the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Luther later said, "And thank God it hath turned out well; for I have a pious (holy, God-loving) and faithful wife, to whom one may safely commit (give) his heart".
On June 6, 1526, Luther wrote, "I am a happy husband...for from the most precious woman, my best of wives, I have received, by the blessing of God, a little son, John Luther, and, by God's wonderful grace, I have become a father."
The firstborn was John Luther.
The next was a daughter, Elizabeth; but Elizabeth died when she was just eight months old, and Luther wrote in a letter, "My little daughter Elizabeth is taken from me, and hath left me with a bleeding and almost womanly heart, so sad am I on her account.
I never thought the heart of a father was so tender towards his children.
Pray the Lord for me."
A third child, Magdalene, also died young.
After Magdalene came Martin, then Paul, and finally Margaret.
It was for his children that Luther wrote the Small Catechism - a book showing the basics of Lutheran beliefs.
Since the time of the silent movies 28 movies about Martin Luther have been made.
The newest movie is titled Luther, released in 2003.
Martin Luther - Eine Bibliographie (German)
Full text in English of the 95 theses
Disputatione pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum (95 Theses, in Latin, at Wikisource)
Project Wittenberg, a collection of Luther's text
Repository of Luther's works at Project Gutenberg
1483 births
1546 deaths
Christian theologians
German theologians
People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
Protestant Reformers
Noh or No (Japanese:能 Nō) is a major form of classical Japanese musical drama.
It started in the 14th century and continues today.
Noh is made up of mai (dances), hayashi (music) and utai (words usually in songs).
The performers use masks and dance slowly.
Zeami and his father Kan'ami brought Noh to its present-day form during the Muromachi period.
Types of Noh drama
Divine; the hero or heroine is divine like a god, heavenly people, and so on.
The hero or heroine makes a benediction at the end of the drama.
Shura-mono (Warrior); the hero (rarely heroine) is a warrior, usually already dead.
Kazura-mono (Women); the heroine and often her love romance is the focus.
Zatsu-no (Miscellaneous); Noh which cannot be placed in the other four groups.
Oni-noh (Oni; demons) ; Non-humans, like oni, tengu (fairy, lion), are the heroes of this type.
Mainly it is played at the end of the program.
Noh players
All Noh players are men.
They have been taught their skills by their fathers.
When a woman or girl appears in the drama, a male actor plays her role with a woman mask.
There are three types of Noh players: shite, waki and kyogen.
Shite plays the hero or the heroine.
He talks sings and dances.
Waki (meaning "Side") and plays the sidekick of Shite.
The Waki usually plays the role of a traveler role.
He introduces us to the world in the drama.
Kyogen appears in the middle of the drama if it has two parts, and plays the role of the local citizen.
He talks to Waki and makes him notice something new or realize what has happened.
Music on Noh
Hayashi means musical instrumentals.
Two kinds of drum (Tuzumi, Taiko) and a flute (Fue) are used in the theater.
Manga is drawn by a mangaka () (Japanese for cartoonist: an artist of comics).
Manga is usually read from right to left.
The word manga can be both singular and plural, and mean both the medium of comics or a single comic.
It is a form of art that is used to draw comics and develop Anime (animated cartoons of manga art).
Colors and symbols are important.
Types of manga
Yōji (幼児向け漫画) - Manga for people aged 1–4.
Kodomo (or Jidō) manga (児童漫画、子ども漫画) - manga that appeals to many small children.
Kureyon Shinchan
Shōnen (少年漫画) - A boy is usually the main character in these types of manga.
The storyline is mostly about adventure/fighting.
Weekly Shōnen Jump (Published by Shueisha) BleachNarutoBlack CloverOne PieceDragon BallThe Prince of TennisGintamaDeath Note Weekly Shōnen Sunday (Published by Shōgakukan) InuYashaDetective ConanMajorMagi Weekly Shōnen Magazine (Published by Kōdansha) Fairy TailFighting Spirit (manga) Monthly GFantasy (Published by Square Enix)Black Butler
Shōjo ( - Manga that features human emotions and relationships.
Mostly for girls aged 13–17.
Ciao (Published by Shogakukan)
Chuchu (Published by Shogakukan)
Sho-Comi (Published by Shogakukan)
Ribon (Published by Shueisha)
Nakayoshi (Published by Kodansha)
Sailor Moon - an example of shōjo manga published by Nakayoshi.
LaLa (Published by Hakusensha)
Hana to yume (Published by Hakusensha)
Seinen - manga that is written for college-aged young menYoung animal (Published by Hakusensha)
Berserk Nana to Kaoru
Futari Ecchi Ai Yori Aoshi Young King OURs (Published by Shōnen Gahōsha)Hellsing Young Ace (Published by Kadokawa Shoten)Another Seijin (成人漫画) - manga that might appeal to men more than women.
Josei/Redikomi (女性漫画　レディースコミック、レディコミ) - (Abbreviation of English "LADIes' COMIc") manga that might appeal to women more than men.
Shōnen-ai (少年愛) - manga that features a romantic relationship between two male characters.
