the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Most commonly, the wheel is mounted vertically on a horizontal axle, but the tub or Norse wheel is mounted horizontally on a vertical shaft.
Vertical wheels can transmit power either through the axle or via a ring gear and typically drive belts or gears; horizontal wheels usually directly drive their load.
A channel created for the water to follow after leaving the wheel is commonly referred to as a "tailrace."
Main article: Watermill
Greco-Roman Europe
The technology of the water wheel had long been known, but it was not put into widespread use until the Middle Ages when an acute shortage of labor made machines such as the water wheel cost effective.
However, the water wheels in ancient Rome and ancient China found many practical uses in powering mills for pounding grain and other substances.
The Romans were known to use waterwheels extensively in mining projects, with enormous Roman-era waterwheels found in places like modern-day Spain.
In the text known as the Xin Lun written by Huan Tan about 20 AD (during the usurpation of Wang Mang), it states that the legendary mythological king known as Fu Xi was the one responsible for the pestle and mortar, which evolved into the tilt-hammer and then trip hammer device (see trip hammer).
Although the author speaks of the mythological Fu Xi, a passage of his writing gives hint that the waterwheel was in widespread use by the 1st century AD in China.
Waterwheels in China found practical uses such as this, as well as extraordinary use.
The inventor Zhang Heng (78–139) was the first in history to apply motive power in rotating the astronomical instrument of an armillary sphere, by use of a waterwheel.
The mechanical engineer Ma Jun (200–265) once used a waterwheel to power and operate a large mechanical puppet theater for Emperor Ming of Wei.
Medieval Europe and Modern
Cistercian monasteries, in particular, made extensive use of water wheels to power mills of many kinds.
An early example of a very large waterwheel is still extant  at the early 13th century Real Monasterio de Nuestra Senora de Rueda, a Cistercian monastery in the Aragon region of Spain.
Grist mills (for corn) were undoubtedly the most common, but there were also sawmills, fulling mills and mills to fulfill many other labor-intensive tasks.
The water wheel remained competitive with the steam engine well into the Industrial Revolution.
The main difficulty of water wheels was their inseparability from water.
This meant that mills often needed to be located far from population centers and away from natural resources.
Water mills were still in  commercial use well into the twentieth century, however.
Overshot & pitchback waterwheels are suitable where there is a small stream with a height difference of more than 2 meters, often in association with a small reservoir.
Breastshot and undershot wheels can be used on rivers or high volume flows with large reservoirs.
The most powerful waterwheel built in the United Kingdom was the 100 hp Quarry Bank Mill Waterwheel near Manchester.
A high breastshot design, it was retired in 1904 and replaced with several turbines.
It has now been restored and is a museum open to the public.
Glossary of water wheel terms
Water wheel history
Esay/audio clip
Waterwheel Factory, with pictures of water wheels
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (sometimes also called G6PD deficiency, or favism) is a hereditary disease.
This means it is passed on through the genes from a parent to the child.
It leads to a form of anaemia.
There are some means to treat it, though the focus of the doctors now lies on prevention (avoiding parents passing it on to their child).
As it is linked to the X chromosome, most people who suffer from it are male.
Sufferers can not make the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase.
This will mean the circulation of sugar in their body is different.
More red blood cells will be destroyed because of it.
About 400 million people suffer from this condition.
Very often, it can be found in regions where there is also malaria.
This is because the red blood cells found in people with favism are not targeted by malaria.
In the 1830s, at the peak of the canal-building era, hydropower was used to transport barge traffic up and down steep hills using inclined plane railroads.
For direct mechanical power transmission industries that used hydropower had to be near the waterfall.
For example, during the last half of the 19th century, many grist mills were built at Saint Anthony Falls, to use the 50 foot (15 metre) drop in the Mississippi River.
The mills were important for the growth of Minneapolis.
Today the largest use of hydropower is for electric power generation.
That allows low cost energy to be used at long distances from the watercourse.
