the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Correspondingly, a regular octahedron is the result of cutting off from a regular tetrahedron, four regular tetrahedra of half the linear size (i.e. rectifying the tetrahedron).
The vertices of the octahedron lie at the midpoints of the edges of the tetrahedron, and in this sense it relates to the tetrahedron in the same way that the cuboctahedron and icosidodecahedron relate to the other Platonic solids.
One can also divide the edges of an octahedron in the ratio of the golden mean to define the vertices of an icosahedron.
This is done by first placing vectors along the octahedron's edges such that each face is bounded by a cycle, then similarly partitioning each edge into the golden mean along the direction of its vector.
There are five octahedra that define any given icosahedron in this fashion, and together they define a regular compound.
Octahedra and tetrahedra can be alternated to form a vertex, edge, and face-uniform tessellation of space, called the octet truss by Buckminster Fuller.
This is the only such tiling save the regular tessellation of cubes, and is one of the 28 convex uniform honeycombs.
Another is a tessellation of octahedra and cuboctahedra.
The octahedron is unique among the Platonic solids in having an even number of faces meeting at each vertex.
Consequently, it is the only member of that group to possess mirror planes that do not pass through any of the faces.
Using the standard nomenclature for Johnson solids, an octahedron would be called a square bipyramid.
The octahedron is 4-connected, meaning that it takes the removal of four vertices to disconnect the remaining vertices.
It is one of only four 4-connected simplicial well-covered polyhedra, meaning that all of the maximal independent sets of its vertices have the same size.
The other three polyhedra with this property are the pentagonal dipyramid, the snub disphenoid, and an irregular polyhedron with 12 vertices and 20 triangular faces.
Uniform colorings and symmetry
The octahedron's symmetry group is Oh, of order 48, the three dimensional hyperoctahedral group.
This group's subgroups include D3d (order 12), the symmetry group of a triangular antiprism; D4h (order 16), the symmetry group of a square bipyramid; and Td (order 24), the symmetry group of a rectified tetrahedron.
These symmetries can be emphasized by different colorings of the faces.
The uniform tetrahemihexahedron is a tetrahedral symmetry faceting of the regular octahedron, sharing edge and vertex arrangement.
It has four of the triangular faces, and 3 central squares.
Editable printable net of an octahedron with interactive 3D view
Paper model of the octahedron
K.J.M. MacLean, A Geometric Analysis of the Five Platonic Solids and Other Semi-Regular Polyhedra
Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
Conway Notation for Polyhedra Try: dP4
Rounder Records is an American record label that formed in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1970.
Since then, it has moved to Burlington, Massachusetts.
Over the years, some of the artists and bands that have been signed to the label include Alison Krauss, Ween, and Bela Fleck.
Columbia Records is an American record label that formed in 1888.
It is the oldest existing record company in the world.
Its parent company is now Sony Music Entertainment.
Over the years, some of the artists and bands that have been signed to the label include Aretha Franklin, System of a Down, Johnny Cash, Bob Dylan, Bela Fleck, Janis Joplin, Paul McCartney, John Lennon,  Prince, Willie Nelson, Dolly Parton, and hundreds of other artists.
1888 establishments in the United States
1938 establishments in the United States
1991 disestablishments
0–9
24kGoldn
3rd Bass (Def Jam/Columbia)
Gregory Abbott
Yolanda Adams
Addrisi Brothers
Adele (USA/Canada/Latin America)
The Afters
Todd Agnew
Alabama 3
Alexandra Savior
Alex & Sierra
Jessi Alexander (Columbia Nashville)
Ora Alexander
Alice in Chains (selling to Capitol Records (UMG) by 2022)
Tha Alkaholiks (Loud/Columbia)
Amerie (Rise/Columbia)
Amil (Roc-A-Fella/Columbia)
Trey Anastasio
Anberlin
Keith Anderson (Columbia Nashville)
Fiona Apple (Work/Columbia)
The Apex Theory
Tina Arena
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Toni Arden
Astrid Sartiasari (Columbia Jogjakarta)
Nicole Atkins
Axis of Justice
Au/Ra (Loudmouth/Columbia)
The Automatic Automatic
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Roy Ayers
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Ayushita (Columbia Jakarta)
Barefoot Bill From Alabama
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R.C. Bannon (Columbia Nashville)
Bobby Bare (Columbia Nashville)
John Barry (CBS)
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Beastie Boys (Def Jam/Columbia)
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Bedük
Drake Bell (Nickelodeon/Columbia)
Marcella Bella
Tony Bennett (RPM/Columbia)
Cheryl Bentyne (member of Manhattan Transfer)
Herschel Bernardi
Leonard Bernstein (Columbia Masterworks)
Beyoncé (Since 2011, has released her music through her label Parkwood Entertainment/Columbia)
Big Audio Dynamite
Big Pun (Loud/Columbia)
Big Time Rush (Nickelodeon/Columbia)
E. Power Biggs (Columbia Masterworks)
Tony Bird
Bizarre Inc (Vinyl Solution/Columbia)
Blackhawk (Columbia Nashville)
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The Bob's Burgers Album
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Willie Bobo
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Larry Boone (Columbia Nashville)
Boss (DJ West/Chaos/Columbia)
Wade Bowen (Sea Gayle/Columbia Nashville)
David Bowie (ISO Records, licensed to Columbia)
Fiddlin' Charlie Bowman
Liona Boyd (Columbia Masterworks)
Susan Boyle (Syco Music/Columbia) (US)
Bravehearts
The Brothers Four
Ray Bryant
B.T. Express
The Buckinghams
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Bullet For My Valentine
Hannibal Buress (Comedy Central/Columbia)
T-Bone Burnett
Budapest String Quartet
Vernon Burch
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Kate Bush (US)
Carl Butler
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Billy Butterfield
Francis Cabrel
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Susan Cagle
Caitlin & Will (Columbia Nashville)
Calamity Jane (Columbia Nashville)
Court Yard Hounds
Paula Campbell
Stacy Dean Campbell (Columbia Nashville)
Jerry Cantrell
Matt Cardle
Wendy Carlos (Columbia Masterworks)
Mary Chapin Carpenter (Columbia Nashville)
Jenny Lou Carson
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Carter Family (Original group, 2nd and 3rd generations)
The Carter Sisters also called "Carter Sisters & Mother Maybelle"
Anita Carter
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June Carter
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Johnny Cash (Columbia Nashville)
June Carter Cash (Columbia Nashville)
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Cecilio & Kapono
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The Chambers Brothers
Charlie (Fantasy Girls album, USA)
Kenny Chesney (Blue Chair/Columbia Nashville)
Mark Chesnutt (Columbia Nashville)
The Chieftains (outside of Ireland)
The Chipettes
Christie (CBS)
Lou Christie
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Circus of Power
Clams Casino
The Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem
Petula Clark (UK, France and Canada)
Anne Clark
Buzz Clifford
The Coasters
David Allan Coe (Columbia Nashville)
Collie Buddz
Arthur Collins
Columbia Symphony Orchestra
Luke Combs (River House/Columbia Nashville)
Les Compagnons de la chanson (CBS Disques S.A.)
