the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Printing is therefore the continuation of writing by mechanical means.
Writing originated after people had settled in permanent dwellings.
It dates from 3,300 BC, which is over 5000 years ago.
A variety of writing systems were invented, long before paper was invented.
The invention of paper by the Chinese was a step forward.
Early printing
The earliest printing known was in 8th century China and Korea.
Whole pages carved on flat wooden blocks were used.
Covered with a carbon-based ink, they were pressed onto sheets of paper.
The second stage was to use separate characters by wood carving or casting.
This was done in 11th century China and Korea.
It failed to be really successful, because of the structure of the Chinese written language, shared at the time by Korea, which had thousands of characters.
So the method was not much better than copying by scribes.
Printing was reinvented in 15th century Europe.
Development was slow until Johannes Gutenberg made several improvements.
In the next century print became the main means of communication between people who needed to keep precise records.
With an alphabetic system of writing, print was much more economical than copying, and permitted many times as many copies to be available.
This revolution in information technology helped all aspects of life in Europe, at a time when Europe was becoming the dominant region of the world.
Along with a technology for printing words, there were various means for printing graphics.
Carving on blocks of wood and engraving on copper were used up until about 1800.
After that, a great many inventions arrived, including lithography and ways to print photographs.
Machines to speed printing, cheaper paper, automatic stitching and binding all arrived in the 19th century during the industrial revolution.
What had once been done by a few men by hand was now done by limited companies on huge machines.
The result was much lower prices, and a much wider readership.
Print and social change
The consequences of print have been considerable.
It led to the spread of knowledge, and had many side-effects.
Mainly, it took control out of a small class of clerks (scribes and monks) and put it in the hands of a newly educated readership.
Many of the first books were in Latin; some in Greek.
Later, almost all books were printed in the vernacular: the language ordinary people spoke.
The Bible was one of the first books printed, and one of the first to be translated into the vernacular, against strong opposition from the church.
Science was given a great boost by printing, and scientific ideas are still usually first published in print.
Several scholars have thought that print even changed the way people thought.
American Printing History Association  - numerous links to online resources and other organizations
The development of book and printing.
English website of the Gutenberg-Museum Mainz (Germany)
Planet Typography - history of printing - selection of international sites dedicated to the history of printing
Learn about printing —International Paper
BPSnet - The website of the British Printing Society
Children of the Code - Online Video: The DNA of Science, The Alphabet and Printing
The Adelaide Cup is a horserace, held in Adelaide, South Australia.
It has been held at the Morphettville Racecourse since 2001.
2001 establishments in Australia
David Keith Lynch (born January 20, 1946) is an American movie director.
His movies include Eraserhead, Blue Velvet, The Elephant Man and  Mulholland Drive.
He was also responsible for a television series called Twin Peaks, his overall most famous work.
Eraserhead, his first movie, is still his most famous theatrical movie.
It was recently deemed socially important by the United States Library of Congress.
He has done much work with Jack Nance, who has appeared been in all but two of his movies.
He has said that all his movies will be done using digital video from now on.
He is also famous for his early short movies.
The Alphabet and The Grandmother are two of his best known.
The Alphabet is about fear of education.
The Grandmother is about a lonely boy who grows a grandmother like a plant from a seed.
Over his career, Lynch has received three Academy Award nominations for Best Director and a nomination for best screenplay.
Lynch has twice won France's César Award for Best Foreign Film, as well as the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival.
He also won a Golden Lion award for lifetime achievement at the Venice Film Festival.
BlueBob (with John Neff, 2001)
The Air is on Fire: Soundscape (2007)
Polish Night Music (with Marek Żebrowski, 2008)
Danger Mouse and Sparklehorse: Dark Night of the Soul (2010; Lynch is featured on two songs.)
This Train (with Chrysta Bell, 2011)
Crazy Clown Time (2011)
"Ghost of Love" (2007)
"Good Day Today" / "I Know" (2010)
Online series
1980: Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay (The Elephant Man, nominated)
1987: Best Director (Blue Velvet, nominated)
2002: Best Director (Mulholland Dr., nominated)BAFTA Awards:
1981: Best Direction (The Elephant Man, nominated)
1981: Best Screenplay (The Elephant Man, nominated)
1990: Golden Palm (Wild at Heart, won)
1992: Golden Palm (Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, nominated)
1999: Golden Palm (The Straight Story, nominated)
2001: Best Director (Mulholland Dr., won' Tied with Joel Coen for The Man Who Wasn't There)
2001: Golden Palm (Mulholland Dr., nominated)
DGA Award:
1981: Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures (The Elephant Man, nominated)
1990: Outstanding Achievement in Main Title Theme Music (Twin Peaks, nominated)
1990: Outstanding Achievement in Music and Lyrics (Twin Peaks for the song "Into the Night", nominated)
1990: Outstanding Directing in a Drama Series (Twin Peaks for the pilot episode, nominated)
1990: Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series (Twin Peaks for the pilot episode, nominated)
1990: Outstanding Drama Series (Twin Peaks)Golden Globes:
1980: Best Director (The Elephant Man, nominated)
1987: Best Screenplay (Blue Velvet, nominated)
2002: Best Director (Mulholland Dr., nominated)
2002: Best Screenplay (Mulholland Dr., nominated)
2000: Best Director (The Straight Story, nominated)
2007: Special Distinction Award (Shared with Laura Dern for their collaborative work, won)
1993: Best Writing (Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, nominated)
1993: Life Career Award (won)
2006: Future Film Festival Digital Award (Inland Empire won)
2006: Career Golden Lion (won)WGA Award:' 1981: Best Drama Adapted from Another Medium (The Elephant Man, nominated)
1987: Best Original Screenplay (Blue Velvet'', nominated)
Actors from Montana
People from Missoula, Montana
The Dark Side Of The Moon is an album by the band Pink Floyd.
