the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The original release of Internet Explorer 7 required the computer to pass a Windows Genuine Advantage validation check prior to installing, but on October 5, 2007, Microsoft removed this requirement.
As some statistics show, by mid-2008, Internet Explorer 7 market share exceeded that of Internet Explorer 6 in a number of regions.
Internet Explorer 8 was released on March 19, 2009.
It had been in development since August 2007 at the latest.
On March 5, 2008, the first public beta (Beta 1) was released to the general public.
On August 27, 2008, the second public beta (Beta 2) was released.
It is supported in Windows XP SP2 and SP3, Windows Server 2003 SP2, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Windows Server 2008 on both 32-bit as well as 64-bit architectures.
Internet Explorer 8 (IE8) RC1 was released on January 26, 2009.
Internet Explorer 8 "Final" was released on March 19, 2009.
Security, ease of use, and improvements in RSS, CSS, and Ajax support are Microsoft's priorities for IE8.
It includes much stricter compliance with web standards, including a planned full Cascading Style Sheets 2.1 compliance for the release version.
All these changes allow Internet Explorer 8 to pass the Acid2 test.
However, to prevent compatibility issues, IE8 also includes the IE7 rendering behavior.
Sites that expect IE7 quirks can disable IE8's breaking changes by including a meta element in the HEAD section of the HTML document.
IE8 also includes numerous improvements to JavaScript support as well as performance improvements, although it still does not pass the Acid3 test, with version 8.0 scoring 20/100.
It includes support for Accelerators - which allow supported web applications to be invoked without explicitly navigating to them - and WebSlices - which allows portions of page to be subscribed to and monitored from a redesigned Favorites Bar.
Other features include InPrivate privacy features and SmartScreen phishing filter.
Internet Explorer 9 was released on March 14, 2011.
It will have complete or nearly complete support for all CSS 3 selectors, border-radius CSS 3 property, faster JavaScript, embedded ICC v2 or v4 color profiles, and hardware accelerated rendering using Direct2D and DirectWrite.
Microsoft has confirmed that Web Open Font Format (WOFF) will also be supported.
WOFF is "a strong favorite" for standardization by the Web Fonts Working Group of W3C.
At MIX 10, the first IE9 Platform Preview was released, which featured support for CSS3 and SVG, a new JScript engine called Chakra, and a score of 55/100 on the Acid3 test, up from 20/100 for IE8.
On May 5, 2010, the second IE9 Platform Preview was released, which featured a score of 68/100 on the Acid3 test and faster performance on the WebKit SunSpider JavaScript benchmark than the first IE9 Platform Preview.
On June 23, 2010, the third IE9 Platform Preview was released, which scores 83/100 on the Acid3 test and introduced support for <audio>, <video>, and <canvas> elements and WOFF.
On August 4, 2010, the fourth IE9 Platform Preview was released, which features a score of 95/100 on the Acid3 test and a faster JScript engine than the third IE9 Platform Preview.
The final build of IE9 is expected to be released in 2011.
Support for the HTML5 video and audio tags was also promised.
According to the Internet Explorer 9 Test Drive page,  the system requirements for IE9 are Windows Vista SP2 (with Platform Upgrade and IE8) or Windows 7.
On August 12, 2010, Microsoft announced that the IE9 Public Beta would launch on September 15, 2010 at a special event in San Francisco linked to the idea of 'beauty of the web.'
It was also confirmed that the browser would only function with Windows Vista and Windows 7.
On September 15, 2010, Microsoft launched the IE9 Public Beta.
Internet Explorer 10 was released together with Windows 8 in 2012.
Users of Windows 7 can download this version from February 2013.
Internet Explorer 11 was released in October 2013.
It is the final Internet Explorer.
Internet Explorer has been designed to view a broad range of web pages and to provide certain features within the operating system, including Microsoft Update.
During the heyday of the browser wars, Internet Explorer superseded Netscape only when it caught up technologically to support the progressive features of the time.
supports HTML 4.01, CSS Level 1, XML 1.0, and DOM Level 1, with minor implementation gaps.
fully supports XSLT 1.0 as well as an obsolete Microsoft dialect of XSLT often referred to as WD-xsl, which was loosely based on the December 1998 W3C Working Draft of XSL.
Support for XSLT 2.0 lies in the future: semi-official Microsoft bloggers have indicated that development is underway, but no dates have been announced.
partially supports CSS Level 2 and DOM Level 2, with major implementation gaps and conformance issues.
Almost full conformance to CSS 2.1 has been added in the Internet Explorer 8 release.
does not support XHTML, though it can render XHTML documents authored with HTML compatibility principles and served with a text/html MIME-type.
does not support SVG in any version.
Internet Explorer uses DOCTYPE sniffing to choose between standards mode and a "quirks mode" in which it deliberately mimicks nonstandard behaviors of old versions of MSIE for HTML and CSS rendering on screen (Internet Explorer always uses standards mode for printing).
It also provides its own dialect of ECMAScript called JScript.
Non-standard extensions
Internet Explorer has introduced an array of proprietary extensions to many of the standards, including HTML, CSS, and the DOM.
This has resulted in a number of web pages that appear broken in standards-compliant web browsers and has introduced the need for a "quirks mode" to allow for rendering improper elements meant for Internet Explorer in these other browsers.