John Conlee (Columbia Nashville)
Jill Corey
Miranda Cosgrove (Nickelodeon/Columbia)
Elvis Costello (US)
Billy "Crash" Craddock
Rodney Crowell (Columbia Nashville)
The Cryan' Shames
Cypress Hill (Ruffhouse/Columbia)
The Cyrkle
D Generation
Da Brat (So So Def/Columbia)
Daft Punk (Daft Life/Columbia)
Lacy J. Dalton (Columbia Nashville)
The Daou
Joe Dassin (CBS Disques S.A. and Columbia of Canada)
Dave (CBS Disques S.A.)
Dave Gahan (member of Depeche Mode)
Tyrone Davis
Stu Daye (Pilot/Columbia)
Dee Deee (Columbia Jakarta)
Cole Deggs & the Lonesome (Columbia Nashville)
Declan McKenna
Dej Loaf
Delaney & Bonnie
Depeche Mode (Mute/Columbia)
The Derek Trucks Band
Destiny's Child (Music World/Columbia)
Barry De Vorzon
Il Divo
Die Ärzte (1984–1988)
Dixie Chicks (Wide Open/Columbia Nashville)
DJ Kayslay
DMX (former)
Dr. Dre (former)
Dr. Feelgood (USA/Canada)
Dr. Hook & the Medicine Show
Tim Dog (Ruffhouse/Columbia)
Ned Doheny
Domo Genesis (Odd Future/Columbia)
Downtown Science (Def Jam/Columbia)
Sue Draheim
Duo Tal & Groethuysen
Jermaine Dupri (So So Def/Columbia)
Jakob Dylan
Ronnie Dyson
Earl Sweatshirt (Tan Cressida)
Earth, Wind & Fire (ARC/Columbia)
Walter Egan
Elkland
Emilio Navaira (Columbia Nashville)
Empire cast
EPMD (Def Jam/RAL/Columbia)
David Essex
Evan and Jaron
Jackie Evancho (Syco Music/Columbia)
EAZY-G
Barbara Fairchild (Columbia Nashville)
Shelly Fairchild (Columbia Nashville)
Percy Faith
Fania All-Stars
Tyler Farr (Columbia Nashville)
Eileen Farrell (Columbia Masterworks)
Rebecca Ferguson (Syco Music/Columbia)
Nino Ferrer (CBS Disques S.A.)
Fertig, Los!
Dominic Fike
Fingertight
The Firesign Theatre
Five for Fighting
Five Finger Death Punch (Prospect Park)
Béla Fleck (Columbia Nashville)
Fleetwood Mac (Blue Horizon/CBS) (outside US/Canada)
Foggy Mountain Boys
Ronnie Foster
The Four Lads
Zino Francescatti
Fraser & DeBolt
Frenship
Janie Fricke (Columbia Nashville)
David Frizzell (Columbia Nashville)
Michel Fugain (CBS Disques S.A. France)
Fugees (Ruffhosue/Columbia)
Jean Gabin (CBS Disques S.A.)
André Gagnon (Columbia of Canada)
Eric Gale
Patsy Gallant (Columbia of Canada)
Katy Garbi
Sean Garrett (Roc Nation/Columbia)
Bradley Gaskin (Columbia Nashville)
Larry Gatlin (Columbia Nashville, first six albums leased from Monument)
Crystal Gayle (Columbia Nashville)
George Gershwin (Columbia Masterworks)
Gentle Giant (US and Canada, leased from Vertigo and Chrysalis)
Elizabeth Gillies (Nickelodeon/Columbia)
Terry Gilkyson
Glasvegas
Glee cast
The Go!