The album has sold over 45 million copies.
It is believed to be one of the best-selling albums ever, behind Thriller.
It is also widely considered one of the greatest albums of all time.
It was released in 1973 and is their ninth album.
It is one of the most famous albums of all time, frequently placing in the top five whenever a rock music authority makes a list of the greatest albums of all time.
Its cover, which features a ray of white light going through a prism, is also one of the most famous album covers of all time.
Analysts say that statistically, Dark Side Of The Moon is always playing somewhere on planet Earth.
It is one of the most famous concept albums (albums where all the songs are about a central theme.
Some concept albums tell a specific story), and used to be the best-selling album of all time.
There is an album-pressing plant in Germany that does nothing but create copies of Dark Side Of The Moon.
Some say that when synchronized with the movie The Wizard of Oz, there are many similarities between the two.
The Dark Side of the Moon became one of the best-selling albums of all time.
It is in the top 25 of a list of best selling albums in the United States.
It held the number one spot in the US for only a week.
But, it remained in the Billboard album chart for a total of 778 weeks (nearly 14 years).
This is the longest any album has spent on the Billboard charts.
The album came back on the Billboard charts when the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart was introduced in May 1991.
It has stayed there since then.
In the UK it is the sixth-best-selling album of all time.
1973 albums
Pink Floyd albums
Progressive rock albums
Sir Arthur William Fadden (13 April 1895 – 21 April 1973) was the 13th Prime Minister of Australia.
He was leader of the Country Party when Robert Menzies resigned in 1941.
He became Prime Minister but lost to John Curtin in an election held only one month after he became Prime Minister.
When Menzies became Prime Minister again in 1949, Fadden was the Treasurer for eight years.
John Joseph Curtin (8 January 1885 – 5 July 1945) was Prime Minister of Australia from 1941-1945.
He went to St Abrose's School.
His background is Irish
Curtin, John
Politicians from Western Australia
The Australian Capital Territory or ACT is a small territory in Australia.
It was created as the home for the Australian capital city, Canberra, because of fighting between New South Wales and Victoria over where the capital city should be.
The Jervis Bay Territory was created at the same time so that the ACT would have a harbour without relying on one of the states.
The Governor-General of Australia is the representative in Australia of Australia's head of state, Queen Elizabeth II.
The current Governor-General is David Hurley.
The Governor-General of Australia is a powerful person in the country.
The Governor-General is leader of the Executive Council and Commander-in-Chief of the Australian Defence Forces.
List of governors-general
Living former governors-general
there are five living former governors-general of Australia.
The most recently deceased governor-general, Michael Jeffery (2003–2005), died on 18 December 2020.
Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia
Major-General Philip Michael Jeffery (12 December 1937 – 18 December 2020) was the 24th Governor-General of Australia from 11 August 2003 until 5 September 2008.
He was appointed by John Howard.
Before this he was Governor of Western Australia.
He quit the army in 1993 when he became Governor.
Jeffery was born in 1937 in Wiluna, Western Australia, and he was educated at Cannington, East Victoria Park State Schools, and Kent Street High School.
When he was 16 years old, he left Perth to go to the Royal Military College, which was Duntroon.
After he graduated there in 1958, he went to Malaya in 1962 for a special service with the 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment.
In 1965, he was seconded to go to the British SASR (Special Air Service Regiment) for a tour in Borneo.
Then he returned to Australia as the leader of the SASR in Perth.
From 1966 to 1969, he worked in Papua New Guinea with the 1st Battalion.
He married Marlena Kerr, who lived in Sydney during this work.
After that, in 1972, he was chosen to go to the British Army Staff College at Camberley.
Then he was chosen as the person to help with the 2nd Battalion in Wewak PNG.
In 1976, he became the commander of the SASR and was appointed as the member of the order in Australia.
He was also chosen to attend the Royal College of Defence Studies in London in 1985.
From 1986, he became the commander of the Army's 1st Division.
In June 1988, he even became the Officer of the Order of Australia for his services to the Army, and in 1989, he became the Assistant Chief of the General Staff.
In January 1990 he became the Chief of the General Staff, and he was responsible for the Army.
Later in 1991 he became appointed as the Assistant Chief of the General Staff for Material, which also included taking care of the Army equipment and building projects.
On the first of November 1993, he was sworn in as the 27th governor of Western Australia, and he also became a Companion of the Order of Australia, until 2000.