Internet Explorer has introduced a number of extensions to JScript which have been adopted by other browsers.
These include the innerHTML property, which returns the HTML string within an element; the XMLHttpRequest object, which allows the sending of HTTP request and receiving of HTTP response; and the designMode attribute of the contentDocument object, which enables rich text editing of HTML documents.
Some of these functionalities were not possible until the introduction of the W3C DOM methods.
Its Ruby character extension to HTML is also accepted as a module in W3C XHTML 1.1, though it is not found in all versions of W3C HTML.
Microsoft submitted several other features of IE for consideration by the W3C for standardization.
These include the 'behavior' CSS property, which connects the HTML elements with JScript behaviors (known as HTML Components, HTC); HTML+TIME profile, which adds timing and media synchronization support to HTML documents (similar to the W3C XHTML+SMIL); and the VML vector graphics file format.
However, all were rejected, at least in their original forms.
VML was, however, subsequently combined with PGML (proposed by Adobe and Sun), resulting in the W3C-approved SVG format, currently one of the few vector image formats being used on the web, and which IE is now virtually unique in not supporting.
Other non-standard behaviors include: support for vertical text, but in a syntax different from W3C CSS3 candidate recommendation; Support for a variety of image effects and page transitions, which are not found in W3C CSS; Support for obfuscated script code, in particular JScript.
Encode().
Support for embedding EOT fonts in web pages.
The favicon (short for "favorites icon") introduced by Internet Explorer is now also supported and extended in other browsers.
It allows web pages to specify a 16-by-16 pixel image for use in bookmarks.
In IE, support was, and still is, provided only for the native Windows ICO format; in other browsers it has now been extended to other types of images such as PNG and GIF.
Usability and accessibility
Internet Explorer makes use of the accessibility framework provided in Windows.
Internet Explorer is also a user interface for FTP, with operations similar to that of Windows Explorer.
Pop-up blocking and tabbed browsing were added respectively in Internet Explorer 6 and Internet Explorer 7.
Tabbed browsing can also be added to older versions by installing MSN Search Toolbar or Yahoo Toolbar.
Internet Explorer caches visited content in the Temporary Internet Files folder to allow quicker access (or offline access) to previously visited pages.
The content is indexed in a database file, known as Index.dat.
Multiple Index.dat files exist which index different content - visited content, web feeds, visited URLs, cookies, etc.
Prior to IE7, clearing the cache used to clear the index but the files themselves were not reliably removed, posing a potential security and privacy risk.
In IE7 and later, when the cache is cleared, the cache files are more reliably removed, and the index.dat file is overwritten with null bytes.
Internet Explorer is fully configurable using Group Policy.
Administrators of Windows Server domains can apply and enforce a variety of settings that affect the user interface (such as disabling menu items and individual configuration options), as well as underlying security features such as downloading of files, zone configuration, per-site settings, ActiveX control behavior and others.
Internet Explorer uses a componentized architecture built on the Component Object Model (COM) technology.
It consists of several major components, each of which is contained in a separate Dynamic-link library (DLL) and exposes a set of COM programming interfaces hosted by the Internet Explorer main executable, iexplore.exe:
WinInet.dll is the protocol handler for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP.
It handles all network communication over these protocols.
URLMon.dll is responsible for MIME-type handling and download of web content, and provides a thread-safe wrapper around WinInet.dll and other protocol implementations.
MSHTML.dll houses the Trident rendering engine introduced in Internet Explorer 4, which is responsible for displaying the pages on-screen and handling the Document Object Model of the web pages.
MSHTML.dll parses the HTML/CSS file and creates the internal DOM tree representation of it.
It also exposes a set of APIs for runtime inspection and modification of the DOM tree.
The DOM tree is further processed by a layout engine which then renders the internal representation on screen.
IEFrame.dll contains the user interface and window of IE in Internet Explorer 7 and above.
ShDocVw.dll provides the navigation, local caching and history functionalities for the browser.
BrowseUI.dll is responsible for the browser user interface, including the browser chrome, which houses all the menus and toolbars.
Internet Explorer does not include any native scripting functionality.
Rather, MSHTML.dll exposes an API that permit a programmer to develop a scripting environment to be plugged-in and to access the DOM tree.
Internet Explorer 8 includes the bindings for the Active Scripting engine, which is a part of Microsoft Windows and allows any language implemented as an Active Scripting module to be used for client-side scripting.
By default, only the JScript and VBScript modules are provided; third party implementations like ScreamingMonkey (for ECMAScript 4 support) can also be used.
Microsoft also makes available the Microsoft Silverlight runtime that allows CLI languages, including DLR-based dynamic languages like IronPython and IronRuby, to be used for client-side scripting.
Internet Explorer 8 introduces some major architectural changes, called Loosely Coupled IE (LCIE).
LCIE separates the main window process (frame process) from the processes hosting the different web applications in different tabs (tab processes).
A frame process can create multiple tab processes, each of which can be of a different integrity level; each tab process can host multiple web sites.
The processes use asynchronous Inter-Process Communication to synchronize themselves.
Generally, there will be a single frame process for all web sites.
In Windows Vista with Protected Mode turned on, however, opening privileged content (such as local HTML pages) will create a new tab process as it will not be constrained by Protected Mode.