Types of water power
Water wheels, used for hundreds of years to power mills and machinery
Hydroelectric energy, a term usually reserved for hydroelectric dams.
Tidal energy, which captures energy from the tides in horizontal direction
Tidal stream power, which does the same, but vertically
Wave power, which uses the energy in waves
Hydroelectric power
Main article: Hydroelectricity
Hydroelectric power is a means of making electricity without burning fuel.
Hydroelectric power supplies about 715,000 MWe or 19% of world electricity (16% in 2003).
Large dams are still being designed.
Apart from a few countries with plenty of it, hydro power is normally applied to peak load demand because it is readily stopped and started.
Nevertheless, hydroelectric power is probably not a major option for future energy production in the developed nations, because most major sites within these nations are either already being exploited or are unavailable for other reasons, such as environmental considerations.
Hydropower produces essentially no carbon dioxide or other harmful emissions, in contrast to burning fossil fuels, and is not a significant contributor to global warming through CO2.
Hydroelectric power can be far less expensive than electricity generated from fossil fuel or nuclear energy.
Areas with abundant hydroelectric power attract industry.
Environmental concerns about the effects of reservoirs may prohibit development of economic hydropower sources.
Harnessing the tides in a bay or estuary has been achieved in France (since 1966), Canada and Russia, and could be achieved in other areas with a large tidal range.
The trapped water turns turbines as it is released through the tidal barrage in either direction.
Another possible fault is that the system would generate electricity most efficiently in bursts every six hours (once every tide).
This limits how tidal energy can be used.
A relatively new technology, tidal stream generators draw energy from currents in much the same way that wind generators do.
The higher density of water means that a single generator can provide significant power.
This technology is at the early stages of development and will need more research before it can produce any higher amount of energy.
But several prototypes were tested in the UK, in France and the USA.
Already in 2003 a turbine that produces 300 kW was tested in the UK.
Power from ocean surface wave motion might produce much more energy than tides.
It has been tested that it is possible to produce energy from waves, particularly in Scotland in the UK.
But there are still a lot of technical problems.
A prototype shore based wave power generator is being constructed at Port Kembla in Australia and is expected to generate up to 500 MWh annually.
Wave energy is captured by an air driven generator and converted to electricity.
For countries with large coastlines and rough sea conditions, the energy of waves offers the possibility of generating electricity in utility volumes.
Excess power during rough seas could be used to produce hydrogen.
Micro-hydro power , Adam Harvey, 2004, Intermediate Technology Development Group, retrieved 1 January 2005 from http://www.itdg.org/docs/technical_information_service/micro_hydro_power.pdf .
Microhydropower Systems, U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, 2005
International Centre for Hydropower (ICH) hydropower portal with links to numerous organisations related to hydropower worldwide
Practical Action (ITDG)  a UK charity developing micro-hydro power and giving extensive technical documentation.
National Hydropower Association
British Hydropower Association
microhydropower.net
Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Hydropower
Hydro Quebec
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Federal Agency that regulates more than 1500 hydropower dams in the United States.
Hydropower Reform Coalition A U.S.-based coalition of more than 130 national, state, and local conservation and recreation groups that seek to protect and restore rivers affected by hydropower dams.
Small Scale Hydro Power
South Pacific is the name for a geographical region of the world.
It includes regions of the Pacific Ocean which lie south of the Equator: Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, and parts of Oceania.
Guido (von) List (born Karl Anton List; 5 October 1848 in Vienna – 17 May 1919 in Berlin) was an Austrian writer.
His works were influenced very much by ideas of race.
He was influenced by Arthur de Gobineau, Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, and others.
He believed there was a global jewish conspiracy.
He thought that the conspiracy threatened those he believed to be the Aryan race.
He also believed that runes had magic power.
His beliefs were not unpopular in Western Europe in the 19th century.
He was an occultist.
A contemporary of his was Houston Steward Chamberlain.
Chambelain lived at the same time as he did.
