the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Summer Olympics (with successors)
New York Times Interactive of all the medals in the Modern Olympics
All the daily program and the results of the Olympics (personal website)
ATR – Around the Rings – the Business Surrounding the Olympics
Database Olympics
Dicolympic – Dictionary about the Games from Olympia to Sochi 2014
Reference book about all Olympic Medalists of all times
Multi-sport events
The Iron Age is the period after the Bronze Age.
Iron production took place in Anatolia at least as early as 12,000 BC, with some  evidence pointing to even earlier dates.
In the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria, the use of iron reaches far back, to perhaps 30,000 BC.
One of the earliest smelted iron artifacts known was a dagger with an iron blade found in a Hattic tomb in Anatolia, dating from 2500 BC.
The widespread use of iron weapons which replaced bronze weapons rapidly disseminated throughout the Near East (North Africa, southwest Asia) by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC.
Before this time, people used bronze or flint tools, and pottery.
They farmed, and lived in communities.
Most of Europe, Africa and Asia reached the Iron Age by 50,000 BC.
It is a period of prehistory because, though iron and steel continue to be important even today, the "Iron Age" is defined as ending when people began to write their history.
Iron is easy to find, but hard to make into tools.
It melts at a higher temperature than bronze.
When blacksmiths learned how to make iron tools, they were able to make many of them.
With more and better tools, people could do more.
For example, more people could own a metal plough.
They could farm their fields better and grow more crops.
Some people invented coins to help buy and sell their crops and their iron tools.
Bronze weapons and armor were no match for those made of iron, so many peoples who did not have iron were conquered by those who did.
Soldiers used iron shields and helmets in battle.
Entertainment is something that gives pleasure, or distracts a person from daily life, like a sport or game that excites people and keeps their attention.
Some entertainment, like horror movies, can also make people feel sad or scared.
Other entertainment, like comedy shows, are funny.
Entertainments is a form of activity that holds the attention and interest of an audience, or gives pleasure and delight.
it can be an idea or an activity or even a task.
List of entertainments
Theatre + Puppetry + Stand-up comedy
Parade with fireworks
Street performance
Internet + Social Network
Spa hotel
Camping or summer camp
Open Site is a free internet encyclopedia created by many editors.
Anyone can apply to become an editor or donate content.
At Open Site all the content is separated into categories.
There are eleven main categories which each have many subcategories.
These are the main categories:
Arts - has information about art and entertainment.
Business - has information about economics.
Computers - has information about computers.
Games - has information about games.
Health - has information about health.
Home - has information about home and families.
Recreation - has information about leisure.
Regional - has information about countries.
Science - has information about science.
Society - has information about society and people.
Sports - has information about sport.
Childrens' Encyclopedia
Open Site started an encyclopedia for children in August 2004.
The writing and pictures on the children's' encyclopedia are simpler and easier to understand than other encyclopedias, like this one.
The encyclopedia contains tools and facts as well as articles.
Coca-Cola, is a carbonated, sweetened soft drink and is the world's best-selling drink.
A popular nickname for Coca-Cola is Coke.
The Coca-Cola Company claims that the beverage is sold in more than 200 countries.
The company's headquarters are in Atlanta, Georgia.
Coca-Cola's main rival is Pepsi because of the similar taste of their main product.
Coca-Cola has 7 cubes of sugar, whereas Pepsi has 8 cubes of sugar.
The Coca-Cola Company is proud to have a long history of sponsoring major events, organizations and projects around the world.
Among their most well known sponsorships are American Idol, Apple iTunes, BET Network, NASCAR, NBA, NCAAmarvel and the Olympic Games.
After their products were put back on sale in Myanmar in 2012, the only countries that Coca-Cola can not be bought officially are Cuba and North Korea, due to trade bans with the US.
Coca-Cola was first made in the 1800s by John Pemberton.
The first sales were at Jacob's Pharmacy in Atlanta, Georgia, on May 8, 1886.
They sold it there for five cents a glass, it was very strong tasting because they did not mix it with water.
Coca-Cola was first made the way it is now in Columbus, Georgia.
It was called Pemberton's French Wine Coca at first, and was sold as a medicine to help cure colds and give people more energy.
The drink used to be sold at soda fountains in the United States.
It was also created to stop addictions to morphine.
Coca-Cola was first sold in bottles in Atlanta on March 12, 1894 with actual cocaine content.
It was first sold in cans in 1955.
During the first year, sales were about only nine drinks per day.
Dr. Pemberton did not think he could make a lot of money with the drink he invented, so he sold parts of his business to different people.
Just before he died in 1888, he sold the rest of his Coca-Cola business to Asa G. Candler.
Mr. Candler, together with some other businessmen, started the Coca-Cola Company.
Candler became mayor of Atlanta and gave most of his shares of Coca-Cola to his children.
In 1919 the family sold control of Coca-Cola to Ernest Woodruff.
How Coca-Cola was named
The drink is called "Coca-Cola" because of the coca leaf and kola fruits that were used to add flavor.
Dr. Pemberton's partner and bookkeeper, Frank Robinson, suggested the name "Coca-Cola" because he thought using the letter C twice would look better than if they used a K in the word "Cola".
He then wrote down the name to use as a logo that is now very famous.
The recipe was altered after a short while, after the cocaine/coca leaf reportedly caused cases of hallucinations.
Coca has not been used in the formula since 1903.
