the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The damaged tissue is replaced with scar tissue.
This is called repair
How wounds heal and tumors form  With this simple Flash demonstration, Harvard professor Donald Ingber explains how wounds heal, why scars form, and how tumors develop.
Presented by Children's Hospital Boston.
Wound Healing
Wound Healing and Repair
Lorenz H.P. and Longaker M.T.  Wounds: Biology, Pathology, and Management .
Stanford University Medical Center.
Romo T. and McLaughlin L.A. 2003.
Wound Healing, Skin.
Emedicine.com.
Rosenberg L. and de la Torre J. 2003.
Wound Healing, Growth Factors.
People have lived in Australia for over 65,000 years.
The first people who arrived in Australia were the Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islander people's.
They lived in all parts of Australia.
They lived by hunting, fishing and gathering.
Aboriginal peoples invented tools like the boomerang and spear.
There is also evidence that the Aboriginal people used farming methods.
Tradition was very important in their lives.
Their religion is called the Dreamtime, which has lots of stories about the creation of the world by spirits.
Aboriginal art started at least 30,000 years ago and there are lots of Dreaming stories painted on walls and cut in rocks all around Australia.
Aboriginal music has songs about the Dreamtime, sometimes with special instruments like the didgeridoo.
In 1606 the first European, Dutch explorer Willem Janszoon (1571–1639), visited the west.
Luis Vaez de Torres sailed through the water between Australia and New Guinea later that year.
Only after Dirk Hartog chanced upon the west coast in 1616 did other European vessels visit and map the coast.
After sixty more ships visited the coast, enough was known for a map to be published in 1811.
The land was dry because of not much rain; some was a desert.
The explorers thought no crops could be grown and so it would be difficult for people to live there.
They decided there would be no economic reasons to stay.
In 1642, Dutchman Abel Tasman, working for the Dutch East Indies Company reached Tasmania, which he called Antony van Diemenslandt.
He then called the continent he charted the north coast of on his second visit in 1644 New Holland.
In 1688, William Dampier became the first Englishman to reach Australia.
But in 1770 a British sailor, Captain James Cook, found the fertile east coast of Australia.
He called it New South Wales, and claimed it for Britain.
Colonial Australia
The British decided to use the land visited by Captain Cook as a prison colony.
Britain needed a place to send its convicts (people who had been sent to jail for theft and other crimes) because its gaols were full and it had just lost its American colonies in the American War of Independence.
In 1788 the British First Fleet of 11 ships, carrying about 1500 people arrived at Botany Bay (Sydney).
Arthur Phillip led them as the first Governor of New South Wales.
About 160 000 convicts were brought to Australia from 1788 until 1868.
Free immigrants began arriving in the 1790s.
For the first few years they did not have much food, and life was very hard.
But soon they began to farm, and more people came.
Sydney grew, and new towns were started.
Wool brought good money.
By 1822, many towns had been set up and people from the towns often visited Sydney for additional economic resources.
Soon people from Sydney found other parts of Australia.
George Bass and Matthew Flinders sailed south to Tasmania and a colony was started at Hobart in 1803.
Hamilton Hume and William Hovell went south from Sydney by land.
They found the Murray River, and good land in Victoria.
Thomas Mitchell went inland, and found more rivers.
In 1826, the first British military outpost was set up at King George Sound in Western Australia.
The Swan River Colony was started in 1829, with townsites at Fremantle and Perth.
In 1836, a free-settler colony was started in South Australia, where no convicts were ever sent.
Queensland became a separate colony in 1859.
As the towns and farms spread across Australia, the Aboriginal people were pushed off their land.
Some were killed, and many died from illness and hunger.
Soon, Australia's Aborigines were outnumbered by Europeans, and many were made to live on reserves.
The goldrushes of New South Wales and Victoria started in 1851 leading to large numbers of people arriving to search for gold.
By 1853 the goldrushes had made some poor people very rich.
Convict transportation ended in the 1840s and 1850s and more changes came.
The people in Australia wanted to run their own country, and self-govern.
The first governments in the colonies were run by Governors chosen by London.
The New South Wales Legislative Council, was created in 1825 to advise the Governor of New South Wales, but it was not chosen by voters.
William Wentworth established the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government for New South Wales.
In 1840, the Adelaide City Council and the Sydney City Council were started and some people could vote for them (but only men with a certain amount of money).
Then, Australia's first parliamentary elections were held for the New South Wales Legislative Council in 1843, again with some limits on who could vote.
The Australian Colonies Government Act [1850] allowed constitutions for New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.
In 1850 elections for legislative councils were also held in the colonies of Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.
In 1855, limited self-government was granted by London to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.
A new secret ballot was introduced in Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia in 1856, allowing people to vote in private.
This system was copied around the world.
In 1897, Catherine Helen Spence became the first female political candidate.
History of the Australian nation – State Library of NSW
The Australian History page at Project Gutenberg of Australia
Bush Poetry a source of Australian History
An Aborigine on his understanding of tradition
Early History
People have lived on the Iberian Peninsula for about 500,000 years.