General Jeffery's interests were about young people, education, environment, and national security.
Also, the Queen made him the Prior for Australia, and a Knight of Justice of the Order.
He and his wife Marlena had seven grandchildren, three sons, and a daughter.
His hobbies were listening to music, reading, golf, and fishing.
Australian Governors-General
Governors of Western Australia
People from Western Australia
Viceroys in Australia
A nanny is someone hired to take care of the children in a family.
They are usually female but there are also male nannies.
Many nannies can begin their employment in their late teens.
Many nannies live in their employers' home most of the days in the year.
Some employers require their nanny/nannies to wear a uniform.
Francis Michael Forde (18 July 1890 – 28 January 1983) was the 15th Prime Minister of Australia.
He was Prime Minister for only a week after John Curtin died.
He lost a leadership contest to Ben Chifley.
He was prime minister for only eight days, less than any other Prime Minister from Australia.
He also lived longer than any other Prime Minister, until Gough Whitlam, who passed Forde's age on January 21, 2009.
He died at 92 years old.
Forde was from the Australian Labor Party.
He was the Minister for Trade and Customs in the Scullin government (1929–1931).
When Scullin retired in 1935, Forde tried to become the leader of the Labor Party, but he lost by one vote to John Curtin.
When Labor won the 1941 elections and Curtin became Prime Minister, Forde was made Minister for the Army.
On 5 July 1945 Curtin died; because he was Deputy Leader, Forde was then made Prime Minister until the Labor Party chose a new leader.
At the leadership election on 13 July, Ben Chifley was voted leader, and Forde was made Deputy Leader again.
Joseph Benedict Chifley (22 September 1885 – 13 June 1951) was the 16th Prime Minister of Australia.
He won the leadership after the death of John Curtin in 1945.
His government tried to take over of all Australia's banks.
This was not popular and the High Court said that it would not be allowed.
Opposition leader Robert Menzies said that Chifley and the Labor Party were not strict against Communism.
This is one of the main reasons why Chifley lost the 1949 election.
He died soon after losing the 1951 election to Menzies.
The High Court of Australia is the most powerful court in Australia.
It was created in 1903 and is located in the capital city of Canberra.
It currently has seven judges who are called "Justices".
It mainly hears appeals by people who are not happy with the decision of another court.
1903 establishments in Australia
Harold Edward Holt (5 August 1908 – 17 December 1967) was the 17th Prime Minister of Australia.
He became Prime Minister after the retirement of Robert Menzies.
He supported the United States in the Vietnam War.
He disappeared while swimming at a beach in Victoria in December 1967.
Many urban Australian myths surround his disppearance.
On the day of his disappearance, the guards at the gate of Point Nepean told Percy Cenulty, who held a camp that day at Point Nepean, that Harold Holt wasn't in the car that went through the gate.
Theories state that Harold never went to the beach that day.
The second night, the Springvale Necropolis was surrounded by military For the whole night.
This has not happened ever before and since.
Harold Edward was born on 5 August 1908 in Stanmore, Sydney.
Holt completed his schooling from Nubba State School.
After one year of schooling at Nubba State School he went to Abbotsholme College, a private school in Killara where he studied for three years.
In 1920, Holt went to Wesley College, Melbourne.
He won a scholarship in his final year and graduated second in his class.
Accidental deaths by drowning
The biosphere includes everything living on Earth it is also known as ecosphere.
Currently the biosphere has a biomass (or amount of living things) at around 1900 gigatonnes of carbon.
It is not certain exactly how thick the biosphere is, though scientists predict that it is around 12,500 meters.
The biosphere extends to the upper areas of the atmosphere, including birds and insects.
In a general sense, biospheres are any closed, self-regulating systems containing ecosystems.
This includes artificial biospheres such as Biosphere 2 and BIOS-3, and potentially ones on other planets or moons.
Origin of the term
The word "biosphere" was coined by geologist Eduard Suess in 1875.
Which he defined as a place on Earth's surface where life dwells.
Earth's biosphere
The earliest known evidence of life in Earth includes biogenic graphite dated as far as 3.7 Billion years old.
Life is scattered all throughout the surface of the Earth, from the polar ice caps to the equator, exhibits a life of some kind.
Extent of biological life
Almost all parts of the planet contains a life of some kind.
Recent advances in microbiology concluded that microbes can live deep beneath the Earth's surface.
Other Page
Biosphere reserve - Project by UNESCO
A drum and bugle corps is similar to a marching band but it only has brass instruments, percussion instruments, and color guards.
Armies used signal drums and bugles as signals for centuries.
The modern drum and bugle corps came from military drum and bugle units coming back from World War I and the wars after it.
Early drum and bugle corps was a year-round activity, where musicians performed at shows all the time.
Now, most drum and bugle corps schedule tours during the summer, where they travel around the country, performing a new show every year, with different music and movements.
Before 1971, most American drum and bugle corps, or "corps," performed in shows run by the American Legion.
In 1971, 5 important corps founded a new group, called the "Midwest Combine."
Other eastern and western corps did the same thing with their respective regions.
These corps formed these organizations because they did not like the rules of the American Legion, which many believed prevented creativity.