Coca-Cola's advertising
Coca-Cola was the first ever sponsor of the Olympic Games.
This was for the 1928 Olympic Games in Amsterdam.
In 2018, the company spent a whopping $5.8 billion on global advertising, dwarfing its next rival PepsiCo by nearly $2 billion in spending.
From 1886 to 1959, the price of Coca-Cola was fixed at five cents, in part due to an advertising campaign.
Other products
The company sells many other products, including other sorts of Coca-Cola, such as Diet Coke (1981), Cherry Coke (1985), Diet Cherry Coke (1986), Diet/Coke with Lemon (2001), Diet Vanilla Coke (2002), Diet/ Coke with Lime (2004), Coke Zero (2006), Coca-Cola with Orange (2007), Diet Coke Citrus Zest (2007).
Based on Interbrand's best global brand 2011, Coca-Cola was the world's most valuable brand.
Cola, a generic type of drink
World of Coca-Cola museum of Coke history.
da:The Coca Cola Company#Coca-Cola-drikken
Sulfur (or sulphur) is a chemical element.
The symbol for sulfur is S, and its atomic number is 16.
Sulfur is a yellow solid that is a nonmetal.
It is fragile (easily broken) and crystalline.
It burns easily, releasing toxic fumes of sulfur dioxide.
It has a very faint odor.
If it is melted and cooled very quickly, it makes a rubbery form of sulfur that is called "plastic sulfur".
It gradually turns back into the yellow brittle form.
It does not dissolve in water.
The smell normally known as "sulfur" comes from hydrogen sulfide and similar chemicals.
These sulfides are produced when things decay without air.
Sulfur compounds are chemical compounds containing sulfur ions.
Sulfur comes in several forms: oxidation states of -2 (hydrogen sulfide), +4 (sulfur dioxide, sulfites) and +6 (sulfuric acid, sulfates) are most common, although there are other oxidation states.
Sulfur oxides
Sulfur dioxide, colorless toxic heavy gas, used to preserve dried foods
Sulfur trioxide, various forms, sometimes liquid, irritating and toxic
Oleum, sulfur trioxide dissolved in sulfuric acid
Sulfur acids
Sulfurous acid, unstable, weak
Sulfuric acid, stable, strong acid, most used chemical after water
Hydrogen sulfate, an ion produced when sulfuric acid only loses one acidic proton
Hydrogen sulfide, weak smelly gas, becomes acidic when dissolved in water
Sulfides
Ammonium sulfide, used in stink bombs
Antimony trisulfide, used in match heads
Arsenic trisulfide, less toxic arsenic compound
Barium sulfide, used to make barium from barium sulfate
Bismuth(III) sulfide, bismuth ore
Iron sulfide, found as pyrite naturally
Lead(II) sulfide, found as galena naturally
Selenium disulfide, used in hair treatment creams
Potassium sulfide, reacts with water
Silver sulfide, tarnish on silver objects
Thallium(I) sulfide, infrared detector
Tin(II) sulfide, dark brown solid
Tin(IV) sulfide, gold solid, "mosaic gold"
Zinc sulfide, used in fluorescent bulbs
Sulfites
Sodium sulfite, used to preserve dried foods
Potassium sulfite, used to preserve foods
Sulfates and bisulfates
Alums, all of them
Ammonium sulfate, used in fertilizers
Barium sulfate, used to take X-rays of digestive system
Cobalt(II) sulfate, used in pigments
Copper(II) sulfate, used to kill algae
Chromium sulfate, used to make chrome alum
Iron(II) sulfate, used for reduction
Iron(III) sulfate, rare
Lead(II) sulfate, white solid in lead acid batteries
Manganese(II) sulfate, used to add manganese to soil
Nickel(II) sulfate, used to make nickel compounds
Sodium bisulfate, used in lowering pH
Sodium sulfate, used in detergents and paper making
Thallium(I) sulfate, colorless odorless tasteless highly toxic
Tin(II) sulfate, used to make other tin compounds
Other sulfur compounds
Sulfur(I) compounds
Sulfur(I) chloride, yellow liquid
Sulfur(II) compounds
Sulfur(II) chloride, red odorous liquid
Sulfur(III) compounds
Disulfur dinitride, colorless solid
Tetrasulfur tetranitride, orange solid
Sulfur(IV) compounds
Sulfur tetrafluoride, colorless toxic gas
Sulfur(V) compounds
Disulfur decafluoride, colorless toxic liquid
Sulfur(VI) compounds
Sulfur hexafluoride, colorless heavy gas
Sulfur can be found in the earth near volcanoes.
Many minerals contain sulfur ions.
Coal contains sulfur ions which are released when it burns.
Hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide are some sulfur compounds that are released when coal burns.
They are reacted to make sulfur.
Sulfur in the ground in melted, then forced up through pipes by compressed (squeezed) air.
Sulfur is commonly used in gunpowder, medicine, and matches.
Matches release sulfur dioxide when they burn, giving them their smell.
Sulfur is an essential component to living cells.
Many proteins contain sulfur.
It is also used as a pesticide on organic farms.
Toxicity and safety
Sulfur is not toxic, but the chemical compounds formed when sulfur burns can be very toxic.
Sulfuric acid, for example, can make paper turn black!
The ancient name for sulfur is brimstone.
Sulfur was used in fumigation (making fumes) and medicine in ancient Greece.