Neanderthal man came about 200,000 years ago.
Modern humans first came about 40,000 years.
Thousands of years ago Iberians and Celts lived there, and the Phoenicians made a few cities there to get tin and silver to trade.
The Visigoths converted from Arian Christianity to Roman Catholics.
The land was won after a war by Muslims who were Arab and Berber.
Roman Catholics from Europe eventually decided to fight to take Spain from the Muslims.
They fought wars for many hundreds of years, some of which were Crusades against other Christians like the Cathars.
These were very cruel wars.
In the year 1492, they took the last part of Spain that had belonged to the Moors.
Boabdil, the last Moorish Leader of Granada, gave the city to King Ferdinand of Aragon on 2 January 1492, and Christians now ruled all of Spain.
Before this, several different kings had ruled different countries in what is now called Spain.
Two of these countries, Castile and Aragon, came together when the king of Aragon, Ferdinand II, married the queen of Castile, Isabella.
In the same year, 1492, they decided to send Christopher Columbus to explore the Atlantic Ocean.
Columbus found a land there that the people of Europe did not yet know.
These were the islands of the Caribbean Sea.
Late 15th century
Columbus and other sailors explored more and found that there were two continents there - North America and South America.
Spain sent many soldiers and businessmen to North and South America, and they took over very large parts of those two continents.
Owning this empire made Spain very rich.
But when they conquered that empire, they killed millions of the Native Americans who had lived there before.
Spain owned this empire for more than three hundred years.
Meanwhile, at home, the Muslim manuscripts had been either burnt or spread to other countries.
Jews had been expelled from Spain.
The multicultural society was destroyed, and so was the learning.
Among the few things kept and respected in Spain were in music: harmony and stringed instruments, and of course the buildings, many of which became churches, by adding crosses.
16th and 17th centuries
The Spanish Empire was the strongest in the world through most of the next two centuries, thanks to gold from the Americas.
This new gold made rulers and colonial governors rich.
Meanwhile, others' savings became worth less due to inflation.
Spain became a society of very rich and very poor.
Some of the poorest went to the new colonies in the Caribbean, Central America and South America, mostly to find gold.
Native American peoples were killed by diseases brought by the Spaniards, but most Spaniards did not know this.
They found damaged and dying societies with people who had lost some of their most important leaders and thinkers.
The Spaniards thought this meant they were inferior, and used this as an excuse to enslave the natives.
Millions of natives died mining gold for the Spanish.
The Spanish Empire also at this time funded the Spanish Inquisition which tortured and killed anyone who disagreed with the Roman Catholic Church.
The Reformation which created Protestant sects in Europe was not allowed into Spain, it was kept out and, as with Jews or Muslims, its believers were killed.
The nobles of Spain no longer had to fight anyone since the internal feuds were over.
No one could challenge their power.
In many ways it was held together as a reign of terror.
People who challenged them were often called heretics, so that the Inquisition could torture them, and then nobles take the property.
For ordinary people on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, life got worse.
A few rulers got rich.
Today we would say that these people were guilty of war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity.
Many Church people who had the power to speak out at that time, did so, and they said many of the same things as we would say today.
But none of this mattered much to the rulers.
In the 18th century, there was doubt over who should become king of Spain; this doubt led many of the kings of Europe to fight to become king of Spain.
This was called the War of the Spanish Succession.
France occupied Spain for a long time.
This made Spain very weak.
It also made Spain lose its empire in North and South America; all of the parts of that empire became their own countries, or were taken over by other countries such as the United States of America.
There was not much peace in Spain during the first part of the 20th century.
Some Spaniards tried to set up a government chosen by the people (a democracy), and they made the King of Spain leave the country.
However, in 1936, two different groups of Spaniards went to war over whether the government should be a democracy, or take orders from one person.
In 1939, those who wanted democracy were defeated, and a dictator named Francisco Franco took over the government.
Franco died in 1975.
He had decided that Spain should have a king again, and he chose Juan Carlos, the grandson of the king who had been forced to leave the country, to be king.
But the king did not rule as a dictator; instead, he chose to set up a democracy.
Also since Franco's death, Spain appointed Adolfo Suárez to became Spain's first democratically elected prime minister.
Now Spain is a modern democratic country, and does business with many countries around the world.
It is a part of the European Union.
For example, people consider the bottom of the foot a person's lowest end, and the top of the head a person's highest end.
If the distance between the bottom of a person's foot and the top of that person's head is 64 inches, then that person's height is 64 inches.
A historian is someone who studies history.
Historians use written sources to understand past events and societies.
Richard B. Todd, ed. (
Dictionary of British Classicists, 1500–1960, Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2004 .
Kelly Boyd, ed. (
Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing.
London [etc.] :
Fitzroy Dearborn
Lateiner, D. (1989).
The historical method of Herodotus.
Phoenix, 23.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
John Cannon et al.,
eds. (
The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians.
Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1988 .
Hartog, F. (1988).