Also known as Yaoi.
Shōjo-ai'' (少女愛) - manga that features a romantic relationship between two female characters.
Another name Yuri(百合)
Manhwa – Korean comic books
It runs through the centre of Berlin.
The river is  long.
Geography of Berlin
Geography of Brandenburg
Geography of Saxony
Some liberals believe that freedom is impossible without equality, and that governments should promote egalitarianism by providing education and health care supported by taxes.
Other liberals believe that taxes are bad, and that people should provide their own education and health care; these people are usually called libertarians today.
Most liberal governments today do provide at least some education and health care, though not necessarily equally for all citizens.
Free markets (market economy) – People should be free to buy and sell goods and services.
Peace – People should not start wars or use violence.
In the old days, kings or queens told people what to do (a form of government called a Monarchy), and there was very little freedom.
A few hundred years ago, philosophers such as John Locke, Simón Bolívar, John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham began to write about freedom.
Earlier writers, such as Marcus Aurelius, had written about freedom, but this time the idea caught on.
The United States of America was the first country to have a constitution which was based on the ideas of John Locke which were similar to those of Mill and Bentham, and which guaranteed certain rights to all citizens, including freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, the right to assemble (get together in groups), the right to bear arms (weapons), and the right to ask their government to take action (right of petition) or to remove from office rulers they did not like (right of referendum).
Another idea that became popular around this time was the idea of free trade.
A leading philosopher who promoted free trade was Adam Smith.
Liberalism today
Most of the wealthy countries in the world today are liberal democracies with more or less free trade.
An exception to this rule are the oil-rich countries, not all of which are liberal or democratic.
Most of the poor countries in the world are dictatorships, with heavy restrictions on trade.
China is a poor country which is rapidly becoming rich, and is trying the experiment of combining dictatorship with free trade.
Whether it is possible to have the advantages of free trade without other freedoms remains to be seen.
Liberalism around the world
All liberal governments support free elections, and this idea is defended in the legal systems of many countries.
However, many countries have elections, but they are not free.
This is because opposition candidates cannot use the mass media to publicize their ideas.
This situation leads to long-term stability, and to rule by elite groups or dictators.
That situation exists in Russia and almost all the former states of the Soviet Union to the east.
The government of the United States was created based on a belief in democracy and personal freedom.
However the word "liberalism" has taken on a different meaning in modern times.
Liberals in the United States still believe in supporting democracy and freedom, but many liberals also support other ideas.
While not all liberals agree on everything, most liberals in the United States agree:
That equal opportunity for all people is a good goal
That government should provide some level of education and healthcare to all people, even if some taxes have to be increased to achieve this goal
That richer people should pay more of their income in taxes than poor people
That liberties and freedoms are very important and should be protected
Most liberals in the United States believe that peace is at least somewhat important, and that government should work together with other countries and not start as many wars on their own
Liberals in the United States are also sometimes called "Progressives".
The biggest liberal political party in the modern United States is the Democratic Party.
However, the Green Party is seen to be more 'left', or liberal than the Democrats.
Liberals in Australia have many different ideas about government than liberals in the United States.
Most liberals in Australia believe that government should not increase taxes, and would like a government that has lower taxes and less power over the economy.
The main liberal political party in Australia is the Liberal Party of Australia.
The Liberal Party also believes that government should support traditional values and morals, something which many conservatives believe as well.
Zeno's paradoxes are a famous set of thought-provoking stories or puzzles created by Zeno of Elea in the mid-5th century BC.
Philosophers, physicists, and mathematicians have argued for 25 centuries over how to answer the questions raised by Zeno's paradoxes.
Nine paradoxes have been attributed to him.
Zeno constructed them to answer those who thought that Parmenides's idea that "all is one and unchanging" was absurd.
Three of Zeno's paradoxes are the most famous: two are presented below.
They all deal with problems of the apparently continuous nature of space and time.
Achilles and the tortoise
In the paradox of Achilles and the Tortoise, Achilles is in a footrace with the tortoise.
Achilles allows the tortoise a  head start of 100 metres, for example.
Suppose that each racer starts running at a constant speed, one very fast and one very slow.
After some finite time, Achilles will have run 100 metres, bringing him to the tortoise's starting point.
During this time, the slower tortoise has run a much shorter distance.
It will then take Achilles some further time to run that distance, by which time the tortoise will have advanced farther.
It will then take still more time for Achilles to reach this third point, while the tortoise again moves ahead.
Thus, whenever Achilles reaches somewhere the tortoise has been, he still has farther to go.
Therefore, because there are an infinite number of points Achilles must reach where the tortoise has already been, he can never overtake the tortoise.
The dichotomy paradox
Suppose someone wishes to get from point A to point B.  First, they must move halfway.
Then, they must go half of the remaining way.
Continuing in this manner, there will always be some small distance remaining, and the goal would never actually be reached.
There will always be another number to add in a series such as 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + ....  So, motion from any point A to any different point B seems an impossibility.