One of his successors was Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels.
The Guido von List website
‘Der Meister' Guido von List and the Controversy of ‘von'
The Armanen Futharkh: A Controversial Rune Row?
Works by and about Guido von List in the German National Library catalogue
Armanenschaft glossary
Das Geheimnis der Runen (The Secret of the Runes) (German)
Die Armanenschaft der Ario-Germanen (The Armanism of the Ario-Germans) (German)
Die Rita der Ario-Germanen (The Rites of the Ario-Germans) (German)
On the German Wotan Priestcraft (German)
Franklins is a cheap supermarket company in New South Wales in Australia.
At one time, it had shops in other states of Australia.
The name of the shops is named after Frank Lindstrom, who started Franklins in 1941 in the city of Sydney in Australia.
The shops were created in a time when other supermarkets had low prices, by keeping expenses low.
It grew to cover much of New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and South Australia with a reputation for low prices on groceries.
It claims to be Australia's Original Discount Grocer.
Franklins was the first supermarket in Australia to have brand name products.
These products are called No Frills.
In fact, the company's shops only sold these products when it first came about.
It started out with a few products but now they have 800 products.
This ranges from bread to window cleaners.
Today, a mascot of Franklins called Red Sock advertises these products.
Franklins offers a wide range of products including No Frills.
Franklins mostly deals in food and everyday articles.
It even has Franklins brand name products like bread and meat.
A wide range of people shop at Franklins to buy a wide range of articles.
In some shops, people can buy their food and everyday articles at Franklins.
They can then buy their fresh food outside of the store.
In other stores, people can get fresh food articles as well as food and everyday articles all in the one place.
Franklins even has a 'bottle shop' inside a few stores where people can get their beer and wine from.
These places are both cheap and convenient to shop in.
When Franklins first started, their business philosophy was like Aldi's: No extras, no service, no music and no electronic cash - only articles at extremely low prices or as Franklins had put it: Strictly No Frills.
Because of big competition with other "good-looking" shops, it no longer follows this philosophy.
Franklins is still cheap but it has more competition from other markets, such as Aldi.
Today, Franklins is owned by the Pick n Pay supermarket company from the country of South Africa.
It has opened Franklins Family Supermarkets in 2006, independently franchise shops of both Franklins and Pick n Pay.
Supermarkets of Australia
1941 establishments in Australia
The sports club was founded in 1896.
Hannover 96 is famous for its football (AE: "Soccer") team that has almost always played in the first or second German football league (Except 1996-1998).
Hannover 96 was German Football Champion in 1938 and 1954 and German Cup winner in 1992.
The club played eight seasons in European cup competitions (24 matches).
In 1963 the German national Football League, the Fußball-Bundesliga was founded.
Hannover 96 joined the Bundesliga in 1964 and played there for the following ten years.
In the 1970s and 1980s the club went down to the second league and up again several times.
In the 1990s Hannover 96 played eight seasons in the second Bundesliga and two years in the third league, the Regionalliga Nord (1996-98).
Former Coaches: Dieter Hecking 2009, Andreas Bergmann 2009, Peter Neururer 2006, Ewald Lienen 2005, Ralf Rangnick 2004, Horst Ehrmanntraut 2001, ......
Website of Hannover 96
Sport in Lower Saxony
1896 establishments in Europe
Water turbines were developed in the nineteenth century and were widely used for industrial power prior to electrical grids.
Now they are mostly used for electric power generation.
They harness a clean and renewable energy source.
Water wheels have been used for thousands of years for industrial power.
Their main shortcoming is size, which limits the flow rate and head that can be used.
The migration from water wheels to modern turbines took about one hundred years.
Development occurred during the Industrial revolution, using scientific principles and methods.
They also made extensive use of new materials and manufacturing methods developed at the time.
The word turbine was coined by the French engineer Claude Bourdin in the early 19th century  and is derived from the Latin word for "whirling" or a "vortex".
