent nation.
It officially became the Third Hellenic Republic (or The Third Republic of Greece in Simple English) in 1975, when the monarchy was abolished by a popular vote.
Greece was under a military dictatorship between 1966 and 1975.
Demonstrations by the students of the universities across Greece took place in 1973 but were suppressed by the regime, which forcibly stopped the protests.
The dictatorship collapsed after the invasion of Cyprus and handed over power to Constantine Karamanlis.
There are many political parties in Greece, but only seven are in the Greek parliament.
Until 2015, only two political parties formed governments, the PASOK party (which is social democratic) and New Democracy (ND, which is conservative).
The government ousted in the 2015 election was led by PASOK, DIMAR, AND ND.
Other parties include the Communist party, the left-wing SYRIZA party, the nationalist party and others.
SYRIZA, led by Alexis Tsipras, won the 2015 parliamentary election held on January 25 of that year, and entered into a coalition government with the small right-wing party Greek Independents.
The divisions of Greece are called 'Peripheries'.
As of January 2011, there are 13 peripheries in Greece.
Peripheries are subdivided into 'peripheral units', and previously they were known as 'prefecture', but prefectures were abolished in 2011.
The most populated peripheries in Greece are Attica, where the capital city of Greece, Athens, is, and Central Macedonia, where Greece's second-largest city, Thessaloniki, is.
All the peripheries, and their capital cities, are:
Greece is a small country compared to other countries such as the United States, Spain , Italy, and the United Kingdom.
The population of Greece is estimated to be over 10 million.
Most of the people in Greece are Greeks, and they form 94% of the population of the country.
There are also many Albanians in Greece, and they make up 4% of the population.
Other nationalities make up for another 2% of the country.
The Greek government recognizes only one minority in the country, the Turkish one in the region of Thrace.
The dispute between Greece and the Republic of North Macedonia has resulted in the refusal of Greece to acknowledge the existence of a Macedonian minority.
The 2001 population census showed only 747 citizens of the Republic of North Macedonia in Greece.
The Republic of North Macedonia says that there are a maximum of 300,000 ethnic Macedonians in Greece, but Greece says that if there is a minority in the country, it would not be more than 30,000 people, in the northern part of the country, near the border with the Republic of North Macedonia.
This is also supported by international organizations.
Greek flag
The Greek flag was officially adopted in 1828 as a civil and state ensign (a flag for use only on boats and ships) and as a national flag when flown outside of Greece, for example on embassies.
A different flag (white cross on a blue field) was used as a land flag within Greece from 1828 until 1969 and from 1975 to 1978.
In 1978 the current flag became national flag and the older land flag was abolished.
There are many theories about the origin of the color of the flag.
One says that blue represents the color of the sea and the white represents the waves, and others include white for the waves and blue for the sky and white for purity and breaking away from tyranny, and blue for Greece.
There are nine stripes on the flag, which according to the legend represent the nine syllables in the phrase “Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος’’ which means “freedom or death.’’
The cross stands for Christianity.
Greece is a capitalist country, like the United States and France.
Greece has the largest number of trading ships (a 'merchant navy') in the world.
Tourism is also a major source of income for Greece.
In the 20th century Greece had its own currency but now uses the Euro as most other European Community countries do.
Greece has adopted some welfare state policies, such as public healthcare and free education, like many other European countries.
Greece, however, has not collected enough taxes to pay for them.
The pension system is especially expensive.
This is putting Greece in a very difficult situation when the country has accumulated a debt of about €350 billion or debt by 170 percent of the country's total GDP.
Greece also has a trade deficit, meaning that it buys more things than it sells.
The country is cutting costs and asking for loans in order to avoid bankruptcy.
About 30 million tourists visit Greece each year.
That is more than the country’s entire population.
To serve the many tourists, Greece has many international airports.
Tourism also makes up more than 20% of the Greek GDP.
Sweden () is a Nordic country in the part of Europe called Scandinavia.
Its neighbors are Finland and Norway.
Sweden is also connected to Denmark in the south by a bridge.
It is a developed country.
It is famous for its welfare state.