The corps also believed that they did not give enough of the money from ticket sales to the corps who performed.
The different groups decided that they would all perform together in shows, one after another, and never separately in different shows.
This strategy went very well for the corps, and in 1972, all the groups, plus a few other corps formed a big group called "Drum Corps International," or DCI.
This group gave the corps a lot of money from shows and artistic freedom.
DCI's leadership are the corps that perform in DCI, allowing the competing members to change rules whenever they need to, rather than having someone not familiar with drum corps make those changes.
DCI Classes
DCI has two classes corps can compete within.
The first, and greater one is "World Class."
in World class, all of the corps must have no more than 154 members, although how those members are divided is up to the leaders of that corps.
The corps in world class also get more money from DCI, and are allowed to vote on big decisions in DCI, like show times, rules, and money.
the corps in world class also spend a lot of time touring the country, and go to a lot of places.
The second, and lesser class is "Open Class."
in Open class, the corps can have any number of members between 1 and 154.
These corps do not get as much money as world class corps, and do not have as much say in decision making.
They also spend less time on tour, and they also stay closer to where their headquarters is.
Sometimes, corps can move from open class to world class if they performed very well the previous year.
If a group wants to start a corps, they will always start out in open class.
The classes in DCI did not always look this way.
there once was 3 classes called divisions, I, II, & III.
There also used to be a "greater" Open class, "A" class, and "A60" class (where corps could only have a maximum of 60 marching members).
There also used to be an All-Girls class, for corps that were all girls.
before 1983, most corps were all male.
Brass Instruments
Before 2000, most drum corps played brass instruments with two buttons, or "valves".
These play a "G" note when no valves are pressed.
These "bugles" give drum and bugle corps its name.
Bugles are very similar to other brass instruments, but bugles are not usually made well, and they can be very difficult to play well when you want them to.
Now, most drum corps play instruments that sound a bit higher; they play a B-flat when no buttons are pressed.
These are called marching instruments, and sound and play very similar to the instruments played in concert halls.
Remember, drum corps perform on football fields outside.
In a concert hall, the sound from the instruments bounces everywhere, but the walls are carefully shaped to direct the sound to the audience.
Outside the sound still bounces everywhere, but the sound that is not pointing directly forward flies away and is wasted.
Because of that, marching instruments are shaped differently; the big "bell" points towards the audience, so it is as loud as possible for them.
The four most common brass instruments in corps are the trumpet, mellophone (like a French horn), baritone, and contrabass (like a tuba).
For a long time, DCI rules have banned all other brass instruments besides the ones listed above.
Now, DCI have changed the rules and have allowed more brass instruments, like the trombone and euphonium.
These other instruments are used in a manner that only one or a couple people play them in the corps.
As a result, the instruments need microphones and speakers, or else the audience would not hear them over the dozens of marching instruments on the field.
All drum corps use three different types of drums.
These are the snare, tenors, and basses.
together, with the cymbals, make up the "drumline."
The snare drum is the smallest of the three.
It has a short, loud, crunchy sound when hit.
Corps can have between 6-10 people playing these.
Tenor drums, or "tenors" are actually a set of 4 or 5 drums attached together, designed to be played all by one person.
The different drums have different pitches that can be played in sequences to produce crude melodies.
This instrument has a sound like "oh" and a noticeable pitch, and the sound quality can change depending on the type of stick used to hit the instrument.
Corps can have between 3-5 musicians playing these.
The bass drum is a very large drum held sideways against player's body, so that the musician uses two hands and sticks to hit either drum head.
It is the deepest pitched of the drums, and they have a low, round, closed sound when hit, with a less defined pitch.
Corps have about 5 basses of different sizes played by 5 people, so, like the tenors, they can also play crude melodies.
Modern drum corps not only have marching drummers, but also have 'front ensembles," who play instruments that cannot be marched with.
These include timpani sets, or kettle drums, vibraphones, marimbas, tubular bells, xylophones, and various "auxiliary" percussion that would be inconvenient to march with.
Front ensembles can also have suspended cymbals, especially if the corps has no marching cymbals.
Drumlines can also have cymbals, who hold two identical crafted metal solid cymbals in both hands in front of their bodies, and slam them together to get a sustained crash sound.
Many modern drum corps have opted to eliminate cymbals from their drumlines, as they can be expensive to maintain.
Cymbal lines need at least one additional staff member to teach, as they are very different from the other drums.
In addition, a corps may have limited members, and deem that a musician is more valuable in the front ensemble, where they can play other instruments simultaneously.
The piccolo is a small flute that plays one octave higher than the normal flute.
It sounds an octave higher than written.
Sometimes it sounds like a birdcall.
The name 'piccolo' comes from the Italian word meaning 'small'.
Double reeds are a group of musical instruments in the woodwind family.
Instead of a mouthpiece, the player blows air through a pair of reeds that vibrate against each other.
de:Zunge (Tonerzeuger)#Doppelrohrblatt
The alto flute is a flute that plays a fourth (half an octave) lower than the regular flute.
It is longer than the regular flute.
Sometimes alto flutes have a bent part at the top end.
