the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Bergkamen is a town in the district of Unna, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.
It is near the river Lippe, approx.
15 km north-east of Dortmund and 15 km south-west of Hamm.
Hettstedt, since 1990
Taşucu, since 1994
Gennevilliers, since 1995
Wieliczka, since 1995
Official Website of the city of Bergkamen
Website of the mayor of Bergkamen
Australia's renewable energy industries cover many energy sources and stages of commercialisation.
Renewable energy technologies make up about 6 per cent of Australia's total energy  supply and some 8 per cent of Australia's electricity supply, with hydro-electricity by far the largest single contributor.
Government policies have opened up more opportunities for "new" renewable energies such as wind power, photovoltaics, and solar thermal technologies.
The use of these technologies helps to reduce greenhouse gases.
At the end of 2006, Australia had 817 MW of installed wind power capacity, mainly in South Australia.
Initiatives are also being taken with solar power, ethanol fuel and geothermal energy.
Economy of Australia
Wind power is a growing industry in the United States.
Latest American Wind Energy Association figures show that installed U.S. wind power capacity now exceeds 11,600 MW which is enough to serve three million average households.
Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development, followed by California.
Several solar thermal power stations, including the new 64 MW Nevada Solar One, have also been built.
The largest of these solar thermal power stations is the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert with a total generating capacity of 354 MW, making the system the largest solar plant of any kind in the world.
The largest solar photovoltaic plant in the U.S. is the 4.6 MW Springerville Generating Station, located near Tucson, Arizona.
Energy in the United States
Low kick is a leg technique used in certain boxes pieds-poings (Burmese boxing, kickboxing and Thai boxing Muay Thai) and certain martial arts.
It consists in striking a blow with shinbone or a kick in the lower limb of the opponent (thigh or leg).
According to the official rules concerning sport, it can be carried to the outer and to the inner part of the lower limb.
In fights in full contact (so-called K.O. system), these kicks are allowed in order to make an opponent not stable, indeed to have an advantage.
Martial art techniques
Spider-Man is an American 2002 superhero movie.
It was made from the story of the Marvel Comics superhero, Spider-Man.
It was the first in the Spider-Man movie series.
It was written by David Koepp and directed by Sam Raimi.
Tobey Maguire starred as Peter Parker / Spider-Man.
Kirsten Dunst played the girl Peter loves, Mary-Jane Watson, and Willem Dafoe played the bad guy, Norman Osborn.
At the start of the movie, Peter Parker, a very smart teenager, is accidentally bitten by a spider that had been mutated (changed) in a science study.
This allows him to climb up walls, make spider webs come from his wrists, jump high, move fast and become very strong.
Peter lives with his aunt and uncle.
His Uncle Ben teaches him that "with great power comes great responsibility."
He uses these powers to win a wrestling competition.
However, he does not get paid what he thought he would get paid.
A criminal steals a lot of money from the cashier and runs off.
Peter does not try to catch the criminal, as revenge for not getting paid as much as he wanted to be.
The criminal then steals Ben's car and Ben dies.
From then on, Peter becomes Spider-Man and vows to fight crime, using Ben's words to their fullest.
Meanwhile, Peter's friend Harry's father is in trouble.
Norman is the CEO or head of his own company, but the executive board kicks him off.
He tests a new kind of formula and becomes the Green Goblin.
Norman also has a device that lets him fly around.
Spider-Man and the Green Goblin begin to fight in various places.
During a fire at a building, the Green Goblin uses his voice and pretends to be someone trapped.
When Spider-Man goes to rescue the person, he finds the Green Goblin.
During the fight, Spider-Man's arm is cut.
Peter, Norman, Harry, Peter's friend Mary Jane Watson, and Peter's aunt then meet at Peter's apartment for Thanksgiving.
Norman notices Peter's cut on his arm and realizes that Peter Parker is Spider-Man.
Norman then starts planning to hurt Peter.
He scares Peter's Aunt May so badly that she has to go to the hospital.
There, Peter realizes that the Green Goblin knows that he likes Mary Jane Watson, so he calls her up, but the Green Goblin has already taken her.
Spider-Man goes out to a bridge in New York.
The Green Goblin has Mary Jane in one arm and a group of kids in a bus on the other hand.
He wants Spider-Man to fail at doing something – to choose between the person he loves and innocent civilians.
He then drops both at once.
Spider-Man grabs Mary Jane first and uses his webbing to save the kids.
The Green Goblin is angry and attacks Spider-Man.
A bunch of New York people start to throw trash and knock the Green Goblin off balance.
The Green Goblin then grabs Peter and they start to fight inside an abandoned building.
The fight is very violent and Spider-Man starts to bleed.
Finally, after Spider-Man knocks the Green Goblin down, the Green Goblin says that he is Norman Osborn.
Spider-Man is very surprised.
Norman then distracts Peter and talks to him as he tries to get his flying device to move and to kill Peter.
Spider-Man ducks at the last second and the flying device impales Norman, killing him.
Dying, Norman asks Peter not to tell Harry that he was the Green Goblin.
The last scene is at a cemetery for the funeral of Norman.
During the ceremony, Harry tells Peter that he swears that Spider-Man will die because Spider-Man killed his father.
Mary Jane implies that she loves Peter, but Peter tells her that he will always be a friend and be there for her, and that is all he can give to her.
A trailer containing original footage was shown for screenings of the 2001 movie Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within.
The trailer shows a group of bank robbers flying in a helicopter and land on a giant web between the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center.
The trailer was recalled following the September 11 attacks.
As a response, a scene where New Yorkers throw food at the Green Goblin and wave their flags while yelling "You mess with one of us, you mess with all of us" was added for reshoots.