Internet Explorer exposes a set of Component Object Model (COM) interfaces that allow other components to extend the functionality of the browser.
Extensibility is divided into two types: Browser extensibility and Content extensibility.
The browser extensibility interfaces can be used to plug in components to add context menu entries, toolbars, menu items or Browser Helper Objects (BHO).
BHOs are used to extend the feature set of the browser, whereas the other extensibility options are used to expose the feature in the UI.
Content extensibility interfaces are used by different content-type handlers to add support for non-native content formats.
BHOs not only have unrestricted access to the Internet Explorer DOM and event model, they also can access the filesystem, registry and other OS components.
Content extensibility can be either in terms of Active Documents (Doc Objects) (e.g., SVG or MathML) or ActiveX controls.
ActiveX controls are used for content handlers that render content embedded within an HTML page (e.g., Adobe Flash or Microsoft Silverlight).
Doc objects are used when the content type will not be embedded in HTML (e.g., Microsoft Word, PDF or XPS).
In fact, the Trident rendering engine is itself exposed as a Doc object, so HTML in itself is treated as an Active Document.
Internet Explorer add-on components run with the same privileges as the browser itself, unlike client-side scripts that have a very limited set of privileges.
Add-ons can be installed either locally, or directly by a web site.
Since the add-ons have a more privileged access to the system, malicious add-ons can and have been used to compromise the security of the system.
Internet Explorer 6 Service Pack 2 onwards provide various safeguards against this, including an Add-on Manager for controlling ActiveX controls and Browser Helper Objects and a "No Add-Ons" mode of operation as well as greater restrictions on sites installing add-ons.
Internet Explorer itself can be hosted by other applications via a set of COM interfaces.
This can be used to embed the browser functionality inside the application.
Also, the hosting application can choose to host only the MSHTML.dll rendering engine, rather than the entire browser.
Internet Explorer uses a zone-based security framework that groups sites based on certain conditions, including whether it is an Internet- or intranet-based site as well as a user-editable whitelist.
Security restrictions are applied per zone; all the sites in a zone are subject to the restrictions.
Internet Explorer 6 SP2 onwards uses the Attachment Execution Service of Microsoft Windows to mark executable files downloaded from the Internet as being potentially unsafe.
Accessing files marked as such will prompt the user to make an explicit trust decision to execute the file, as executables originating from the Internet can be potentially unsafe.
This helps in preventing accidental installation of malware.
Internet Explorer 7 introduced the phishing filter, that restricts access to phishing sites unless the user overrides the decision.
With version 8, it also blocks access to sites known to host malware.
Downloads are also checked to see if they are known to be malware-infected.
In Windows Vista, Internet Explorer by default runs in what is called Protected Mode, where the privileges of the browser itself are severely restricted - it cannot make any system-wide changes.
One can optionally turn this mode off but this is not recommended.
This also effectively restricts the privileges of any add-ons.
As a result, even if the browser or any add-on is compromised, the damage the security breach can cause is limited.
Patches and updates to the browser are released periodically and made available through the Windows Update service, as well as through Automatic Updates.
Although security patches continue to be released for a range of platforms, most feature additions and security infrastructure improvements are only made available on operating systems which are in Microsoft's mainstream support phase.
On December 16, 2008, Trend Micro recommended users switch to rival browsers until an emergency IE patch was released to fix a potential security risk which "could allow outside users to take control of a person's computer and steal their passwords".
Microsoft representatives countered this recommendation, claiming that "0.02% of internet sites" were affected by the flaw.
On December 17, 2008, a fix to the security problem above became available, with the release of the Security Update for Internet Explorer KB960714, which is available from Microsoft Windows Update's webpage.
Microsoft has said that this update fixes the security risk found by Trend Micro the previous day.
Security vulnerabilities
Internet Explorer has been subjected to many security vulnerabilities and concerns: Much of the spyware, adware, and computer viruses across the Internet are made possible by exploitable bugs and flaws in the security architecture of Internet Explorer, sometimes requiring nothing more than viewing of a malicious web page in order to install themselves.
This is known as a "drive-by install".
There are also attempts to trick the user into installing malicious software by misrepresenting the software's true purpose in the description section of an ActiveX security alert.
A number of security flaws affecting IE originated not in the browser itself, but ActiveX-based add-ons used by it.
Because the add-ons have the same privilege as IE, the flaws can be as critical as browser flaws.
By 2005, some experts maintained that the dangers of ActiveX have been overstated and there were safeguards in place.
In 2006, new techniques using automated testing found more than a hundred vulnerabilities in standard Microsoft ActiveX components.
Security features introduced in then recently released Internet Explorer 7 mitigated some of these vulnerabilities.
Internet Explorer in 2008 had a number of published security vulnerabilities.
According to research done by security research firm Secunia, Microsoft did not respond as quickly as its competitors in fixing security holes and making patches available.
The firm also reported 366 vulnerabilities in ActiveX controls, an increase from the prior year.
According to the latest information, Secunia reports that IE6 has 24 known unpatched vulnerabilities, IE7 has 11, and IE8 has 4.
The most severe unpatched Secunia advisories affecting Microsoft Internet Explorer 6.x, 7.x, and 8.x with all vendor patches applied, are all rated Extremely critical.