The alto flute is a transposing instrument.
This makes it easy for someone who plays the flute to play on the alto flute.
The fingering for the note C on the flute will give a G on the alto flute.
The alto flute is not very often used, and only in very large orchestras.
Maurice Ravel wrote a beautiful tune for alto flute in Daphnis et Chloé.
Igor Stravinsky used one in The Rite of Spring.
In The Planets by Gustav Holst there is a passage with three flutes and alto flute playing 4 part harmony.
Stevenage is a town in Hertfordshire in England.
It is between the towns of Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City.
In 1801, 1,430 people lived in Stevenage.
In 1901, 4,049 people lived in Stevenage.
In 2001, 79,724 lived in Stevenage.
The town grew the most in the 1950s and 1960s, when it became the first new town in the world.
The name Stevenage may come from an Old English word meaning "place at the stiff oak".
Stevenage started as a village and people have lived there since Roman times.
Some Roman remains were found when the New Town was being built.
There are also six Roman round barrows, which is where a local family was buried.
In 1281, Stevenage was allowed to have a market twice a week and a fair every year.
The fair still takes place every year.
Modern-day Stevenage
The town centre was the first shopping area in Britain with no traffic.
It was opened in 1959 by Queen Elizabeth II.
In the town centre there is a clock tower, fountain and a statue called "Joyride", which is a statue of a mother and child.
It was made by Franta Belsky.
In 1999, a millennium countdown clock was put up on the town centre clock tower, which showed how much time was left until the year 2000.
In 2005, plans were made for the town centre to be made more modern.
The changes could take 10 years.
Stevenage has lots of roundabouts and not very many traffic lights.
There are also lots of cycle tracks for people to ride on.
Stevenage has some of the tallest street lights in the country.
The town is a very green town, with lots of trees and grass.
Fairlands Valley is a large park in the middle of Stevenage.
There are also many playing fields.
The schools in Stevenage all have large fields.
Many schools were built in the 1950s and 1960s because a lots of people from London were moving to Stevenage.
The town has around 23 primary schools and several secondary schools.
Stevenage has a leisure centre and a theatre in the town centre.
There is a leisure park with a large cinema, and lots of clubs and restaurants.
Stevenage also has two industrial areas.
Stevenage holds a number of events every year including Stevenage Day, Rock in the Park and Stevenage Carnival.
The Carnival ended in 2003 but it is returning 6th June 2010.
Stevenage has lots of places of worship for people of several different religions.
Many of the Christian churches work together for town-wide projects.
Town twinnings
Shymkent in Kazakhstan.
Kadoma in Zimbabwe
Stevenage has been twinned with Kadoma since 1989 and recently celebrated its 20th anniversary. [
www.skla.org.uk]
Ingelheim in Germany
Autun in France
Stevenage has been twinned with Autun since 1975.
It was incorporated into the Stevenage-Ingelheim Association as Ingelheim and Autun were already twinned.
see Stevenage-Ingelheim-Autun Association.
Stevenage Borough Council
Stevenage Borough Football Club
Stevenage travel information at Wikivoyage
is a manga series, two anime series, and a trading card game (the books came first, then the cards and then the series) based on the two anime series.
The series follows the adventures of Yugi Mutou, a high school student who plays a game called Duel Monsters.
It has a spin-off called Yu-Gi-Oh!
GX.
Japan has an exclusive anime based on the first seven volumes of the manga.
"Yu-Gi-Oh cards" are a trading card game that uses monsters that Yugi and other characters on the show use.
This trading card game is very popular with young children, teenagers, and even adults in Hong Kong and Taiwan.
The series is about having hope and faith in for the characters and Duel Monsters on each cards.
Yugi's grandfather Sugoroku Mutou (Solomon Muto) owns a game shop.
One day, Yugi finds a strange puzzle at the back of the shop, and tries to solve it.
He tries to solve the puzzle for 8 years.
When he is 16, he solves it.
When he finishes the puzzle, he gets an extra soul.
The soul is Dark Yugi (Yami Yugi), an Egyptian Pharaoh.
Yami Yugi successfully recovers his lost memory.
Yugi defeats Dark Bakura (Yami Bakura), Dark Yugi's worst enemy.
Yu-Gi-Oh; cards of Doom
Duel Monsters is an animation based on Yu-Gi-Oh!
comic.
GX The spin-off of Yu-Gi-Oh!
Duel Monsters.
The story is set several years after the Yu-Gi-Oh!
Duel Monsters story.
5DS The story is set many years after the Yu-Gi-Oh!
A prominent new feature of the Yu-Gi-Oh 5DS series is the use of Synchro Monster.
Zexal An anime series.
Relevance of previous work is not declared.
Xyz Monsters are introduced.
The Traveling Salesman Problem (often called TSP) is a classic algorithmic problem in the field of computer science and operations research.
It is focused on optimization.
In this context, better solution often means a solution that is cheaper, shorter, or faster.
TSP is a mathematical problem.
It is most easily expressed as a graph describing the locations of a set of nodes.
The traveling salesman problem was defined in the 1800s by the Irish mathematician W. R. Hamilton and by the British mathematician Thomas Kirkman.