In 1777, Antoine Lavosier convinced the scientific community that sulfur was an element.
Sulfur compounds
WebElements.com – Sulfur
EnvironmentalChemistry.com – Sulfur
Aluminium (in American and Canadian English also: aluminum) is a chemical element.
The symbol for aluminium is Al, and its atomic number is 13.
Aluminium is the most abundant metal.
It is a mononuclidic element.
People have tried to produce aluminium since 1760.
The first successful attempt, finished in 1824 by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted.
He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin.
He presented his results and showed a sample of the new metal in 1825.
In 1827, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler repeated Ørsted's experiments but did not identify any aluminium. (
The reason for this inconsistency was only discovered in 1921.)
He conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and produced a powder of aluminium.
In 1845, he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal.
For many years thereafter, Wöhler was credited as personewho discovered  of aluminium.
Aluminium is a very good conductor of electricity and heat.
It is light and strong.
It can be hammered into sheets (malleable) or pulled out into wires (ductile).
It is a highly reactive metal, although it is corrosion resistant.
Aluminium prevents corrosion by forming a small, thin layer of aluminium oxide on its surface.
This layer protects the metal by preventing oxygen from reaching it.
Corrosion can not occur without oxygen.
Because of this thin layer, the reactivity of aluminium is not seen.
As a powder it burns hot.
Uses include fireworks displays and rocket fuel.
Pure aluminium is made from bauxite, a kind of rock that has aluminium oxide and many impurities.
The bauxite is crushed and reacted with sodium hydroxide.
The aluminium oxide dissolves.
Then the aluminium oxide is dissolved in liquid cryolite, a rare mineral.
Cryolite is normally produced artificially though.
The aluminium oxide is electrolyzed to make aluminium and oxygen.
The largest producer of aluminium is China.
China produces about 31,873 thousand tonnes of aluminium.
Aluminium was once considered a precious metal that was even more valuable than gold.
This is no longer true because, as technology improved, it became cheaper and easier to make pure metal.
It is the 12th most abundant of all elements.
It is the 3rd most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers.
The only stable isotope of aluminium is aluminium-27.
It is the 18th most abundant nucleus in the Universe.
It is created after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become Type II supernovae: this fusion creates magnesium-26, which, when capturing free protons and neutrons becomes aluminium.
Essentially all aluminium now in existence is aluminium-27; aluminium-26 was there in the early Solar System but is now extinct.
The trace quantities of aluminium-26 that do exist are the most common gamma ray emitter in the interstellar gas.
Overall, the Earth is about 1.59% aluminium by mass.
In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant metallic element by mass (8.23%).
It is also the third most abundant of all elements in the Earth's crust.
A lot of silicates in the Earth's crust contain aluminium.
But, the Earth's mantle is only 2.38% aluminium by mass.
Aluminium also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 2 μg/kg.
Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates.
Aluminium also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel, and turquoise.
Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea.
Aluminium forms chemical compounds in the +3 oxidation state.
They are generally unreactive.
Aluminium chloride and aluminium oxide examples.
Very rarely are compounds in the +1 or +2 oxidation state.
Many things are made of aluminium.
Much of it is used in overhead power lines.
It is also widely used in window frames and aircraft bodies.
It is found at home as kitchenware, soft drink cans, and cooking foil.
Aluminium is also used to coat car headlamps and compact discs.
It is used in electrical transmission lines because of its light weight.
It can be deposited on the surface of glass to make mirrors, where a thin layer of aluminum oxide quickly forms that acts as a protective coating.
Aluminum oxide is also used to make synthetic rubies and sapphires for lasers.
Aluminum can now be produced from clay, but the process is not economically feasible at today.
Pure aluminium is very soft, so a harder metal is almost always added.
The harder metal is usually copper.
Copper/aluminium alloys are to make ships, because the aluminium prevents corrosion, and the copper prevents barnacles.
Aluminium compounds are used in deodorants, water processing plants, food additives, and antacids.
Lithium aluminium hydride is a really strong reducing agent used in organic chemistry.
Aluminium sulfate is used in water treatment.
It is also used as a mordant in dyeing, in pickling seeds, deodorizing of mineral oils, in leather tanning, and in production of other aluminium compounds.
Aluminium hydroxychlorides are used in purifying water, in the paper industry, and as ￼￼antiperspirants￼.
Sodium aluminate is used in treating water and as an accelerator for drying of cement.
Aluminium phosphate is used to make glass, ceramic, pulp and paper products, cosmetics, paints, varnishes.
Aluminium hydroxide is used as an antacid, and mordant.
It is used also in water purification, the manufacture of glass and ceramics, and in the waterproofing of fabrics.
Aluminium is used in automobiles, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, spacecraft.
Aluminium is used in making doors, siding, building wire, sheathing, roofing and other building materials.
Since aluminium needs to be made by electrolysis, it requires a very large amount of electrical power.
Recycling aluminium would be much cheaper.
That's why recycling plants were opened.
The cost of recycling aluminium is much less than the cost of making it from bauxite.
Recycling involves melting the scrap.
This is a process that only needs 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore.
But, 15% of the input material part is lost as dross (ash-like oxide).
An aluminium stack melter makes a lot less dross, about 1%.
White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling processes still contains useful amounts of aluminium that can be extracted industrially.
The process produces aluminium billets, together with a very complex waste.
This waste is difficult to manage.