The oldest known unpatched vulnerabilities for IE6, IE7, and IE8 date from November 7, 2003, June 6, 2006, and February 26, 2007 respectively.
According to the latest information, security research firm SecurityFocus reports that IE6 has 396 known unpatched vulnerabilities, IE7 has 22, and IE8 has 25.
The oldest known unpatched vulnerabilities for IE6, IE7, and IE8 date from November 20, 2000, May 17, 2007, and April 11, 2009 respectively.
Vulnerability exploited in attacks on U.S. firms
In an advisory on January 14, 2010, Microsoft said that attackers targeting Google and other U.S. companies used software that exploits a security hole, which had already been patched, in Internet Explorer.
The vulnerability affected Internet Explorer 6, IE7, and IE8 on Windows 7, Vista, Windows XP, Server 2003, and Server 2008 R2, as well as IE 6 Service Pack 1 on Windows 2000 Service Pack 4.
The German government warned users against using Internet Explorer and recommended switching to an alternative web browser, due to the major security hole described above that was exploited in Internet Explorer.
The Australian and French Government issued a similar warning a few days later.
The first browser they recommended was Mozilla Firefox, followed by Google Chrome.
Market adoption and usage share
The adoption rate of Internet Explorer seems to be closely related to that of Microsoft Windows, as it is the default web browser that comes with Windows.
Since the integration of Internet Explorer 2.0 with Windows 95 OSR 1 in 1996, and especially after version 4.0's release, the adoption was greatly accelerated: from below 20% in 1996 to about 40% in 1998 and over 80% in 2000.
A CNN article noted at the release of Internet Explorer 4: "Microsoft's Internet Explorer has made inroads and various estimates put its share of the browser market 30 to 35 percent from about 10 percent a year ago."
By 2002, Internet Explorer had almost completely superseded its main rival Netscape and dominated the market with up to 95 percent market share.
After having fought and won the browser wars of the late 1990s, Internet Explorer gained almost total dominance of the browser market.
Having attained a peak of about 95% during 2002 and 2003, its market share has since declined at a slow but steady pace.
This is mainly due to the adoption of Mozilla Firefox, which statistics indicate is currently the most significant competition.
Nevertheless, Internet Explorer remains the dominant web browser, with a global usage share of around 60% (though measurements vary).
An article notes at the release of Internet Explorer 7 in October 2006 that "IE6 had the lion's share of the browser market with 77.22%.
Internet Explorer 7 had climbed to 3.18%, while Firefox 2.0 was at 0.69%."
Internet Explorer 7 was released at the same time as Firefox 2.0, and overtook Firefox 1.x by November 2006, at roughly 9% market share.
Firefox 2.0 had overtaken 1.x by January 2007, but IE7 did not surpass IE6 until December 2007.
By January 2008, their respective version market share stood at 43% IE7, 32% IE6, 16% FF2, 4% Safari 3 and both FF1.x and IE5 versions at less than half a percent.
Market share history overview by year and version
IE was at its peak in 2003 with 94% of the worldwide internet browsers, but started falling in 2004 and since has hit a 2000s decade low in 2011 with only 49.7% of worldwide internet users.
Industry adoption
The ActiveX extension mechanism is used by many public websites and web applications, including eBay.
Similarly, Browser Helper Objects are also used by many search engine companies and third parties for creating add-ons that access their services, such as search engine toolbars.
Because of the use of COM, it is possible to embed web-browsing functionality in third-party applications.
Hence, there are a number of Internet Explorer shells, and a number of content-centric applications like RealPlayer also use Internet Explorer's web browsing module for viewing web pages within the applications.
OS compatibility
IE versions, over time, have had widely varying OS compatibility, ranging from being available for many platforms and several versions of Windows to only a few versions of Windows.
Many versions of IE had some support for an older OS but stopped getting updates.
The increased growth of the Internet in the 1990s and 2000s means that current browsers with small market shares have more total users than the entire market early on.
For example, 90% market share in 1997 would be roughly 60 million users, but by the start of 2007 90% market share would equate to over 900 million users.
The result is that later versions of IE6 had many more users in total than all the early versions put together.
The release of IE7 at the end of 2006 resulted in a collapse of IE6 market share; by February 2007, market version share statistics showed IE6 at about 50% and IE7 at 29%.
Regardless of the actual market share, the most compatible version (across operating systems) of IE was 5.x, which had Mac OS 9 and Mac OS X, Unix, and most Windows versions available and supported for a short period in the late 1990s (although 4.x had a more unified codebase across versions).
By 2007, IE had much narrower OS support, with the latest versions supporting only Windows XP Service Pack 2 and above.
Internet Explorer 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, and 7.0 (Experimental) have also been unofficially ported to the Linux operating system from the project IEs4Linux.
* Internet Explorer 6 SP2 is only available as part of Windows XP SP2 or Windows Server 2003 SP1 or SP2.
** The version of Internet Explorer included with Windows 95 varied by OSR release; 2.0 was included with OSR1, 3.0 was included with OSR2, and 4.0 was included with OSR2.5.
*** No native support, but possible with third-party "Standalone" installer.
& Final version of Windows XP Service Pack 3 does not include IE7.
$ No native support, but possible with third party Standalone installer of IE6 Alpha.