People who live in Sweden are called Swedes.
The population of Sweden is about 10 million people.
Sweden's capital city is Stockholm, which is also Sweden's largest city, with almost one million people.
Other large cities are Gothenburg and Malmö.
These cities are all in the southern half of the country, where it is not as cold as in the north.
Swedes drink filmjölk, it is a traditional fermented milk product from Sweden.
It is made by fermenting cow's milk.
Glögg, is spiced mulled wine which people drink around Christmas.
It normally contains red wine, sugar, orange peel, and spices.
Swedes eat yellow pea soup with pork (or pork sausages) along with mustard.
Sweden is a constitutional monarchy because it has a king, Carl XVI Gustaf, but he does not have any real power.
Sweden is a parliamentary state meaning that the government is elected by the parliament which is appointed by the people.
The country is democratically ruled by a government headed by an elected prime minister.
Stefan Löfven was elected Prime Minister in September 2014.
He took office in October 2014.
Sweden has an official majority language, Swedish (the Swedish word for the language is svenska).
Sweden has five official minority languages: Finnish, Yiddish, Sami, Meänkieli, and Romani.
Sweden became a member of the European Union (EU) on 1 January 1995.
Unlike most countries in the European Union, Sweden is not a member of the Eurozone and has not begun to use the euro as currency.
This is because the people have voted against using the euro.
The currency remains the Swedish krona (Swedish crown).
Sweden has been a kingdom for a thousand years.
In the Middle Ages, Sweden had the same king as Denmark and Norway.
In the early 16th century Sweden got its own king, Gustav Vasa.
During the 17th century Sweden was a great power.
Sweden had taken Estonia, Latvia, and Finland and parts of Norway, Germany, and Russia.
In the 18th century Sweden became weaker and lost these places.
In the early 19th century, Sweden's king died without an heir and the Swedish parliament voted for Jean Baptiste Bernadotte as the new king.
Bernadotte fought Denmark and made them allow Norway to enter a personal union with Sweden.
This was Sweden's last war, and Sweden has not been at war for 200 years.
In 1905, the Swedish-Norwegian personal union was dissolved.
In many wars, including World War I and the Cold War, the country was neutral, meaning it did not take sides.
During World War II, it traded with both the British and the Germans in order to protect its neutrality.
Sweden has 25 historical provinces (landskap).
They are found in three different regions: Norrland in the North, Svealand in the central region, and Götaland in the South.
Sweden is divided into 21 counties.
They are Stockholm, Uppsala, Södermanland, Östergötland, Jönköping, Kronoberg, Kalmar, Gotland, Blekinge, Skåne, Halland, Västra Götaland, Värmland, Örebro, Västmanland, Dalarna, Gävleborg, Västernorrland, Jämtland, Västerbotten, and Norrbotten.
Sweden is further divided into 290 municipalities.
The municipalities are responsible for many social issues, like schools, daycare centers, the care for older and disabled people and fire departments.
Sweden has been Christian for a thousand years.
Sweden is traditionally a Protestant country, but it is now one of the least religious countries in the world.
Statistical surveys say 46-85% of all people in Sweden are agnostics or atheists.
This means that they doubt or they do not believe in the existence of a god.
About 6.4 million people in Sweden, which is 67% of all the people, are members of the Church of Sweden, but only 2% of members go to church often.
Sweden is a country with many talented athletes, such as soccer player Zlatan Ibrahimović.
Sweden (men and women's teams combined) has five bronze medals and two silver medals from the World Cup in football (soccer).
The soccer league in Sweden is called Allsvenskan (men's) and Damallsvenskan (women's).
Sweden has also performed well in ice hockey.
The men's ice hockey top division in Sweden is called SHL and the women's SDHL.
Sweden has also had several successful table tennis players, including Stellan Bengtsson and Jan-Ove Waldner, as well as alpine skiers including Ingemar Stenmark, Pernilla Wiberg, and Anja Pärson.
Other champions include biathlete Magdalena Forsberg and tennis players Björn Borg, Mats Wilander, Stefan Edberg, and Jonas Björkman.