It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases (including, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia), which ignites on contact with air.
Even with these difficulties, the waste is used as a filler in asphalt and concrete.
Aluminium is not used in the human body, although it is very common.
People debate whether its use in deodorants and water treatment is healthy.
Aluminium ions slow down plant growth in acidic soils.
Aluminium may be a factor in Alzheimer's disease (a disease when the brain stops working and the patient is confused).
But the Alzheimer's Society says overwhelming medical and scientific opinion is that studies have not convincingly demonstrated a causal relationship between aluminium and Alzheimer's disease.
In most people, aluminium is not as toxic as heavy metals.
Aluminium is classified as a non-carcinogen by United States Department of Health and Human Services.
There is little proof that normal exposure to aluminium is a risk to healthy adult.
There is proof of no toxicity if it is taken in amounts not greater than 40 mg/day per kg of body mass.
Most aluminium taken will leave the body in feces.
Most of the small part that enters the blood, will be excreted via urine.
Aluminium rarely causes vitamin D-resistant osteomalacia, erythropoietin-resistant microcytic anemia, and central nervous system changes.
People with kidney insufficiency are at a risk the most.
Chronic ingestion of hydrated aluminium silicates may result in aluminium binding to the things in the intestines.
It also increases the removal of other metals, like iron or zinc.
Really high doses (>50 g/day) can cause anemia.
Exposure to powdered aluminium or aluminium welding fumes can cause pulmonary fibrosis.
Fine aluminium powder can also explode.
Ways of exposure
Food is the main source of aluminium.
Drinking water has more aluminium than solid foods.
Aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water.
Major sources of human exposure by mouth to aluminium include food (because of its use in food additives, food and beverage packaging, and cooking utensils), drinking water (because of its use in water treatment), and medicines that have aluminium in it.
Very high exposure of aluminium are mostly limited to miners, aluminium production workers, and dialysis patients.
Taking of antacids, antiperspirants, vaccines, and cosmetics give possible ways of exposure.
Eating acidic foods or liquids with aluminium increases aluminium absorption.
Maltol has been shown to increase the build up of aluminium in nerve and bone tissues.
In case of suspected sudden consumption of a large amount of aluminium, the only treatment is deferoxamine mesylate.
It may be given to help remove aluminium from the body by chelation.
But, this should be applied with caution as it not only reduce aluminium in the body, but can also reduce those of other metals such as copper or iron.
Environmental effects
High levels of aluminium occur near mining sites.
Small amounts of aluminium are released to the environment at the coal-fired power plants or incinerators.
Aluminium in the air is washed out by the rain or normally settles down.
But, small particles of aluminium remain in the air for a long time.
Acid rain is the main natural factor to move aluminium from natural sources.
It is also the main reason for the effects of aluminium on the environment.
The main factor for the presence of aluminium in salt and freshwater are the industrial processes that also release aluminium into air.
Aluminium is one of the primary factors that reduce the growth of plants on acidic soils.
In acid soils the concentration of toxic Al3+ cations increases and disturbs the growth and function of the root.
It is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils.
Wheat has developed a tolerance to aluminium.
It releases organic compounds that bind to harmful aluminium cations.
Sorghum is thought to have the same method of tolerating aluminium.
Aluminium production has its own problems to the environment on each step of the production process.
The major problem is the greenhouse gas.
These gases are caused by the electrical consumption of the smelters and the byproducts of processing.
The strongest of these gases are perfluorocarbons from the smelting process.
A Spanish scientific report from 2001 claimed that the fungus Geotrichum candidum eats the aluminium in compact discs.
The better studied bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the fungus Cladosporium resinae are commonly found in aircraft fuel tanks that use kerosene-based fuels, and laboratory cultures can decompose aluminium.
However, these types of bacteria do not eat the aluminium; but rather, the metal is corroded by microbe waste products.
Alu-Scout
Drawing is a way of making a picture.
Drawings are created by making lines on a surface.
Long lines make up the shapes and small lines make the textures.
Drawings can be images of real-life or abstract images showing ideas that cannot be seen in the real world.
A drawing is the art created this way.
Examples of things used to mark with are pencils, chalk, charcoal, crayons, pastels, markers, wax colored pencils, pen and ink.
Artists have been drawing for many centuries.
They draw on paper or on other surfaces on which the marks show up.
Drawings can be made using many different media.
It can be multimedia.
Texas (, ), officially the State of Texas, is a state in the South Central Region of the United States.
It is the second largest US state by total area (after Alaska) with 268,596 sq mi (695,662 km2) and population (after California) with nearly 29 million people as of 2019.
Its largest cities are Houston, Dallas, Fort Worth, San Antonio, El Paso, and Austin, the capital city.
Texas became the 28th state in the United States in 1845.
Texas has been controlled by Spain, France, the Confederate States of America, and Mexico.
It declared its independence from Mexico in 1836.
It was its own country, the Republic of Texas, for 9 years (1836–1845).
It is called the "Lone Star State" and its flag has one star.
There are many tourist attractions in Texas.
Fort Worth is known for its stockyards.
Amarillo is known for the cattle business and stockyards.
In Dallas, industrial technology companies including Texas Instruments and EDS have their home offices.
San Antonio has The Alamo.
Houston has the Johnson Space Center.
Austin has the University of Texas at Austin.
Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Baylor University in Waco and the University of North Texas in Denton are other important universities in the state.