The main difference between early water turbines and water wheels is a  component of the water which passes energy to a spinning rotor.
This additional component of motion allowed the turbine to be smaller than a water wheel of the same power.
They could process more water by spinning faster and could use much greater heads. (
Later, impulse turbines were developed which did not use swirl).
Ján Andrej Segner developed a reactive water turbine in the mid-1700s.
It had a horizontal axis and was a precursor to modern water turbines.
It is a very simple machine that is still produced today for use in small hydro sites.
Segner worked with Euler on some of the early mathematical theories of turbine design.
In 1826 Benoit Fourneyron developed an outward-flow turbine.
This was an efficient machine (~80%) that sent water through a runner with blades curved in one dimension.
The stationary outlet also had curved guides.
In 1844 Uriah A. Boyden developed an outward flow turbine that improved on the performance of the Fourneyron turbine.
Its runner shape was similar to that of a Francis turbine.
In 1849, James B. Francis improved the inward flow reaction turbine to over 90% efficiency.
He also conducted sophisticated tests and developed engineering methods for water turbine design.
The Francis turbine, named for him, is the first modern water turbine.
It is still the most widely used water turbine in the world today.
Inward flow water turbines have a better mechanical arrangement and all modern reaction water turbines are of this design.
Also, as the swirling mass of water spins into a tighter rotation, it tries to speed up to conserve energy.
This property acts on the runner, in addition to the water's falling weight and swirling motion.
Water pressure decreases to zero as it passes through the turbine blades and gives up its energy.
Around 1890, the modern fluid bearing was invented, now universally used to support heavy water turbine spindles.
As of 2002, fluid bearings appear to have a mean time between failures of more than 1300 years.
Around 1913, Victor Kaplan created the Kaplan turbine, a propeller-type machine.
It was an evolution of the Francis turbine but revolutionized the ability to develop low-head hydro sites.
A new concept
All common water machines until the late 19th century (including water wheels) were reaction machines; water's pressure head acted on the machine and produced work.
In 1866, California millwright Samuel Knight invented a machine that worked off a completely different concept.
Inspired by the high pressure jet systems used in hydraulic mining in the gold fields, Knight developed a bucketed wheel which captured the energy of a free jet, which had converted a high head (hundreds of vertical feet in a pipe or penstock) of water to kinetic energy.
This is called an impulse or tangential turbine.
The water's velocity, roughly twice the velocity of the bucket periphery, does a u-turn in the bucket and drops out of the runner at 0 velocity.
In 1879, Lester Pelton, experimenting with a Knight Wheel, developed a double bucket design, which exhausted the water to the side, eliminating some energy loss of the Knight wheel which exhausted some water back against the center of the wheel.
In about 1895, William Doble improved on Pelton's half-cylindrical bucket form with an elliptical bucket that included  a cut in it to allow the jet a cleaner bucket entry.
This is the modern form of the Pelton turbine which today achieves up to 92% efficiency.
Pelton had been quite an effective promoter of his design and although Doble took over the Pelton company he did not change the name to Doble because it had brand name recognition.
Theory of operation
Flowing water is directed on to the blades of a turbine runner, creating a force on the blades.
Since the runner is spinning, the force acts through a distance (force acting through a distance is the definition of  work).
In this way, energy is transferred from the water flow to the turbine.
Reaction turbines
Reaction turbines are acted on by water, which changes pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy.
They must be encased to contain the water pressure (or suction), or they must be fully submerged in the water flow.
Most water turbines in use are reaction turbines.
They are used in low and medium head applications.
Impulse turbines
Impulse turbines change the velocity of a water jet.
The jet pushes the turbine's curved blades which reverse the flow.
The resulting change in momentum (impulse) causes a force on the turbine blades.
Since the turbine is spinning, the force acts through a distance (work) and the diverted water flow is left with diminished energy.
Prior to hitting the turbine blades, the water's pressure (potential energy) is converted to kinetic energy by a nozzle and focused on the turbine.