The mirror of Herodotus: the representation of the other in the writing of history.
Erik Christiansen (1970).
The Last Hundred Years of the Roman Republic, Odense: Andelsbogtrykkeriet
Gottschalk, L. R. (1950).
Understanding history; a primer of historical method.
New York: Knopf
Barnes, M. S. (1896).
Studies in historical method.
Heath's pedagogical library.
Boston: D.C. Heath & Co.
Taylor, I. (1889).
History of the transmission of ancient books to modern times, together with the process of historical proof: or, a concise account of the means by which the genuineness of ancient literature generally, and authenticity of historical works especially, are ascertained, including incidental remarks upon the relative strength of the evidence usually adduced in behalf of the Holy Scriptures.
Liverpool: E. Howell.
Herodotus, Rawlinson, G., Rawlinson, H. C., & Wilkinson, J. G. (1862).
History of Herodotus.
A new English version.
London: John Murray.
Véricour, L. R. d. (1850).
Historical analysis of Christian civilisation.
London: J. Chapman.
Taylor, I. (1828).
The process of historical proof.
London: Printed for B. J. Holdsworth.
Elizabeth Kostova "The Historian"
The human body is the body of a person.
It is the physical structure of a person.
The body is a thing that can be hurt or killed.
Its functions are stopped by death.
You need your muscles and your joints to move.
Study of the human body
Some people study the human body.
They look at where it is different from, or the same as, other animals' bodies.
These animals can be alive today.
Or they can be extinct animals like other hominids. (
Hominids are primates that are close to humans.
Neanderthals and Homo erectus were hominids.)
Some people study how the human body works and lives in its environment.
Some people study what people think about their body.
Artists study how to draw or paint the human body.
Biology is a field of science.
It studies living things.
It looks at how the human body works.
It studies how the human body came from evolution.
It studies how genetics makes the human body.
Anatomy studies the parts of the body and how they work together.
Ecology studies the environment including how humans affect it.
Physical anthropology is a field of science.
It compares humans to other hominids.
It also studies all other hominid bodies.
They look at how humans and chimpanzees are the same or different.
Psychology is a field of medicine.
It looks at how people think and feel.
How we think and feel comes from the brain.
So psychologists study the body.
They study how the brain lets us be who we are.
Religion also talks about the body.
Some religions see the body as where the soul lives.
Some see the body as like a church.
This is because a church is where people worship God.
These people think God should be worshiped inside people.
Some religions think the body is made from chakras that connect us to the universe.
Medicine sees the body like a machine.
Doctors want to fix problems with the body.
They study how to fix the problems, called diseases.
Parts of human body
Upper limb
Lower limb
The circulatory system is the body system that moves blood around the body.
Digestive system
The digestive system is the parts of the body that digest food.
The immune system is the set of tissues which work together to resist infections.
The integumentary system is everything covering the outside of an animal's body.
The lymphatic system is a network of thin vessels that branch into tissues throughout the body.
The musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton and attached muscles.
The nervous system is a body system which sends signals around the body.
Reproductive system
The reproductive system is the part of an organism that makes them able to sexually reproduce.
The respiratory system is the body getting rid of carbon dioxide and taking in oxygen.
The urinary system is a system of organs that makes urine/pee and takes it out of the body.
The human body and other animals
The human body is like other animals.
The skeleton, muscles and other parts are very much like those of other primates.
Our body is also like other mammals, and somewhat like other vertebrates.
DNA differences follow a similar pattern.
The human genome is closer to that of other primates than to other vertebrates, and closest to chimpanzee.
Hydrogen is a chemical element.
It has the symbol H and atomic number 1.
It has a standard atomic weight of 1.008, meaning it is the lightest element in the periodic table.
Hydrogen is the most common chemical element in the Universe, making up 75% of all normal (baryonic) matter (by mass).
Most stars are mostly hydrogen.
Hydrogen's most common isotope has one proton with one electron orbiting around it.
Hydrogen is classed as a reactive nonmetal, unlike the other elements appearing in the first column of the periodic table, which are classed alkali metals.
The solid form of hydrogen is expected to behave like a metal, however.
When alone, hydrogen usually binds with itself to make dihydrogen (H2) which is very stable, due to its high bond dissociation energy of 435.7 kJ/mol.
At standard temperature and pressure, this hydrogen gas (H2) has no colour, smell or taste.
It is not toxic.
It is a nonmetal and burns very easily.
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l) + 572 kJ (286 kJ/mol)
While hydrogen gas in its pure form is not reactive, it does form compounds with many elements, particularly halogens, which are very electronegative.
Hydrogen also forms vast arrays with carbon atoms, forming hydrocarbons.
The study of the properties of hydrocarbons are known as organic chemistry.
The H- anion (negatively charged atom) is called a hydride, although the term is not widely used.
An example of a hydride is lithium hydride (LiH), which is used as a "spark plug" in nuclear weapons.
Acids dissolved in water typically contain high levels of hydrogen ions, in other words, free protons.
The level of them is usually used to determine its pH, which basically means the content of hydrogen ions in a particular volume.