This then is where Zeno's paradox lies: both pictures of reality cannot be true at the same time.
Hence, either:
There is something wrong with the way we perceive the continuous nature of time,
In reality there is no such thing as a discrete, or incremental, amounts of time, distance, or perhaps anything else for that matter, or
There is a third picture of reality that unifies the two pictures--the mathematical one and the common sense or philosophical one--that we do not yet have the tools to fully understand.
Proposed solutions
Few people would bet that the tortoise would win the race against an athlete.
But, what is wrong with the argument?
As one begins adding the terms in the series 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/64 + ...., one may notice that the sum gets closer and closer to 1, and will never exceed 1.
Aristotle (who is the source for much of what we know about Zeno) noted that as the distance (in the dichotomy paradox) decreases, the time to travel each distance gets exceedingly smaller and smaller.
Before 212 BC, Archimedes had developed a method to get a finite answer for the sum of infinitely many terms which get progressively smaller (such as  1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32 + ...).
However, Zeno's questions remain problematic if one approaches an infinite series of steps, one step at a time.
This is known as a 'supertask'.
Calculus does not actually involve adding numbers one at a time.
Instead, it determines the value (called a limit) that the addition is approaching.
Mathematical paradoxes
Philosophical problems
Logical paradoxes
For the Linux variant, see Mandriva Linux
Mandrake is the common name of a number of plants in the Nightshade family, genus Mandragora.
The roots often look like man or woman, or can be easily made to resemble them.
The plant has been used in witchcraft for a long time.
According to this literature, the plant shrieks in pain, when it is pulled from the ground.
This shriek is able to make a person deaf.
He might also lose his mind, or even be killed, if he is unprotected.
Mandrake (Mandragora officinalis) has been used as an anaestethic for a long time.
For this, it was usually prepared in an  alcoholic solution.
Debian is a free operating system.
It is a distribution of an operating system known as the GNU operating system, which can be used with various kernels, including Linux, kFreeBSD, and Hurd.
In combination with these kernels, the operating system can be referred to as Debian GNU/Linux, Debian GNU/kFreeBSD, and Debian GNU/Hurd, respectively.
Debian GNU/Linux is one of the most complete and popular GNU/Linux distributions, on which many others, like Ubuntu, are based.
The Debian Project officially started on August 16th, 1993, led by Ian Murdock.
He was a computer programmer.
Today, in this project, Debian is developed by more than 1,000 computer specialists all over the world.
The name "Debian" was taken after Ian Murdock and his wife Debra.
Some people say or pronounce 'deb-ee-n' but others also say 'de-bi-an' or 'de-bai-an' and in Japan 'de-bi-a-n' and so on.
Development steps
Software packages in development are either uploaded to the project distribution named unstable (also known as sid), or to the experimental repository.
Software packages uploaded to unstable are normally versions stable enough to be released by the original upstream developer, but with the added Debian-specific packaging and other modifications introduced by Debian developers.
These additions may be new and untested.
Software not ready yet for the unstable distribution is typically placed in the experimental repository.
After a version of a software package has remained in unstable for a certain length of time (depending on how urgent the changes are), that package is automatically moved to the testing distribution.
The package's move to testing happens only if no serious (release-critical) bugs in the package are reported and if other software needed for package functionality qualifies for inclusion in testing.
Since updates to Debian software packages between official releases do not contain new features, some choose to use the testing and unstable distributions for their newer packages.
However, these distributions are less tested than stable, and unstable does not receive timely security updates.
In particular, incautious upgrades to working unstable packages can sometimes seriously break software functionality.
Since September 9, 2005  the testing distributions security updates have been provided by the testing security team.
After the packages in testing have matured and the goals for the next release are met, the testing distribution becomes the next stable release.
The latest stable release of Debian (Buster) is 10.0, released on July 6, 2019.
The next release is codenamed "Bullseye".
11 architectures + 1 additional ARM binary ABI (armel)
9 architectures with Linux kernel + 2 architectures with FreeBSD kernel
Due to an incident involving a CD vendor who made an unofficial and broken release labeled 1.0, an official 1.0 release was never made.
For other platforms
Debian has been ported to different architectures or platforms.
One version, which is based on the developer release (sid) that has been ported to the Xbox is called Xebian.
http://www.debian.org/ - Debian Project Homepage
X86-64 Linux distributions
GNU is the name of a computer operating system.
The name is short for GNU's Not Unix.
Richard Stallman leads the GNU Project.
The popular Linux operating systems made using Linux kernel include many GNU tools.
So, many projects and developers call the Linux-based operating systems GNU/Linux.
The GNU project was started by Richard Stallman in 1983.
His wanted to create a computer system that was all free and open source software.
Users could change, share and publish new work based on GNU.
He and a group of developers started by creating copies of each piece of Unix software.
The rest of GNU was the kernel, called the GNU Hurd, which is not yet finished.
The more popular Linux kernel is used instead.
GNU User Groups
GNU project
The Republic of Serbia (Serbian: Република Србија / Republika Srbija), or usually just Serbia (Serbian: Србија / Srbija), is a country in Central Europe.