No pressure change occurs at the turbine blades, and the turbine does not require a housing for operation.
power (J/s or watts)
turbine efficiency
density of water (kg/m3)
acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)
head (m).
For still water, this is the difference in height between the inlet and outlet surfaces.
Moving water has an additional component added to account for the kinetic energy of the flow.
The total head equals the pressure head plus velocity head.
= flow rate (m3/s)
Pumped storage
Some water turbines are designed for Pumped storage hydroelectricity.
They can reverse flow and operate as a pump to fill a high reservoir during off-peak electrical hours, and then revert to a turbine for power generation during peak electrical demand.
This type of turbine is usually a Deriaz or Francis in design.
Types of water turbines
Kaplan, Propeller, Bulb, Tube, Straflo
Pelton
Turgo
Michell-Banki (also known as the Crossflow or Ossberger turbine)
Design and application
Turbine selection is based mostly on the available water head, and less so on the available flow rate.
In general, impulse turbines are used for high head sites, and reaction turbines are used for low head sites.
Kaplan turbines are well-adapted to wide ranges of flow or head conditions, since their peak efficiency can be achieved over a wide range of flow conditions.
Small turbines (mostly under 10 MW) may have horizontal shafts, and even fairly large bulb-type turbines up to 100 MW or so may be horizontal.
Very large Francis and Kaplan machines usually have vertical shafts because this  makes best use of the available head, and makes installation of a generator more economical.
Pelton wheels may be either vertical or horizontal shaft machines because the size of the machine is so much less than the available head.
Some impulse turbines use multiple water jets per runner to increase specific speed and balance shaft thrust.
Typical range of heads
Kaplan            2 < H < 40   (H = head in meters)
Francis         10 < H < 350
Pelton           50 < H < 1300
Turgo            50 < H < 250
Turbines are designed to run for decades with very little maintenance of the main elements; overhaul intervals are on the order of several years.
Maintenance of the runners and parts exposed to water include removal, inspection, and repair of worn parts.
Normal wear and tear is pitting from cavitation, fatigue cracking, and abrasion from suspended solids in the water.
Steel elements are repaired by welding, usually with stainless steel rod.
Damage areas are cut or ground out, then welding back up to their original or an improved profile.
Old turbine runners may have a significant amount of stainless steel added this way by the end of their lifetime.
Elaborate welding procedures may be used to achieve the highest quality repairs.
Environmental impact
They are one of the cleanest producers of power, replacing the burning of fossil fuels and eliminating nuclear waste.
Burning fossil fuels produces smoke and ash, and toxic gases such as carbon monoxide.
Nuclear waste emits dangerous radiation and is difficult to dispose of.
They use a renewable energy source and are designed to operate for decades.
They produce significant amounts of the world's electrical supply.
Historically there have also been negative consequences.
The rotating blades or gated runners of water turbines can interrupt the natural ecology of rivers, killing fish, stopping migrations, and disrupting peoples' livelihoods.
For example, American Indian tribes in the Pacific Northwest had livelihoods built around salmon fishing, but aggressive dam-building destroyed their way of life.
Since the late 20th century, it has been possible to construct hydropower systems that divert fish and other organisms away from turbine intakes without significant damage or loss of power; such systems require less cleaning but are substantially more expensive to construct.
In the United States, it is now illegal to block the migration of fish so fish ladders must be provided by dam builders.
Introductory turbine math
Alstom Hydro Turbines
Voith Siemens Hydro Turbines
GE Hydro Turbines
European Union publication, Layman's hydropower handbook,12MB pdf
"Selecting Hydraulic Reaction Turbines", US Bureau of Reclamation publication, 48MB pdf
"Laboratory for hydraulique machines", Lausanne (Switzerland)
DoradoVista, Small Hydro Power Information
The HDI-Arena is a football stadium in Hanover, a city in north Germany.