For example, hydrochloric acid, found in people's stomachs, can dissociate into a chloride anion and a free proton, and the property of the free proton is how it can digest food by corroding it.
Although rare on Earth, the H3+ cation is one of the most common ions in the universe.
Main article: isotopes of hydrogen
Hydrogen has 7 known isotopes, two of which are stable (1H and 2H), which are commonly referred to protium and deuterium.
The isotope 3H is known as tritium and has a half life of 12.33 years, and is produced in small amounts by cosmic rays.
The remaining 4 isotopes have half lives on the scale of yoctoseconds.
Hydrogen in nature
In its pure form on Earth, hydrogen is usually a gas.
Hydrogen is also one of the parts that make up a water molecule.
Hydrogen is important because it is the fuel that powers the Sun and other stars.
Hydrogen makes up about 74% of the entire universe.
Hydrogen's symbol on the Periodic Table of Elements is H.
Pure hydrogen is normally made of two hydrogen atoms connected together.
Scientists call these diatomic molecules.
Hydrogen will have a chemical reaction when mixed with most other elements.
It has no color or smell.
Pure hydrogen is very uncommon in the Earth's atmosphere, because nearly all primordial hydrogen would have escaped into space due to its weight.
In nature, it is usually in water.
Hydrogen is also in all living things, as a part of the organic compounds that living things are made of.
In addition, hydrogen atoms can combine with carbon atoms to form hydrocarbons.
Petroleum and other fossil fuels are made of these hydrocarbons and commonly used to create energy for human use.
It is a gas at room temperature
It acts like a metal when it is solid.
It is the lightest element in the Universe.
It is the most common element in the Universe.
It burns or explodes above 1000°F / 528°C, such as in fire.
glows purple when it is in plasma state.
History of Hydrogen
Hydrogen was first separated in 1671 by Robert Boyle.
Henry Cavendish in 1776 identified it as a distinct element and discovered that burning it made water.
Uses of Hydrogen
The main uses are in the petroleum industry and in making ammonia by the Haber process.
Some is used elsewhere in the chemical industry.
A little of it is used as fuel, for example in rockets for spacecraft.
Most of the hydrogen that people use comes from a chemical reaction between natural gas and steam.
Nuclear fusion is a very powerful source of energy.
It relies on forcing atoms together to make helium and energy, exactly as happens in a star like the Sun, or in a hydrogen bomb.
This needs a large amount of energy to get started, and is not easy to do yet.
A big advantage over nuclear fission, which is used in today's nuclear power stations, is that it makes less nuclear waste and does not use a toxic and rare fuel like uranium.
More than 600 million tons of hydrogen undergo fusion every second on the Sun.
Using hydrogen
Hydrogen is mostly used in the petroleum industry, to change heavy petroleum fractions into lighter, more useful ones.
It is also used to make ammonia.
Smaller amounts are burned as fuel.
Most hydrogen is made by a reaction between natural gas and steam.
The electrolysis of water breaks water into hydrogen and oxygen, using electricity.
Burning hydrogen combines with oxygen molecules to make steam (pure water vapor).
A fuel cell combines hydrogen with an oxygen molecule, releasing an electron as electricity.
For these reasons, many people believe hydrogen power will eventually replace other synthetic fuels.
Hydrogen can also be burned to make heat for steam turbines or internal combustion engines.
Like other synthetic fuels, hydrogen can be created from natural fuels such as coal or natural gas, or from electricity, and therefore represents a valuable addition to the power grid; in the same role as natural gas.
Such a grid and infrastructure with fuel cell vehicles is now planned by a number of countries including Japan, Korea and many European countries.
This allows these countries to buy less petroleum, which is an economic advantage.
The other advantage is that used in a fuel cell or burned in a combustion engine as in a hydrogen car, the motor does not make pollution.
Only water, and a small amount of  nitrogen oxides, forms.
Hydrogen -Citizendium
Nonmetals
Helium is a chemical element.
It has the chemical symbol He, atomic number 2, and atomic weight of about 4.002602.
There are 9 isotopes of helium, only two of which are stable.
These are 3He and 4He.
4He is by far the most common isotope.
Helium is called a noble gas, because it does not regularly mix with other chemicals and form new compounds.
It has the lowest boiling point of all the elements.
It is the second most common element in the universe, after hydrogen, and has no color or smell.
However, helium has a red-orange glow when placed in an electric field.
Helium does not usually react with anything else.
Astronomers detected the presence of helium in 1868, when its spectrum was identified in light from the Sun.
This was before its discovery on Earth.
Helium is used to fill balloons and airships because its density is lighter than air.
It does not burn, so  is  safe for that kind of use.
It is also used in some kinds of light bulbs.
People can breathe in helium: it makes their voices sound higher than it normally does.
This is a joke, but is dangerous as if they breathe in too much, hypoxia can injure or kill them as they are not breathing normal air.
Breathing too much helium can also cause long-term effects to vocal cords.