After the movie was kept from being made for almost 25 years, it was shown in theaters on May 3, 2002.
Critics liked it a lot and it broke many movie records.
It made more money than any other movie in the year 2002.
As of late 2007, Spider-Man is the seventh highest grossing movie in the United States and 17th highest world wide.
It made enough money and two sequels have been made, Spider-Man 2 (2004) and Spider-Man 3 (2007).
Tobey Maguire as Peter Parker / Spider-Man
Willem Dafoe as Norman Osborn / Green Goblin
Kirsten Dunst as Mary Jane Watson
James Franco as Harry Osborn
Cliff Robertson as Uncle Ben Parker
Rosemary Harris as Aunt May Parker
J. K. Simmons as J. Jonah Jameson
Gerry Becker as Maximilian Fargas
Bill Nunn as Joseph "Robbie" Robertson
Jack Betts as Henry Balkan
Stanley Anderson as General Thomas Slocum
Ron Perkins as Dr. Mendel Stromm
Joe Manganiello as Flash Thompson
2002 movies
Movies directed by Sam Raimi
Spider-Man (2002 movie series)
Spider-Man movies
John Bunyan (Harrowden, near Bedford, 28 November 1628 – London, 31 August 1688) was an English tinker, preacher and writer.
He wrote a book called The Pilgrim's Progress which has been translated into more languages than any other book except the Bible.
The book is a story about a man who is trying to lead a good life as a Christian.
It is allegory.
The characters in the story represent good things or bad things.
Bunyan lived at a time when there was no religious freedom: everybody had to believe what the Church of England told them.
Bunyan did not agree with some of the things the Church of England said.
He started to preach about his ideas.
He was arrested and put into prison because of his beliefs.
He wrote The Pilgrim's Progress while he was in gaol (prison).
Bunyan’s father was a tinker: a metal worker who mends pots and pans.
The Bunyan family had been living in Bedfordshire at least since the 12th century.
They had gradually lost more and more of their land and had become quite poor.
John Bunyan’s father had inherited a small cottage and 9 acres of land.
John Bunyan only went to school for two, three or four years.
He learned how to be a tinker from his father.
Youth: religious conversion
There was a lot of fighting in England at the time Bunyan was a child.
Many people were against King Charles I so there was a Civil War and the king was executed.
For several years England was a republic, ruled by Oliver Cromwell.
When Bunyan was 16 years old, he served in the parliamentary army at Newport Pagnell (1644 - 1647).
After that, he started to work as a tinker, and in 1649, he married.
His wife had two books, both of which were religious books.
Bunyan started to be influenced by religion.
He became very frightened because he realized he had done things which were wrong, and he wondered whether God would forgive him, so that he would go to heaven when he died, or whether he would be punished and go to hell.
The kind of things he did which at that time were thought to be wrong (sins) were not things which would worry many people nowadays: ringing church bells, dancing, playing games on Sundays and, perhaps the worst of all, swearing.
Other wrongs he had done in the past included disrespecting his parents, and very likely causing, or at least unremorsefully (unsorrowfully) helping along the early death of his mother and sister - which he did by refusing to take any of the burden or workload at home.
It was only for lack of money that he did not spend his time with prostitutes, though he longed to join the gambling and "painted women" who attended fairs and other public events.
In his book Grace Abounding Bunyan describes himself as the “Chief of Sinners”.
He tells how one day he was walking along when he heard a group of women talking to one another about salvation.
This made him think about these things.
In those days, people were supposed to worship God in the Church of England.
There were, however, groups of people who wanted to worship God in different ways.
These people were called “non-conformists”.
In 1653, a sect (religious group) of non-conformists had taken over St John’s Church in Bedford.
Their vicar was John Gifford.
Bunyan discussed the Bible a lot with Gifford.
Bunyan lived in Elstow, near Bedford, until 1655, when his wife died.
He moved to Bedford to be nearer to Gifford’s church .
He married again in 1659.
In 1660, the Restoration of the Monarchy took place: England had a king once more: Charles II became king.
It was bad for religious freedom, because all non-conformist meetings were forbidden.
St John’s Church had to become part of the Church of England again.
Bunyan refused to go to church.
He started to preach to groups of people anywhere they could meet: in barns or in the streets.
Because he did not have permission to preach, he was arrested and put in gaol.
At first, he was sentenced to 3 months, but because he refused to promise to stop preaching, he spent 12 years in gaol.
Years in gaol
Bunyan spent the years 1660-1672 in gaol, and again he was in gaol for a short time in 1677.
The gaol was at the top of Silver Street in the centre of Bedford, only 5 minutes walk from his house in St Cuthbert Street, which was then on the edge of the town.
The gaol had 6 cells and 2 dungeons.
He could probably have been free at any time if he had promised to give up preaching, but he did what he firmly believed to be right.
He made some money in gaol by making shoelaces.
His eldest daughter Mary, who was blind, brought him soup every day and also gave him books to read.
Sometimes, he seems to have been let out of gaol for short periods of time.
This was not really allowed, but often, the guards might let a prisoner out if they promised to come back.
Bunyan even travelled as far as London once, and he must have gone home sometimes because he had two more children by his second wife during that time.
It was during this time in gaol that he wrote his allegorical novel: Pilgrim's Progress.
We do not know whether he wrote it all while he was in gaol.
The book is in two parts.
The first part finishes with the words: “So I awoke, and behold it was a dream”.
When the second part begins he says “..as I slept I dreamt again”.
This might mean that he wrote the second part in 1677 when he was in gaol again.
This is only a guess, we do not know.
