the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Tomb Raider Chronicles (2000)
Tomb Raider: The Angel of Darkness (2003)
Tomb Raider: Legends (2006)
Tomb Raider: Anniversary (2007)
Tomb Raider: Underworld (2008)
Tomb Raider (2013)
Rise of the Tomb Raider (2015)
Shadow of the Tomb Raider (2018)
Tomb Raider (2000)
Tomb Raider: Curse of the Sword (2001)
Tomb Raider: The Prophecy (2002)
Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light (2010)
Released Tomb Raider movies
Lara Croft: Tomb Raider (2001)
Tomb Raider: The Cradle of Life (2003)
Tomb Raider Reboot (2018)
A hot dog (or hotdog) is an American fast food.
It was first created in Germany.
In the United States, hot dogs are very popular in areas with large numbers of European immigrants, such as Chicago, Brooklyn and Detroit.
The word "hot dog" refers to the belief that many people thought hot dogs had actual dog meat.
In a few places, hot dogs are also called red-hots.
A hot dog is made of the remains of the pig after other parts are cut off and sold as bacon, sausage patties, and ham.
However many people across the world eat hot dogs and enjoy them very much.
Hot dogs can be boiled, grilled, or fried.
The word frankfurter comes from Frankfurt, Germany.
This sausage is usually served in a bun or another type of bread.
The most common type of hot dogs are made from beef, sometimes mixed with pork.
Chicken and vegetarian hot dogs are popular as well.
Hot dogs and other sausage products were first developed as a way to sell these parts that people would not normally eat.
Nearly 20% of the weight of a hot dog is usually non-meat ingredients including water, sugar, and spices.
Some legal categories of hot dogs, such as "frankfurters" can contain up to 3.5% of non-meat fillers as well, such as corn meal.
To add to the taste, various toppings and sauces are often added.
The most common sauces in the United States are ketchup, mustard and pickle relish.
Onions, chopped pickles, peppers, hot sauce and cheese are also sometimes added to the food.
Onions cooked in tomato sauce and Sauerkraut are popular toppings, as is chili.
In the United States, there are many different types of hot dogs, with different combinations of chili, cheese, onions, mustard, and other products.
One of the most popular types of hot dogs is a chili dog.
There are many different types of chili dogs.
One of the most well-known is a Coney Island dog, a dog topped with a blend of chili, cheese, mustard and onions that is originally from Michigan.
Other types of chili dogs include Michigan dogs, which are from upstate New York, and Texas dogs, which are from Pennsylvania.
Both Michigan and Texas dogs are spicy; the Texas dog has spicy sauce and the Michigan dog has a spicy weiner.
Chili dogs are also popular in the Southwestern United States.
Another type of hot dog is a Chicago dog, which is a Vienna beef weiner topped with mustard, onion, neon green pickle relish, peppers, tomatoes and a pickle.
A type of hot dog called a "kosher hot dog" is very common in parts of the United States and overseas.
It is similar to most hot dogs except that it is always made of Kosher beef, has more spice added to it.
Kosher hotdogs contain less of the less desirable sounding ingredients (such as rectum) as these parts are not considered to be Kosher beef.
Halal hot dogs are also made.
Though hot dogs are most popular in the United States, they are served in many places around the world.
People in Japan eat a lot of hot dogs, and the world's largest hot dog ever was made there.
In some countries, "hot dog" is the name of a completely different sausage dish; for example, in New Zealand it is used to mean corn dog, and hot dogs are called "American hot dogs" instead.
Constipation is when it is very hard to pass stool (defecate): that is, get rid of digested food waste (feces).
Constipation can be caused by many things.
One is eating or drinking too much dairy products that use cow milk.
To solve this problem many people use a laxative or eat defecation-inducing foods such as plums.
Another possible cause could be an obstruction somewhere along the digestive tract (the path that food travels inside the body).
A person suffers from constipation if he or she passes stool three times in a week or more seldom.
People suffering from constipation may defecate only once or twice in a week, and their stool is very solid and tough.
Normally people defecate daily.
When a person is constipated their lower stomach and intestinal area will be blocked.
People can usually conquer constipation by eating natural laxatives such a fruits, fruit juice and dietary supplements.
Liquid will help get rid of constipation.
Constipation can occur by eating hard food such as cheese or meat.
Type 1: Separate hard lumps, like nuts (hard to pass)
Type 2: Sausage-shaped, but lumpy, and passing it feels very painful, "like childbirth"
Type 3: Like a sausage but with cracks on its surface
Type 4: Like a sausage or snake, smooth and soft
Type 5: Soft blobs with clear cut edges (passed easily)
Type 6: Fluffy pieces with ragged edges, a mushy stool
Type 7: Watery, no solid pieces.
Entirely liquid
A kernel is the central part of an operating system.
It manages the operations of the computer and the hardware, most notably memory and CPU time.
Kernels also provide services which programs can use through system calls.
A micro kernel - A kernel which only contains the basic functionality;
A monolithic kernel - A kernel which contains many device drivers.
The Linux kernel is an example of a monolithic kernel.
Hybrid Kernel - The Microsoft Windows NT kernel is an example of a hybrid kernel.
Nanokernel
A typical computer user never interacts directly with the kernel.
It runs behind the scenes and cannot be seen, except for the text logs that it prints.