Swimmer Sara Sjöström has several gold, silver and bronze medals from the Olympic Games and holds several world records.
Capital city (also called capital city or political capital), a city or town that contains the government of a country, state, or other area
Capital (economics), how much real money a company or person has that they can use
Capital (architecture), the top part of a pillar or column
Capitalization, another word for "upper case" or majuscule
Capital punishment, being put to death for doing a crime
Capitol (disambiguation)
Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born American scientist.
He worked on theoretical physics.
He developed the theory of relativity.
He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for theoretical physics.
His famous equation is  (E = energy, m = mass, c = speed of light (energy = mass X speed of light²).
At the start of his career, Einstein didn't think that Newtonian mechanics was enough to bring together the laws of classical mechanics and the laws of the electromagnetic field.
Between 1902–1909 he made the theory of special relativity to fix it.
Einstein also thought that Isaac Newton's idea of gravity was not completely correct.
So, he extended his ideas on special relativity to include gravity.
In 1916, he published a paper on general relativity with his theory of gravitation.
In 1933, Einstein was visiting the United States but in Germany, Adolf Hitler and the Nazis came to power (this is before World War II).
Einstein, being of Jewish ethnicity, did not return to Germany due to Hitler’s anti-Semitic policies.
He lived in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940.
On the beginning of World War II, he sent a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt explaining to him that Germany was in the process of making a nuclear weapon; so Einstein recommended that the U.S. should also make one.
This led to the Manhattan Project, and the U.S. became the first nation in history to create and use the atomic bomb (not on Germany but on Japan).
Einstein and other physicists like Richard Feynman who worked on the Manhattan Project later regretted that the bomb was used on Japan.
Einstein lived in Princeton and was one of the first members invited to the Institute for Advanced Study, where he worked for the remainder of his life.
He is now thought to be one of the greatest scientists of all time.
His contributions helped lay the foundations for all modern branches of physics, including quantum mechanics and relativity.
Einstein was born in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany, on 14 March 1879.
His family was Jewish, but was not very religious.
However, later in life Einstein became very interested in his Judaism.
Einstein did not begin speaking until he was 2 years old.
According to his younger sister, Maja, "He had such difficulty with language that those around him feared he would never learn".
When Einstein was around 4 years old, his father gave him a magnetic compass.
He tried hard to understand how the needle could seem to move itself so that it always pointed north.
The needle was in a closed case, so clearly nothing like wind could be pushing the needle around, and yet it moved.
So in this way Einstein became interested in studying science and mathematics.
His compass gave him ideas to explore the world of science.
When he became older, he went to school in Switzerland.
After he graduated, he got a job in the patent office there.
While he was working there, he wrote the papers that first made him famous as a great scientist.
In 1917, Einstein became very sick with an illness that almost killed him, fortunately he survived.
His cousin Elsa Löwenthal nursed him back to health.
After this happened, Einstein divorced Mileva in 14 February 1919, and married Elsa on 2 June 1919.
Einstein's first daughter was Lieserl Einstein.
She was born in Novi Sad, Vojvodina, Austria-Hungary on January 27, 1902.
She spent her first years  in the care of Serbian grandparents because her father Albert did not want her to be brought to Switzerland, where he had a job offer at the patent office.
Some historians believe she died from scarlet fever.
Einstein's two sons were Hans Albert Einstein and Eduard Tete Einstein.
Hans Albert was born in Bern, Switzerland in May 1904.
He became a professor in Berkeley (California).
Eduard was born in Zürich, Switzerland in July 1910.
He died at 55 years old of a stroke in the Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich "Burghölzli" .
He had spent his life in and out of hospitals due to his schizophrenia.
Later life
In spring of 1914, he moved back to Germany, and became ordinary member of the Prussian Academy and director of a newly established institute for physics of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft.
He lived in Berlin and finished the General Theory of Relativity in November 1915.
In the Weimar Republic, he was politically active for socialism and Zionism.
In 1922, he received the Nobel prize for Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect in 1905.
He then tried to formulate a general field theory uniting gravitation and electromagnetism, without success.