The capital city is Belgrade.
To the north of Serbia is the country Hungary.
To the east of Serbia are the countries Bulgaria and Romania.
To the south of Serbia is the country North Macedonia.
To the west of Serbia are the countries Montenegro (the country that was once united with Serbia), Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia.
The oldest form of writing comes from an ancient civilization which inhabited Serbia called the Vinča culture and the symbols are called the Vinča script.
Serbia is also home to the earliest known copper smelting sites and the birth of the Copper Age which lead humanity out of the Stone Age and into regular use of metallurgy.
The same culture contains the earliest evidence of tin alloy bronze which replaced the much weaker arsenic bronze.
White Serbs, an early Slavic tribe from Northern Europe, came to Northern Greece in the 6th century.
By the 8th century they had created the Serbian Principality, a Serbian country, in the Balkans.
The Serbs became Christian around the 10th century.
For 200 years, the Nemanjić dynasty ruled.
They made Serbia a kingdom, built new towns, monasteries, and forts, and made Serbia bigger.
In 1371 the Nemanjic Dynasty died out.
Serbia became unsafe and local leaders fought each other for control.
In 1389 the Ottoman Empire invaded Serbia.
They fought against Serbia, Bosnia, the Knights Hospitaller, and the forces of many other local leaders, and won.
The Turks fought the Serbs for 70 years until in 1459 the Ottoman Turks conquered Serbia.
Ottoman period
Once the Ottomans conquered Serbia, they got rid of the Serbian upper class.
Most Serbs worked as farmers on land owned by Turks.
They had to pay high taxes to the Turks.
Some Serbs were forced to become Muslims.
But the Serbs had their own laws in the Ottoman Empire through the millet system.
During the 19th century Serbia gradually became independent.
During World War I Austria conquered Serbia but lost the bigger war.
Serbia joined other Balkan countries to form Yugoslavia.
Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain.
The Danube passes through Serbia.
The Šar Mountains of Kosovo form the border with Albania.
Over 31% of Serbia is covered by forest.
National parks take up 10% of the country's territory.
Serbia has 5 national parks and 22 nature reserves.
Serbia is on the Vardar-Morava Flyway of bird migration, so many birds fly across Serbia when going to Africa and back.
Golden Eagle, Nutcracker and Coal Tit live high in the mountains.
Nightingale, Chaffinch and Greater Spotted Woodpecker live in the forests in the hills.
Saker Falcon, Whinchat and Quail live in steppe and fields in the northern lowland part of Serbia which is called Vojvodina.
Syrian Woodpecker, Common Redstart and Collared Dove live in the orchards and farmyards.
Black Redstart, Kestrel and Common Swift live in the city center.
Hooded Crow lives everywhere.
The town of Kikinda is known for Long-eared Owls that form flocks in trees at the city squares.
Tourists come from other countries to see them.
In winter you can see Pygmy Cormorants in Belgrade, at the rivers Sava and Danube.
The major processed vegetable crops in Serbia are potatoes, tomatoes and pepper.
Serbia is one of the biggest world producers and exporters of raspberries.
They are a leading exporter of frozen fruit.
89% of households in Serbia have fixed telephone lines.
There are over 9.60 million cell-phones users.
This is larger than the number of the total population of Serbia itself by 30%.
Serbia has a total of eight sites on the UNESCO World Heritage list: The Early Medieval capital Stari Ras and the 13th-century monastery Sopoćani, and the 12th-century monastery Studenica, and the endangered Medieval Monuments in Kosovo group, comprising the monasteries of Visoki Dečani, Our Lady of Ljeviš, Gračanica and Patriarchate of Peć (former seat of the Serbian Church, mausoleum of Serbian royalty) and finally the Roman estate of Gamzigrad–Felix Romuliana.
There are two literary memorials on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme: The 12th-century Miroslav Gospel, and scientist Nikola Tesla's valuable archive.
The most prominent museum in Serbia is the National Museum of Serbia.
It was founded in 1844.
It houses a collection of more than 400,000 exhibits, over 5,600 paintings and 8,400 drawings and prints, and includes many foreign masterpiece collections, including Miroslav Gospel.
In the 1990s and the 2000s, many pop music performers rose to fame.
Željko Joksimović won second place at the 2004 Eurovision Song Contest.
Marija Šerifović won the 2007 Eurovision Song Contest.
Serbia was the host of the Eurovision Song Contest 2008.
Novak Djokovic, a multiple Grand Slam-winning tennis player and current number one, is from Serbia.
Other tennis players from Serbia include Ana Ivanovic and Jelena Jankovic.
2006 establishments in Europe
Cancer is a type of disease where cells grow out of control, divide and invade other tissues.
In a person without cancer, cell division is under control.
In most tissues, healthy cells divide in a controlled way and copy themselves to create new healthy cells.
With cancer, this normal cell division goes out of control.
Cells change their nature because mutations have occurred in their genes.
All the daughter cells of cancer cells are also cancerous.