Operations of kernel
The kernel is the most fundamental part of an operating system.
It can  be thought of as the program which controls all other programs on the computer.
When the computer starts, it goes through some initialization (booting) functions, such as checking memory.
It is responsible for assigning and unassigning memory space which allows software to run.
The kernel provides services so programs can request the use of the network card, the disk or other pieces of hardware.
The kernel forwards the request to special programs called device drivers which control the hardware.
It also manages the file system and sets interrupts for the CPU to enable multitasking.
Many kernels are also responsible for ensuring that faulty programs do not interfere with the operation of others by denying access to memory that has not been allocated to them and restricting the amount of CPU time they can consume.
Micro kernels and monolithic kernels
Operating systems commonly use monolithic kernels.
In Linux, for example, device drivers are often part of a kernel (specifically Loadable Kernel Modules).
When a device is needed, its extension is loaded and 'joined' onto the kernel making the kernel larger.
Monolithic kernels can cause trouble when one of these drivers is faulty, such as if a beta driver is downloaded.
Because it is part of the kernel the faulty driver can override the mechanisms that deal with faulty programs (see above).
This can mean that the kernel, and thus the entire computer, can cease to function.
If there are too many devices, the kernel can also run out of memory causing a system crash or making the computer very slow.
Microkernels are a way of solving this problem.
In a microkernel operating system, the kernel deals only with critical activities, such as controlling the memory and CPU, and nothing else.
Drivers and other functions that monolithic kernels would normally include within the kernel are moved outside the kernel, where they are under control.
Instead of being an uncontrollable part of the kernel the beta driver is, therefore, no more likely to cause a crash than a beta web browser.
That is, if a driver goes wrong it can simply be restarted by the kernel.
Unfortunately, creating microkernel based operating systems is very difficult and there are no common microkernel operating systems.
Minix and QNX are both microkernel operating systems.
Ulm is a city in Germany, in the state of Baden-Württemberg.
It was started in about 850 AD.
It is on the left side of the river Danube.
Across the river on the right side is Neu-Ulm in Bavaria.
Together they have more than 170,000 inhabitants.
Ulm alone has about 120,000 inhabitants.
The university of Ulm was started in 1967.
It has about 7000 students.
The world's highest church tower is the Ulmer Münster (161,5m) in Ulm.
Also, Ulm has the oldest city theatre in Germany.
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm.
850s establishments
As an example, Austria is landlocked.
France is not landlocked because it has access to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean.
A sea is also landlocked if does not have access to an ocean.
This is also called an endorheic basin.
As an example, the Caspian Sea is landlocked.
The Gulf of Mexico is not landlocked because it has access to the Atlantic Ocean.
Caspian sea
The Black Sea is almost landlocked
If a country is landlocked by landlocked countries (surrounded by landlocked countries), then it is doubly landlocked.
Liechtenstein, Uzbekistan and  unrecognized state Artsakh are the only three doubly landlocked countries in the world.
Kyrgyzstan, officially the Kyrgyz Republic, is a country in Central Asia.
The country is landlocked (has no coast) and mountainous.
It has borders with China, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
Its capital is Bishkek.
It was a socialist republic of the Soviet Union, but became independent in 1991.
The country was peaceful in the 1990s.
Its president, Askar Akayev showed an autocratic and authoritarian character.
In 2005, there was an unexpected revolution after the elections of parliament (the legislature) in March.
President Akayev resigned on April 4 of that year.
Opposition leaders formed a coalition (a group from more than one party), and a new government was formed, led by President Kurmanbek Bakiyev and Prime Minister Feliks Kulov.
At the moment, different political groups are fighting for power in the republic.
Three of the 75 elected members of Parliament have been murdered.
Kyrgyzstan’s main religion is Islam.
Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked country in Central Asia.
It is farther from the ocean than any other country in the world.
It borders Kazakhstan, China, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
Mountains cover over 80% of the country.
Issyk-Kul Lake is the largest lake in Kyrgyzstan.
It is the largest mountain lake in Asia and the second largest mountain lake in the world after Titicaca.
Peak Jengish Chokusu, at 7,439 m (24,406 ft), is the highest point.
The highest peaks are in the Kakshaal-Too range.
Bishkek, the capital city, is in the north.
It is largest city in Kyrgyzstan.
The second largest is the ancient town of Osh.
Kyrgyzstan was the second poorest country in the former Soviet Union next to Tajikistan.
Now it is the second poorest country in Central Asia.
Agriculture is an important part of the economy in Kyrgyzstan.
Much farming is still being done by hand and by horse.
Main crops include wheat, sugar beets, potatoes, cotton, tobacco, vegetables, and fruit.
Kyrgyzstan is rich in mineral resources.
It has small petroleum and natural gas reserves.
Among its mineral reserves are solid amount of coal, gold, uranium, antimony and other metals but not iron.
Metallurgy is an important industry.
Imports include petroleum and natural gas, ferrous metals, chemicals, most machinery, wood and paper products, food and construction materials.
Its trade partners are Germany, Russia, China, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan.
Kebab (kebap in Turkish, kabab in Iran, Afghanistan, India and Pakistan, also spelled kebob, kabob;  ) means "grilled (or broiled) meat" in Persian and Turkish.
Kebab is usually made of lamb and beef.