Goapele (Skyblaze/Columbia)
Arthur Godfrey
GoodBooks
Vern Gosdin (Columbia Nashville)
Glenn Gould (Columbia Masterworks)
Gowan (Anthem/Columbia)
Alana Grace
Jamie Grace
Diva Gray
Gregory Gray
Mark Gray (Columbia Nashville)
Great Plains (Columbia Nashville)
Partridge Green
Vivian Green
Gene Greene
Ken Griffin
A Guy Called Gerald
Grace Vanderwaal
Bruce Haack
John Hall (Power released through ARC/Columbia)
Paul Hampton
The Harden Trio
Arlene Harden
Tim Hardin
The Harmonicats
Jimmy Harnen
Wade Hayes (Columbia Nashville)
Harlem World (So So Def/Columbia)
Heath Brothers
Mitch Hedberg (Comedy Central/Columbia)
Ella Henderson (Syco Music/Columbia) (US)
Patrick Hernandez
Ari Hest
Hey Monday (Decaydance/Columbia)
The Highwaymen (Columbia Nashville)
The Hi-Lo's
Mattie Hite
Hodgy
Jake Holmes
Dan Hornsby
Vladimir Horowitz (Columbia Masterworks)
Johnny Horton
Hozier (US)
Hundred Reasons
Jack Ingram (Columbia Nashville)
Insane Clown Posse (Psychopathic Records; distribution only)
Irakere
Iron Maiden (US/Canada)
The Internet (Odd Future/Columbia)
J. Cole (Roc Nation/Columbia)
Jaroslav Jakubovič
Jagged Edge (So So Def/Columbia)
Casey James (19/Columbia Nashville)
Sonny James (Columbia Nashville)
Jay Z (Def Jam - until 2009)
Lyfe Jennings
Buddy Jewell (Columbia Nashville)
J-Kwon
Joan Jett and the Blackhearts (Blackheart Records)
Kari Jobe (Integrity/Columbia)
The Joe Perry Project
Oran "Juice" Jones (Def Jam/Columbia)
Juilliard String Quartet
Pauline Julien
Juno Reactor
Victoria Justice (Nickelodeon/Columbia)
Brenda Kahn
Roger Wolfe Kahn
Christian Kane (Columbia Nashville)
Madleen Kane
Miles Kane
Katy B (Rinse FM/Columbia)
Mat Kearney
Raymond Louis Kennedy (ARC/Columbia)
Kid Capri (Track Masters/Columbia)
Killer Mike (Aquemini/Columbia)
Killradio
Carl King
Peggy King
King Princess
Gladys Knight & the Pips
Holly Knight (self-titled album)
Reggie Knighton (transferred to ARC/Columbia for The Reggie Knighton Band)
Kool Keith (Ruffhouse/Columbia)
Korn (until 2009)
Andre Kostelanetz
Kris Kross (Ruffhouse/Columbia)
Toshinobu Kubota
Kula Shaker
Kurious (Hoppoh/Columbia)
Krewella
Labrinth (US)
Lambert, Hendricks & Ross
Miranda Lambert (Columbia Nashville)
George Lamond
Catherine Lara
The Lashes
The Laughing Dogs
Cinta Laura
Hubert Laws
Denis Leary (Comedy Central/Columbia)
Mylon LeFevre (Columbia and CBS Associated)
Leftfield (Hard Hands/Columbia)
Gérard Lenorman
LÉON
Lewis Del Mar
Ted Lewis
Monique Leyrac
Prudence Liew
Lil' Flip (Loud/Columbia)
Lil' Peep
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Lil' Xan
Mark Lindsay
LL Cool J (Def Jam/Columbia)
Lo Fidelity Allstars (Skint/Columbia)
Loggins and Messina
Little Mix (US)
London String Quartet (Columbia Masterworks)
Brice Long (Columbia Nashville)
Bobby Lord (Columbia Nashville)
Lord Tariq and Peter Gunz
Lous and the Yakuza
Lovedrug
The Love Affair (outside US)
Love/Hate
Nick Lowe (US)
LunchMoney Lewis (Kemosabe/Columbia)
Jimmie Lunceford
lazzy jazz
MN8
Macklemore and Ryan Lewis
Mad Cobra
Mahogany Rush
Natalie Maines
Barbara Mandrell (Columbia Nashville)
The Manhattan Transfer (1991-92)
Frank Marino
Ricky Martin (C2/Columbia)
Ma$e (So So Def/Columbia)
Mashmakhan
Nick Mason (outside Europe)
Iain Matthews (1976-77)
Matthews, Wright & King (Columbia Nashville)
John Mayer (Aware/Columbia)
Paul McCartney (US/Canada, after 1979)
Joey McIntyre (C2/Columbia)
MC Serch (Def Jam/Chaos/Columbia)
Tim Mensy (Columbia Nashville)
Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes (Philadelphia International/Columbia)
Metallica (until 1991)
MFSB (Philadelphia International/Columbia)
George Michael (US/Canada)
Midi Rain (Vinyl Solution/Columbia)
Mitch Miller
T. Mills
Nathan Milstein (Columbia Masterworks)
Guy Mitchell
MKTO
Ms Mr
Mobb Deep (Loud/Columbia)
Don Moen (Integrity/Columbia)
Katy Moffatt
Eddie Money (Wolfgang/Columbia)
Ashley Monroe (Columbia Nashville)
Monsta X (Epic/Columbia) (UK)
Montgomery Gentry (Columbia Nashville)
Moxie Raia
Alanis Morissette (Columbia SevenOne) (Europe)
Maren Morris (Columbia Nashville)
Elliott Murphy
The Naked Brothers Band (Nickelodeon/Columbia)
Willie Nelson (Columbia Nashville)
Nena (CBS Schallplatten)
N.E.R.D.