Helium is created through the process of nuclear fusion in the Sun, and in similar stars.
During this process, two hydrogen atoms are fused together to form one helium atom.
On Earth it is made by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements like thorium and uranium, although there are other examples.
The alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 nuclei.
Helium was discovered by the French astronomer pierre Janssen on August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow line in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun.
The line was thought to be sodium.
On the same year, English astronomer, Norman Lockyer, also observed it and found that it was caused by a new element.
Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element helium, from the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος (helios).
Helium is the second least reactive noble gas after neon.
It is the second least reactive of all elements.
It is chemically inert and monatomic in all standard conditions.
Helium is the least water-soluble monatomic gas.
Helium is used as a shielding gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, in making titanium and zirconium, and in gas chromatography, because it is inert.
Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding.
Helium is also used to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel.
It is used to remove the fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment before the rocket launches.
It is used to cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles before the rocket launches.
Helium is used as a heat-transfer medium in some nuclear reactors that are cooled down by gas.
Helium is also used in some hard disk drives.
Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics.
Helium has become rare on Earth.
If it gets free into the air it leaves the planet.
Unlike hydrogen, which reacts with oxygen to form water, helium is not reactive.
It stays as a gas.
For many years after the 1925 Helium Act, the USA collected helium in a National Helium Reserve.
American helium comes from wells in the Great Plains area.
At present, more helium is supplied by Qatar than by the USA.
Several research organisations have released statements on the scarcity and conservation of helium.
These organisations released policy recommendations as early as 1995 and as late as 2016 urging the United States government to store and conserve helium because of the natural limits to the helium supply and the unique nature of the element.
For researchers, helium is irreplaceable because it is essential for producing very low temperatures.
Liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging.
The home page of a website is the document that a web server sends to another computer's web browser application when it has been contacted without a request for specific information.
That is, when one enters only a domain name in the Address box without specifying a directory or a file, the home page is usually the first part of the website one would be taken to.
The Home Page is also called the Main Page.
A properly written home page will tell a user about the information available on the website, and how to view different parts of the website.
The home page of simple.wikipedia.org can be found at this link.
In Linux servers
In Linux-based servers, the homepage is default.html, default.php, etc.
This is a problem for website administrators to install website applications like MediaWiki.
Mainly because most website applications are created with the homepage as index.php for PHP applications.
In Windows servers
However, in Windows-based servers, the homepage is default.html, default.php, etc.
Mainly because most website applications are created with the homepage as index.php (for PHP applications).
Hair is something that grows from the skin of mammals.
Animal hair is usually called fur.
Sheep and goats have curly hair, which is usually called wool.
Hair is made of keratins, which are proteins.
Functions of hair
It can protect against losing body heat.
This is thought to be the basic, original function of hair.
It protects against UV radiation, which damages the skin.
It can protect against rain or water.
Air can be trapped in the fur, or oil can be secreted by the skin.
Both these methods prevent the rain or water from  making the body too cold.
Aquatic mammals in cold waters usually have blubber (fat) under the skin, and almost no hair.
Defence: hair is modified in mammals like porcupines, for protection.
Hair colouring can perform different functions.
It helps to camouflage in some animals, and to signal to others of the same species in some other animals.
Examples are: signalling to females for mating purposes and signalling to others for territory control.
Signalling danger to other species (aposematic colouring) is also done by, for example, skunks.
Animals can change their hair so they look bigger, or more threatening.
This can also be used for mating; which is the case with lions, for example.
Also, the male lions' mane also protects their neck from damage when fighting other males.
False hair
Some animals, for example certain insects and spiders also have hairs.
However, these are not hair in the biological sense, but are actually bristles.
The hairs found on certain plants are also not true hair, but trichomes.
In humans, hair grows mostly on the head, and the amount of body hair is different from race to race.
Asians and native North Americans have the least amount of body hair, while Caucasians tend to have the most.
Hair color
Hair color is passed down by parents only.
Natural hair color can be given only by genes.
It is impossible to have a hair color that is not passed down genetically by both mother and father.
This relies on dominant and recessive genes carried by a parent.
These genes may not be the color of their hair, however, many people carry genes that are recessive and do not show in their traits or features.
Dyeing hair is to change the color of hair.
It consists of a chemical mixture which can change the color of hair by a chemical reaction.
Many people dye their hair to hide gray or white hairs.
This is because most people gain white or gray hairs as they grow older.
Genetics and chemistry
Two types of melanin pigment give hair its color: eumelanin and pheomelanin.
Pheomelanin colors hair red.
Eumelanin determines the darkness of the hair color.
A low concentration of brown eumelanin results in blond hair, but more brown eumelanin will color the hair brown.
High amounts of black eumelanin result in black hair, while low concentrations give gray hair.
All humans have some pheomelanin in their hair.
The genetics of hair colors are not yet firmly established.
According to one theory, at least two gene pairs control human hair color.
One phenotype (brown/blond) has a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele.
A person with a brown allele will have brown hair; a person with no brown alleles will be blond.