He had reservations about the quantum mechanics invented by Heisenberg (1925) and Schrödinger (1926).
In spring of 1933, Einstein and Elsa were traveling in the USA when the Nazi party came to power.
The Nazis were violently antisemitic.
They called  Einstein's relativity theory  "Jewish physics," and some German physicists started polemics against his theories.
Others, like Planck and Heisenberg, defended Einstein.
After their return to Belgium, considering the threats from the Nazis, Einstein resigned from his position in the Prussian Academy in a letter from Oostende.
Einstein and Elsa decided not to go back to Berlin and moved to Princeton, New Jersey in the United States, and in 1940 he became a United States citizen.
Before World War II, in August 1939, Einstein at the suggestion of Leó Szilárd wrote to the U.S. president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, to say that the United States should invent an atomic bomb so that the Nazi government could not beat them to the punch.
He signed the letter.
However, he was not part of the Manhattan Project, which was the project that created the atomic bomb.
Einstein, a Jew but not an Israeli citizen, was offered the presidency in 1952 but turned it down, stating "I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel, and at once saddened and ashamed that I cannot accept it."
Ehud Olmert was reported to be considering offering the presidency to another non-Israeli, Elie Wiesel, but he was said to be "very not interested".
He did his research on gravitation at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey until his death on 18 April 1955 of a burst aortic aneurysm.
He was still writing about quantum physics hours before he died.
Theory of Relativity
The theory of special relativity was published by Einstein in 1905, in the paper On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies.
It says that both distance measurements and time measurements change near the speed of light.
This means that as one get closer to the speed of light (nearly 300,000 kilometres per second), lengths appear to get shorter, and clocks tick more slowly.
Einstein said that special relativity is based on two ideas.
The first is that the laws of physics are the same for all observers that are not moving in relation to each other.
People in the same "frame" measure how long something takes to happen.
Their clocks keep the same time.
But in another "frame" their clocks move at a different rate.
The reason this happens is as follows.
No matter how an observer is moving, if he measures the speed of the light coming from that star it will always be the same number.
Imagine an astronaut were all alone in a different universe.
It just has an astronaut and a spaceship.
Is he moving?
Is he standing still?
Those questions do not mean anything.
Because when we say we are moving we mean that we can measure our distance from something else at various times.
If the numbers get bigger we are moving away.
If the numbers get smaller we are moving closer.
To have movement you must have at least two things.
An airplane can be moving at several hundred kilometers per hour, but passengers say, "I am just sitting here."
Suppose some people are on a spaceship and they want to make an accurate clock.
At one end they put a mirror, and at the other end they put a simple machine.
It shoots one short burst of light toward the mirror and then waits.
The light hits the mirror and bounces back.
When it hits a light detector on the machine, the machine says, "Count = 1," it simultaneously shoots another short burst of light toward the mirror, and when that light comes back the machine says, "Count = 2."
They decide that a certain number of bounces will be defined as a second, and they make the machine change the seconds counter every time it has detected that number of bounces.
Every time it changes the seconds counter it also flashes a light out through a porthole under the machine.
So somebody outside can see the light flashing every second.
Every grade school child learns the formula d=rt (distance equals rate multiplied by time).
We know the speed of light, and we can easily measure the distance between the machine and the mirror and multiple that to give the distance the light travels.
So we have both d and r, and we can easily calculate t. The people on the spaceship compare their new "light clock" with their various wrist watches and other clocks, and they are satisfied that they can measure time well using their new light clock.
Now this spaceship happens to be going very fast.
They see a flash from the clock on the space ship, and then they see another flash.
Only the flashes do not come a second apart.
They come at a slower rate.
Light always goes at the same speed, d = rt.
That is why the clock on the spaceship is not flashing once a second for the outside observer.
Special relativity also relates energy with mass, in Albert Einstein's E=mc2 formula.
Mass-energy equivalence
E=mc2, also called the mass-energy equivalence, is one of the things that Einstein is most famous for.
It is a famous equation in physics and math that shows what happens when mass changes to energy or energy changes to mass.
The "E" in the equation stands for energy.