See also Internet Explorer Mobile.
Non-desktop versions of IE have supported Windows CE also.
Ł Internet Explorer 2.0 and 2.0.1 requires System 7.0.1 or higher.
Internet Explorer 2.1 requires System 7.1 or higher.
€ Included Internet Explorer 3.01 in Mac OS 8.1; Internet Explorer 4.01 in Mac OS 8.5 and 8.5.1; Internet Explorer 4.5 from Mac OS 8.6 to 9.0.4; Internet Explorer 5 from Mac OS 9.1 to 9.2.2.
¥ Internet Explorer 5 Macintosh Edition requires Mac OS 7.6 or higher.
Internet Explorer version 5.1; 5.1.4; 5.1.5; 5.1.6 and 5.1.7 requires Mac OS 8.0 or higher.
16 16-bit version
"Standalone" Internet Explorer
Early versions of Internet Explorer such as 5 had a compatibility mode to run Internet Explorer 4, though this feature was dropped (also, Internet Explorer for Mac users could still use 4.5 after installing IE 5).
While Microsoft claims it is impossible to keep multiple versions of Internet Explorer on the same machine, some hackers have successfully separated several versions of Internet Explorer, making them standalone applications.
These are referred to as "standalone" IEs and have included versions 3 through 7.
Multiple IEs in Windows Web Design —The web developer Joe Maddalone who found the solution.
Xenocode Browser Sandbox —Xenocode application virtualization.
Microsoft has discontinued standalone installers for Internet Explorer to the general public.
However, there are unofficial procedures for downloading the complete install package.
Internet Explorer standalone uses a feature introduced in Windows 2000 called DLL redirection to force it to load older DLLs than the ones installed on the system.
IE Collection.
An installer for the standalone versions of IE8.0, IE7.0, IE6.0, IE5.51, IE5.01, IE4.01, IE3.0, IE2.01, IE1.5, and IE1.0.
Microsoft Support document, with instructions for downloading the entire set of installation files.
IEs4Linux automatically sets up Internet Explorer 5.0, 5.5, and 6.0 in Wine.
Supporting Internet Explorer 7 is currently in development; as of August 2007, the IE7 rendering engine can be used with the IE6 user interface.
After Internet Explorer 7 is installed, an Internet Explorer 6 executable is still available in C:\WINDOWS\ie7, hidden by default.
Launching this executable provides the user with the older IE6 interface, however web pages are rendered using the IE7 engine.
The IE6 engine can be re-enabled by placing a file named "iexplore.exe.local" into the IE7 folder.
As an alternative to using IE standalone, Microsoft now makes available Microsoft Virtual PC images containing pre-activated copies of Windows XP with either IE 6 or IE 7 installed.
Microsoft recommends this approach for web developers seeking to test their pages in the different versions of IE as the standalone versions are unsupported and may not work the same way as a properly installed copy of IE.
The idea of removing a stock install of Internet Explorer from a Windows system was proposed during the United States v. Microsoft court case.
One of Microsoft's arguments, during the trial, was that removing Internet Explorer from Windows may result in system instability.
Applications that depend on libraries installed by IE will fail to function, or have unexpected behaviors.
The Windows help and support system will also not function due to the heavy reliance on HTML help files and components of IE.
In versions of Windows before Vista, it is also not possible to run Microsoft's Windows Update or Microsoft Update with any other browser due to the service's implementation of an ActiveX control, which no other browser supports.
In Windows Vista, Windows Update is implemented as a Control Panel applet.
With Windows 7, Microsoft added the ability to safely remove Internet Explorer 8 from Windows.
Microsoft does not allow the dependencies to be removed through this process, but the Internet Explorer executable (iexplore.exe) is removed without harming any other Windows components.
Official website: microsoft.com/windows/internet-explorer
IEBlog - MSDN Blogs – The weblog of the Internet Explorer team
Internet Explorer Architecture
Internet Explorer Community – The official Microsoft Internet Explorer Community
Internet Explorer History
IE Leak Patterns – Microsoft's analysis of how web pages can cause memory leaks in Internet Explorer, and how developers can prevent them.
Web browsers
Ulster is one of the four historical provinces which make up the island of Ireland.
The others are Leinster, Munster and Connacht.
There are nine counties in Ulster.
Three of them are in the Republic of Ireland:
Because most of Ulster is in Northern Ireland, the name "Ulster" is also sometimes used to mean Northern Ireland, even though Northern Ireland is only part of Ulster.
This is called totum pro parte in Latin which means "the whole for a part".
Lily Serna, television presenter on Letters and Numbers (en)
Jalal Allakhverdiyev, member of the Academy of Sciences of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (later called the Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences); Mathematics; died in 2017
Elon Lages Lima, got the award, the Prêmio Jabuti, twice; died in 2017
Lyubomir Ivanov, got the award, Acad.
Nikola Obreshkov Prize, the highest Bulgarian award in mathematics.
Nicanor Parra, got the Cervantes Prize, the most important literary prize in the Spanish-speaking world
Sun Tzu, also known as Sun Zi, known for authoring Sun Tzu Suan Ching (pinyin: Sun Zi Suan Jing; literally, "Sun Tzu's Calculation Classic"), which contains the Chinese remainder theorem.