Peter Nero
The New Christy Minstrels
Nice & Smooth (RAL/Columbia)
Nine Inch Nails (Null Corp./Columbia) (US/Taiwan)
No Wyld
Northern State
OG Maco
The O'Jays (Philadelphia International/Columbia)
The O'Kanes (Columbia Nashville)
The Oak Ridge Boys (Columbia Nashville)
Oasis (Big Brother/Helter Skelter/Columbia) (US)
The Offspring (1997–2013)
Babatunde Olatunji
Old Crow Medicine Show (Columbia Nashville)
Joe "King" Oliver
One Direction (Columbia) (US)
OneRepublic*
Onyx (JMJ/RAL/Chaos/Columbia)
Original Concept (Def Jam/Columbia)
Eugene Ormandy (Columbia Masterworks)
The Outfield
Passion Pit
Michel Pagliaro
Johan Palm
Dolly Parton (Columbia Nashville)
Billy Paul (Philadelphia International/Columbia)
Les Paul and Mary Ford
Pavlov's Dog (debut album leased from ABC Records)
Peach Pit (band)
Christine Perfect (Blue Horizon/CBS) (outside US/Canada)
Julian Perretta
Persephone's Bees
Philadelphia Orchestra (Columbia Masterworks)
Kellie Pickler (19/Columbia Nashville)
Pink Floyd (outside Europe)
Joe Piscopo
Pamela Polland
Jean-Luc Ponty
Powerman 5000
Pras (Ruffhouse/Columbia)
Ray Price (Columbia Nashville)
Prince (NPG/Columbia)
Charles A. Prince
Project Pat (Hypnotize Minds/Columbia)
The Psycho Realm (Ruffhouse/Columbia)
Public Enemy (Def Jam/Columbia)
Gary Puckett & The Union Gap
The Puppies (Chaos/Columbia)
Ppcocaine (formerly known is trapbunnybubbles)
Carmel Quinn
Quarashi
Bill Quateman
Joshua Radin
Radiopilot
Raekwon (Loud/Columbia)
Jean-Pierre Rampal (Columbia Masterworks)
Raury (LoveRenaissance/Columbia)
Rag 'N' Bone Man
Raleigh Ritchie
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Tony Rebel (Chaos/Columbia)
Red Rockers (415/Columbia)
Mike Reid (Columbia Nashville)
The Remix Master
Paul Revere & the Raiders
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Rich Kidz
Ricochet (Columbia Nashville)
Rip Chords
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Emma Roberts (Nickelodeon/Columbia)
Robinella and the CC String Band
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David Rogers (Columbia Nashville)
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Tim Rose
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Ruth B
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Raphael Saadiq
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She & Him
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Silver Condor
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Spiral Starecase
Natasha St-Pier
Mary Stafford
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Stereo Skyline
Stereomud
Isaac Stern
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Larry Stewart (Columbia Nashville)
Doug Stone (Columbia Nashville)
Igor Strawinsky
The Stunners
Sunscreem
Sweethearts of the Rodeo (Columbia Nashville)
Syd
System of a Down (American Recordings/Columbia)
T-Square
Gid Tanner & the Skillet Lickers
Angel Taylor
James Taylor (1977-2007)
Johnnie Taylor
Ten City
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Khleo Thomas
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The Thorns
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Charles Davis Tillman
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Daniel Tosh (Comedy Central/Columbia)
Toad The Wet Sprocket
Mel Tormé
Trackmasters (Track Masters/Columbia)
Trance Dance
Translator (415/Columbia)
Rick Trevino (Columbia Nashville)
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Richard Tucker
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Tye Tribbett & G.A.
James Blood Ulmer
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Wanderléa
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Weezer (Hurley only)
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US/Canada)
Jack White (Third Man/Columbia)
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Billy Yates (Columbia Nashville)
Lori Yates (Columbia Nashville)
Yazz the Greatest
Hector Zazou
Denny Zeitlin
Jo Jo Zep & The Falcons (USA/Canada, Screaming Targets through Full Moon/Columbia)
Zhavia
The origin of life on Earth is a scientific problem which is not yet solved.
There are many ideas, but few clear facts.
Most experts agree that all life today evolved by common descent from a single primitive lifeform.
It is not known how this early life form evolved, but scientists think it was a natural process which happened about 3,900 million years ago.
This is in accord with the philosophy of naturalism: only natural causes are admitted.
It is not known if metabolism came first or genetics.
The main hypothesis which supports genetics first is the RNA world hypothesis, and the one which supports metabolism first is the protein world hypothesis.
Another big problem is how cells developed.
Melvin Calvin, winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, wrote a book on the subject, and so did Alexander Oparin.
What links most of the early work on the origin of life is the idea that before life began there must have been a process of chemical change.
Another question which has been discussed by J.D. Bernal and others is the origin of the cell membrane.
By concentrating the chemicals in one place, the cell membrane performs a vital function.
What we call life has only been verified in things that include RNA, mechanisms for encoding and decoding RNA, and mechanisms for building proteins from amino acids.
The search for a verifiable theory of biogenesis is a separate field of research.
Earliest claimed life on Earth
The earliest claimed lifeforms are fossilized microorganisms (or microfossils).
They were found in iron and silica-rich rocks which were once  hydrothermal vents in the Nuvvuagittuq greenstone belt of Quebec, Canada.
These rocks are as old as 4.28 billion years.
The tubular forms they contain are shown in a report.
If this is the oldest record of life on Earth, it suggests "an almost instantaneous emergence of life" after oceans formed 4.4 billion years ago.
According to Stephen Blair Hedges, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth… then it could be common in the universe".
Previous earliest
A scientific study from 2002 showed that geological formations of stromatolites 3.45 billion years old contain fossilized cyanobacteria.
At the time it was widely agreed that stromatolites were the oldest known lifeforms on Earth which had left a record of its existence.
Therefore, if life originated on Earth, this happened sometime between 4.4 billion years ago, when water vapor first liquefied, and 3.5 billion years ago.
This is the background to the latest discovery discussed above.
The earliest evidence of life comes from the Isua supercrustal belt in Western Greenland, and from similar formations in the nearby Akilia Islands.
This is because a high level of the lighter isotope of carbon is found there.
Living things take up lighter isotopes because this takes less energy.
Carbon entering into rock formations has a concentration of elemental δ13C of about −5.5.
of 12C, biomass has a δ13C of between −20 and −30.
These isotopic fingerprints are preserved in the rocks.
With this evidence, Mojzis suggested that life existed on the planet already by 3.85 billion years ago.
A few scientists think life might have been carried from planet to planet by the transport of spores.
This idea, now known as panspermia, was first put forward by Arrhenius.
History of studies into the origin of life
Until the early 19th century many people  believed in the regular spontaneous generation of life from non-living matter.
This was called spontaneous generation, and was disproved by Louis Pasteur.
He showed that without spores no bacteria or viruses grew on sterile material.
In a letter to Joseph Dalton Hooker on 11 February 1871, Charles Darwin proposed a natural process for the origin of life.
He suggested that the original spark of life may have begun in a "warm little pond, with all sorts of ammonia and phosphoric salts, lights, heat, electricity, etc.
A protein compound was then chemically formed ready to undergo still more complex changes".
He went on to explain that "at the present day such matter would be instantly devoured or absorbed, which would not have been the case before living creatures were formed".
Haldane and Oparin
No real progress was made until 1924 when Alexander Oparin reasoned that atmospheric oxygen prevented the synthesis of the organic molecules.
Organic molecules are the necessary building blocks for the evolution of life.