Hamilton’s Icosian Game was a recreational puzzle based on finding a Hamiltonian cycle.
The general form of the TSP appears to have been first studied by mathematicians during the 1930s in Vienna and at Harvard, notably by Karl Menger.
Menger defines the problem, considers the obvious brute-force algorithm, and observes the non-optimality of the nearest neighbour heuristic:We denote by messenger problem (since in practice this question should be solved by each postman, anyway also by many travelers) the task to find, for ﬁnitely many points whose pairwise distances are known, the shortest route connecting the points.
Of course, this problem is solvable by finitely many trials.
Rules which would push the number of trials below the number of permutations of the given points, are not known.
The rule that one first should go from the starting point to the closest point, then to the point closest to this, etc.,
in general does not yield the shortest route.
Hassler Whitney at Princeton University introduced the name traveling salesman problem soon after.
Stating the problem
The Travelling Salesman Problem describes a salesman who must travel between N cities.
The order in which he does so is something he does not care about, as long as he visits each once during his trip, and finishes where he was at first.
Each city is connected to other close by cities, or nodes, by airplanes, or by road or railway.
Each of those links between the cities has one or more weights (or the cost) attached.
The cost describes how "difficult" it is to traverse this edge on the graph, and may be given, for example, by the cost of an airplane ticket or train ticket, or perhaps by the length of the edge, or time required to complete the traversal.
The salesman wants to keep both the travel costs, as well as the distance he travels as low as possible.
The Traveling Salesman Problem is typical of a large class of "hard" optimization problems that have intrigued mathematicians and computer scientists for years.
Most important, it has applications in science and engineering.
For example, in the manufacture of a circuit board, it is important to determine the best order in which a laser will drill thousands of holes.
An efficient solution to this problem reduces production costs for the manufacturer.
In general, the traveling salesman problem is hard to solve.
If there is a way to break this problem into smaller component problems, the components will be at least as complex as the original one.
This is what computer scientists call NP-hard problems.
Many people have studied this problem.
The easiest (and most expensive solution) is to simply try all possibilities.
The problem with this is that for N cities you have (N-1) factorial possibilities.
This means that for only 10 cities there are over 180 thousand combinations to try (since the start city is defined, there can be permutations on the remaining nine).
We only count half since each route has an equal route in reverse with the same length or cost.
9! /
2 = 181 440
Exact solutions to the problem can be found, using branch and bound algorithms.
This is currently possible for up to 85,900 cities.
Heuristics approaches use a set of guiding rules for selection of the next node.
But since heuristics result in approximations, they will not always give the optimal solution, although high quality admissible heuristics can find a useful solution in a fraction of the time required for a full brute force of the problem.
An example of a heuristic for a node would be a summation of how many unvisited nodes are "close by" a connected node.
This could encourage the salesman to visit a group of close-by nodes clustered together before moving onto another natural cluster in the graph.
See Monte Carlo algorithms and Las Vegas algorithms
TSPLIB
Capacity in economics, how much a company or a government uses its potential output
Capacitythe legal ability to do certain things, such as making a contract
Capacity of a set, in mathematics, one way of measuring a set's size
Battery capacity, a measure of a battery's ability to store electrical charge
Carrying capacity, in biology, the ability of an environment to sustain populations
Channel capacity, in communications
Combining capacity, in chemistry, number of chemical bonds formed by the atoms of a given element
Heat capacity, in physics, the measure of how materials store heat as they change temperature
Nameplate capacity, in power plants, the general number of Megawatts technically available
Seating capacity, how many people can fit into in a sports venue
A creditor is a person who loans money to another person.
The person who gets the loan is called the borrower.
Creditors are sometimes called moneylenders.
Creditors expect the borrower to pay the money back at a later time.
The creditor usually gets extra money from the borrower.
This extra money is called interest.
The amount of money needed to buy something
Something other than money that is used up.
Example: "Going to jail cost 5 years of my life".
This usage is a metaphor.
Cost of living, the amount of money it costs just to live in a certain place.
Opportunity cost, the value of the next best thing you give up whenever you make a decision.
Anno Domini (Medieval Latin : "in the year of the Lord"), shortened as AD or A.D., is used to refer to the years after the birth of Jesus.
AD is also a shortening for Christian Era.
Similarly, Before Christ, shortened as BC or B.C., is used in the English language to refer to all years before the start of the time period Anno Domini.
In past centuries, AD came before the year but comes after a century or millennium.
For example, a person would write AD 2014 but 21st century AD or 3rd millennium AD.
There is no zero year in this system.
This means that the year A.D. 1 follows the year 1 B.C.
Some people mistakenly interpret “A.D.” as standing for “after death.”
The abbreviation “A.D.” was originally placed before the year number (e.g. A.D. 145); then “B.C.” often placed after the year number (e.g. 145 B.C.).
Nowadays it is more usual to put both abbreviations after the numbers (e.g. 145 AD; e.g. 145 BC).
Pre History  term
The system for working out the years was invented by Dionysius Exiguus in about AD 525.
He fixed the point Anno Domini, which is used to number the years of both the Gregorian calendar and the Julian calendar.