If the abnormal cells do not invade, but just divide and swell up their original tissue, this is not called "cancer".
It is called a tumour.
Tumours are usually not a threat to life because they can be cut out.
However, some tumours occur in places where they cannot be cut out, and they can be fatal.
Some brain tumours are of this type.
The symptoms of cancer are caused by the cancerous cells invading other tissues.
This is called metastasis.
Metastasis is how which cancer cells move through the bloodstream or lymphatic system.
When this happens, a person's cancer can be spread throughout his or her body.
Eventually those other tissues cannot work as well, and the whole body begins to get worse, and may die.
Cancer can affect anybody at any age.
Most types of cancer are more likely to affect people as they get older.
This is because as a person's DNA gets older, their DNA may become damaged, or damage that happened in the past may get worse.
One type of cancer that is more common in young men, rather than older people, is testicular cancer (cancer of the testicles).
Cancer is one of the biggest and most researched causes of death in developed countries.
Studying cancer and its treatment is called oncology.
Cancer is one of the most common causes of death around the world.
It causes about 12.5% (or one out of every eight) of all deaths worldwide, according to the World Health Organization.
Different types of cancer have different causes.
Some things are known to cause cancer in a specific body part; other things are known to be able to cause many different types of cancer.
For example, using tobacco (smoked or smokeless) can cause many types of cancers, such as lung, mouth, tongue, and throat cancers.
Other things that are known to be able to cause cancer - or make a person more likely to get cancer - include: radiation including sunlight and X-rays in large or many doses, and exposure to radiation (for example in a nuclear power plant); chemicals and materials used in building and manufacturing (for example, asbestos and benzene); high-fat or low-fiber diets; air and water pollution; eating very little fruits and vegetables; obesity; not enough physical activity; drinking too much alcohol; and certain chemicals commonly used at home.
Some cancers can also be caused by viruses.
Many people who are exposed to these things do get cancer - but some do not.
There are many different kinds of cancers.
Some of the most common are:
Brain cancer
Leukemia (a blood cancer)
Mesothelioma (which starts in the lungs, and is usually caused by breathing in asbestos for long periods of time)
Treatment of cancer
There is no sure cure for cancer.
It can only be cured if all of the cancerous cells are cut out or killed in place.
This means that the earlier the cancer is treated, the better the chances are for a cure (because the cancer cells may not have had enough time to copy themselves and spread so much that the person cannot be cured).
There are a few different types of treatments that may kill cancer cells.
These treatments are:
Radiotherapy (radiation therapy), which uses radiation to kill cancer cells
Chemotherapy, which uses strong medications to kill cancer cells
Immunotherapy works by "inducing, enhancing, or suppressing an immune response".
Surgery to take out part or all of a tumor
After surgery, many patients may need radiotherapy or chemotherapy to keep the tumor from growing again
Treating cancer is complicated
There are a few reasons why treating cancer is complicated.
Most things that kill cancer cells also kill normal, healthy cells.
This can cause many side effects, like hair loss and vomiting.
The body's immune system usually will not attack cancer cells, even though they could easily kill the body.
This is because the cancer has actually become a part of the body by invading cells and tissues.
So the immune system sees the cancer as part of the body it is trying to protect, not as a threat to be attacked.
There are many different types of cancer, and each has its own symptoms and causes.
Even with the same type of cancer, different people may have different symptoms, and may react to treatments differently; their cancer also may grow or spread at different speeds.
Treatment has to be a good fit to both the type of cancer and the individual patient who has the cancer.
Many, many people in many countries study cancer and work on finding treatments.
There has been some good progress in finding treatments, and many cancers are treated with success.
Along with looking for different medical treatments to treat cancer, some studies also look for things that people with cancer can do themselves to try to make themselves healthier.
For example, one study showed that if a person with lymphedema (a swelling of the arm linked to breast cancer) lifts weights, he may be able to fight his cancer better than somebody who does not lift weights.
Cancer has been around for many thousands of years.
Today, a lot of the medical terms used to describe cancer come from ancient Greek and Latin.
For example, the Latinized Greek word carcinoma is used to describe a malignant tumor - a tumor made up of cancer cells.
The Greeks also used the word "karkinos", which would be translated by Aulus Cornelius Celsus into the Latin word cancer.
The prefix 'carcino' is still used in medical words like carcinoma and carcinogenic.
A famous Greek doctor, Galen, helped create another word that is very important to medicine today by using the word "onkos" to describe all tumours.
This is where the word oncology, the branch of medicine that deals with cancer, comes from.
Hippocrates (a very famous ancient doctor who is often called the father of modern medicine) named many kinds of cancer.
He called benign tumours (tumors that are not made up of cancer cells) oncos.
In Greek, onkos means 'swelling'.
He called malignant tumours karkinos.
This means crab or crayfish in Greek.
He used this term because he thought that if a solid malignant tumor was cut into, its veins looked like a crab: "the veins stretched on all sides as the animal the crab has its feet, whence it derives (gets) its name".
Hippocrates later added -oma (Greek for 'swelling') after the word 'carcinos'.