Wu Wenjun, known for the Wu class and the Wu formula are named after him.
In the field of automated theorem proving, he is known for Wu's method; died in 2017
Zhang Heng, made the first seismometer; Astronomy, engineering, meteorology, geology, philosophy, and mathematics; died in 139 A.D.
Roger Joseph Boscovich, maker of a precursor of atomic theory; made the first geometric procedure for finding out the equator of a rotating planet from three observations of a surface feature and for computing the orbit of a planet from three observations of its position; discoverer of the absence of atmosphere on the Moon; he was from a city in what later became Croatia; died in 1787
Petr Vopěnka, he developed Alternative set theory; died in 2015
Euclid of Alexandria, known for Euclidean geometry, Euclid's Elements, Euclidean algorithm; died in the middle of 3rd century BC
Lars Ahlfors, known for his work of complex analysis
Jacqueline Naze Tjøtta, the first female mathematical sciences professor in Norway; Applied mathematics, she died in 2017
Charles Babbage, credited with inventing the first mechanical computer (or analytical engine); died in 1871
Alan Turing, he was important in the development of theoretical computer science, and is known for the Turing machine, which can be considered a model of a general purpose computer; died in 1954
Andrew Wiles, proved Fermat's Last Theorem; his field is Number theory
Lucy Joan Slater, her field is mathematical functions
James H. Wilkinson, his field is numerical analysis
Paul Erdős, published around 1,500 mathematical papers during his lifetime, a figure that remains unsurpassed; died 1996
Peter Lax (American mathematician born in Hungary)
Gerolamo Cardano, he invented - partially - the gimbal consisting of three concentric rings allowing a supported compass or gyroscope to rotate freely, and the Cardan shaft; died in 1576
Maryam Mirzakhani - first woman to receive the Fields Medal; she died in 2017
Goro Shimura - expert of number theory
Hiroshi Umemura - former professor at Nagoya University
Kiyoshi Oka - former professor at Kyoto University
Masaaki Sugihara - former professor at the University of Tokyo
Ryogo Hirota - former professor at Waseda University
Ibn Ghazi al-Miknasi, wrote Meknes's history and a commentary to the treatise of Ibn al-Banna; a work that explained the mentioned work, was named ["The desire of students for an explanation of the calculator's craving"] Bughyat al-tulab fi sharh munyat al-hussab (including, arithmetic and algebraic methods.
died in 1513
Niels Henrik Abel, did the first complete proof demonstrating the impossibility of solving the general quintic equation (en) in radicals; died in 1829
Solomon Marcus, recognised as an initiator of (, or one of the people that started) mathematical linguistics, and mathematical poetics; also a semiotician, he died in 2016
Leonhard Euler, was the first to show the notion of (or idea about), a mathematical function;  died in 1783
Al-Battani, known for showing several relations within trigonometry; he lived and worked in a city that now belongs to Syria; died in 929
Leonid Plyushch, died in 2015
Lists of scientists
Mancala is a group of games played in Africa, the Middle East, and central Asia.
People play the games by moving seeds on a board with pits carved in it.
Coden is a small fishing village near Bayou la Batre, Alabama, USA.
It is about 20 miles southwest of Mobile, near the Alabama/Mississippi border.
The name of the town comes from Coq d'Inde, which is French for "Turkey".
Around 1900, the area was known as a resort, which is a place people go to on their vacations.
The Rolston Hotel brought visitors from all over the region.
When it was destroyed by a hurricane, the community fell on hard times.
The Rolston Hotel property now belongs to the City Of Bayou La Batre and is a park that  is  attracting people from other areas who want cool ocean breezes and peace that originally brought visitors.
It is nice because it has the gentle sound of the water of Portersville Bay, fishing, and relaxation.
Fresh seafood can be found on Shell Belt Road from fishing boats returning to Bayou Coden.
Coden is on the southern shore of the mainland, across the Mississippi Sound from Dauphin Island and is one stop along Alabama's Coastal Birding Trail.
Villages in the United States
Settlements in Alabama
The duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) is a small mammal.
It is one of only two monotremes to survive today.
It lives in  eastern Australia.
The plural of platypus is just 'platypus'.
The platypus lives in rivers and river banks.
It is one of only two families of mammals which lay eggs.
The other is the Echidna, which has four species.
The platypus was first described in detail in the early 19th century, but it took a while before biologists in England believed what they were reading.
These mammals are called monotremes because they have a common rear opening known as the cloaca.
Through this opening faeces and urine are voided (put out), and sexual activity takes place.
This is a primitive ('basal') feature of tetrapods, which monotremes, birds and reptiles have today.
The more 'advanced' ('derived') mammals have the system where the rear has two openings.
What sort of animal is it?
The platypus looks similar to a beaver with a brown, furry body and wide, flat tail.
Unlike a beaver, it has no feet (no toes), which are good for swimming.
When the platypus moves on land, it walks on its knuckles so the webs on its feet will not get in the way.
Its nose is large and rubbery.
The platypus is sometimes called  "duck billed platypus" because of this nose.
It is similar to a duck's bill (mouth).
Platypus can be big or small.
The larger platypus live in Tasmania while the smaller ones live in Queensland.
Adults can be less than  or up to .
Its body can be from  to  long.