In his The Origin of Life, Oparin argued that a "primordial soup" of organic molecules could be created in an oxygen-less atmosphere through the action of sunlight.
These would combine in ever-more complex fashions until they formed droplets.
These droplets would "grow" by fusion with other droplets, and "reproduce" through fission into daughter droplets, and so have a primitive metabolism in which those factors which promote "cell integrity" survive, those that do not become extinct.
Many modern theories of the origin of life still take Oparin's ideas as a starting point.
Around the same time J.B.S. Haldane also suggested that the Earth's pre-biotic oceans, which were very different from what oceans are now, would have formed a "hot dilute soup".
In this soup, organic compounds, the building blocks of life, could have formed.
This idea was called biopoiesis, the process of living matter evolving from self-replicating but nonliving molecules.
Early conditions on Earth
There is almost no geological record from before 3.8 billion years ago.
The environment that existed in the Hadean era was hostile to life, but how much so is not known.
There was a time, between 3.8 and 4.1 billion years ago, which is known as the Late Heavy Bombardment.
It is so named because many lunar craters are thought to have formed then.
The situation on other planets, such as Earth, Venus, Mercury and Mars must have been similar.
These impacts would likely sterilize the Earth (kill all life), if it existed at that time.
Several people have suggested that the chemicals in the cell give clues as to what the early seas must have been like.
In 1926, Macallum noted that the inorganic composition of the cell cytosol dramatically differs from that of modern sea water: "the cell… has endowments transmitted from a past almost as remote as the origin of life on earth".
For example: "All cells contain much more potassium, phosphate, and transition metals than modern ... oceans, lakes, or rivers". "
Under the anoxic, CO2-dominated primordial atmosphere, the chemistry of inland basins at geothermal fields would [be like the chemistry inside] modern cells".
If life evolved in the deep ocean, near a hydrothermal vent, it could have originated as early as 4 to 4.2 billion years ago.
If, on the other hand, life originated at the surface of the planet, a common opinion is it could only have done so between 3.5 and 4 billion years ago.
Lazcano and Miller (1994) suggest that the pace of molecular evolution was dictated by the rate of recirculating water through mid-ocean submarine vents.
Complete recirculation takes 10 million years, so any organic compounds produced by then would be altered or destroyed by temperatures exceeding 300 °C.
They estimate that the development of a 100 kilobase genome of a DNA/protein primitive heterotroph into a 7000 gene filamentous cyanobacterium would have required only 7 million years.
Originally, the atmosphere of Earth had almost no free oxygen.
It gradually changed to what it is today, over a very long time (see Great Oxygenation Event).
The process began with cyanobacteria.
They were the first organisms to make free oxygen by photosynthesis.
Most organisms today need oxygen for their metabolism; only a few can use other sources for respiration.
So it is expected that the first proto-organisms were chemoautotrophs, and did not use aerobic respiration.
They were anaerobic.
There is no "standard model" on how life started.
Most accepted models are built on molecular biology and cell biology:
Because there are the right conditions, some basic small molecules are created.
These are called monomers of life.
Amino acids are one type of these molecules.
This was proved by the Miller–Urey experiment by Stanley L. Miller and Harold C. Urey in 1953, and we now know these basic building blocks are common throughout space.
Early Earth would have had them all.
Phospholipids, which can form lipid bilayers, a main component of the cell membrane.
Nucleotides which might join up into random RNA molecules.
This might have resulted in self-replicating ribozymes (RNA world hypothesis).
Competition for substrates would select mini-proteins into enzymes.
The ribosome is critical to protein synthesis in present-day cells, but we have no idea as to how it evolved.
Early on, ribonucleic acids would have been catalysts, but later, nucleic acids are specialised for genomic use.
The origin of the basic biomolecules, while not settled, is less controversial than the significance and order of steps 2 and 3.
The basic chemicals from which life is thought to have formed are:
Methane (CH4),
Ammonia (NH3),
Water (H2O),
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
Carbon dioxide (CO2) or carbon monoxide (CO), and
Phosphate (PO43-).
Molecular oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3) were either rare or absent.
Three stages
Stage 1: The origin of biological monomers
Stage 2: The origin of biological polymers
Stage 3: The evolution from molecules to cells
Origin of organic molecules
organic synthesis by energy sources (such as ultraviolet light or electrical discharges).
delivery by extraterrestrial objects such as carbonaceous meteorites (chondrites);
organic synthesis driven by impact shocks.
Miller's experiment and the primordial soup
The now-famous Miller–Urey experiment used a highly reduced mixture of gases – methane, ammonia and hydrogen – to form basic organic monomers, such as amino acids.
We do know now that for more than the first half of the Earth's history its atmosphere had almost no oxygen.
Fox's experiments
In the 1950s and 1960s, Sidney W. Fox studied the spontaneous formation of peptide structures under conditions that might have existed early in Earth's history.
He demonstrated that amino acids could by itself form small peptides.
These amino acids and small peptides could be encouraged to form closed spherical membranes, called microspheres.
Special conditions
Clay world
A clay model for the origin of life was suggested by A. Graham Cairns-Smith.
Clay theory suggests complex organic molecules arose gradually on a pre-existing non-organic platform, namely, silicate crystals in solution.
Deep-hot biosphere model
In the 1970s, Thomas Gold proposed the theory that life first developed not on the surface of the Earth, but several kilometers below the surface.
The discovery in the late 1990s of nanobes (filamental structures that are smaller than bacteria, but that may contain DNA in deep rocks)  might support Gold's theory.
Gold asserted that a trickle of food from a deep, unreachable, source is needed for survival because life arising in a puddle of organic material is likely to consume all of its food and become extinct.
Gold's theory was that the flow of food is due to out-gassing of primordial methane from the Earth's mantle.
Self-organization and replication
Self-organization and self-replication are the hallmark of living systems.
Non-living molecules sometimes show those features under proper conditions.
For example, Martin and Russel showed that cell membranes separating contents from the environment and self-organization of self-contained redox reactions are the most conserved attributes of living things.