This is how the word carcinoma came about.
Because the ancient Greeks did not believe in opening up dead bodies to study them, Hippocrates was only able to describe and make drawings of tumors he saw from the outside of the body.
He drew tumors that had been on the skin, nose, and breasts.
Hippocrates and other doctors at that time treated people based on the humor theory.
This theory said that there were four types of fluid in the body (black, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm).
Doctors tried to figure out whether these four "humors" (or body fluids) were in balance.
They would then use treatments like blood-letting (cutting the patient and letting him bleed so that he would lose blood); laxatives (giving the patient foods or herbs to make him go to the bathroom), and/or changing the patient's diet.
The doctors thought that these treatments would work to get the patient's four humors back into the right balance.
The humor theory treatment was popular until the 19th century (the 1800s), when cells were discovered.
By this time, people had realized that cancer can happen anywhere in the body.
Early surgery
The oldest known document that talks about cancer was discovered in Egypt and is thought to be from about 1600 B.C. The document talks about using surgery to treat eight cases of ulcers of the breast.
These were treated by cauterization - by burning them - using a tool called "the fire drill".
The document also says about cancer, "There is no treatment".
Another very early type of surgery used to treat cancer was written about in the 1020s.
In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) said that treatment should involve cutting out all diseased tissue.
This included the use of amputation (removing a part of the body completely) or removing veins that ran in the direction of the tumor.
Avicenna also suggested that the area that had been treated should be cauterized (or burned) if needed.
The 16th and 17th centuries
In the 16th and 17th centuries (the 1500s and 1600s), doctors started to be allowed to dissect bodies (or cut them open after death) in order to figure out the cause of death.
Around this time, there were many different ideas about what caused cancer.
The German professor Wilhelm Fabry believed that breast cancer was caused by a clot of milk in the part of a woman's breast that produces milk.
The Dutch professor Francois de la Boe Sylvius believed that all disease was caused by chemical processes.
He thought that cancer, in particular, was caused by acidic lymph.
Nicolaes Tulp, who lived at the same time as Sylvius, believed that cancer was a poison that slowly spreads and was contagious.
A British surgeon named Percivall Pott was the first person to figure out one of the real causes of cancer.
In 1775, he discovered that cancer of the scrotum was a common disease among chimney sweeps (people who cleaned out chimneys).
Other doctors started studying this topic and coming up with other ideas about what causes cancer.
Doctors then started working together and coming up with better ideas.
The 18th century
In the 18th century (the 1700s), many people started to use the microscope, and this made a big difference in helping doctors and scientists understand more about cancer.
Using the microscope, scientists were able to see that the 'cancer poison' spread from one tumor through the lymph nodes to other sites ("metastasis").
This was first made clear by the English surgeon Campbell De Morgan, between 1871 and 1874.
Before the 19th century (the 1800s), using surgery to treat cancer usually had bad results.
Doctors did not understand how important hygiene (or keeping things clean) is for preventing disease, especially after surgery.
Because things were not kept clean during or after surgery, patients often got infections and died.
For example, one well-known Scottish surgeon, Alexander Monro, kept records and found that 58 patients out of every 60 who had surgery for breast tumors died within the next two years.
The 19th century
In the 19th century, surgical hygiene got better because of asepsis.
Doctors realized that dirtiness and germs cause infections, so they started to keep things cleaner and do things to kill germs in order to prevent their patients from getting infections.
It became more common for people to survive after having surgery.
Surgical removal of the tumor (taking the tumor out of the body by doing surgery) became the first-choice treatment for cancer.
For this kind of treatment to work, the surgeon doing the operation had to be very good at removing tumors. (
This meant that even if people had the same kind of cancer, they could get very different results, with some getting good treatment that worked and others getting treatment that did not work, because of differences in how good different surgeons were.)
In the late 1800s, doctors and scientists started to realize that the body is made up of many kinds of tissues, which in turn are made up of millions of cells.
The discovery started the age of cellular pathology (studying cells to learn about diseases and figure out what is wrong with the body).
Discovery of radiation
In the 1890s, French scientists discovered radioactive decay.
Radiation therapy became the first cancer treatment that worked and did not involve surgery.
It required a new multi-disciplinary approach to cancer treatment (people doing different jobs were working together to treat patients).
The surgeon was no longer working by himself - he worked together with hospital radiologists (people who gave and read X-rays) to help patients.
This team approach meant changes in how they worked.
The different people on the team had to communicate with each other and work together, which they were not used to doing.
It also meant that treatment had to be done in a hospital rather than at the patient's home.
Because of this, patients' information had to be put together into files kept at the hospital (called "medical records").
Because this information was now being kept and written down, scientists were able to do the first statistical patient studies using numbers to study questions like how many people who have a certain type of cancer or get a certain treatment survive.
The 20th century
Another important step forward in understanding cancer happened in 1926, when Janet Lane-Claypon published a paper on cancer epidemiology. (
Epidemiology is a field of study which looks at how common a disease is, what patterns the disease takes in different kinds of people, and what this means for understanding and treating the disease.)