Sometimes chicken and fish are used for some styles.
Pork is never used by Muslims but is sometimes used by non-Muslim sellers.
Muslims are not allowed to eat pork, for religious reasons.
There are many varieties of kebab and the term means different things in different countries.
The generic term kebab usually refers to doner kebab or döner kebap in Europe and to Gyros in the United States, though its meaning can vary.
In South Asia the term can refer to a whole range of items such as Chappali kabab, Shami kabab, Bihari kabab and so on.
There are evidence of hominin use of fire and cooking that was used in the Middle East around 790,000 years ago, and prehistoric hearths, earth ovens, and burnt animal bones were spread across Europe and the Middle East by at least 250,000 years ago.
Excavations of the Minoan settlement of Akrotiri unearthed stone supports for skewers used before the 17th century BC.
In Ancient Greek times, Homer in the Iliad (1.465) mentions pieces of meat roasted on spits (),
There are many types of kebab.
Below are just a few.
Shish
Shish kebabs are derived from the Turkish şiş which means skewer.
They are cooked or grilled on skewers, over hot coals or wood.
These kababs originated in Iran and Afghanistan and then spread out to Turkey, Azerbaijan, Pakistan, India.
They are also very popular now in Europe and the United States.
Chappali
Chappali kabab or chappal kabab or chapli kebab is a type of fried kebab.
It started in the North-West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) of present Pakistan and in Afghanistan.
The name comes from the Pashto (and also Urdu) word for 'slipper' or 'shoe'.
The kebab is actually called a 'slipper/shoe kebab'.
Its shape is like that of a slipper or shoe.
This kebab is basically made from ground or minced beef or mutton mixed with tomatoes, onions and chillies, and a variety of herbs and spices.
It is given its unique shape.
It is fried in a special big pan.
It is eaten with big roti bread typical of the Pathan region.
Often Qahwa or green tea, is drunk with it or after it, to help digestion.
Chappali kabab is very popular throughout Pakistan.
It has spread to major cities of the country such as Lahore and Karachi.
According to gourmets, the best ones are still found in Peshawar city and Mardan.
Today, the popularity of these kebabs is also gradually spreading to other parts of the world, including the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and the United States.
Middle Eastern foods
Pakistani food
Persian food
Turkish food
Animals need to be killed in a special way. (
The animal should be slaughtered by hand so that all the blood could be drained from the slaughtered {dead} animal before they can eat the animal.
It is called "Zabihah Halal" in Arabic language meaning "Permissible Slaughter".)
Muslims cannot consume carcass animals even the animal slaughtered by knife not in its neck called Mari' and wajadan.
Hunting animals can be eaten, but in a special manner.
Pork "He has only forbidden you what dies of itself, and blood, and flesh of swine, and that over which any other (name) than (that of) Allah has been invoked; but whoever is driven to necessity, not desiring, nor exceeding the limit, no sin shall be upon him; surely Allah is Forgiving, Merciful." (
Quran 2:173)
According to the Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali branches of Islam, all fish and shellfish would be halal.
All sea food is allowed to Muslims.
They should not drink alcohol or consume other intoxicating substances in the wrong way (for example, narcotics).
All substances that takes away the minds - with no medical purpose- are forbidden.
Some sources even argue caffeine, like alcohol and drugs, to be haram, which is the full opposite of halal.
zh:清真#符合“清真”的食物
Surat is a city in the State of Gujarat, India.
It is on the banks of the Tapti river.
Surat used to be a large seaport.
It is the eighth largest city in India.
According to the 2020 reports on the ‘cleanest cities of India’, Surat ranked second out of 4,242 cities in India.
Settlements in Gujarat
Kanpur is a city in Uttar Pradesh, India.
Almost three million people live in Kanpur.
Cities and towns in Uttar Pradesh
Towns in India
An internet portal or web portal is a website used to enter the Internet.
It can also be used to describe a website to enter certain parts of the Internet, like Wikipedia's Community Portal.
A web portal can be used to provide the user with personalised information such as employee training, safety manuals or a customer profile.
A web portal can also be used to enhance the collaboration of information and improve the way employees, customers and suppliers interact with your business.
A web portal is capable of handling both structured and unstructured information.
For users, it provides ease of navigation, and for enterprises it provides significant cost savings, improved productivity and a way to establish a long-lasting relationship with users.
Humanism is a philosophy or a way of thinking about the world.
Humanism is a set of ethics or ideas about how people should live and act.
People who hold this set of ethics are called humanists.
Humanists prefer critical thinking and evidence (rationalism and empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition.
In modern times, humanism is close to secularism.
It refers to a non-theistic approach to life, looking to science instead of religious dogma in order to understand the world.
The term was made widely known by scientists in the mid-20th century.
Many wanted to recognise human values, but without depending on religion as the main source of values.
Humans deserve respect.
Every human should be treated with respect and allowed to have dignity.
If all people act with respect for others, then people will live in peace and trust.
People should all be able to decide how they want to live their lives.
They should use reasoning to make decisions and solve problems.
Humanists decide what choices are good by whether those choices will help make human life better and the world around them.
Humanist ideas were discussed in Ancient Greece, from Thales to Anaxagoras and Protagoras.
The teachings of Zarathushtra and Lao Tzu had strong elements of humanism, and there are many other examples.