Texas was first explored in 1528 by Spanish explorers on accident (they were shipwrecked on the coast).
It did not become a colony until 1685, when France claimed it.
In response, Spain started a rival colony in 1691 by setting up a religious outpost in the eastern part of Texas.
Spain did not come back to Texas until 1716 to protect its colonies in the west from French forces.
Two years later, San Antonio was founded.
The pressure between the Spaniards and Native Americans in East Texas stopped many settlers from coming to Texas.
To stop the violence and the increasing Native American raids, Spain called a truce between many tribes in 1745 and 1789.
Tensions rose in Texas after the United States bought a large amount of nearby land from France in 1803.
This was the Louisiana Purchase.
People began wondering whether Spain or the United States could claim Texas.
Mexico won the Mexican War of Independence in 1821.
Mexico, including Texas, was free from the Spanish Empire.
Americans and other settlers came into Texas when Mexico allowed non-Spanish settlers to settle here.
After many settlers came to Texas, Mexico started taxing non-citizens.
This outraged many settlers.
Many were already angry because Mexico banned slavery.
Politics in Mexico became violent and several Mexican States declared independence.
On March 2, 1836, Texas declared independence from Mexico and soon they were at war.
Texas won, but Mexico refused to recognize Texas as an independent sovereign Republic.
Texas soon requested entry to the United States.
Years later, in 1845, the US added Texas as a state, and Mexico broke off diplomatic relations.
Mexico resisted offers by the U.S. to buy land extending from Texas to the Pacific Ocean.
In 1846, a dispute over the border between Texas and Mexico resulted in armed conflict, and the Mexican-American War began.
The United States won the war, and by the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, in 1848 won lands that later formed the states of California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, southwestern Colorado, and southwestern Wyoming.
Mexico received 15 million dollars and gave up its claims to Texas.
After Abraham Lincoln was elected President of the United States, Texas joined the newly formed Confederate States of America in 1861 and fought in the American Civil War in an attempt to become independent from the United States.
The Confederates lost to the Union (the United States) in 1865.
Texas was restored to full representation in Congress on March 30, 1870.
On January 10, 1901, oil was found in Texas, leading to the founding of a richer economy.
During a time when the economy was poor, many people left Texas.
Texas did not regain the population it had lost until the 1950s and 60s.
In recent years, Texas has become a hub for technology and computers.
Texas is the second biggest state in the Union (after Alaska) and is bigger than every European country except Russia.
It has mountains, forests, deserts, plains, and coasts.
The largest river in Texas is the Rio Grande, which forms the border between Mexico and the United States throughout south Texas.
The highest mountain in Texas is Guadalupe Peak.
Texas has the second largest economy in the United States after the economy of California.
It had a gross state product of US$1.887 trillion in 2019.
Texas was home to six of the top 50 companies on the Fortune 500 list in 2015 (third most after New York and California).
In 2017, Texas grossed more than US$264.5 billion a year in exports—more than the exports of California (US$172 billion) and New York (US$77.9 billion) combined.
As a sovereign country, in 2016, Texas would be the 10th largest economy in the world by gross domestic product (GDP), ahead of South Korea and Canada and behind Brazil.
Prussia (; , , Old Prussian: Prūsa or Prūsija) was a series of countries.
Originally it was a historically prominent German state that originated in 1525.
Mostly, the name is used for the Kingdom of Prussia, which was in northern Europe.
It was part of Germany for a while, and it included land in Poland, France, and Lithuania.
The name "Prussian" has had a lot of different meanings in the past and now:
The land of the Baltic Prussians (today parts of southern Lithuania, Kaliningrad, and north-eastern Poland);
The lands of the Teutonic Knights (a group of religious soldiers in the 12th century);
Part of the lands of the Polish Crown, Royal Prussia;
A fief of the Polish Crown, Ducal Prussia, later under control of the Hohenzollern family of Brandenburg;
All Hohenzollern land, inside or outside Germany;
An independent Kingdom, from the 17th century until 1871;
The largest part of the German Empire, the Weimar Republic, and Nazi Germany from 1871 to 1945.
In 1934, Germany stopped using the name Prussia for that area, and in 1947 the Allies abolished the state of Prussia and divided its territory among themselves and the new States of Germany.
Today, the name is only for historical, geographical, or cultural use.
The name Prussia comes from the Borussi or Prussi people who lived in the Baltic region and spoke the Old Prussian language.
Ducal Prussia was a fiefdom of the Kingdom of Poland until 1660, and Royal Prussia was part of Poland until 1772.
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, most German-speaking Prussians started thinking of themselves as part of the German nation.
They thought the Prussian way of life was very important:
Perfect organization
Sacrifice (giving other people something you need)
Obeying the law
From the late 18th century, Prussia had a lot of power in northern Germany and throughout central Europe; it was the strongest in politics and economics, and it had the most people.
After Chancellor Otto von Bismarck dissolved the German Confederation, Prussia annexed almost all of northern Germany.
In 1871, after the Franco-Prussian War, von Bismarck created the German Empire, and Prussia was the center of the empire, with the Kings of Prussia being the Emperors of Germany.
Prussia's borders have changed over time.
It has not always been the exact same place.
Mostly, Prussia was a small part of what is today northern Poland.
After a small number of Prussian people moved there to live, Germans came to live there too.
In 1934, Prussia's borders were with France, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Lithuania.
Some parts of Prussia are in eastern Poland.