This historic paper was a comparative study, which tries to find out what causes a disease by looking at a group of people who have the disease and figuring out how they are different from another group that does not have the disease.
Lane-Clayton's study looked at 1000 people who all had the same background and lifestyle (or way of living): 500 people with breast cancer and 500 control patients (people without breast cancer).
These people were the same in many ways, but some got breast cancer and some did not.
To figure out what might be causing certain people to get breast cancer, the study looked at what was different about these people when they were compared to (or looked at alongside) the people who did not get cancer.
Lane-Clayton's study was published by the British Ministry of Health.
Her work on cancer epidemiology was continued by Richard Doll and Austin Bradford Hill.
They used the same ways of studying cancer as Lane-Clayton, but they looked at a different kind of cancer: lung cancer.
In 1956, they published their results in a paper called "Lung Cancer and Other Causes of Death In Relation to Smoking.
A Second Report on the Mortality of British Doctors" (also called the British doctors study).
Later, Richard Doll left the London Medical Research Center (MRC), and started the Oxford unit for Cancer epidemiology in 1968.
By using computers, this unit was able to do something new and very important: it brought together large amounts of cancer data (pieces of information about cancer).
This way of studying cancer is very important to cancer epidemiology today, and it has also been very important in shaping what we now know about cancer and what the rules and laws about the disease and public health are today.
Over the past 50 years, many different people have done a lot of work to collect data from different doctors, hospitals, areas, states, and even countries.
This data is used to study whether different kinds of cancer are more or less common in different areas, environments (for example, in big cities compared to the countryside), or cultures.
This helps people who study cancer to figure out what makes people more or less likely to get different kinds of cancer.
Effects of World War II
Before World War II, doctors and hospitals were getting better at collecting (or getting and keeping) data about their patients who had cancer, but it was rare for this data to be shared with other doctors or hospitals.
This changed after WWII, when medical research centers found out that different countries had very different number of cases of cancer.
Because of this, many countries created national public health organizations (which studied public health issues in an entire country).
These national public health organizations began to bring together health data from many different doctors and hospitals.
This helped them figure out some of the reasons why cancer was so much more common in certain places.
For example, in Japan, people studying cancer found out that people who had survived the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki had bone marrow that was completely destroyed.
This helped them realize that diseased bone marrow could also be destroyed with radiation, which was a very important step in figuring out that leukemia (a blood cancer) can be treated with bone marrow transplants.
Since World War II, scientists have kept finding better cancer treatments.
However, there are some things that still need to get better.
For example, while there are good treatments for many kinds of cancer, there are still no treatments for certain kinds of cancer, or for some cancers once they progress (or get worse) to a certain stage of the disease.
Also, the cancer treatments that do exist are not all standardized (there is not one agreed-upon way of giving every treatment which is used each time the treatment is given).
Cancer treatments are also not available everywhere in the world.
People need to keep studying cancer epidemiology and forming international partnerships (where different countries work together) to find cures and make cancer treatments available everywhere.
What is Cancer?
(Simple English) - American Cancer Society
Photography is a way of making a picture using a camera.
A person who makes pictures using a camera is called a photographer.
A picture made using a camera is called a photograph or photo.
Photography became popular in the middle 19th century with Daguerreotype.
Later wet plate and dry plate methods were invented.
Most photography in the 20th century was on photographic film and most in the 21st uses digital cameras.
A "camera" is, in its simplest form, like a box with a hole in front of it.
There is a special piece of glass in front of the hole called a lens.
To take a photograph of something, the lens makes a small picture of the object inside the camera.
The lens does this by focusing light.
A lens in a camera works like a lens in glasses (spectacles) or a magnifying glass.
One type of camera called the Pinhole camera has no lens but uses a very small hole to focus light.
To make a photograph with a camera the shutter release button is pressed.
Pressing the button opens the shutter.
The shutter is like a door.
It covers the hole in the camera box.
The shutter is behind the lens.
When the shutter is closed no light can enter the camera box.
When the shutter is open light can enter the camera.
When the button is pressed the shutter opens and then closes.
This happens very fast.
The amount of time the shutter stays open for is called the shutter speed.
The shutter speed can change between 1/1000th of a second (0.001 s) to a few seconds.
Normally the time taken for the shutter to open and close is far less than 1 second.
Some cameras have an aperture ring.
It controls how much light enters the camera box.
The picture the lens makes is recorded on photographic film.
Film is placed inside the camera box.
Light coming through the lens, aperture and open shutter shines on the film.
Photographic film is coated with chemicals that react when light shines on it.
Letting light shine on the film is called exposing the film.
There are many different types of photographic film.
There are films for taking colour photographs and films for taking black and white photographs.
There are different sizes of film.
The most common size is 35 mm.
It is called 35 mm because the width of the film is 35 millimetres.
Another difference between films is how sensitive they are to light.
Films have a code number, called an ISO number.
The number tells how fast a film reacts when light shines on it.
Film Processing
Once the film has been exposed it is processed.