His release
Bunyan was released in January 1672, when Charles II issued the “Declaration of Religious Indulgence” which meant that people were free to worship God in the way they wanted.
The king had done this mainly because he wanted the Catholics to have less power.
Non-conformist sects could register and get a license.
Bunyan became pastor (priest) of the Bedford church.
In March 1675, he was again imprisoned for preaching (because Charles II withdrew the Declaration of Religious Indulgence).
This time he seems to have been in the Bedford town gaol on the stone bridge over the river Ouse.
After a few months, he was let out.
He was a very popular preacher, so he was not arrested again.
His book The Pilgrim's Progress was published in 1678.
He also wrote several other books about religion, but The Pilgrim's Progress was the one that became extremely popular.
Because Bunyan did not have a formal education he wrote in a very direct style which ordinary people could understand.
A passage from Part Two of The Pilgrim's Progress beginning "Who would true Valour see" is sung regularly as a hymn.
On his way to London, in 1688, he caught a severe cold from rats and bats, and died a painful death.
His grave is in the cemetery at Bunhill Fields in London.
1628 births
Metal smiths were very important before industrialisation because they made metal tools for farming (especially the plough) and weapons for fighting in wars.
Because of the importance of smiths, the name of their craft ('Smith') turned into a surname.
Etymology of smith
The word smith means "to hit" or "to strike".
Originally, smiths made things from metal by using a hammer.
As an English suffix, -smith at the end of a word means a craftsmen.
For example, a "locksmith" makes locks.
Types of smiths
an arrowsmith forges arrow heads;
a blacksmith works with iron and steel;
a bladesmith forges knives, swords and other blades;
a coppersmith, or brownsmith, works with copper;
a fendersmith makes and repairs the metal fender before fireplaces, protecting rugs and furniture in mansions and fine estates, and often looks after the fires as well;
a goldsmith works with gold;
a gunsmith works with guns;
a locksmith works with locks;
a pewtersmith works with pewter;
a silversmith, or brightsmith, works with silver;
a tinsmith, or tinner, works with light metal (such as tinware) and can refer to someone who deals in tinware;
a swordsmith is a bladesmith who forges only swords;
a whitesmith works with white metal (tin) and can refer to someone who polishes or finishes the metal rather than forging it.
Artisans and craftpersons
The ancient traditional tool of the smith is a forge or smithy, which is a fire which allows compressed air (through a bellows) to heat the inside of the forge until it is hot enough for metal to become more malleable so that it can be hammered into the shape that is required.
Smith or smithy refers to the hammering onto the metal using an anvil to support the work.
Anvils come in many sizes and shapes.
The term, metalsmith, often refers to artisans and craftpersons who practice their craft in many different metals, including gold, copper and silver.
Jewelers often refer to their craft as metalsmithing, and many universities offer degree programs in metalsmithing, jewelry and blacksmithing as part of their fine arts programs.
A tinker is a metalsmith who mends kettles, pots and pans.
They were often poor, itinerant workers (walking from place to place looking for jobs).
Machinists
The most advanced of these tools, CNC machines, are computer controlled and largely automated.
An allegory is a term for a figure of speech.
It is a story or picture with a hidden meaning.
The characters in allegories are symbols which represent particular ideas.
The story has a figurative meaning, not just a literal one.
Allegory is an example of rhetoric, but an allegory does not have to be a story in language.
It may be something to look at, such as a painting or sculpture.
An allegory is like a long metaphor.
People have to use their imagination to understand what it is trying to say.
A  fable or parable is a short allegory with one basic idea (a moral).
Sometimes people say that stories have meanings which the author, in fact, did not intend.
For instance, many people have suggested that The Lord of the Rings was an allegory for the World Wars, but, in fact, it was written well before the outbreak of World War II, and J.R.R. Tolkien said that it was not an allegory.
In this way people sometimes change the author’s ideas.
Sometimes they do it for their own political reasons.
Allegory has been a favourite form in the literature of nearly every nation.
It is often used as a way of criticizing things or people where it would not be possible to do so directly.
In classical literature Plato and Ovid wrote allegories.
Dante Alighieri wrote allegories in The Divine Comedy.
In the Middle Ages Everyman was a morality play.
John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim's Progress tells the story of a man trying to lead a Christian life.
Jonathan Swift wrote Gulliver's Travels, which tells about the strange customs of (made-up) faraway countries, but he was really criticizing things about his own country, the United Kingdom.
Animal Farm by George Orwell is another example of an allegory, this time of the Soviet Union during Josef Stalin's era and the Russian Revolution.
Some of the characters can be directly linked to figures during that time.
Songs may also include allegories. "
Waist Deep In The Big Muddy" tells a story of American soldiers in the 1800s, ordered by their commander to march into the Mississippi River, which they could never cross on foot.
In truth, it told the story of soldiers fighting in the Vietnam War in the 1960s, and being expected to do the white guy's bidding.
Allegories still continue to be popular today.
Pictures, movies and plays can be allegories.
William Golding’s novel Lord of the Flies also has allegorical meaning.
Star Trek used a great deal of allegory, to look at social conditions and moral values in the present, while telling stories based in the future.
Alien races were often a reflection of Earth's own races and countries.
Allegorical artworks include Sandro Botticelli's La Primavera (Allegory of Spring) and Jan Vermeer's The Allegory of Painting.
Newport Pagnell is a town in England.
It is in the borough of Milton Keynes.
The town was first mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Neuport, which is an Old English word meaning New Market Town.
At that time it was fairly new, having been founded by Norman invaders.
The suffix "Pagnell" came later, when the manor passed into the hands of the Pagnell (Paynel) family.
Tickford Bridge, over the River Ouze, was built in 1810.