The writings of the ancient Greeks were studied in the 1400s during the Renaissance.
However, in this period the term "humanism" came to mean educated in the humanities, a rather different kind of idea.
Petrarch is often cited as the first modern humanist, but he pointed backwards to classical authors.
The modern meaning of humanism is more to do with using science to make the world a better place.
"The prophecy of Francis Bacon has now been fulfilled; and man, who at times dreamt of himself as a little lower than the angels, has submitted to become the servant and the minister of nature.
It still remains to be seen whether the same actor can play both parts".
The Guardian is a British newspaper.
It is published every day, except on Sunday.
It is owned by the same company as The Observer, which only publishes on Sunday.
The Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner.
The newspaper was founded in 1821.
It was founded by textile traders and merchants.
The Guardian was seen as "an organ of the middle class", or, in the words of C.P. Scott's son Ted, "a paper that will remain bourgeois to the last".
In 2005, Sir Max Hastings stated that he writes for The Guardian "because it is read by the new establishment", reflecting the paper's growing influence.
Until 1959 The Guardian was called The Manchester Guardian.
Three of the four people who wrote leaders for the Guardian joined the Social Democratic Party on its foundation in 1982.
The paper supported Tony Blair when he wanted to lead the Labour Party and to become Prime Minister.
In 1999 theguardian.com started.
At the time it was a website called Guardian Unlimited.
The Guardian describes itself as centre-left.
History of the Guardian
Founding of the Manchester Guardian
1821 establishments
1820s establishments in the United Kingdom
Guardian Newspaper (e-paper)
Algae (one alga, but several algae) are a type of plant-like living things that can make food from sunlight by photosynthesis.
The study of algae is called phycology or algology.
The term covers a range of photosynthetic organisms, and many are not closely related.
They are a polyphyletic group.
The term lumps together many different kinds of organisms.
They have in common  only that they are autotrophic: they use natural sources of energy and simple inorganic materials to build their forms.
As non-vascular plants they do not have the kind of cell and tissue structure of land plants.
They are a convenient but very loose term.
Only in recent years has it become clear how different the many kinds of algae are.
Etymology and study
The singular  is the Latin word for 'seaweed' and retains that meaning in English.
Although some say that it is related to Latin , 'be cold'.
But, no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature.
A more likely source is , 'binding, entwining'.
The Ancient Greek word for 'seaweed' was  (), which could either mean the seaweed (probably red algae) or a red dye that is got from it.
Biology and taxonomy
Algae are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms.
Some have one cell and others have many cells.
The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds.
They are like plants, and "simple" because they lack the many distinct organs found in land plants.
For that reason they are not classified as plants.
Though the prokaryotic cyanobacteria (formerly referred to as blue-green algae) were included as "algae" in older textbooks, it is not now.
The term algae is now used for eukaryotic organisms.
All true algae have a nucleus within a membrane and chloroplasts inside one or more membranes.
However, algae are definitely not a monophyletic group, as they do not all descend from a common algal ancestor.
Modern taxonomists propose splitting them up into monophyletic groups, but not everyone agrees how to do this.
Algae do not have the same structures that land plants do, such as leaves, roots, and other organs.
Nearly all algae have parts that do photosynthesis the same way as cyanobacteria.
They make oxygen, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green bacteria.
Some unicellular species use only external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic parts.
Types of algae
Below are some important kinds of algae.
Green algae: they are regarded as plants because they use the same type of chlorophyll as green plants do.
An evolutionary relationship between green algae and green plants is assumed.
Red algae: use a red pigment to capture the energy of sunlight, and so thought to have evolved separately from green plants.
Brown algae: use chlorophyll a, but have several other biochemical differences.
Also not considered a green plant.
Yellow-green algae: the Xanthophyceae.
Golden algae: the Chrysophyceae.
Algae are usually found in damp places or water, and are common on land and water.
However, algae on land are usually inconspicuous and are far more common in moist, tropical regions than dry ones.
Algae do not have vascular tissues and other adaptations to live on land, but they can endure dryness and other conditions in symbiosis with a fungus as lichen.
The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology.
Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column are called phytoplankton.
They provide the food base for most marine food chains.
Kelp grows mostly in shallow marine waters.
Some are used as human food or harvested for agar or fertilizer.
Kelp can grow in large stands called kelp forests.
These forests prevent some of the damage from waves.
Many different species live in them, including sea urchins, sea otters, and abalone.
Some algae may harm other species.
Some algae may reproduce a lot, and make an algal bloom.
These algae may make protective toxins which kill fish in the water.
Dinoflagellates make a compound that turns the flesh of fish into slime.
Then the algae eats this nutritious liquid.
Algae have evolved a number of symbiotic partnerships with other organisms.
The most famous is the plant-like lichen, which are each formed by a fungus with an alga.
It is a highly successful life-form, and twenty thousand 'species' are known.
In all cases the lichen are quite different in appearance and life-style from either constituent; it is possibly the most complete symbiosis known.
Both constituents gain from their access to niches with low nutrient value, which is where lichen are found.
Less well known are the algal relationships with animals.
Reef-building corals are basically social Cnidarian polyps.
Corals are dependent on light, because the algae are important partners, and they require light.