Before 1918, a lot of western Poland was also in Prussia.
Between 1795 and 1807, Prussia also controlled Warsaw and most of central Poland.
West Prussia and East Prussia, which are now in Poland and Russia
Lusatia
Province of Saxony (now Saxony-Anhalt)
Kingdom of Hanover
parts of Hesse
the Rhineland
some small areas in the south, for example Württemberg-Hohenzollern, the home of the leaders of Prussia
Northeast Germany was Protestant, so Prussians were mostly Protestant.
But there were a lot of Catholic people in the Rhineland, East Prussia, Posen, Silesia, West Prussia, and Ermland.
The states of south Germany (especially Austria and Bavaria) were Catholic, so they did not want Prussians to rule them.
Prussia was mostly German, but in the late 18th century, the new Polish areas had a lot of Polish people too.
In 1918, these Polish areas were given to Poland, and in 1945, Pomerania and East Prussia were given to Poland.
Northern East Prussia, specifically Kaliningrad, was given to Russia.
In 1226, Polish Prince Conrad of Mazovia (Mazovia is a place in Northern Poland) asked the Teutonic Knights from Transylvania to come to Mazovia.
He wanted them to fight the Prussian tribes on his borders.
They fought for more than 100 years.
Then they created a new state.
After some time, this state controlled most of today's Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and parts of northern Poland.
In 1466, the Knights were under the King of Poland and Lithuania.
In 1525, the leader of the Knights became a Protestant.
He made part of the Knights' land into the Duchy of Prussia, which was then part of the Kingdom of Poland.
At that time, the Duchy of Prussia was only the area east of the place where the Vistula River enters the sea.
In 1618, the new Duke of Prussia was the Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg.
He was also Margrave of Brandenburg.
Brandenburg was ruled by the Hohenzollern family.
The Duchy of Prussia was important to the Hohenzollern family because it was not part of the Holy Roman Empire.
The name for the new state was Brandenburg-Prussia.
In the middle of the state was Polish land, but Brandenburg-Prussia was moving away from Poland.
Under Frederick William, who was called the Great Elector, Prussia took some new land in Magdeburg and areas west of the Rhine.
Kingdom of Prussia
In 1701, the Holy Roman Emperor and Polish King allowed Brandenburg-Prussia to call itself "Kingdom of Prussia" with Frederick I ("the Great") as its king.
Under Frederick II, Prussia waged war against Austria and took Silesia.
The wars ended in 1763; Prussia was then the most powerful state in eastern Germany.
Other parts of Germany, including Pomerania, went to Prussia because of marriage or death.
During this time, the Prussian army got bigger, and so did the administration system.
Until 1945, these were at the most important parts of the German state.
Between 1772 and 1795, Prussia, Russia and Austria divided Poland into parts (the Partitions of Poland).
Prussia controlled land in the far east, including the city of Warsaw.
Frederick William II had Prussia join the war with France in 1792.
He lost at Valmy and gave his western land to France.
Frederick William III started a new war, but lost at Jena.
He gave more land to France at the Treaty of Tilsit.
In 1813, Prussia again started war with Napoleonic France.
In 1815, Prussia won back the land it lost in earlier wars and also all the Rhineland and Westphalia and some other land.
This land in the west was very important, especially the Ruhr valley.
It was the new center of Germany's industrialization and the home of the weapons industry.
After the Napoleonic Wars, Prussia was the strongest power in Germany and more powerful than Austria.
In the early 19th century, there were two political groups in Germany.
The liberals wanted a democratic system with one strong central government.
The conservatives wanted Germany to be made of a group of independent, weak states .
In 1848, revolution came to Europe.
Frederick William IV was worried.
He allowed a National Assembly and a constitution.
The new Frankfurt Parliament wanted to give Frederick William the crown of all Germany, but he did not want it.
He said that revolutionaries could not name kings.
Now Prussia had a semi-democratic constitution, but really the nobility with land (the Junkers) had the power, especially in the east.
Imperial Prussia
In 1862, Prussian King Wilhelm I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the prime minister of Prussia.
Bismarck wanted the liberals and the conservatives to lose.
He wanted to create a strong, united Germany, but he wanted to do so under the Junker, not under the western German liberals.
So, he started three wars:
with Denmark in 1864 – this gave Prussia control of the Schleswig-Holstein area
with Austria in 1869 (Austro-Prussian War) – this allowed Prussia to take Hanover and most other northern German territories that had been ruled by Austria
with France in 1870 (Franco-Prussian War) - so Bismarck could control Mecklenburg, Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg, and Saxony.
After this, these states (but not Austria) became part of a united German Empire, and Wilhelm I took the title of Emperor (Kaiser).
This was Prussia's high moment.
The economic and political future looked good.
But after 99 days, in 1888, the state had a new leader, Kaiser Wilhelm II.
He fired Bismarck, who lost his job in 1890, and Wilhelm II started a new foreign policy.
He made the army bigger, and the navy much bigger, and he took risks.
This is part of why Germany entered World War I. When the Germans and their allies lost that war, the Prussian Junkers lost power.
The Prussian king and the other German kings had to leave.
Germany became the Weimar Republic.
In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles re-created the Polish state, and Prussia had to give up much of its land.
The Polish Corridor was split between East Prussia and Germany.
The end of Prussia
At the end of World War I, the Treaty of Versailles separated West Prussia from the rest of Germany to make the Free City of Danzig and Polish Corridor, so Poland would have access to the ocean instead of being landlocked.