Processing has to be done in total darkness or the film will be exposed too much and the picture will be lost.
Processing stops the film reacting to light any more.
After the film has been processed the picture can be seen on the film.
A photographic print is a photograph made on paper.
A light sensitive paper is used.
The picture on the film is placed in an enlarger.
An enlarger is a machine that shines light through the film and makes a bigger picture on the light sensitive paper.
A chemical reaction happens in the paper, which turns the areas hit with light black when the paper is 'developed'. (
The more light, the darker the area.)
Developing makes the picture appear on the paper – now it is a photograph.
Then the paper is put into other chemicals that make it not sensitive to light any more.
This is called "fixing".
Last, the paper is washed so that there are no more chemicals on it and then dried.
Then it is finished.
Digital photography
Digital photography uses a digital camera.
Sometimes it is called digital imaging.
Like other cameras a digital camera has a lens, aperture, and shutter.
The picture the lens makes is recorded by a light-sensitive electronic sensor.
A digital camera does not use photographic film to record a picture.
Digital photographs are stored in storage devices such as SD cards.
They can later be transferred to a computer.
Paper prints can also be made from digital pictures.
Digital cameras are also not expensive to use, as there is no film to buy.
Taking a photograph
One of the most important things when taking a photograph is focusing the lens.
If the lens is not focused well, the photograph will be blurry.
Autofocus cameras focus automatically when the shutter release is pressed.
There are also manual focus cameras (usually older ones).
Three other things are important when taking a photograph.
These control how bright or dark the photograph will be.
The brighter you have it the more transparent the picture comes out, if you have it to bright the whole screen can turn out to be all white, if the camera settings are set to be to dark, well, then the picture will come out to dark.
So it really depends on how you want the picture, some cameras automatically come in with the setting at 50%, this is most recommended if you want to take a normal picture, but if you want to adjust the settings, it is recommended to keep it between 45% and 75%.
The shutter speed – how long the shutter is open for.
This is written in the form "1/400," or one four-hundredth of a second.
The aperture  – how big the aperture in the lens opens.
This changes how much light is let in.
This is written in the form "f/5.6," which describes the ratio between focal length and the size of the aperture opening.
The film speed – how quickly the film/sensor records the picture.
This is also called ISO, and is written in the form "400."
A slower shutter speed, a bigger aperture, and faster film/higher ISO sensor all make a brighter picture.
A faster shutter speed, a smaller aperture, and a slower film/lower ISO sensor all make a darker picture.
A good picture is not too bright and not too dark.
When it is too bright it would be called "overexposed".
An automatic camera changes these things by itself when the shutter release is pressed.
Camera types
Though there are many types of cameras, all include five indispensable components:
the camera box, which holds and protects the sensitive film from all light except that entering through the lens
film, on which the image is recorded, a light-sensitive strip usually wound on a spool, either manually or automatically, as successive pictures are taken
the light control, consisting of an aperture or diaphragm and a shutter, both often adjustable
the lens, which focuses the light rays from the subject onto the film, creating the image, and which is usually adjustable by moving forward or back, changing the focus
the viewing system, which may be separate from the lens system (usually above it) or may operate through it by means of a mirror
An acronym is a word whose letters are the first letters of other words.
People often create a short acronym that means the same thing as a much longer phrase (set of words).
This is faster and shorter to say then the long phrase.
COBOL - COmmon Business Oriented Language
LASER - Light Amplification through Stimulated Emmission of Radiation
POSH - Port out starboard home
QUANGO - Quasi-autonomous non-governmental organisation
RADAR - RAdio Detecting And Ranging
SARS  - Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
SCUBA - Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
SNAFU - Situation Normal: All Fouled Up
An acronym usually must be able to be spoken as word.
Other abbreviations such as ASAP (as soon as possible), USA (the United States of America), ECU (European Currency Unit), FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation), NBA (National Basketball Association) have combinations of letters that are not pronounced as a single word.
People just say the letters, one after another.
The world's longest acronym, according to the Guinness Book of World Records is NIIOMTPLABOPARMBETZHELBETRABSBOMONIMONKONOTDTEKHSTROMONT ().
It is 56 letters long (54 in Cyrillic).
It is from the Concise Dictionary of Soviet Terminology and means "the Laboratory for Shuttering, Reinforcement, Concrete and Ferroconcrete Operations for Composite-monolithic and Monolithic Constructions of the Department of Technology of Building Assembly Operations of the Scientific Research Institute of the Organization for Building Mechanization and Technical Aid of the Academy of Building and Architecture of the USSR."
Acronym Finder - an acronym website with many ways to search for acronyms.
All Acronyms - a website with many acronyms
Radio waves make up part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
These waves are packets of energy with differing wavelengths, similar to visible light waves, X-rays or gamma rays, except longer.
A radio wave, like other electromagnetic waves, is similar to an ocean surface wave or any other type of wave.
Both types of wave have a hill and valley shape, repeating over and over.
A wavelength is measured as the distance from the top of one crest to the top of its neighboring crest.