They argue that inorganic matter like that would be life's most likely last common ancestor.
RNA world hypothesis
In this hypothesis, RNA is said to work both as an enzyme and as a container of genes.
Later, DNA took over its genetic role.
The RNA world hypothesis proposes that life based on ribonucleic acid (RNA) pre-dates the current world of life based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), RNA and proteins.
RNA is able both to store genetic information, like DNA, and to catalyze chemical reactions, like an enzyme.
It may have supported pre-cellular life and been a major step towards cellular life.
There are some RNAs which work as enzymes.
Some viruses use RNA for heredity.
Many of the most fundamental parts of the cell (those that evolve the slowest) require RNA.
Metabolism and proteins
This idea suggests that proteins worked as enzymes first, producing metabolism.
After that DNA and RNA began to work as containers of genes.
Protein as enzyme is essential for today's lives.
Some amino acids are formed from more basic chemicals in the Miller-Urey experiment.
Some deny this idea because Proteins cannot copy themselves.
In this scheme membranes made of lipid bilayers occur early on.
Once organic chemicals are enclosed, more complex biochemistry is then possible.
This is the idea suggested by Arrhenius, and developed by Fred Hoyle, that life developed elsewhere in the universe and arrived on Earth in the form of spores.
This is not a theory of how life began, but a theory of how it might have spread.
It may have spread, for example, by meteorites.
Some propose that early Mars was a better place to start life than was the early Earth.
The molecules which combined to form genetic material are more complex than the "primordial soup" of organic (carbon-based) chemicals that existed on Earth four billion years ago.
If RNA was the first genetic material, then minerals containing boron and molybdenum could assist in its formation.
These minerals were much more common on Mars than on Earth.
In Christianity, some people reject the idea of evolution.
They believe that the Earth is only a few thousand years old.
This is known as Young Earth Creationism.
However, the Bible does not explicitly state the age of the Earth, only that 'In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth' (Genesis 1:1)
Below is a timeline of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season, listing all the storm formations, strengthening, weakening, landfalls, extratropical transitions, as well as dissipation.
The 2006 Atlantic hurricane season was a season in which an El Niño event stopped much tropical cyclone activity, especially later in the season.
The season officially began on June 1, 2006, and lasted until November 30.
For convenience and clarity, in the timeline below, all landfalls are bolded.
The timeline also includes information which was not operationally released, meaning that information from post-storm reviews by the National Hurricane Center, such as information on a storm that was not operationally warned on, have been included.
The graphical bar above gives a brief overview of storm activity during the season, and for convenience, the storm's maximum intensity is included as a color bar.
Tropical Storm Zeta from 2005 persisted into 2006, therefore a January section has been included in the text timeline.
Timeline of storms
0000 UTC - The year 2006 begins with Tropical Storm Zeta still active from the previous season, making Zeta only the second cross-season North Atlantic storm ever recorded.
2 a.m. AST (0600 UTC) - Tropical Storm Zeta weakens into a tropical depression.
5 p.m. AST (2100 UTC) - The National Hurricane Center issues its last advisory on dissipating Tropical Depression Zeta, finally ending the 2005 season.
The 2006 Atlantic hurricane season officially begins.
1 a.m. CDT (0600 UTC) - Tropical Depression One forms 120 nautical miles (140 miles, 220 km) south of the western tip of Cuba.
7 p.m. CDT (0000 UTC June 11) - Tropical Depression One strengthens into Tropical Storm Alberto.
12:30 p.m. EDT (1630 UTC) - Tropical Storm Alberto makes landfall near Adams Beach, Florida, with 45 mph winds.
2 a.m. EDT (0600 UTC) - Tropical Storm Alberto weakens into a tropical depression.
8 a.m. EDT (1200 UTC) - The remnants of Alberto become extratropical.
5 p.m. EDT (2100 UTC) - The HPC issues its first and only advisory on the remnants of Tropical Depression Alberto.
0600 UTC - A previously-extratropical low pressure area becomes a tropical depression about 210 nautical miles (245 miles, 390 km) southeast of Nantucket, Massachusetts.
However, this depression is not assigned a number operationally, or warned on, by the National Hurricane Center.
1200 UTC - The tropical depression near Nantucket strengthens into a tropical storm, but is not operationally named.
8 a.m. EDT (1200 UTC) - Tropical Depression Two forms 250 nautical miles (290 miles, 645 km) east-southeast of Wilmington, North Carolina.
1200 UTC - The unnamed tropical storm degenerates into a remnant low.
2 p.m. EDT (1800 UTC) - Tropical Depression Two strengthens into Tropical Storm Beryl.
2:45 a.m. EDT (0645 UTC) - Tropical Storm Beryl makes landfall on the island of Nantucket, Massachusetts, with 50 mph winds.
2 p.m. EDT (1800 UTC) - Tropical Storm Beryl becomes extratropical.
8 p.m. EDT (0000 UTC August 1) - Tropical Depression Three forms 205 nautical miles (235 miles, 380 km) east-southeast of Barbuda.
2 a.m. AST (0600 UTC) - Tropical Depression Three strengthens into Tropical Storm Chris.
2 p.m. AST (1800 UTC) - Tropical Storm Chris weakens to a tropical depression.
2 a.m. AST (0600 UTC) - Tropical Depression Chris weakens into a low.
2 p.m. AST (1800 UTC) - Tropical Depression Four forms 225 nautical miles (260 miles, 415 km) south-southeast of Praia, Cape Verde.
8 p.m. AST (0000 UTC August 23) - Tropical Depression Four strengthens into Tropical Storm Debby.
2 p.m. AST (1800 UTC) - Tropical Depression Five forms in the Caribbean Sea about 40 nautical miles (45 miles, 75 km) north-northwest of Grenada.
8 a.m. AST (1200 UTC) - Tropical Depression Five strengthens into Tropical Storm Ernesto.
2 a.m. AST (0600 UTC) - Tropical Storm Debby weakens to a tropical depression.
8 a.m. AST (1200 UTC) - Tropical Depression Debby weakens into a low.