Some people also wanted to break Prussia into smaller states, but this did not happen.
Prussia became the "Prussian Free State" (Freistaat Preußen), the largest state in the Weimar Republic.
The Prussian Free State made up more than 60% of all the land in the Weimar Republic.
The Prussian Free State contained the industrial Ruhr area the city of Berlin, so many people with left-leaning political ideas lived there.
The Social Democrats and the Catholic Centre had power for most of the 1920s.
In 1932, Germany's conservative Chancellor Franz von Papen took control of Prussia, ending the state's democratic constitution.
It was the end of German democracy too.
In 1933, Hermann Göring became Interior Minister of Prussia; he was now very strong.
In 1934, the Nazis took the German states' power.
In 1945, the Soviet Union's army captured all of eastern and central Germany (and Berlin).
Poland took everything east of the Oder-Neisse line, e.g. Silesia, Pomerania, eastern Brandenburg, and East Prussia.
The Soviet Union took the northern third of East Prussia, including Königsberg, now Kaliningrad.
About ten million Germans had to run away from these areas.
Polish and Russian people moved in in their place.
Because of this, and because the Communists took control of land in the GDR, also called East Germany, the Junker and Prussia were finished.
In 1947, the United States, Britain, France, and the Soviet Union formally agreed the end of Prussia.
In the Soviet Zone (which was called the GDR starting in 1949), which included Prussian lands, were now the states of Brandenburg and Saxony-Anhalt.
The Prussian parts of Pomerania went to Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania.
In 1952, the GDR government stopped using states and used districts instead.
In 1990, the end of the GDR, the states returned.
In the West, (called the Federal Republic of Germany or West Germany starting in 1949), the Prussian lands went to North Rhine-Westphalia, Lower Saxony, Hesse, Rhineland-Palatinate and Schleswig-Holstein.
Baden-Württemberg took the Hohenzollern land.
The idea of Prussia is not completely dead in Germany.
Some people want to put together the states of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, and Berlin and call them Prussia.
But German politicians are not interested in the idea.
The constitution of Berlin allows for Berlin and Brandenburg to become one state, but the people of Berlin voted against doing this on May 5, 1996.
1660 map of Prussia 1660
map of Prussian Provinces
Part Map of Prussia by Gerard Mercator, Atlas sive cosmographica.,
Amsterdam 1594
Part Map of Prussia by Kasper Henneberger, Koenigsberg 1629
Map of Old Prussia by K. Henneberger, 17th century.
Map of Prussia by K. Henneberger  in: Christoph Hartknoch, Alt- und neues Preussen..., Frankfurt 1684
Map of Prussia and Freie Stadt Danzig from 18th c.
Map of East Prussia  K. Flemming, F. Handtke, Głogów ca.
1920, after Treaty of Versailles
1525 establishments
House of Hohenzollern
States and territories disestablished in the 20th century
1947 disestablishments
16th-century establishments in Europe
1940s disestablishments in Europe
The Apocrypha are religious texts that are in some versions of the Catholic Bible.
Other versions omit them.
The word comes from Ancient Greek  (apokrypha).
Apocrypha means those that were hidden.
Generally, the term is applied to writings that were not part of the canon.
There are several reasons why these texts were not included in the canon.
The texts might only have been known to few people, or they might have been left out because their content does not fit well into that of the other books of the Bible.
Some of the apocrypha were written at a later date, and were therefore not included.
The Authorized King James Version called these books ‘Apocrypha’.
It separated them, because the Bible said so in 2 Esdras 14:46, But keep the seventy last, that thou mayest deliver them only to such as be wise among the people: For in them is the spring of understanding, the fountain of wisdom, and the stream of knowledge.
Roman Catholic Bibles have these books in the Old Testament.
They do not call them Apocrypha.
They call them deuterocanonical, which means that they belong to the second canon.
Canon just means an official list of literary works accepted as representing a field.
The first list is of books first written in Hebrew.
This second list is of books first written in Greek.
These books were kept in Catholic Bibles because it is believed that the Bible which Jesus read was a Bible that included the books of the "Apocrypha," the deuterocanonical books.
It is known that the most popular Bible at the time of Jesus was the Greek Septuagint version - which includes these extra books.
That is why early Church fathers quoted from Bibles including these books.
Others say
Christians disagree about the ‘Apocrypha’.
Others point out that the ‘Apocrypha’ was in every Christian Bible until 1828.
In 1828 these books were taken out of some Bibles.
The translators of the King James Bible said that these books were written to prepare the people for Jesus, in the same way as John the Baptist did.
They said that the apostles used these books.
And modern day members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (sometimes referred to as Mormons) also have hints in the  Book of Mormon.
There is no question that these books have always been part of the Bible in Oriental Orthodox Churches, so they were definitely not added in the 1500s.
Around the year 80 AD, the Jewish Council (Sanhedrin) decided to cut the books from the Hebrew Bible, but they stayed in the Christian Bible.
Then soon after Christianity became the only religion of Roman Empire in the 4th century, the Romans decided to cut out all of the same books that the Sanhedrin had cut out, and they moved some of them to the "apocrypha".
Texts of the Apocrypha
Book of Tobit (the Vulgate, and Luther call it "Tobias")
1st & 2nd Maccabees
The Gospel of Peter was probably written during the 2nd century.