Its tail can be from  to  long.
Males are about one-third (1/3) larger than females.
The male platypus has a sharp spine on his two back ankles called spurs which contain a venom.
It will not kill humans, but the poison has been known to kill small animals, such as dogs, and cause pain lasting as long as four months.
The amount of poison increases during the breeding season.
What they eat
The platypus sleeps during the day, and moves mostly at night.
It is a very good swimmer and spends much of its time in the water.
The toes on its feet are joined.
When it swims, it pushes itself along by moving the front two feet.
The tail and back feet help it to turn left or right, but does not make it faster.
The platypus eats other animals.
It eats worms, insect larvae, shrimps and yabbies, which are a kind of freshwater crayfish.
It digs these animals out of the bottom of the river with its beak, or catches them while swimming.
Its nose can sense many things that other noses cannot.
The platypus can sense electricity from other animals.
It keeps its eyes shut when swimming, using only its other senses, such as hearing, touch and changes in the electrical field.
The platypus can also hunt without using its eyes.
These are adaptations to life in rivers where the water is opaque with sediment.
When on land, the platypus lives in burrows on the river banks.
These holes are between  and  long.
It makes these holes in the river bank a little above the water.
It likes them hidden under roots.
When a female platypus is pregnant, the female makes much larger holes, up to  long.
She blocks the tunnel with earth at several places.
At the end of the tunnel, she builds a nest out of reeds for her eggs.
The platypus lays eggs in its nest.
When the babies come out of the eggs after about ten days, they hold on to the mother.
The mother makes milk for the new babies.
The platypus does not have nipples, but milk comes through small openings in the skin.
The young platypus drinks the milk from the mother's skin while she lies on her back.
At six weeks the babies have fur and are able to leave the burrow for short trips.
After four months they no longer need their mother's milk.
The long period as dependent young, the provision of milk, and the way the young learn through play, are all advanced features.
The monotremes share them with all other mammals.
The monotremes are a mixture of primitive and advanced traits, a situation known as mosaic evolution.
Where they live
The platypus lives in small streams and rivers over a large area of eastern Australia.
The map above shows this with dark purple.
It has been seen in alpine lakes in Tasmania in the south, and north in Queensland as far as the Cape York Peninsula in tropical rain forest rivers.
In the past, platypus lived in South Australia but they no longer do so.
There are platypus on Kangaroo Island, but these were brought there in an attempt to save animals people thought might become extinct.
There are very few if any platypus left in most the Murray-Darling Basin.
The water there is no good because people used it to grow plants, and cleared the trees from the land.
It is strange that the platypus does not live in some healthy rivers.
It does live in some less healthy coastal rivers, for example the Maribyrnong River in Victoria.
Platypus are difficult to see in the wild.
They dislike areas with people, spend most of their time underground or under water, and sleep during the day.
At Eungella National Park in Queensland, there are spots on the river with viewing areas where wild platypus can usually be seen each evening.
The past and the future
The first platypus specimen arrived in England in 1799 in the form of a skin of a dead platypus, so biologists could study it.
At first, the scientists thought the skin was a joke, because they thought no animal could look so strange.
They thought an Asian had made it from pieces of different animals.
National Geographic magazine had a story on the platypus in 1939.
Many people had never heard of the platypus.
The story told how hard it was to raise the babies in zoos.
Even today, humans have raised only few.
David Fleay at the Healesville Sanctuary in Victoria had the first successful zoo-raised platypus in 1946.
He nearly did it again in 1972 at the David Fleay Wildlife Park at Burleigh Heads, Queensland, but it died at 50 days.
Healesville raised another in 1998 and again in 2000.
Taronga Zoo in Sydney bred twins in 2003, and had another birth in 2006.
The platypus will probably not die out completely in the near future.
Ecologists say that it is “secure but faces future threat” (safe now but not in the future) or common but vulnerable (there are a lot now but they are not safe).
They say this because people can make the water unsafe for the platypus.
More platypus information from Earlham College
PBS.org
Platypus at WikiFauna
Platypus-Evolution and Conservation
Living fossils
Kenya is a country in East Africa, about halfway down, near the horn of Africa.
It has the Indian Ocean to its east and Lake Victoria to its west.
Kenya borders the Jubaland part of Somalia (east), Ethiopia (north), South Sudan (north-west), Uganda (west), and Tanzania (south).
Kenya is about the size of France, and almost as large as Texas (U.S.).
The capital city of Kenya is Nairobi, which is the 14th largest city in Africa (after Accra, Ghana).
Some cities on the seaside are Mombasa and Malindi on the Indian Ocean, Nyeri, Nanyuki, Naivasha, and Thika in the Kenyan Highlands, and Kisumu on Lake Victoria.
Kenya's coast is tropical and gets very hot.
Inland, it is drier and cooler where the mountains rise up.
The highest mountain in Kenya is Mt. Kenya, at .
Mount Kilimanjaro crosses over the south border, with Tanzania, but the highest part of Kilimanjaro is in Tanzania.
Kenya is home to many different indigenous peoples with their own cultures, languages, and histories.
There are at least 44 living languages and 1 extinct language that is not spoken any more.
English and Swahili are the official languages spoken in Kenya.
Because of colonialism school-going Kenyans are required to learn English, and it is used in schools and universities.