Corals have evolved structures, often tree-like, which offer the algae maximum access to light.
The coral weakens the algal cell walls, and digests about 80% of the food synthesised by the algae.
The corals' waste-products provide nutrients for the algae so, as with lichen, both partners gain from the association.
The algae are golden-brown flagellate algae, often of the genus Symbiodinium.
A curious feature of the partnership is that the coral may eject the algae in hard times, and regain them later.
The ejection of the algal partner is called bleaching, because the coral loses its colour.p200
Other types of Cnideria, such as sea anemones and jellyfish, also contain algae.
Jellyfish with algae behave so that their partners get the best light during the day, and descend to depths at night, where the water is rich in nitrates and brown with decay.
Sea slugs and clams are also well known for harbouring algae.
Both groups are molluscs.
The sea slugs graze on coral, and are the same colour as the coral they graze.
They are able to separate the algae from the polyp tissues they digest.
The algal cells are moved to its tentacles, where they continue to live.
The otherwise defenceless slug gains both camouflage and nutrition.p204 The giant clam keeps algae in its mantle, which is revealed when the clam is open.
The coloured mantle has places where the skin is transparent, and acts like a lens to concentrate light on the algae beneath.
When the algae get too numerous, the clam digests them.p203
Various other marine invertebrate groups have members which symbiose with algae.
Flatworms (Platyhelminths) and Polychaete worms (Annelids) are two such groups.
Alga (; ) is a hamlet in the Korday District of Kazakhstan.
It is one of several communities in Kazakhstan with this name.
The A-2 highway from Bishkek to Almaty runs through the town.
A significant architectural feature is its mosque.
Settlements in Kazakhstan
Kelp forests are a type of marine ecosystem that is present around colonies of kelp; they contain rich biodiversity.
Kelp can stretch 2-30 meters or more (up to 60 m in Macrocystis pyrifera) from their anchors on the sea floor to the surface.
It provides a vertical infrastructure that is home to many fish and invertebrate species.
Kelp forests also often attract mammalian visitors, including whales, sea lions, sea otters, and SCUBA-diving humans.
Ecosystem architecture
Giant kelp uses gas-filled floats to keep the plant suspended, allowing the kelp blades near the ocean surface to capture light for photosynthesis.
The architecture of a kelp forest ecosystem is based on its physical structure, which influences the associated species that define its community structure.
Structurally, the ecosystem includes three guilds of kelp and two guilds occupied by other algae:
Canopy kelps include the largest species and often constitute floating canopies that extend to the ocean surface (e.g., Macrocystisand Alaria).
Stipitate kelps generally grow a few meters above the sea floor and can grow in dense aggregations (e.g., Eisenia and Ecklonia).
Prostrate kelps lie near and along the sea floor (e.g., Laminaria).
The benthos is composed of other algal species (e.g., filamentous and foliose functional groups, articulated corallines) and sessile organisms along the ocean bottom.
Encrusting coralline algae directly and often extensively cover ocean floor.
Multiple kelp species often co-exist within a forest; the term understory canopy refers to the stipitate and prostrate kelps.
For example, a Macrocystis canopy may extend many meters above the seafloor towards the ocean surface, while an understory of the kelps Eisenia and Pterygophora reaches upward only a few meters.
Beneath these kelps, a benthic assemblage of foliose red algae may occur.
The dense vertical structure with overlying canopy forms a system of microenvironments similar to those observed in a terrestrial forest, with a sunny canopy region, a partially shaded middle, and darkened seafloor.
Each guild has associated organisms, which vary in their levels of dependence on the habitat, and the assemblage of these organisms can vary with kelp morphologies.
For example, in California, Macrocystis pyrifera forests, the nudibranch, Melibe leonina, and skeleton shrimp, Caprella californica, are closely associated with surface canopies; the kelp perch Brachyistius frenatus, rockfish Sebastes spp.,
and many other fishes are found within the stipitate understory; brittle stars and turban snails Tegula spp.
are closely associated with the kelp holdfast, while various herbivores, such as sea urchins and abalone, live under the prostrate canopy; many seastars, hydroids, and benthic fishes live among the benthos; solitary corals, various gastropods, and echinoderms live over the encrusting coralline algae.
In addition, pelagic fishes and marine mammals are loosely associated with kelp forests, usually interacting near the edges as they visit to feed on resident organisms.
Symbiosis (pl.
symbioses) means living together.
It describes close and long-term relationships between different species.
The term was
A symbiont is an organism living in a relationship with another species in which one or both get benefits.
When one species lives inside another species, or a microscopic symbiont lives inside the cells of a host, it is called an endosymbiont.
The relevance of symbiosis is its frequency and its evolutionary significance.
There appear to be no higher plants or animals without symbionts.
Those symbionts are of great importance to the larger organisms, who in most cases would be unable to live as they do without their symbionts.
Mycorrhiza in higher plants, and gut flora in insects and vertebrates are examples.
Humans are no exception.
Furthermore, most of these associations are between organisms not just from different species, but from different kingdoms.
And lastly, the cells of all eukaryotes contain organelles which are descendants of symbiotic relationships which began at least a billion years ago.
Mitochondria and plastids are examples.
The conclusion must be that symbiosis has been highly significant in the evolution of life.
The definition of symbiosis has been controversial.