It is the home stadium of the football club Hannover 96.
The HDI-Arena was built from 1952 to 1954 and called "Niedersachsenstadion" (stadium of lower Saxony) and later "AWD-Arena".
Lower Saxony is a German federal state and Hanover is its capital.
Originally the Niedersachsenstadium was large enough to hold about 80.000 people.
It was changed for international football championships in 1974 and 1988, especially changing standing room into seats.
In 2003, it became changed to be used only for football and the name was sold to the German company of AWD.
Today it can hold 49.000 people.
Buildings and structures in Lower Saxony
Renewable energy comes from renewable resources.
It is different from fossil fuels as it does not produce as many greenhouse gases and other pollutants as fossil fuel combustion.
People have used traditional wind power, hydropower, biofuel, and solar energy for many centuries, all around the world.
The mass production of electricity using renewable energy sources is now becoming more common.
Growth of renewables
From the end of 2004, worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10–60% annually for many technologies.
For wind power and many other renewable technologies, growth sped up in 2009 relative to the previous four years.
More wind power was added during 2009 than any other renewable technology.
However, grid-connected PV increased the fastest of all renewables technologies, with a 60% annual average growth rate.
Wind power market grows
Main articles: Wind farm and List of large wind farms.
Wind power capacity has expanded quickly to 336 GW in June 2014, and wind energy production was about 4% of total worldwide electricity usage, and growing fast.
Wind power is widely used in European countries, and more recently in the United States and Asia.
Wind power accounts for approximately 19% of electricity generation in Denmark, 11% in Spain and Portugal, and 9% in the Republic of Ireland.
These are some of the largest wind farms in the world, as of January 2010:
A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of electricity.
A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines distributed over an extended area, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes.
A wind farm may also be located offshore.
World's largest PV power plants
Solar photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity and many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in Europe.
As of December 2010, the largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are the Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant (Canada, 97 MW), Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Station (Italy, 84.2 MW), Finsterwalde Solar Park (Germany, 80.7 MW), Rovigo Photovoltaic Power Plant (Italy, 70 MW), Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park (Spain, 60 MW), the Strasskirchen Solar Park (Germany, 54 MW), and the Lieberose Photovoltaic Park (Germany, 53 MW).
Larger power stations are under construction, some proposed will have a capacity of 150 MW or more.
Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use innovative tracking systems that follow the sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than conventional fixed-mounted systems.
There are no fuel costs or emissions during operation of the power stations.
New generation of solar thermal plants
Large solar thermal power stations include the 354 megawatt (MW) Solar Energy Generating Systems power installation in the USA, Solnova Solar Power Station (Spain, 150 MW), Andasol solar power station (Spain, 100 MW), Nevada Solar One (USA, 64 MW), PS20 solar power tower (Spain, 20 MW), and the PS10 solar power tower (Spain, 11 MW).
The 370 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, located in California's Mojave Desert, is the world’s largest solar thermal power plant project currently under construction.
The solar thermal power industry is growing fast with 1.2 GW under construction as of April 2009 and another 13.9 GW announced globally through 2014.
Spain is the epicenter of solar thermal power development with 22 projects for 1,037 MW under construction, all of which are projected to come online by the end of 2010.
In the United States, 5,600 MW of solar thermal power projects have been announced.
In developing countries, three World Bank projects for integrated solar thermal/combined-cycle gas-turbine power plants in Egypt, Mexico, and Morocco have been approved.
Variable renewable energy
Variable renewable energy is a renewable energy source that is non-dispatchable due to its fluctuating nature, like wind power and solar power, as opposed to a controllable renewable energy source such as hydroelectricity, or biomass, or a relatively constant source such as geothermal power or run-of-the-river hydroelectricity.
Critics of wind and solar power warn of their variable output, but many studies have shown that the grid can cope, and it is doing so in Denmark and Spain.
The International Energy Agency says that there has been too much focus on issue of the variability.