Energy is a number which you give to objects depending on how much they can change other things.
For instance, a brick hanging over an egg can put enough energy onto the egg to break it.
A feather hanging over an egg does not have enough energy to hurt the egg.
There are three basic forms of energy: potential energy, kinetic energy, and rest energy.
Two of these forms of energy can be seen in the examples given above, and in the example of a pendulum.
A cannonball hangs on a rope from an iron ring.
A horse pulls the cannonball to the right side.
When the cannonball is released it will move back and forth as diagrammed.
It would do that forever except that the movement of the rope in the ring and rubbing in other places causes friction, and the friction takes away a little energy all the time.
If we ignore the losses due to friction, then the energy provided by the horse is given to the cannonball as potential energy. (
It has energy because it is up high and can fall down.)
As the cannonball swings down it gains more and more speed, so the nearer the bottom it gets the faster it is going and the harder it would hit you if you stood in front of it.
Then it slows down as its kinetic energy is changed back into potential energy. "
Kinetic energy" just means the energy something has because it is moving. "
Potential energy" just means the energy something has because it is in some higher position than something else.
When energy moves from one form to another, the amount of energy always remains the same.
It cannot be made or destroyed.
This rule is called the "conservation law of energy".
For example, when you throw a ball, the energy is transferred from your hand to the ball as you release it.
But the energy that was in your hand, and now the energy that is in the ball, is the same number.
For a long time, people thought that the conservation of energy was all there was to talk about.
When energy transforms into mass, the amount of energy does not remain the same.
When mass transforms into energy, the amount of energy also does not remain the same.
However, the amount of matter and energy remains the same.
Energy turns into mass and mass turns into energy in a way that is defined by Einstein's equation, E = mc2.
The "m" in Einstein's equation stands for mass.
Mass is the amount of matter there is in some body.
If you knew the number of protons and neutrons in a piece of matter such as a brick, then you could calculate its total mass as the sum of the masses of all the protons and of all the neutrons. (
Electrons are so small that they are almost negligible.)
Masses pull on each other, and a very large mass such as that of the Earth pulls very hard on things nearby.
You would weigh much more on Jupiter than on Earth because Jupiter is so huge.
You would weigh much less on the Moon because it is only about one-sixth the mass of Earth.
Weight is related to the mass of the brick (or the person) and the mass of whatever is pulling it down on a spring scale – which may be smaller than the smallest moon in the solar system or larger than the Sun.
Mass, not weight, can be transformed into energy.
Another way of expressing this idea is to say that matter can be transformed into energy.
Units of mass are used to measure the amount of matter in something.
The mass or the amount of matter in something determines how much energy that thing could be changed into.
Energy can also be transformed into mass.
If you were pushing a baby buggy at a slow walk and found it easy to push, but pushed it at a fast walk and found it harder to move, then you would wonder what was wrong with the baby buggy.
Then if you tried to run and found that moving the buggy at any faster speed was like pushing against a brick wall, you would be very surprised.
The truth is that when something is moved then its mass is increased.
Human beings ordinarily do not notice this increase in mass because at the speed humans ordinarily move the increase in mass in almost nothing.
As speeds get closer to the speed of light, then the changes in mass become impossible not to notice.
The basic experience we all share in daily life is that the harder we push something like a car the faster we can get it going.
But when something we are pushing is already going at some large part of the speed of light we find that it keeps gaining mass, so it gets harder and harder to get it going faster.
It is impossible to make any mass go at the speed of light because to do so would take infinite energy.
Sometimes a mass will change to energy.
Common examples of elements that make these changes we call radioactivity are radium and uranium.
An atom of uranium can lose an alpha particle (the atomic nucleus of helium) and become a new element with a lighter nucleus.
Then that atom will emit two electrons, but it will not be stable yet.
It will emit a series of alpha particles and electrons until it finally becomes the element Pb or what we call lead.
By throwing out all these particles that have mass it has made its own mass smaller.
It has also produced energy.
In most radioactivity, the entire mass of something does not get changed to energy.
In an atomic bomb, uranium is transformed into krypton and barium.