It is the only iron bridge in Britain that still carries main road traffic.
This is the oldest iron bridge in the world that is still in constant use.
There is a plaque near the footbridge on the side that gives details of its history and construction.
A large set of sluice gates used to control downstream flooding of the River Great Ouse is near the bridge.
The modern civil parish of Newport Pagnell stops at the M1, but the ecclesiastical parish extends to include Broughton and Caldecote.
The parish church is dedicated to St Peter and St Paul.
The unofficial town website with historical pictures, pictures of the town carnival and a message board for locals and ex pats to keep in touch
making a solemn promise: Oath
using bad language: Profanity
SWR'ing, adjusting a radio transmission aerial to resonate on its usual transmission frequency
The embryos of amniotes are either laid as eggs or develop in the female.
These embyros are protected by several membranes, and have a much larger food supply than amphibian eggs.
Thus, as distinct from the amphibians, amniotes are truly terrestrial.
Secondarily, many reptiles and mammals returned to water, and mammals bear the young live, as do some reptile groups.
This evolutionary flexibility is much less common in amphibians.
The first amniotes, such as Casineria, looked like small lizards.
They evolved about 340 million years ago, in the Mississippian or Lower Carboniferous.
Their eggs could survive out of the water.
This let amniotes move into environments that had less water.
The amniotes moved across the Earth.
Most vertebrates that live on land are amniotes, as are most of the air-breathing animals of the sea.
The oldest known fossil synapsid is Protoclepsydrops from about 320 million years ago, while the oldest known sauropsid is probably Paleothyris, in the order Captorhinida, from the Middle Pennsylvanian epoch (about 306–312 million years ago).
In fish and amphibians there is only one inner membrane, also called an embryonic membrane.
In amniotes the inner anatomy of the egg has evolved further and new structures have developed to take care of the gas exchanges between the embryo and the atmosphere, as well as dealing with the waste problems.
To grow a thicker and tougher shell required new ways to supply the embryo with oxygen, as diffusion alone was not enough.
After the egg developed these structures, further sophistication allowed amniotes to lay much bigger eggs in much drier habitats.
Bigger eggs allowed for bigger offspring, and bigger adults could produce bigger eggs, so amniotes grew bigger than their ancestors.
Real growth was not possible, however, until they stopped relying on small invertebrates as their main food source and started to eat plants or other vertebrates, or returned to the water.
New habits and heavier bodies meant further evolution for the amniotes, both in behavior and anatomy.
Three groups
There are three main lines of amniotes, which may be distinguished by the structure of the skull and in particular the number of temporal fenestrae (openings) behind the eye.
In anapsids (turtles) there are none, in synapsids (mammals and their extinct relatives) there is one, and in most diapsids (non-anapsid reptiles, including dinosaurs and birds) there are two.
Stem-group Amniotes
Synapsids (therapsids, mammals)
Sauropsids (all reptiles, birds)
Traditional taxonomy
Tetrapoda
Class Synapsida – Mammal-like "reptiles"
Class Mammalia – Mammals
Class Sauropsida – Reptiles
Subclass Anapsida
(unranked) Eureptilia
Family Captorhinidae
Family Protorothyrididae
Subclass Diapsida
Class Aves – Birds
Out of the Swamps
The  is the First Mayor of Hamburg, Germany.
He is the president of the Senate (government) of Hamburg.
The Erster Bürgermeister is Hamburg's Minister President.
The constitution of 28 September 1860 says that the state is to be governed by the ten-member Senate headed by the First Mayor as the President of the Senate.
His deputy is the Second Mayor.
Until 1997 the First Mayor was elected by the Senate.
Now he is elected by the Bürgerschaft (the city's parliament) and the Erster Bürgermeister has appointed and dismissed other Senators.
List of mayors
Friedrich Sieveking: 1861-1862
Nicolaus Ferdinand Haller: 1863-1864
Friedrich Sieveking: 1865
Nicolaus Ferdinand Haller: 1866-1867
Friedrich Sieveking: 1868
Gustav Heinrich Kirchenpauer: 1869
Nicolaus Ferdinand Haller: 1870
Gustav Heinrich Kirchenpauer: 1871-1872
Nicolaus Ferdinand Haller: 1873
Hermann Goßler: 1874
Gustav Heinrich Kirchenpauer: 1875
Carl Friedrich Petersen: 1876-1877
Gustav Heinrich Kirchenpauer: 1878
Hermann Anthony Cornelius Weber:1879
Carl Friedrich Petersen: 1880
Gustav Heinrich Kirchenpauer: 1881
Hermann Anthony Cornelius Weber: 1882
Carl Friedrich Petersen: 1883
Gustav Heinrich Kirchenpauer: 1884
Hermann Anthony Cornelius Weber: 1885
Carl Friedrich Petersen: 1886
Gustav Heinrich Kirchenpauer: 1887
Johannes Georg Andreas Versmann: 14 March 1887 - 1888
Carl Friedrich Petersen: 1889
Johann Georg Mönckeberg: 1890
Johannes Georg Andreas Versmann: 1891
Carl Friedrich Petersen: 1892
Johann Georg Mönckeberg: 1893
Johannes Georg Andreas Versmann: 1894
Johannes Christian Eugen Lehmann: 1895
Johann Georg Mönckeberg: 1896
Johannes Georg Andreas Versmann: 1897