Some believe symbiosis should only refer to persistent mutualisms, while others believe it should apply to all kinds of long-term biological interactions.
After 130 years of debate, current biology and ecology textbooks now use the latter "de Bary" definition or an even broader definition (where symbiosis means all species interactions).
The restrictive definition (where symbiosis means mutualism only) is no longer used.
Types of symbiosis
Type 1: Partners keep their bodies separate
Symbiosis does not always benefit both partners.
This is what may happen:
parasitism, in which the association has disadvantages for one of the two.
One may even destroy or kill the other. (
+ –)
mutualism, in which the association has advantages for both (+ +)
commensalism, in which one member of the association benefits while the other is not affected (+ 0)
competition, in which both members of the association are fighting over food or other needs. (– –)
Type 2: Partners live as one organism
This kind of symbiosis is called endosymbiosis.
Rhizobia: nitrogen-fixing bacteria which live in root nodules on plants of the pea family.
Singly-celled forams which include a single-celled alga inside the cell.
This is 'facultative', which means they may or may not do it.
A more far-reaching version is idioplastic endosymbiosis.
Here, the foram consumes the alga, but keeps its chloroplasts in working order.
Green algae inside marine polychaete worms.
Single-celled algae inside reef-building corals.
Bacteria inside the guts of those insects and vertebrates which digest plant cellulose.
These are 'obligate' symbionts, which means the host must have them.
Lichen: fungus+alga or bacterium.
Mycorrhiza: fungal hyphae and roots of trees.
Almost for certain, this happened to form the eukaryote cell.
That's the type of cell all animals and plants are made of.
The organelles inside the cell, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, contain some DNA.
This DNA is the remnant of a once separate bacterium.
The theory is that the eukaryote cell evolved by the fusion of several bacteria or archaea organisms.
Examples of symbiosis
An example of mutual symbiosis is the relationship between clownfish that live among the tentacles of tropical sea anemones.
The clownfish protects the anemone from other fish.
Clownfish waste excreted provides vital nutrients, and they can boost their hosts’ oxygen supplies at night too.
The stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the anemone fish from its predators.
A special mucus on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles.
Another example is the goby fish, which sometimes lives together with a shrimp.
The shrimp digs and cleans up a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby live.
The shrimp is almost blind, and is vulnerable to predators when above ground.
When a predator approaches, the goby touches the shrimp with its tail as a signal.
When that happens both the shrimp and goby quickly retreat into the burrow.
A lichen is an intimate combination of a fungus with an alga.
The alga lives inside the fungus, which must have the alga to survive.
The alga, on the other hand, can survive on its own.
The result of the union is a flat, coloured lichen which grows on rocks and other surfaces in the open air.
Herbivores are host to gut bacteria which help them digest plant material.
Plant cell walls are made of cellulose, and almost no animal has developed an enzyme to digest this material.
Therefore, at least for herbivores which eat leaves, the bacteria are essential.
Some species of ants 'farm' aphids, protecting them from predators, and moving them from one feeding site to another.
The ants consume the sweet sticky fluid which aphids secrete after sucking plant sap.
Al Ain (Arabic: العين) is a city in the United Arab Emirates.
The city name literally means "the spring" or "the eye" in Arabic.
This name come from the water sources in the area.
The city is in the emirate of Abu Dhabi, right next to the border with Oman.
It is often called the 'Garden City of the Persian Gulf' because of the many parks, tree-lined avenues and decorative roundabouts within the city.
Al Ain, Abu Dhabi and Dubai form a kind of geographic triangle in the center of the country.
Each city is around 150 kilometers from the other two.
Al Ain is the fourth largest metropolitan area by population in the Emirates, with a population of 348,000 (2003 census estimate).
There are more Emirati nationals in Al Ain than other places in the country, but most who live there are people who left other countries, particularly from the Indian sub-continent.
There are fewer Western people than in the larger centers of Abu Dhabi and Dubai.
This gives Al Ain a more 'Arabic' look and feel, compared to the larger cities of the Emirates.
People have lived in Al Ain for more than 4000 years, and the area is central to the cultural heritage of the country.
There are many underground water springs in the area.
This explains why people wanted to live there.
Traces of its past remain, including camel racing and breeding.
The ancient falaj system of irrigation is still in use in some areas.
The system brings underground water to people by a network of tunnels that come out into open channels.
The flow of water in the channels can be controlled.
Al Ain is becoming a place that tourists visit, with attractions such as Jebel Hafeet, a 1340 metre high mountain that dominates the surrounding area.
Many tourists like to visit the mineral springs at the base and drive to the top of this mountain for sunset.
Al Ain regularly records the highest summer temperatures in the country, but the dry desert air makes it a welcome escape from the coastal humidity of the larger cities.
Other attractions include the Al Ain Oasis in the city centre, and other oases around the area, cool places to escape the summer heat, a zoo, amusement park named "Fun City", many well kept parks, popular with families in the summer evenings, a heritage village, as well as malls and other modern sites.
Important buildings include United Arab Emirates University, Higher Colleges of Technology, well-equipped medical facilities, including the teaching hospital at Tawam, military training areas and Al Ain International Airport.
Jutland (Danish: Jylland; German: Jütland) is a peninsula in northern Europe.
It forms the mainland part of Denmark and a northern part of Germany.