This explains why two brown-haired parents can produce a blond-haired child.
The other gene pair is a non-red/red pair, where the not-red allele  is dominant and the allele for red hair is recessive.
A person with two copies of the red-haired allele will have red hair, but it will be either auburn or bright reddish orange depending on whether the first gene pair gives brown or blond hair, respectively.
The two-gene model does not account for all possible shades of brown, blond, or red (for example, platinum blond versus dark blonde/light brown), nor does it explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person ages.
Several other gene pairs control the light versus dark hair color in a cumulative effect (quantitative genetics).
Hair texture
Hair texture is also inherited genetically.
The thickness of hair, its color and its tendency to curl are all inherited.
There are also genetic differences between men and women.
Body hair is limited in women, and thicker in men.
Hair loss
People have about 100,000 hairs on their head.
About 100 fall out each day, but they usually grow back.
Some men are bald but girls and women may become bald if they lose their hair from a disease called alopecia.
Men often lose some of their hair as they grow older.
This is known as baldness.
Doctors call it "male pattern baldness" because hairs often fall out in similar places.
It often begins by hair falling out first from the front of the head, and then from the top of the head.
After a while, all that may be left is a some hair running above the ears and around the lower back of the head.
Even though it is unusual for women to go bald, many women suffer from thinning hair over the top of their head as they grow old.
People have tried to find cures for hair loss for thousands of years.
In an effort to get their hair back, men have tried "cures" like applying strange lotions or even having their heads packed in chicken manure.
Many unproven "cures" are still marketed today.
It is only in the last decade or so that treatments have been developed which do sometimes work.
Some doctors do hair transplants, where they take tiny plugs of hair from areas like the back of the neck and plant them in the bald spots on the head.
Some drugs have been tested and approved for sale as hair loss treatments.
They encourage hair regrowth and thickening, but work better if applied before hair loss turns to baldness.
History and culture
People have been interested in hair on their heads for hundreds of thousands of years.
For both men and women, styling and long dark brown hair coloring hair have been ways to look good, and get attention.
Sometimes society makes rules about hair, for example by not allowing people to cut their hair or beards, like in Sikhism (it is also good to do this in Islam, but not a requirement).<ref><long dark brown hair >
Ireland (;  ; Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic.
It is about 486 kilometres (302 miles) long and about 288 kilometres (179 miles) wide.
To the west of Ireland is the Atlantic Ocean; to the east of Ireland, across the Irish Sea, is the island of Great Britain.
Over 6.4 million people lived on the island in 2016.
The Republic of Ireland is a sovereign state and occupies 84% of the island.
Its capital and largest city is Dublin.
The official languages of the Republic are Irish and English.
Even though Irish is official in the country, only a small part of the population is fluent or a native speaker.
While the Irish language (or Gaelic) is taught in most schools, most people speak English in their day-to-day lives.
Northern Ireland, which is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom, makes up the remaining 17% of Ireland and is in the north-east part of the island.
It has a population of 1.8 million people, and its capital and largest city is Belfast.
During the 1550s and the 1650s four plantations had taken place in Ireland.
From 1801 to 1921, all of Ireland was part of the same country, called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
In 1919, a war broke out, the Irish War of Independence, and on December 6 1921, the Irish Free State became independent.
After a new constitution came into effect in 1937, the state became a republic.
Northern Ireland stayed with the UK, and this would lead to The Troubles beginning in the 1960s and ending with the Good Friday Agreement signed in 1998.
The flag colours of the Republic of Ireland are green, white and orange.
A symbol of Ireland is the shamrock.
Popular games in Ireland include Gaelic football and hurling.
The population of the Republic of Ireland is around 4.7 million.
The president of the Republic of Ireland is Michael D. Higgins.
The two parts of Ireland are the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
The River Shannon, which runs from north to south, is the longest river on the island.
Ireland has many lakes and Lough Neagh, in Northern Ireland, is the largest lake in Ireland.
Ireland is known for its landscapes, music, history, and mythology.
Provinces and counties
Ireland is traditionally divided into four provinces and thirty-two counties.
Twenty-six counties are in the Republic and six in Northern Ireland.
Three of the provinces are entirely within the Republic (Connacht, Leicester and Munster), and one province (Ulster) has some counties in both the Republic and in Northern Ireland.
Connacht - Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, Sligo
Leinster - Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, Laois, Longford, Louth, County Meath, Offaly, Westmeath, Wexford, Wicklow
Munster - Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary, Waterford
Ulster - Cavan, Donegal, Monaghan (Republic of Ireland); Antrim, Armagh, Derry, Down, Fermanagh, Tyrone (Northern Ireland)
Dublin is the largest city.
It is the capital of the Republic of Ireland.
Dublin was established as a Viking settlement in the 9th century.
The population is 525,383 in Dublin City, and 1,270,603 in Co. Dublin.
Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland.
It has 483,000 people in the Greater Belfast urban area there are 267,000 in the city itself.
Shipbuilding used to be a major industry here.
The Titanic was built in Belfast at the Harland and Wolff shipyard.