Johannes Christian Eugen Lehmann: 1898
Johann Georg Mönckeberg: 1899
Johannes Christian Eugen Lehmann: 1 January 1900 - 15 September 1900
Gerhard Hachmann: 19 November 1900 - 1901
Johann Georg Mönckeberg: 1902
Johann Heinrich Burchard: 1903
Gerhard Hachmann: until 11 July 1904
Johann Georg Mönckeberg: 11 July 1904 - 1905
Johann Heinrich Burchard: 1906
Johann Otto Stammann: 1907
Johann Georg Mönckeberg: until 27 March 1908
Johann Heinrich Burchard: 3 April 1908 - 1909
Max Predöhl: 1910 - 1911
Johann Heinrich Burchard: 1912
Carl August Schröder: 13 September 1912 - 1913
Max Predöhl: 1914
Werner von Melle: 1915
Carl August Schröder: 1916
Max Predöhl: 1917
Werner von Melle: 1918 - 1919
Werner von Melle: 31 March 1919 - 31 December 1919
Gustav Sthamer: 1 January 1920- 1 February 1920
Arnold Diestel, DDP: 2 February 1920 - 31 December 1923
Carl Petersen, DDP: 1 January 1924 - 31 December 1929
Rudolf Ross, SPD: 1 January 1930 - 31 December 1931
Carl Petersen, DDP: 1 January 1932 - 7 March 1933
Carl Vincent Krogmann, NSDAP: 8 March 1933 - 3 May 1945 (The real head of the government was the Reichsstatthalter (regional governor) Karl Kaufmann)
Appointed by the British occupation forces
Rudolf Hieronymus Petersen, CDU: 15 May 1945 - 22 November 1946
Democratically elected after World War II
Max Brauer, SPD: 22 November 1946 - 2 December 1953
Kurt Sieveking, CDU: 2 December 1953 - 4 December 1957
Max Brauer, SPD: 4 December 1957 - 31 December 1960
Paul Nevermann, SPD: 1 January 1961 - 9 June 1965
Herbert Weichmann, SPD: 9 June 1965 - 9 June 1971
Peter Schulz, SPD: 9 June 1971 - 4 November 1974
Hans-Ulrich Klose, SPD: 12 November 1974 - 22 May 1981
Klaus von Dohnanyi, SPD: 24 June 1981 - 8 June 1988
Henning Voscherau, SPD: 8 June 1988 - 8 October 1997
Ortwin Runde, SPD: 12 November 1997 - 31 October 2001
Ole von Beust, CDU: 31 October 2001 - 25 August 2010
Christoph Ahlhaus, CDU: since 25 August 2010 - 7 March 2011
Olaf Scholz, SDP: 7 March 2011 - incumbent
All mayors of Hamburg since 1293
{{Automatic Taxobox
| name = Synapsida
| fossil_range = non-mammalian synapsids: Upper Carboniferous – Lower Cretaceous
| image = Dimetrodon.jpg
| image_width = 210px
| image_caption = Dimetrodon grandis skeleton at the National Museum of Natural History, U.S.A.
| taxon = Synapsida
| authority = Osborn, 1903
| subdivision_ranks = Orders & Suborders
| subdivision =
Order Pelycosauria
Order TherapsidaFor complete phylogeny, see text.
}}Synapsids''' ('fused arch'), is a taxonomic class of tetrapods.
This class includes mammals and earlier groups related to mammals.
Synapsids are one of the two major groups of amniotes.
The sister group, which gave rise to the reptiles, is the Sauropsida.
Both groups evolved from early amniotes about 345 million years ago during the early or mid Carboniferous period.
The pelycosaurs were dominant on land in the Permian, and went under at the Permian–Triassic extinction event.
The therapsids were dominant on land in the Lower Triassic, but by the Upper Triassic the dinosaurs had taken over.
Primitive and advanced synapsids
The mammal-like reptiles are traditionally divided into a primitive group and an advanced group, known respectively as pelycosaurs and therapsids.
Pelycosaurs are a paraphyletic group of six primitive families of synapsids.120 They were all rather lizard-like with sprawling gait and possibly horny scutes.
The therapsids contain the more advanced synapsids, having a more erect pose and possibly hair, at least in some forms.
The latter are the ancestors of mammals.
Thus both of the two synapsid groups represent evolutionary grades: the pelycosaurs have given rise to the therapsids, who in their turn have given rise to the mammals.
Mammals and reptiles
The therapsids ('beast face') used to be called mammal-like reptiles.
This was a mistake, because they were never reptiles.
The split between Synapsids and Sauropsids (the group which gave rise to reptiles) took place long before therapsids evolved.
Mammals are distinguished from reptiles by fundamental differences in the development of the blood system.
These differences are such that it would be almost impossible for mammals to be derived from reptiles.
" It is clearly quite impossible for the condition found in birds and modern reptiles to have arisen from that found in mammals or vice versa".
Kermack.6
Synapsid skull
Temporal openings
Synapsids evolved a fenestra (hole) behind each eye orbit on the lower part of the skull.
It allows better attachment sites for jaw muscles than the original anapsid condition.
Synapsids had differentiated teeth.
These include the canines, molars, and incisors.
The trend towards differentiation is found in some labyrinthodonts and early anapsid reptilians.
They have enlarged first teeth on the maxilla, forming a form of proto-canines.
This trait was subsequently lost in the sauropsid line, but developed further in the synapsids.
Early synapsids could have 2 or even 3 enlarged 'canines', but in the therapsids, the pattern had settled to one canine in each upper jaw half.
The lower canines developed later.
Note: in evolutionary terms, the mammals are entirely within the Synapsida.
Their status as a separate class is traditional Linnaean taxonomy: as a clade they are a sub-group of the Therapsida.