It separates the North Sea from the Baltic Sea.
Its terrain is relatively flat, with low hills and peat bogs.
It has an area of 29,775 km² (11,496 square miles), and a population of 2,491,852 (2004).
The northern two thirds of the peninsula are occupied by the westernmost portion of the Kingdom of Denmark.
There is no separate name for the Danish portion of the peninsula, so it is simply called the same name.
The northernmost part of Jutland became an island following a flood in 1825; the Limfjord now separates it from the mainland.
This island is called Vendsyssel-Thy or Nørrejyske Ø ("North Jutlandic Island") and is still commonly reckoned as part of the peninsula; it is also partly coterminous with the county and future region called North Jutland.
The southern third is made up of the German Bundesland of Schleswig-Holstein, with the duchies of Schleswig (also Sønderjylland/Southern Jutland) and Holstein.
Both duchies have passed back and forth between the Danes and various German rulers.
In the last border movement, Denmark regained North Schleswig (Nordslesvig in Danish) by plebiscite in 1920.
Southern Schleswig remained German.
The River Elbe forms the southern border of Jutland with the city of Hamburg on its shore.
The Danish Wadden Sea Islands and the North Frisian Islands stretch along the southwest coast of Jutland in the German Bight.
There are two bridges which link the central part ofJutland to the island of Funen to the east.
They are the Little Belt Bridge and the New Little Belt Bridge.
The roads which use these bridges are part of the European road network.
Århus, Denmark
Kiel, Germany
Lübeck, Germany
Flensburg, Germany
Esbjerg, Denmark
Randers, Denmark
Kolding, Denmark
Vejle, Denmark
Horsens, Denmark
Geography of Denmark
Regions of Germany
A plebiscite or referendum is a type of voting, or of proposing laws.
Some definitions of 'plebiscite' suggest that it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country.
Others define it as the opposite.
Australia defines 'referendum' as a vote to change the constitution and 'plebiscite' as a vote that does not affect the constitution.
Mandatory - meaning the government must do what the result says
Advisory - meaning the result of the vote is only to help the government make the final choice.
It usually depends on the country's history and constitution what sort of referendum/plebiscite is used.
In Switzerland a referendum is usually mandatory, because the people are seen as the source of the government's mandate (power) to govern.
For example, during Switzerland's basic income campaign the country utilized a national referendum for the polling.
In the United Kingdom referendums have only been advisory, because the government says that the people elected to Parliament make the decisions.
The referendum on the independence of Scotland was an exception.
It was legally binding, but it was not a referendum of the UK electorate.
It was restricted to present residents of Scotland.
An example of a proposed plebiscite was the 2011 decision by Greek Prime Minister George Papandreou to let the Greek people vote on whether the heavily indebted nation would accept a €130 billion bailout package from the European Union.
The idea shocked eurozone nations, as a "no" vote could mean Greece defaulting on its national debt, and leaving the European Union and the eurozone.
However, the vote was cancelled.
Another example was the voting on the European Constitution in 2005.
The vote took place in some countries.
France and The Netherlands had a referendum on the subject.
In both states, the voters said no to the proposal and no constitution was made.
The separate simultaneous referendums held on 24 April 2004 in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus on the comprehensive settlement plan of the UN Secretary-General provides yet another example of such a vote.
The Plan was approved in the Turkish Cypriot referendum by 65%, while it was rejected in the Greek Cypriot referendum by 75%.
Problems with referendums
Many political problems can be solved by asking the people their opinion because the supporters of the argument will be forced to accept the decision of the people.
However:
It is feared that the electorate do not have sufficient political knowledge to truly understand what they are voting for
Philosophers Plato and Madison thought voters are too easily persuaded by their own internal feelings of a matter instead of focusing on the good of the nation.
That is to say they vote selfishly.
The city of Dubai is the largest and most populated city in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the capital city of the emirate of Dubai, UAE.
The city is sometimes called "Dubai City" to prevent it from being mixed up with the emirate.
Dubai is a city and emirate in the United Arab Emirates known for luxury shopping, ultramodern architecture and a lively nightlife scene.
Burj Khalifa, an 830m-tall tower, dominates the skyscraper-filled skyline.
At its foot lies Dubai Fountain, with jets and lights choreographed to music.
On artificial islands just offshore is Atlantis, The Palm, a resort with water and marine-animal parks.
There are records of the town of Dubai from 1799.
The city was a dependent of Abu Dhabi until 1833.
The town of Dubai was an important port of call for foreign tradesmen (chiefly Indians), who settled in the town.
Until the 1930s, the town was known for its pearls.
Burj al-Arab
Dubai International Airport, is in the middle of the city.
Dubai Mall, is one of the largest malls in the world
Dubai park
IMG world of adventure
Dubai Desert Safari Experiences
Dubai Attractions
Dubai has a hot desert climate.
Summers are extremely hot, windy, and humid.
The highest recorded temperature in the UAE is 52.1 °C (126 °F), recorded in July 2002.
According to the UN, about 14 percent of the world population will face water scarcity by the year 2025.
This shortage of water is expected to be worse in arid countries like the UAE.
The UAE cloud seeding initiative is part of the government’s attempt to deal with the existing and future water needs of the country’s growing population.
Specific rules
The drinking age is 21.