Armagh is a city in Northern Ireland.
It is often called the 'Ecclesiastic Capital of Ireland' as it is the seat of both the Catholic Church and the (Protestant) Church of Ireland.
The population is 14,590.
Cork is the largest city in Munster.
Corkonians often refer to it as 'the Real Capital'.
The population is 119,230.
but following a 2019 Cork boundary change|boundary extension in 2019, the population increased to c. 210,000.
Derry is the second largest city in Northern Ireland.
Derry is notable for the Medieval city walls which still stand.
Because the walls have never been breached, the city is nicknamed "The Maiden City".
In 2013 Derry was the UK Capital of Culture.
Many cultural events took place there during the year.
The population is 83,652.
During the last glacial period (the "ice age"), most of Ireland was covered with ice.
After that, Ireland became covered with trees.
The first people came to Ireland about 9,000 years ago, in the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic period).
They were nomadic.
Once food ran out in the place they lived, they would move to another place.
Evidence of these people was found in Mount Sandel, Co. Derry.
About 4000 BC, in the New Stone Age (Neolithic period), the first farmers arrived in Ireland.
These people cleared openings in the forest and built permanent settlements with houses and farmland.
When people in this age died, they were buried in tombs called megaliths.
Many megaliths are left standing today, such as portal dolmens and passage tombs.
The most famous megalith is Newgrange passage tomb in co.Meath.
New settlers came around 2000BC, marking the start of the Bronze Age.
Copper was mined mainly in Mount Gabriel, Co. Cork and tin was imported from Cornwall.
These people used bronze to make weapons, such as swords.
They also used it to make early forms of jewellery, such as sun discs and torcs.
These settlers buried the dead in court tombs or wedge tombs, and burial places have been found with stone circles.
It is unknown when the Celts came to Ireland, but it is likely they brought the use of iron with them.
The use of iron marks the start of the Iron Age.
It is known that by about 300BC, the use of iron and Celtic culture was widespread in Ireland.
The Celts lived in ring forts, hill forts, promontory forts and crannógs.
It is thought that only the richer families and settlements lived in crannógs.
These were man-made islands in the middle of lakes with houses on them.
Celtic Ireland was split into around 150 kingdoms called tuath.
The king was elected from the royal family.
Below the king were the Nobles, and the Aos Dána, who were people with special skills, such as poets, Druids (priests), judges and craftsmen.
By the early 6th century, Ireland was mostly Christian through the work of St. Patrick and other missionaries.
Druids were replaced by priests and monks.
Monasteries soon were built such as Glendalough in co. Wicklow.
Glendalough and other monasteries built round towers for safety when Vikings attacked.
Small monasteries were also built in remote places, the most famous being Skellig Michael, off the coast of co. Kerry.
At this time many hand-written manuscripts were created by the monasteries.
They include the Cathach, the Book of Durrow, and the Book of Kells.
Monks also produced fine silver chalices, croziers and brooches, and carved high crosses.
In 1169, Anglo-Norman lords invaded Ireland.
They were led by Strongbow who landed at Passage East, Co. Waterford.
The Anglo-Normans conquered many parts of Ireland in the following 60 years.
They introduced their way of life to the Irish people.
The feudal system was soon introduced in Ireland as a means of organising land.
Castles were built to defend the land like Trim Castle, Co. Meath.
During the Middle Ages, Ireland's first proper towns were built.
From 1801 until 1921, all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
In 1921 Northern Ireland was created and 'partitioned' from the south.
Northern Ireland has stayed within the United Kingdom since then.
The full name of the UK is 'The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland'.
In 1921 the south became the Irish Free State.
In 1937 the Irish Free State adopted a new constitution which named the state 'Ireland', and in 1948 this state passed the Republic of Ireland Act which declared it to be a republic.
Many Irish people have left Ireland and moved to the United States, Canada, Australia, and South America.
The Great Famine in the 1840s forced many to leave; it is estimated almost a million people died of starvation, and a million more emigrated.
From a maximum of over 8 million in 1841, the total Irish population dropped to just over 4 million in the 1940s.
Since then, the population has grown to over 6 million.
This has been helped by the economic growth of the "Celtic Tiger" and since 2004 immigration from countries in Eastern Europe such as Poland.
Ireland's main sports are Gaelic Games (Gaelic football, hurling, etc.)
and soccer.
The many sports played and followed in Ireland include Gaelic games (mainly Gaelic football, hurling and camogie), horse racing, show jumping, greyhound racing, basketball, fishing, handball, motorsport, MMA, boxing, target shooting and tennis.
Hockey, golf, rowing, cricket, rugby union and Olympic target shooting are organised on an all-island basis, with a single team representing the whole of Ireland in international competitions.
Other sports, such as soccer and netball, have separate organizing bodies in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.
As Northern Ireland is a constituent nation of the United Kingdom it also sends a Northern Ireland Team to the Commonwealth Games.
At the Olympic Games, a person from Northern Ireland can choose to represent either Ireland or Great Britain.