2 a.m EDT (0600 UTC) - Tropical Storm Ernesto strengthens into Hurricane Ernesto.
8 a.m. EDT (1200 UTC) - Hurricane Ernesto weakens to a tropical storm.
7:15 a.m. EDT (1115 UTC) - Tropical Storm Ernesto makes a first landfall in Cuba at Playa Cazonal with 40 mph winds.
11 p.m. EDT (0300 UTC) - Tropical Storm Ernesto makes a second landfall at Plantation Key, Florida, with 45 mph winds.
1 a.m. EDT (0500 UTC) - Tropical Storm Ernesto makes a third landfall in southwestern Miami-Dade County with 45 mph winds.
11:40 p.m. EDT (0340 UTC September 1) - Tropical Storm Ernesto makes a fourth landfall at Oak Island, North Carolina, with 70 mph winds.
8 a.m. EDT (1200 UTC) - Tropical Storm Ernesto weakens to a tropical depression.
2 p.m. EDT (1800 UTC) - Tropical Depression Ernesto becomes extratropical with gale-force winds.
11 p.m. EDT (0300 UTC September 3) - The HPC releases its final advisory on the extratropical remnants of Ernesto.
2 p.m. AST (1800 UTC) - Tropical Depression Six forms 855 nautical miles (990 miles, 1585 km) west of the Cape Verde Islands.
2 a.m. AST (0600 UTC) - Tropical Depression Six strengthens into Tropical Storm Florence.
2 a.m. AST (0600 UTC) - Tropical Storm Florence strengthens into Hurricane Florence.
2 p.m. EDT (1800 UTC) - Tropical Depression Seven forms 470 nautical miles (545 miles, 870 km) east-northeast of the Leeward Islands.
8 a.m. EDT (1200 UTC) - Tropical Depression Seven strengthens into Tropical Storm Gordon.
8 a.m. EDT (1200 UTC) - Tropical Depression Eight forms 200 nautical miles (230 miles, 370 km) south-southeast of the Cape Verde Islands.
8 p.m. AST (0000 UTC September 13) - Hurricane Florence becomes extratropical.
8 p.m. EDT (0000 UTC September 13) - Tropical Storm Gordon strengthens into Hurricane Gordon.
2 p.m. EDT (1800 UTC) - Hurricane Gordon reaches Category 2 intensity.
8 p.m. AST (0000 UTC September 14) - Hurricane Gordon reaches Category 3 intensity, becoming the first major hurricane of the season.
8 p.m. AST (0000 UTC September 14) - Tropical Depression Eight strengthens into Tropical Storm Helene.
8 a.m. AST (1200 UTC) - Tropical Storm Helene strengthens into Hurricane Helene.
2 p.m. AST (1800 UTC) - Hurricane Helene reaches Category 2 intensity.
8 p.m. AST (0000 UTC September 18) - Hurricane Helene reaches to Category 3 intensity, becoming the second major hurricane of the season.
11 p.m. AST (0300 UTC September 20) - Hurricane Gordon passes near the Central Azores with the eye staying offshore.
8 p.m. AST (0000 UTC September 21) - Hurricane Gordon becomes extratropical.
2 p.m. AST (1800 UTC) - Hurricane Helene becomes extratropical.
2 p.m. EDT (1800 UTC) - Tropical Depression Nine forms 810 nautical miles (940 miles, 1500 km) east-southeast of Bermuda.
2 a.m. EDT (0600 UTC) - Tropical Depression Nine strengthens into Tropical Storm Isaac.
8 a.m. AST (1200 UTC) - Tropical Storm Isaac strengthens into Hurricane Isaac.
8 a.m. AST (1200 UTC) - Hurricane Isaac weakens to a tropical storm.
8 p.m. AST (0000 UTC October 3) - Tropical Storm Isaac becomes extratropical.
There was no tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic basin in November.
November 30 marked the official end of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season.
The NHC's Tropical Cyclone Reports for the 2006 season
The Atlantic Standard Time Zone (AST) is a geographic region that keeps time by subtracting four hours from Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), resulting in GMT-4 (UTC-4).
The clock time in this zone is based on the mean solar time of the 60th degree meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory.
The Canadian provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island keep time by subtracting four hours from UTC.
So does Bermuda, an island territory in the North Atlantic.
In the summer, both places use daylight saving time.
They keep Atlantic Daylight Time (ADT) (UTC-3) in the summer.
Other parts of the world that keep time by subtracting four hours from UTC include: many Caribbean islands, including Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and several South American countries, such as Paraguay, Chile, Bolivia, and parts of Brazil.
Venezuela used AST until December 9, 2007, when it switched to UTC-4:30, but switched back to AST on May 1, 2016, at 2:30 a.m. local time.
World time zone map
U.S. time zone map
History of U.S. time zones and UTC conversion
Canada time zone map
Time zones for major world cities
Official times across Canada
The official U.S. time for the Atlantic Time Zone (no DST)
The stadium of Figueirense is Estádio Orlando Scarpelli.
It was built in 1961.
Its a maximum capacity is 19,908 people.
Champion of Campeonato Catarinense (State Championship) in  1932, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1939, 1941, 1972, 1974, 1994, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2014, 2015, 2018
Champion of Copa Santa Catarina (State Cup) in 1990 and 1996
Finalist of Copa do Brasil in 2007
Finalist of Brazilian Série B in 2001
Champion of Torneio Mercosul in 1995.
Agnaldo
Albeneir
Cléber
Sérgio Gil
Figueirense Official Web Site
Gavioes Alvinegros - Ultras/Fan Set
C# (pronounced "see sharp") is a computer programming language.
It is developed by Microsoft.
It was created to use all capacities of .NET platform.
The first version was released in 2001.
The most recent version is C# 8.0, which was released in September 2019.
C# is a modern language.
C#'s development team is led by Anders Hejlsberg, the creator of Delphi.
Execution Platform
The Microsoft .NET platform;
Free implementation of C# and .NET like Mono developed by Novell, or dotGNU developed by the Free Software Foundation.