Drinking in public or being drunk in public are not tolerated.
Offensive language, spitting, aggressive behavior and smoking outside designated areas are not tolerated.
Public displays of affection such as holding hands or kissing are not tolerated.
Men should avoid staring at local women or attempting to make eye contact.
During Ramadan while Muslims are fasting from sunrise to sunset, non-Muslims can only eat and drink in screened-off areas.
www.dubai.ae – The Official Portal of Dubai Government
www.dm.gov.ae – Dubai Municipality website
dubijobs.com – Dubai Job Portal
An exclave is strip of land that belongs to an entity (like a country or a region) but that is not connected to it by land (islands are not counted).
The strip of land is surrounded by other political entities.
A good example is Kaliningrad Oblast (the region around the Russian city Kaliningrad).
It belongs to the Russian Federation, but is separated from the rest of that country by territory belonging to Lithuania and Poland.
Although both meanings are close, an exclave might not be an enclave.
An enclave is completely surrounded by one other country.
For example, Kaliningrad is surrounded not by one state, but by two: Lithuania and Poland.
It also borders the Baltic Sea.
It is not an enclave.
On the other hand, the Spanish exclave of Llivia is an enclave in France.
True exclaves
Angola: Cabinda
Azerbaijan: Nakhichevan
Belgium: Baarle-Hertog
Brunei: Temburong
Croatia: Dubrovnik
East Timor: Oecussi-Ambeno
Germany: Büsingen am Hochrhein
Italy: Campione
Netherlands: Baarle-Nassau (parts)
Oman: Musandam
Russia: Kaliningrad
Spain: Llivia
Northern Cyprus: Kokkina (de facto).
United States: Alaska
Subnational exclaves
Many of the cantons of Switzerland have exclaves:
Bern has two small exclaves, Münchenwiler and Clavaleyres; the first is entirely surrounded by Fribourg, the second by Fribourg and Vaud's exclave.
Lucerne has two pieces separated from the main territory by the Vierwaldstättersee; one borders Schwyz, the other Nidwalden.
The "half-canton" of Obwalden is in two large pieces, separated by a strip of Nidwalden.
Nidwalden's district of Hergiswil is separated by an arm of the Vierwaldstättersee.
Fribourg is a large exclave bounded by Vaud and Lake Neuchâtel; two enclaves, Surpierre and Vuissens, within Vaud; and another enclave, Wallenbuch, within Bern.
Solothurn has two exclaves, Dorneck and Thierstein, both bounded on the south by Basel-Country and on the north by France; as well as the enclave of Steinhof which is entirely surrounded by Bern.
Schaffhausen, the only canton lying mostly on the north bank of the Rhine, is cut into three parts by German territory that links Germany to the Rhine.
The middle part is the largest, and surrounds the German enclave of Büsingen.
The upper and middle parts border on Thurgau, the middle and lower parts on Zürich.
The divided canton of Appenzell is surrounded by Sankt-Gallen.
Since its partition on religious lines in 1597, Appenzell Innerrhoden has three small exclaves, one enclave in Appenzell Ausserrhoden and two bordering also on Sankt-Gallen.
Vaud has one exclave, Avenches, bordered by Lake Neuchâtel, Fribourg and the tiny Bernese exclave of Clavaleyres.
The coast of Lake Neuchâtel is thus in seven pieces belonging to four cantons: clockwise from the north they are Neuchâtel, Bern (main), Vaud (Avenches exclave), Fribourg (main), Vaud (main), Fribourg (exclave), Vaud (main).
Geneva has two small exclaves within Vaud, together making the commune of Céligny.
The larger has a shoreline on Lake Geneva.
The secession of the new canton of Jura in 1979 left Bern temporarily with an exclave bounded by Jura, Solothurn (main and both exclaves), Basel-Country and France.
The exclave, Laufental, joined Basel-Country in 1994.
Kentucky: The westernmost part of the state, a piece of land known as the Kentucky Bend, is surrounded on three sides by the Mississippi River, with Missouri on the opposite shore.
Road access to the rest of Kentucky is only available by first going south into Tennessee.
This exclave exists because the Mississippi, which forms the boundary between Missouri (right bank) and Kentucky/Tennessee (left bank), crosses latitude 36°30', which is part of the border between Kentucky and Tennessee, three times.
Louisiana: St. Martin Parish has an exclave which is separated from the main part of the parish by Iberia Parish.
Massachusetts: Norfolk County is not in one piece.
The towns of Brookline and Cohasset are part of Norfolk County, but are surrounded on all sides by other counties: Brookline by Suffolk and Middlesex, Cohasset by Plymouth.
California: The City and County of San Francisco has an exclave on Alameda Island, across San Francisco Bay and adjoining Alameda County.
The exclave came into being as land on the border between the two counties was reclaimed from the Bay to build the Naval Air Station Alameda, now decommissioned.
This small piece of open space cannot be reached from San Francisco (except by boat) without passing through Oakland and Alameda.
Michigan: The "Lost Peninsula" in Monroe County, Michigan, can only be reached via Toledo, Ohio.
It is surrounded by Maumee Bay in Lake Erie. (
Map)
Sandoval County, New Mexico: During World War II, Los Alamos County was created out of parts of Sandoval and Santa Fe Counties, for the convenience of the Manhattan Project.