Soccer is the most popular team sport in terms of participation.
According to the Irish Sports Monitor 2015 annual report, 4.8% of adults over 15 participate in Soccer.
Gaelic football 2%, camogie 1.2, rugby 1.1%.
Individual exercise pursuits are most popular with 43% of all sport participated by individuals on their own.
Personal exercise 13.7%, running 8.2%, swimming 8%, cycling 5.5%, dancing 3%, golf 2.7%, weights 2.3%, yoga 1.5% and pilates 1.4%.
Soccer is by far the most popular team pursuit for males at 8.8% with Gaelic football attracting 3.4%.
Personal exercise 13.4% and running 8.9% are the most popular male activities.
Team sports do not figure highly amongst females with dancing at 4.6% and yoga 2.4% are two of the highest shared activities.
Given the variety of sports in Ireland, it is of interest to note how the government's Capital Sports programme 2017 allocated it's €56 million funds.
€23.5 million went to the GAA which highlights the strength of the GAA lobby.
€7.25 million to soccer, Rugby €3.1 million, tennis €2.64 million, golf €1.97 million, sailing €1.21 million, athletics just under €1 million, diving €451,000 while other sports did not fare so well.
Gaelic Football is one of the most popular sports in Ireland in terms of match attendance, and in 2003 had 34% of total sports attendances at events in the Republic of Ireland, followed by hurling at 23%, soccer at 16% and rugby at 8%.
Initiative's ViewerTrack study, which measured 2005 sports audiences, showed the sport's highest-profile match, the All-Ireland Football Final, to be the most watched event of the nation's sporting year.
Soccer is the most played team sport in Ireland.
Divided regions
The Internet is the biggest world-wide communication network of computers.
The Internet has millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which together carry many different kinds of information.
The short form of internet is the 'net'.
The World Wide Web is one of its biggest services.
It is used by billions of people all over the world.
The Internet was developed in the United States by the "United States Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency" (DARPA).
The Internet was first connected in October 1969 and was called ARPANET.
The World Wide Web was created at CERN in Switzerland in 1990 by a British (UK) scientist named Tim Berners-Lee.
Today, people can pay money to access the Internet from internet service providers.
Some services on the Internet cost nothing to use.
Sometimes people who offer these free services use advertising to make money.
Censorship and freedom of speech on the Internet can be controversial.
The most used service on the Internet is the World Wide Web (which is also called the "Web" or “www”).
The web contains websites, including blogs and wikis like Wikipedia.
Webpages on the Internet can be seen and read by anyone (unless the page needs a password, or it is blocked).
The second biggest use of the Internet is to send and receive e-mail.
E-mail is private and goes from one user to another.
Instant messaging is similar to email, but allows two or more people to chat to each other faster.
Some governments think the internet is a bad thing, and block all or part of it.
For example, the Chinese government thinks that Wikipedia is bad, so often no one in China can read it or add to it.
Another example of the internet being blocked is in North Korea.
Some parents and schools block parts of the Internet they think are bad for children to see.
Dangers
The Internet makes communication easy, and communication can be dangerous too.
People often send secret information, and sometimes other people can steal that information.
They can use the Internet to spread lies or stolen secrets or dangerously bad advice.
For example, Facebook has had some problems with privacy settings.
Some websites may trick people into downloading viruses that can harm a computer, or spyware that spies on its users (looks at what they are doing and tells someone else).
E-mails can have harmful files with them as "attachments".
In internet chatrooms, people might be preying on others or trying to stalk or abuse them.
The Internet contains content that many people find offensive , as well as content intended to be offensive.
Criminals may steal people's personal information or trick people into sending them money.
Italy ( [iˈtaːlja])  is a country in Southern Europe.
It is a member of the European Union.
Its official name is Repubblica Italiana.
Italy is a democratic republic.
Italy is a founding member of the European Union.
Its president is Sergio Mattarella.
Its prime minister is Mario Draghi.
Italy is also a member of the G7, as it has the eighth largest gross domestic product in the world.
Italy has become famous for its wine and its food.
Some foods are different between regions.
Famous dishes include various types of pasta, pizza, and grapes.
Olives are much used.
In the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Greeks began a large colonization drive, including southern Italy such as Magna Graecia.
This was because of various reasons, including demographic crisis (famine, overcrowding, climate change, etc.),
the search for new commercial outlets and ports, and expulsion from their homeland.
Before 1861, Italy was made up of smaller kingdoms and city-states.
The country's capital, Rome, is one of the most famous cities in the world.
It was the capital of the Roman Empire.
Other famous cities in Italy include, Venice, Naples, Turin, Genoa, Florence, Palermo, and Milan.
It is surrounded by the sea on all of its sides except its north side.
Northern Italy is separated from France, Switzerland, and Austria by the Alps, a chain of mountains.
Mont Blanc (Monte Bianco in Italian or white mountain in English), the highest mountain in Western Europe, is in this chain.
The second important chain of mountains in Italy is the Apennines (), which are in central and southern Italy.