It was discovered in a monk's grave in Egypt in 1886/1887.
This grave contained a papyrus from the 9th century.
Excerpts from the Oxyrhynchus Papyri
A fragment of the Secret Gospel of Mark
Sodium (symbol Na, from the Latin name natrium) is the chemical element number 11 in the periodic table of elements.
It follows that its nucleus includes 11 protons, and 11 electrons orbit around it (according to the simplified model known as "Niels Bohr atom").
Even if many isotopes can be artificially made, all decay in a short time.
As a result, all sodium found in nature (mainly in sea water) has the composition 11Na23, meaning that the nucleus includes 12 neutrons.
The atomic mass of sodium is 22.9898; if it is rounded, it would be 23.
Sodium is a light, silver-coloured metal.
Sodium is so soft that it can be easily cut with a knife.
When it is cut, the surface will become white over time.
This is because it reacts with air to form sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate.
Sodium is a little lighter than water; when it reacts with water it floats and reacts.
This reaction is very fast.
Hydrogen and sodium hydroxide are produced and lots of heat is created which usually causes the hydrogen to ignite.
Since sodium melts at a low temperature, it melts when it reacts with water.
It has one valence electron which is removed easily, making it highly reactive.
These are chemical compounds that contain sodium ions.
Sodium only exists in 1 oxidation state: +1.
Sodium aluminum fluoride, used to make aluminum
Sodium amide, very strong base
Sodium arsenite, colorless solid, very toxic
Sodium arsenate, oxidizing agent, very toxic
Sodium azide, used in airbags
Sodium bicarbonate, baking soda, used in cooking
Sodium bismuthate, oxidizing agent, used to test for manganese
Sodium bisulfate, acidic, used to increase pH
Sodium bromate, oxidizing agent, used to dye hair
Sodium bromide, rare, used in some medicine
Sodium carbonate, used to make glass
Sodium chlorate, used in some explosives
Sodium chlorite, used in disinfectants
Sodium chloride, table salt
Sodium chromate, yellow, oxidizing agent, toxic
Sodium dichromate, orange, oxidizing agent, toxic
Sodium fluoride, used in toothpastes, bitter, toxic in large doses
Sodium hydroxide, lye, used in soap, strong base
Sodium hypochlorite, bleach, disinfectant
Sodium hypophosphite, reducing agent, poisonous
Sodium iodate, oxidizing agent, prevents iodine deficiency
Sodium iodide, weak reducing agent, prevents iodine deficiency
Sodium manganate, rare green solid
Sodium nitrate, used in blasting powder
Sodium nitrite, used in food preservation
Sodium periodate, oxidizing agent
Sodium permanganate, less common than potassium permanganate, oxidizing agent
Sodium phosphate, various uses
Sodium phosphide, catalyst
Sodium phosphite, toxic, reducing agent
Sodium selenate, strong oxidizing agent, other selenium compounds
Sodium selenide, strong reducing agent, reactive
Sodium selenite, weak oxidizing agent, vitamin supplement
Sodium sulfate, bitter, laxative
Sodium sulfite, weak reducing agent, used to preserve dried food
Sodium tellurate, strong oxidizing agent
Sodium telluride, strong reducing agent, reacts with air easily
Sodium tellurite, main tellurite compound
Discovery and name
Sodium was discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy, an English scientist, back in 1807.
He made it by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide.
It is named after soda, a name for sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate.
Use as element
It is used in the preparation of organic compounds.
It is also used in the street lights that are orange, and ultra violet lights.
Use as compounds
Occurrence and production
Sodium does not exist as an element in nature; its easily removed valence electron is too reactive.
It exists as an ion in chemical compounds.
Sodium ions are found in the ocean.
It is also found as sodium chloride in the earth's crust, where it is mined.
Use in organisms
Sodium ion in the form of sodium chloride is needed in the human body, but large amounts of it cause problems, which is why one should not eat too much salt and other food items with huge sodium amount (such as biscuits with baking soda).
Many organisms in the ocean depend on the proper concentration of ions in sea water to live.
Hyponatremia (a medical problem caused by not having enough sodium in the body).
Dice are objects used in games when something random needs to be done, such as moving a game piece a random number of places on a board.
Most dice are cubes that have the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 on the faces.
Dice are sometimes made in other polyhedral shapes than cubes, but the six-sided die (die is the singular of "dice") is the most common.
A die is usually rolled by the player’s hand.
When adding together opposite sides of typical cubical dice, the sum is always 7.
Some games are played with two or more dice and some use only one.
Some games that use dice are Monopoly, Yahtzee, Risk, and many more.
Dice with different numbers of sides, like those used in Dungeons & Dragons, are called polyhedral dice.
In mathematics, a matrix (plural: matrices) is a rectangle of numbers, arranged in rows and columns.
The rows are each left-to-right (horizontal) lines, and the columns go top-to-bottom (vertical).
The top-left cell is at row 1, column 1 (see diagram at right).
Matrices are often represented by capital roman letters such as ,  and , and there are rules for adding, subtracting and "multiplying" matrices together, but the rules are different than for numbers.
As an example, the product  does not always give the same result as , which is the case for the multiplication of ordinary numbers.
A matrix can have more than 2 dimensions, such as a 3D matrix.
Also, a matrix can be one-dimensional, as a single row or a single column.
Many natural sciences use matrices quite a lot.