He used it to identify the several Easters in his Easter table.
He did not use it to date any historical event.
When he devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year — he himself stated that the "present year" was "the consulship of Probus Junior [Flavius Probus]", which he also stated was 525 years "since the incarnation [conception] of our Lord Jesus Christ".
How he arrived at that number is unknown.
He invented a new system of numbering years to replace the Diocletian years that had been used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.
The Anno Domini calendar era became dominant in Western Europe only after it was used by the Venerable Bede to date the events in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731.
The French emperor Charlemagne made it popular in mainland Europe.
Some parts of Europe did not use the Anno Domini system until the 15th century.
For example, Portugal used a different system called the Spanish era until 1422.
Haze is reduction in visibility due to dust or other particles in the air.
It is often a problem in air quality with smoke covering the sky.
The particles may also make it hard to breathe.
Some people fall sick as well due to the polluted air.
ca:Broma (temps)
Neighbours is an Australian soap opera.
The show started in March 1985 on the Seven Network, but they cancelled it the same year.
Rival network Network Ten decided to start making and broadcasting the show, and have done that since 1986.
It was produced by Reg Watson.
The show started with low ratings, and Network Ten did their best to get more people to watch.
They got new characters, two of them were played by Kylie Minogue and Jason Donovan.
These two characters became a couple known as "Scott and Charlene", and by the time they married in 1987, ratings were much higher.
The show is about the lives of people that live in a fictional street called Ramsay Street.
Ramsay Street is in a fictional suburb, Erinsborough, in the real-life city Melbourne.
List of actors/characters who appear on the show
Sir John McEwen (29 March 1900 – 20 November 1980) was the 18th Prime Minister of Australia.
He was leader of the Country Party when Harold Holt disappeared in 1967, and so was appointed Prime Minister until the Liberal Party elected a new leader.
The Party elected John Gorton as the leader, and Gorton took over as Prime Minister on 10 January 1968.
McEwen then served as Deputy Prime Minister until 1971.
Sir John Grey Gorton (9 September 1911 – 19 May 2002) was the 19th Prime Minister of Australia.
He was elected Liberal Party leader after Harold Holt was drowned.
He was a fighter pilot during the Second World War and had a battle scarred face.
He said he was "Australian to the bootheels".
Bettina Brown married Gorton in 1935.
She died in 1983.
Then, in 1993, Gorton married Nancy Home.
As Prime Minister he said he wanted to help Australian movies and the arts.
His government set up the Australian Council for the Arts, the Australian Film Development Corporation and the National Film and Television Training School.
His government made men and women get equal pay for equal work.
His government increased pensions and allowances and education scholarships and provided free health care to 250,000 poor people (but not universal health care).
His private secretary was businesswoman Ainsley Gotto.
Gorton's government kept Australia in the Vietnam War but stopped replacing troops at the end of 1970 - the beginning of the end of Australia being in the war.
He had good relations with U.S. President Richard Nixon and with Britain's Prime Ministers, but this was a time when Australia was starting to move closer to Asia.
Gorton was popular with lots of ordinary people, but not a good manager of other people in his party.
State Liberal leaders did not like that he was moving more power to Canberra (the national capital) and some other Liberals did not like his policies or personal behaviour.
The Liberals lost votes in the 1969 election and the half-senate election in 1970.
In 1971, the Defence Minister, Malcolm Fraser, resigned and said Gorton was "not fit to hold the great office of Prime Minister".
The Liberal party split 50/50 over a vote to replace him and he decided not to vote for himself and resigned as their leader.
So he also stopped being Prime Minister.
Gorton never forgave Malcolm Fraser.
William McMahon became Prime Minister and Gorton became Defence Minister from March to August, 1971.
But Gorton wrote articles for the newspapers about his time in office - headed: "I did it my way" - and McMahon got him to resign.
After Gough Whitlam's Labor Party won in 1972, Liberal leader Billy Snedden made Gorton the Opposition Spokesman for the Environment.
Gorton then supported abortion and got Parliament to say that homosexuality should be legal.
When Malcolm Fraser became leader of the Liberal Party, Gorton walked out of the party room.
A month later he resigned from the party.
Then he tried to get elected an indepedent to the Senate in 1975.
Gorton was unhappy with the way the Governor General sacked Gough Whitlam and the way Malcolm Fraser became Prime Minister, so he said people should vote Labor in 1975.
He then retired from politics but worked in radio and supported things like drug law changes.
With Fraser gone, John Howard's Liberal Party got Gorton back in the party and had a special gala dinner in Canberra in 1999.
In 2001, a big party was held for his 90th birthday.
It was organised by some of his old Liberal and National Party friends, but there were also messages from the Queen, U.S. and British leaders and all the Labor Prime Ministers of Australia.
Independent politicians in Australia
Members of the Australian Senate
Sir William McMahon (23 February 1908 – 31 March 1988) was the 20th Prime Minister of Australia.
He was elected to the Australian parliament in 1949, and stayed as Member for Lowe, in Sydney, for 33 years.
He challenged John Gorton for the leadership of the Liberal Party of Australia in 1971 and won.