Its significance depends on a range of factors which include the market penetration of the renewables concerned, the balance of plant, and the wider connectivity of the system, as well as demand side flexibility.
Variability will rarely be a barrier to increased renewable energy deployment.
But at high levels of market penetration it requires careful analysis and management.
Ethanol for transportation
Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18 percent of the country's automotive fuel.
As a result, Brazil, which years ago had to import a large share of the petroleum needed for domestic consumption, recently reached complete self-sufficiency in oil.
Most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends.
Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and General Motors Corporation are among the automobile companies that sell “flexible-fuel” cars, trucks, and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85% ethanol (E85).
By mid-2006, there were approximately six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.
The Climate Change Guide easy-to-understand information on Renewable energy
US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL).
EPA uses onsite renewable technologies
New World Record achieved in solar cell technology
Energy conservation at home in Simple Wikibooks
Renewables 2011: Global Status Report
The Aral Sea ( (Aral tengizi), , ) was a lake in Central Asia.
It is between Kazakhstan in the north and Karakalpakstan, an autonomous region of Uzbekistan, in the south.
Since the 1960s, the Aral Sea shrank.
90% of the sea has gone.
The rivers that fed it (the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya) were used by the Soviet Union for irrigating cotton production.
What is left of the Aral Sea is heavily polluted, largely as the result of weapons testing, industrial projects, and fertilizer runoff before and after the breakup of the Soviet Union.
There is a project to save at least the northern part of the Aral Sea.
For this, a dam was built in the 1990 to stop water running off.
Climate improved in the following years, and water levels rose again.
However, that dam broke, and was rebuilt in 2005, with international funding.
Another problem was that the Island of Rebirth had been used for the testing of biological weapons until 1993.
It is currently contaminated with anthrax, the plague, and tularemia.
Since 2001, it is no longer an island, but a peninsula.
electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves, visible light, and x-rays
particle radiation such as α, β, and neutron radiation
acoustic radiation such as ultrasound, sound
seismic waves.
Radiation may also refer to the energy, waves, or particles being radiated.
Originally, radiation waves do not contain particles as they are transferred to Earth by the Sun for example.
Many people are already familiar with electromagnetic radiation (EMR), including light.
The electromagnetic spectrum shows the types of radiation according to their wavelength and frequency.
Some kinds are:
Ionizing radiation comes from radioactive materials and X-ray machines and non-ionizing radiation comes from other sources.
Ionizing radiation carries more than 10 eV (electronvolts), which is enough to ionize atoms and molecules, and break chemical bonds.
This is important for its harmfulness to living organisms.
Non-ionizing radiation does not cause microscopic damage, but it can make things hotter and some types can cause chemical changes.
X-rays and gamma rays: These very strong rays are commonly used in medicine to photograph the interior of the body and treat cancer.
However, in large amounts, they are dangerous to life.
Ultraviolet light: This is a type of radiation with more energy than visible light.
It gives people a sunburn.
Ultraviolet light is used to kill bacteria.
Visible light: This is the radiation that we see all around us as what most people call ‘light’.
It can make chemical changes.
Infrared waves: Objects at room temperature emit infrared radiation.
Although humans cannot see it, special cameras can pick up this kind of radiation.
Radio waves: This is the kind of electromagnetic radiation with the longest waves.
Radio waves are used to send and receive communications.
Micro-waves: This kind of radio wave is used by a microwave oven to warm up food.
Microwaves are also used for communications, as weapons, and to move electrical power from one place to another.
Radar waves: This kind of radio wave is used to detect air planes in the sky and ships in the ocean.
Radar is also used to see changes in weather.
Danger from radiation
Only certain types of radiation are harmful to humans.
For example, ultraviolet radiation can give people sunburns.
X-rays and gamma rays can make a person sick, or even die, depending on the dose they get.
Some types of particle radiation can also make people sick and lead to burns.
If radiation does not carry high enough levels of energy, though, then these changes will not happen when something is hit by the radiation.