Series Amniota
Class †SYNAPSIDA *
Order †Pelycosauria *
Suborder †Caseasauria
Suborder †Eupelycosauria *
Order †Therapsida *
Suborder †Biarmosuchia *
Suborder †Dinocephalia
Suborder †Anomodontia
Suborder †Gorgonopsia
Suborder †Therocephalia
Suborder †Cynodontia *
Class MAMMALIA
The Pilgrim's Progress is an English language book written by John Bunyan.
It was published in two parts: the First Part in 1678, and the Second Part in 1684.
Its full title is The Pilgrim's Progress from this World to that which is to come.
It is regarded as one of the most important books in English literature.
It is a Christian allegory.
The book uses the dream story of a journey through the English county of Bedfordshire, to London.
Bunyan uses this to tell the idea of Christianity from a Protestant point of view.
Although the journey is imaginary, the places are based upon real places in 17th century Bedfordshire.
The difficulties faced by Christian, the main character, is meant to be an allegory of the difficulties faced by a true Christian in keeping to the 'straight and narrow path'.
The author was jailed for preaching his opinions, yet after the book was published, it was translated into over 200 languages.
Writing of the book
Bunyan started to write the book in jail.
He got into trouble for preaching without a licence.
Bunyan, who was a Reformed Baptist, did not qualify for a licence.
Only ministers of the Church of England were allowed to preach.
He spent 12 years in Bedford jail.
He might have been freed if he had promised not to preach, but he refused.
He was let out only when the law changed, in 1672.
He was jailed again for a short time in 1677.
The book is divided into two parts, and is 108,260 words long.
Each part is a continuous narrative, with no chapter divisions.
When the first part was published in 1678, it immediately became extremely popular.
Part Two was published in 1684.
There were 11 editions of the first part during John Bunyan’s lifetime, and two editions of the second part.
The story is an allegory about a man called Christian, who goes on a journey, and meets many strange people.
Christian is an 'everyman' character: he represents the reader or any ordinary person.
Eventually he gets to the Celestial City.
The strange people he meets are characters who represent good and bad things in life.
The story is therefore an allegory of the life of a good Christian.
To be precise, it is an allegory of the Protestant view of Christianity.
It includes, as characters, the giants 'Pope' and 'Pagan', allegories of Roman Catholicism and paganism as persecutors of Protestant Christians. '
Pagan' is dead, indicating the end of pagan persecution, and 'Pope' is alive but decrepit (elderly), indicating the diminished power and influence of the Roman Catholic pope.
The many indirect references to the Bible is a sure sign of Protestant belief.
The Bible had not long been available in English, and its translation was opposed by the church in the reign of Henry VIII.
Many of the places Bunyan describes are based on places he knew in the Bedfordshire countryside.
For example, the Slough of Despond is thought to be the marshes in Tempsford (now on the A1 road).
House Beautiful is thought to be Houghton House (now a ruin), just outside Ampthill.
The character of the Evangelist is that of his friend John Gifford, who was the leader of a non-conformist group at St John’s Church, Bedford.
The heavy burden (the load), which Christian carries on his back, represents his sins: the things he has done wrong, and which trouble him.
However, the burden is also based on the heavy anvil which he carried on his back as he walked from place to place.
He worked as a tinker (someone who mends pots and pans).
Part One tells how a man called Christian makes his way from the 'City of Destruction' (Earth) to the 'Celestial City' (Heaven) of Zion.
Christian finds himself weighed down by a great burden which he gets from reading a book (obviously the Bible).
He wonders what he can do to be saved.
The character Evangelist appears several times during the story, pointing him in the right direction.
Evangelist shows Christian the way to the 'Wicket Gate'.
Christian tries to persuade his family to join him on the journey, but they refuse, so he leaves them behind.
The first person he meets is called Mr. Worldly Wiseman, who says he can be saved by looking at the law, and that Mr. Legality can help him.
Evangelist stops him from going that way.
He must go to the Wicket Gate.
At the Wicket Gate the gatekeeper, Goodwill, tells him to keep to the straight path.
To Christian's query about relief from his burden, Goodwill directs him forward to the 'place of deliverance'.
Christian goes to the House of the Interpreter, where he is shown pictures and that show ideas of the Christian faith.
Then he gets to the 'place of deliverance'.
This is meant to be the hill with the cross where Jesus died.
There his burden falls off his back, so he is very relieved.
Three shining ones give him the greeting of peace.
They give him new clothes and a passport to the Celestial City (heaven).
This is like a Christian Baptism.
At the top of the Hill of Difficulty, Christian stops at the House Beautiful, which is an allegory of the local Christian congregation.
Christian spends three days here.
When he leaves he is wearing armour which protects him when he fights a battle with the monster Apollyon.
Then he goes to the Shadow of Death.
He is not afraid because his friend Faithful reminds him of the words of Psalm 23: Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil: for thou art with me; thy rod and thy staff they comfort me.
The sun rises as he leaves.
Just outside the Valley of the Shadow of Death he meets Faithful, who also used to live in the City of Destruction.
They go together to Vanity Fair, where they are both arrested because they do not like the kind of business which is being done at the fair, all based on greed.
Faithful is put on trial, and executed.
Hopeful, who lives in Vanity, takes Faithful's place as Christian's companion for the rest of the way.
Together Christian and Hope have several adventures.
They are captured by Giant Despair, who takes them to Doubting Castle, where they are imprisoned, beaten and starved.
The giant wants them to commit suicide, but they refuse.
Suddenly Christian realizes that a key he has, called Promise, will open all the doors and gates of Doubting Castle.
Using the key, they escape.
On the way, Christian and Hopeful meet a man called Ignorance.
He thinks he can enter the Celestial City even though he does not believe.
A ferryman called Vain Hope ferries Ignorance across the River of Death, but Ignorance is turned away from the gates of Celestial City and thrown into hell.