He lost the next election in December 1972 to Gough Whitlam of the Australian Labor Party.
This made him the first Prime Minister not to win an election since Labor's Ben Chifley (who lost in 1949).
McMahon was married to (Lady) Sonia McMahon from 1965 until his death from cancer.
Actor Julian McMahon is their son.
The Liberal party had won lots of elections since 1949, but had some popularity problems by 1971.
Australian soldiers were still in the Vietnam War.
McMahon replaced John Gorton, then made him defence minister, but soon after made him resign for talking about problems in the Liberal Party.
McMahon's government was the first to have a Minister for Aboriginal Affairs.
Aboriginal land rights were an important topic of debate at this time.
On foreign affairs, McMahon said the Opposition leader, Gough Whitlam, was wrong to visit communist China in 1972 - but soon after U.S. President Richard Nixon visited China and McMahon was embarrassed.
The economy was not looking too good when the government went to the 1972 election.
Cancer deaths in Sydney
IRC Bots are computer programs.
They are used on Internet Relay Chat (IRC) to help control and protect chat rooms.
They can do many of the things that a human user can do such as gather data, kick users out of the channel, ban users, or even send stats to other programs and websites.
Shawn Lane (March 21, 1963 – September 26, 2003) was an American musician.
He was a solo guitarist.
At the age of 4, he began taking vocal lessons, cello lessons and piano lessons.
By age ten, he picked up a guitar and found out he was better with a guitar than his other instruments.
He joined a band at the age of fifteen and played in bars and clubs.
A few years later he started playing shows again.
He began to tour with his own band, playing guitar and keyboard.
In February 2003, Lane accomplished one of his life long dreams and toured over India with his band.
When they left India, they were called "true rock heroes" by the people.
In September 2003, when getting ready to make an album with the Swedish bassist Jonas Hellborg and drummer Ginger Baker, Lane had bad breathing problems.
He was told by doctors that he would have to remain on medical oxygen for the rest of his life.
On Friday, September 23, 2003, he died.
Official discography
Fan forum
Lane, Shawn
Deaths from lung disease
Musicians from Memphis, Tennessee
a piece of writing
Textual criticism, the study of changes in books or manuscripts.
Text message
a book, a set of printed sheets of paper held together between two covers.
a textbook, a book used for the study of a subject.
e-text or e-book
Unit Of Study
philology, the study of language in historical writings
literary theory, anything with a semiotic component
cultural studies, the unit of discourse
character (computing) or string data, as opposed to binary data
a text segment of a program in memory
Plaintext, the information which the sender want to transmit to the receiver(s)
Text-based, comprised of characters
Boilerplate text
TEXT, an avant-garde band
Greg "Greggles" Scott (born March 6, 1969) is an English television presenter.
He is best known for presenting Quizmania, a quiz show on ITV Play.
Nina Li Chi
Anthony Chan
Lai Ying Chow
Kirk Wong
Ringo Lam Ling-tung
Director(s): Tsui Hark, Ringo Lam Ling-tung, Ringo Lam
Producer(s): Ng Sze Yuen, Teddy Robin Kwan.
Language: Cantonese (Dubbed in English in North America)
1992 action movies
Chinese movies
Cantonese-language movies
Motorola was an American company that made cell phones and other electronics.
The company was based in Schaumburg, Illinois, a small town just outside of Chicago, Illinois.
After losing $4.3 billion from 2007 to 2009, Motorola was divided in two separate companies on January 4, 2011; Motorola Mobility and Motorola Solutions.
The company began with the name Galvin Manufacturing Corporation in 1928, and then later adopted the 'Motorola' name in 1947.
They were the first developers of the walkie-talkie in World War II.
1928 establishments in Illinois
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
In 2013, estimates of the number of terrestrial planets in the Milky Way ranged from at least 17 billion to at least 144 billion.
The smaller estimate studied planet candidates gathered by the Kepler space observatory.
Among them are 461 Earth-size planets, at least four of which are in the "habitable zone" where liquid water can exist.
One of the four, dubbed Kepler-69c, is a mere 1.5 times the size of the Earth and around a star like our own Sun – about as near as the current data allow to finding an "Earth 2.0".
Earlier work suggested that there are at least 100 billion planets of all types in our galaxy, an average of at least one per star.
There are also planets that orbit brown dwarfs, and free-floating planets that orbit the galaxy directly just as the stars do.
It is unclear whether either type should be called a "planet".
Analogies with planets in the Solar System apply to few of the extrasolar planets known.
Most are quite unlike any of our planets, for example the so-called "hot Jupiters".
Early speculations
In the sixteenth century, the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets.
Bruno was burnt at the stake by the Holy Inquisition.
In the eighteenth century, the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in his Principia.
Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote "And if the fixed stars are the centres of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of One".
Confirmed discoveries
The first published and confirmed discovery was made in 1988.
It was finally confirmed in 2002.
In 1992, radio astronomers announced the discovery of planets around a pulsar.
These pulsar planets are believed to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation.
Otherwise they may be the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits.
On October 6, 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star (51 Pegasi).
This discovery, made at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence, started the modern era of exoplanetary discovery.