Today, C# can be run on most platforms (Windows, Linux, MacOs, etc.)
without changing the source code.
C# can be run on the Xbox 360 platform with a special framework.
C# code is similar to C++ and Java code.
The CLR (Common Language Runtime) is needed in order to run a C# program .
* It simply shows "Hello, World!"
WriteLine("Hello, World!");
// The piece of code below is optional, but is needed to prevent the program from closing immediately.
WriteLine("Press any key to exit.");
ReadKey();
Basic input example
* This program asks for input from the user, i.e. a name.
It then prints "Hello [name]", replacing [name] with whatever the person typed in.
WriteLine("Hello, please type in your name:");
string name = Console.
ReadLine();
WriteLine("Hello {0}",name);
Integrated Development Environments
SharpDevelop
Visual C# Express
MonoDevelop (With limitations)
C#.NET in Hindi - सीखें आसानी से।
C# Station, Example, Video
Visual C# Developer Center
C# lessons
c# continue at CodeExampler for Free
C# Station
Introduction to the C# Language and the .NET Framework
C# / CSharp Tutorial
Visual C# Tutorials and Lessons (Learn C#)
Visual C# .NET Programming on http://www.homeandlearn.co.uk/
Examples for C# Essentials
C# tutorials for beginners
Learn C# with Examples (C# Tutorial)
C# Programming Examples
The population was around at 96,000 during 2006;.
It is the county seat of New Hanover County.
It was named in honor of Spencer Compton, the Earl of Wilmington, who was Prime Minister at the same time as George II was King of England.
It was the site of the 1898 insurrection where many white people killed African-American politicians in the city.
It is seen as the only coup d'état on American soil.
Official website of Wilmington, NC
The Insiders' Guide to Wilmington, NC
Cities in North Carolina
Plantation Key is an island in Monroe County, Florida, United States.
It is in the upper Florida Keys on U.S. Route 1 (or the Overseas Highway), between Key Largo and Windley Key.
Oak Island, North Carolina is a town mostly on Oak Island (which also contains the town of Caswell Beach and the North Carolina Baptist Assembly at Fort Caswell) in Brunswick County, North Carolina; a small part of the town extends onto the mainland north of the island's bridge.
6,571 people lived there at the 2000 census.
It was founded in 1999 by the consolidation of the towns of Long Beach and Yaupon Beach.
Its main industry is tourism; the town has about 30,000-40,000 people in the summer.
Oak Island, NC City Guide
Official Town Site
Southport-Oak Island Area Chamber of Commerce
Avegno was a municipality of the district of Vallemaggia in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.
On 20 April 2008, Avegno and Gordevio merged to form the new municipality of Avegno Gordevio.
The Wakker Prize (in German: Wakkerpreis, in French Prix Wakker) is given every year by the Swiss Heritage Society to a municipality of Switzerland for the making and saving of its historical buildings.
Prize winners
Patrimoine suisse: Prix Wakker
Official municipal Website
2006 establishments in Switzerland
Official site of the quarter
Bedano is a municipality of the district of Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.
Official homepage of the municipality of Bedano
Bedigliora is a municipality of the district of Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.
Hurricane Fabian was a powerful Cape Verde-type hurricane that hit Bermuda in early September during the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season.
Fabian was the sixth named storm, fourth hurricane, and first major hurricane of the season.
Storm History
Fabian developed from a tropical wave in the tropical Atlantic Ocean on August 25.
It moved west-northwestward under the influence of the subtropical ridge to its north, and steadily strengthened in an area of warm water temperatures and light wind shear.
The hurricane attained a peak intensity of 145 mph (230 km/h) on September 1, and it slowly weakened as it turned northward.
On September 5, Fabian made a direct hit on the island of Bermuda with wind speeds of over 120 mph (195 km/h).
After passing the island, the hurricane turned to the northeast, and became extratropical on September 8.
Impact, aftermath and records
Fabian was the strongest hurricane to hit Bermuda since Hurricane Arlene in 1963.
It was both the most damaging and the first hurricane to cause a death on the island since 1926.
The hurricane's powerful winds resulted in moderate damage and destroyed roofs throughout the island.
A strong storm surge associated with the hurricane killed four people crossing a causeway on Bermuda, temporarily closing the only link between two islands.
The endangered Bermuda Petrel, better known as the Cahow, was threatened by the hurricane, which destroyed ten nests, although volunteer work transported the species to a safer location.
Strong swells resulted in damage in northern Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, and also caused four people to drown along the United States' Atlantic coast.
In all, Fabian caused around $300 million (2003 USD, $357 million in damage and eight deaths.
Because the devastating affects in Bermuda the name Fabian was retired.
It was replaced by Fred in 2009.
NHC's archive on Hurricane Fabian
NHC's Tropical Cyclone Report on Hurricane Fabian
Wikimedia Commons Image Gallery on Hurricane Fabian
2003 in North America
Bedretto is a municipality of the district of Leventina in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.
A high five is a hand gesture done with two people who want to express joy over an common achievement.
The five refers to the five fingers on each hand.
It might mean "Good Job!".
High fives are not done because a person is mad at someone else, even though doing one may hurt.
To do a high five, both people open one hand and raise it, and slap them together.
It is morally wrong to slap someone in the face, instead of the hand.
Sometimes this is confusing.
Revolver is a 1966 album by British rock band The Beatles.
It was their 7th album.
Its front cover is a , designed by Klaus Voormann, an artist friend of the Beatles from Germany.
The album was recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London, England.
While most of the Beatles's records were made in Studio Two, it was being used for another project, so much of Revolver was made in Studio Three, which was much smaller and meant for use by soloists.
Space was cramped, and the sound of the record was different from their earlier ones.
The album also got a different  from earlier Beatles albums.
The band felt free to "branch out" into new themes and ideas, that nobody had tried in a pop music recording before. "
Taxman" commented on the tax system in England. "
Eleanor Rigby" was about . "
Yellow Submarine" became a hit with children. "
Good Day Sunshine" and "Got to Get You Into My Life" were covered by other bands.