The Second Part of The Pilgrim's Progress presents the pilgrimage of Christian's wife, Christiana; their sons and the maiden, Mercy.
They visit the same places that Christian visited, but they take a longer time.
This is because the story includes the marriage of his sons, and children for the four sons and their wives.
The story shows that women can be as brave as men.
They visit the same stopping places that Christian did, but they take longer because they marry and give birth to children on the way.
The hero of the story is Greatheart, the servant of the Interpreter, who is a pilgrim's guide to the Celestial City.
He kills four giants, including Giant Despair, and helps to kill a monster that terrorizes the city of Vanity.
Expert critics think the second part is important, and brings in more ideas: "Part II, which appeared in 1684, is much more than a mere sequel to or repetition of the earlier volume.
It clarifies and reinforces and justifies the story of Part I. The beam of Bunyan's spotlight is broadened to include Christian's family and other men, women, and children; the incidents and accidents of everyday life are more numerous, the joys of the pilgrimage tend to outweigh the hardships; and to the faith and hope of Part I is added in abundant measure that greatest of virtues, charity.
The two parts of The Pilgrim's Progress in reality constitute a whole, and the whole is, without doubt, the most influential religious book ever written in the English language.
Part II shows human frailty: of women, children, and people with weak bodies or minds.
When Christiana's party leaves Gaius's Inn, Mr. Feeble-mind lingers in order to be left behind.
He is encouraged to come with the party by Greatheart: But brother ... I have it in commission, to comfort the feeble-minded, and to support the weak.
You must needs go along with us; we will wait for you, we will lend you our help, we will deny ourselves of some things, both opinionative and practical, for your sake; we will not enter into doubtful disputations before you, we will be made all things to you, rather than you shall be left behind.
Although the language of The Pilgrim’s Progress may seem old-fashioned now, Bunyan wrote in a simple and direct style.
He gave his characters symbolic names, which may have sounded lively and imaginative to a 17th century audience.
Bunyan was of humble origin, and had no higher education.
He was, however, highly literate, and wrote in a way that ordinary people could understand.
The book includes a poem which became the popular hymn Who Would True Valour See (He Who Would Valiant Be in some versions).
Some phrases from the book have become part of the English language, just as many English expressions come from the Bible.
We often talk of a 'Slough of Despond' (when we feel a problem is too big for us).
The expressions 'Vanity Fair' and 'House Beautiful' are also quite familiar.
There are a large number of references to the book in later literature, and Bunyan's idea of how to tell a story has been borrowed and adapted many times.
Christian context
The explicit Protestant theology of The Pilgrim's Progress made it popular.
Bunyan's plain style breathes life into abstract ideas such as 'greed', 'envy', 'pride'.
These ideas are turned into imaginary people, whom Christian meets and talks to, on his way to Heaven.
Samuel Johnson said that "this is the great merit of the book, that the most cultivated man cannot find anything to praise more highly, and the child knows nothing more amusing".
Three years after its publication (1681), it was reprinted in colonial America, and was widely read in the Puritan colonies.
Because of its explicit English Protestant theology The Pilgrim's Progress shares the feeling of most English, in the 17th century, against the Roman Catholic Church.
It was published over the years of the Popish Plot (1678–1681) and ten years before the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and it shows the influence of John Foxe's Foxe's Book of Martyrs.
Bunyan presents a decrepit and harmless giant to confront Christian at the end of the Valley of the Shadow of Death that is explicitly named "Pope":Now I saw in my Dream, that at the end of this Valley lay blood, bones, ashes, and mangled bodies of men, even of Pilgrims that had gone this way formerly: And while I was musing what should be the reason, I espied a little before me a Cave, where two Giants, Pope and Pagan, dwelt in old times, by whose Power and Tyranny the Men whose bones, blood ashes, &c. lay there, were cruelly put to death.
But by this place Christian went without much danger, whereat I somewhat wondered; but I have learnt since, that Pagan has been dead many a day; and as for the other, though he be yet alive, he is by reason of age, and also of the many shrewd brushes that he met with in his younger dayes, grown so crazy and stiff in his joynts, that he can now do little more than sit in his Caves mouth, grinning at Pilgrims as they go by, and biting his nails, because he cannot come at them.
When Christian and Faithful travel through Vanity Fair, Bunyan adds the editorial comment:But as in other fairs, some one Commodity is as the chief of all the fair, so the Ware of Rome and her Merchandize is greatly promoted in this fair: Only our English Nation, with some others, have taken a dislike thereat.
Musical settings and films
The book was the basis of an opera by Ralph Vaughan Williams, first performed in 1951.
Vaughan Williams also wrote a short anthem "Valiant for Truth".
The story has been made into films and used in video games.
Retellings
The Aussie Pilgrim's Progress by Kel Richards.
Ballarat: Strand Publishing, 2005.
John Bunyan's Dream Story: the Pilgrim's Progress retold for children and adapted to school reading by James Baldwin.
New York: American Book Co., 1913.
John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress as retold by Gary D. Schmidt & illustrated by Barry Moser Published by William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan.
The Land of Far-Beyond by Enid Blyton.
Methuen, 1942.
Little Pilgrim's Progress by Helen L. Taylor.
This simplifies the vocabulary and concepts for younger readers, while keeping the story line intact.
Published by Moody Press, Chicago, Illinois, 1993.
Pilgrim's Progress (graphic novel by Marvel Comics).
Thomas Nelson, 1993.
The Pilgrim's Progress: a 21st Century re-telling of the John Bunyan Classic.
Dry Ice Publishing
2008 directed by Danny Carrales.
The Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan every child can read.
Edited by Jesse Lyman Hurlbut.
Philadelphia: John C. Winston 1909.
Pilgrim's Progress in today's English: as retold by James H. Thomas   Moody Publishers, 1971.
The Pilgrim's Progress in words of one syllable by Mary Godolphin.
London: Routledge, 1869.
Pilgrim's Progress retold and shortened for modern readers by Mary Godolphin 1884.
Drawings by Robert Lawson.
Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott  1939. [
A newly illustrated edition of the retelling by Mary Godolphin]
The New Amplified Pilgrim's Progress, as retold by James Pappas.
Published by Orion's Gate 1999.
A slightly expanded and highly dramatized version of John Bunyan's original.
Large samples of the text are available at http://www.orionsgate.org
Pilgrim's Progress, Creative Commons, Modern English Version, by Scott Clous, Part 1, 2014.
The first version freely released in Creative Commons
The Pilgrim's Progress from this World, to that which is to come.
Penguin Books, edited with an introduction by Roger Sharrock, London 1965.
The Pilgrim's Progress (audio version)
The Need for Speed is a racing video game made by Electronic Arts.
It is the 1st game in the Need for Speed series.
It was released on the 3DO, PlayStation and Sega Saturn.
Louis Victor Pierre Raymond, (7th) Duke of Broglie, (August 15, 1892 in Dieppe – March 19, 1987 in Louveciennes) was a French physicist.
He discovered that electrons are similar to both particles and waves.
He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1929.
Dukes and duchesses of France
People from Normandy
French theoretical physicists
Las Galeras is a Dominican Municipal district of Santa Bárbara de Samaná, Samaná province.
It is on the east coast of the Samaná Peninsula, on the Rincón Bay that is found between Cabrón and Samaná capes.
Las Galeras, in English The Galleys (a galley was a war ship where prisoners and slaves were used to move the ship), because two galleys stayed here during the 16th Century.
In the last national census (2010), the district had a total population of 6,929: 3,800 men and 3,129 women.
The urban population was only 13.41% of the total population.
The region is famous for its beautiful beaches with palms.
There is a beach at the seafront of Las Galeras itself, as well as a white sand beach, "La Playita" ("The Small Beach") within walking distance from the town.
It is possible to take a boat to visit "Playa Rincón" ("Rincón Beach"), another beautiful beach in the region.
The Beyoncé Experience: Live is a live DVD by American R&B singer Beyoncé Knowles to be released in the US on November 20, 2007.
It was filmed in Staples Center, Los Angeles, California which was shot on September 2, 2007 during her worldwide tour The Beyoncé Experience.
It also includes guest appearances from Jay-Z on "Upgrade U" and former Destiny's Child mates Michelle Williams and Kelly Rowland on "Survivor."
Intro (The Beyoncé Experience Fanfare)
Crazy in Love (Crazy Mix)
Baby Boy (Reggae Medley)
Dangerously In Love (He Loves Me Mix)
DC Medley (Cops and Robbers Intro)
No No No Part 2
Bug A Boo (H-town Screwed Down Mix)
Soldier (Soldier Boy Crank Mix)
Survivor (Destiny's Child Reunion)
Ring the Alarm Intro Skit (Jailhouse Confessions)
Suga mama
Upgrade U (feat.
Jay-Z)
'03 Bonnie & Clyde (Beyoncé's Prince Mix)
Check on It (Special Tour Ver.)
Deena/DreamGirls
Beyoncé B'Day Surprise
Beyoncé albums
Induno Olona is a city in northern Italy, in the Lombardy region, near Varese.
It has 10,000 inhabitants.
Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) are large fish with a long, flat bill.
They are a popular sport fish.
Swordfish are elongated, round-bodied, and lose all teeth and scales by adulthood.
The swordfish is named after its sharp bill, resembling a sword (Latin gladius), which together with its streamlined physique (smooth body) allows it to cut through the water with great ease and agility.
Swordfish are fast predators of other fish.
The "sword" is not used to spear, but may be used to slash at its prey to injure the prey animal, to make for an easier catch.
Mainly, the swordfish relies on its slow speed and agility in the water to catch its enemy.
It is undoubtedly among the slowest fish.
Swordfish is a particularly popular fish for cooking.
Since swordfish are large animals, meat is usually sold as steaks, which are often grilled.
The color of the flesh varies by diet, with fish caught on the east coast of North America often being rosier.
Michael Hopkin (2005): Swordfish heat their eyes for better vision.
Nature, 10 January 2005
Fritsches, Kerstin A., Brill, Richard W., and Warrant, Eric J. (2005): Warm Eyes Provide Superior Vision in Swordfishes .
Current Biology 15, 55−58
FDA Consumer:Mercury In Fish:Cause For Concern?
http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/Swordfish/Swordfish.html
More info on FDA Mercury Advice from Oceana
http://www.fenton.com/pages/3_ourwork/4_casestudies/environment/swordfish.htm
http://www.mbayaq.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatch/content/media/MBA_SeafoodWatch_SwordfishReport.pdf
Juan Carreño de Miranda (25 March 1614 – 3 October 1685) was a Spanish painter of the Baroque period.
Born in Avilés in Asturias, he was the son of a painter with the same name, Juan Carreño de Miranda.
His family moved to Madrid in 1623, and he trained in Madrid during the late 1620s as apprentice of Pedro de Las Cuevas and Bartolomé Roman.
He came to the notice of Velazquez for his work in the cloister of doña María de Aragón y en la iglesia del Rosario, he was asked to help paint in the Royal Palace of Madrid with frescoes on mythological fables.
He was named "Painter of the King" in 1669.