Kenya was colonized by the British, who began taking land from indigenous peoples to build ranches.
They also discriminated against Kenyans in their own land.
Kenyans who were against this formed a group called the Kenya Land and Freedom Army, or Mau Mau that fought a war against Britain for independence.
The British committed war crimes to stop the Mau Mau, but on December 12, 1963 they agreed to give Kenya independence.
For many years after independence, a single party, the Kenya African National Union (KANU), ruled the country.
General elections were held every 5 years.
However, all candidates for election to office had to belong to the ruling party, KANU.
The party used the police to harass and torture socialists and communists in Kenya, and worked closely with Britain and the United States to keep them out of politics.
Uhuru Kenyatta is currently the president of Kenya with William Ruto as his Deputy, despite this, the two leaders have had political issues after Kenyatta had a peace agrrement often dubbed as 'handshake' with Kenya's opposition leader Raila Odinga after the 2017's General Elections on whom should succeed Kenya's presidency in 2022 as the president supports Odinga.
All Kenyans of school-going age are required to attend Primary School.
However, school fees and required uniforms often keep students away from school.
The Kenyan school system consists of 8 years of primary school, standard 1 through 8, 4 years of high school (Form 1 to 4) and 4 years of university but plans are underway of changing the system to 2 years in pre-school, 6 years in primary school,3 years in junior high school,3 years in senior high school and 3 years in university (2-6-6-3) in 2018.
At the end of primary school, all students sit for a standardized exam called Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE).
The grades attained in this exam determine which high school the student will attend.
In Form 4 (this is the last year in high school), students sit for another exam called Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE).
The highest achieving students are granted admission into the 5 national universities (Nairobi, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenyatta University, Egerton University and Moi University).
Tertiary colleges, like Globovillee college, also feed the diploma graduates to universities.
Land and animals
Kenya is a country of grassland, but it is not rich, but it is productive land especially in the highlands.
This is a very dry grassland with poor soil.
Kenya also has very few mineral resources but their main mineral is soda ash.
Three-fourths of the country is covered with plains.
They are low in altitude along the coast, but get higher further inland, making a large plateau.
The part east of Lake Turkana is the only true desert, but the rest can be very close to desert.
Savannas usually get between 4 and 16 inches (100 to 400 mm) of rain in a year.
These lands, however, are called savanna because of the type of plants that live there and how they get their rain.
Savannas have a wet and dry season.
During the wet season it can rain hard for long periods of time then not rain at all in the dry season.
Savannas that have more rain often have many trees spaced out across their plains.
These trees have deep roots or store water, like desert plants do, to live through the long, dry seasons without rain.
Even drier savannas will have only grass, and that too only in a few clumps.
The dry land is very bad for crops, but it is a wonderful place for all kinds of wild animals to gather and stay.
That is why Kenya has a lot of parks where the animals are kept, and protected from all the hunters.
People/tourists come from all over the world to go on photo safaris in Kenya's special wildlife parks.
The people come to Kenya on safari to see animals such as the rhinoceros, giraffe, wildebeest, elephant, cheetah, antelope, and lion.
These animals live on the savanna grasslands.
The wild herbivores move as they eat, and they never stay in one spot because there is not enough grass for all of them.
People also usually raise cattle on the savanna.
These animals are kept in one place and often eat up all the grass there.
Since the independence of Kenya in 1963, Kenya had usually had a one-party government.
In 1991, a section of the constitution was scrapped, which automatically made it a multi-party state.
It is a member of the British Commonwealth.
The people are, like the Congo, divided into many tribes that often fight.
However, Kenya's government is trying to get the people to work together and has encouraged them to run businesses and factories.
Kenya is a developing country and is rapidly becoming modernized.
In 2012, Kenya was divided into 47 counties.
The head of each county is a governor, with each county further sub divided into 350 constituencies each representyed in the National Assembly by Members of Parliament.
Kenya Photo Gallery
1963 establishments in Africa
The Swahili language is a language widely spoken in East Africa.
In the language, its name is .
It is a Bantu language.
Swahili is spoken in a wide area from southern Somalia to northern Mozambique and in all of Kenya, Tanzania and Burundi.
Congo has five million first-language speakers and fifty million second-language speakers.
Swahili has become a language with which people communicate within East Africa and the surrounding areas.
Swahili language to be spoken by the Swahili people, who live on the coast of East Africa and on the islands near the coast, including Zanzibar, which is now a part of Tanzania.
Swahili is an official language in Tanzania and Kenya.
It has been influenced by many other languages like Arabic .
Sample words
city -
country -
earth -
okay -
water -
yes -
me -
Kamusi Project Internet Living Swahili Dictionary
The long jump is a sport in athletics (track and field), where athletes compete by comparing lengths of their jumps where athletes try to jump as far as they can.
For this, the athlete runs down the runway to the jumping pit which is made of soft sand If a person falls backwards when jumping, this can decrease the length of their jump.
Long jump is a sport in which, the athlete who jumps the longest by legal means, wins.
The athlete begins running from his or her starting position and after attaining sufficient velocity, jumps, landing in a sand pit, which is fitted with distance markers.
There is a foul line, in the run-up area, that the athlete has to be aware of; jumping from beyond this line results in a ‘foul jump’.