This is referred to as non-ionizing radiation, which is not as dangerous.
One can distinguish between various types of radiation by looking at the source of the radiation, its wavelength (if the radiation is electromagnetic), the amount of energy being carried, any particles involved, etc.
Radioactive material is a material which emits radiation.
Uranium and plutonium are examples of radioactive materials.
The atoms they are made of tend to fall apart and give off different kinds of radiation, like gamma rays and lots of particle radiation.
Ionizing radiation by type
Ionizing radiation can kill living things.
It can cause genetic mutations, as shown by H.J. Muller.
It can destroy cells in the body which divide, and thus indirectly kill a person.
Alpha radiation, a type of particle radiation made up of the nuclei of helium atoms.
Beta radiation, another type of particle radiation made up of high energy electrons or positrons.
Neutron radiation, yet another type of particle radiation made up of high energy neutrons.
Gamma radiation (Gamma rays), a type of radiation made up of high energy photons.
X-ray radiation (X-rays), a type of radiation also made up of photons but which typically contain less energy than gamma rays.
Non-ionizing radiation by type
Ultraviolet radiation, also known as UV.
Visible light
Infrared radiation
Radio waves including
Microwave radiation
Gravitational radiation, a predicted consequence of general relativity.
Sound waves
Cosmic microwave background radiation, 3K blackbody radiation that fills the Universe
Radiation damage – destructive effects on materials and devices
Radiation poisoning – destructive effects on life forms
Radiation hardening – making devices resistant to failure in high radiation environments
Radiation accidents
Non-ionizing radiation (or, esp.
in British English, non-ionising radiation) means any type of electromagnetic radiation that does not carry enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules - that is, completely remove an electron from an atom or molecule.
The composition of this radiation can vary depending on what may be ionized.
Visible light, near ultraviolet, infrared, microwave and radio waves are all examples of non-ionizing radiation, though visible and near ultraviolet can also ionize some molecules.
The light from the Sun that reaches the earth is largely composed of non-ionizing radiation, with the notable exception of some ultraviolet rays.
However, most ionizing radiation is filtered out by the atmosphere.
The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all possible electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation can be divided into octaves — as sound waves are — adding up to eighty-one octaves.
Physicists have studied electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths from thousands of kilometres down to fractions of the size of an atom.
It is commonly said that EM waves beyond these limits are uncommon, although this is not known to be true.
The short wavelength limit is likely to be the Planck length, and the long-wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, though in principle the spectrum is infinite.
Radiation of shorter wavelength than about 30 μm is commonly detected by its ability to exceed the ionization energy of atoms.
Radiation of longer than 3mm is commonly detected by its ability to induce electrical currents.
Radiation between these limits was little used until the 21st century because of the difficulty of detecting it.
Spectra of objects
Nearly all objects in the universe emit, reflect or transmit some light. (
Black holes do not.)
The distribution of this light along the electromagnetic spectrum (called the spectrum of the object) is determined by what the object is made of.
Several types of spectra can be distinguished depending upon the nature of the radiation coming from an object.
U.S. Frequency Allocation Chart - Covering the range 3 kHz to 300 GHz (from Department of Commerce)
Canadian Table of Frequency Allocations  (from Industry Canada)
UK frequency allocation table (from Ofcom, which inherited the Radiocommunications Agency's duties, pdf format)
The Science of Spectroscopy  - supported by NASA, includes OpenSpectrum, a Wiki-based learning tool for spectroscopy that anyone can edit
An EM Spectrum Overview in Flash  by e-builds
In physical sciences
The spectral class of asteroids
The visible spectrum or optical spectrum, a subset of the electromagnetic spectrum
An emission spectrum observed in light
An absorption spectrum observed in light
The spectral class of stars in Stellar classification
The timbre (spectrum of sound energy) of a musical note
The energy spectrum of a collection of particles (particle physics)
The frequency spectrum of a signal
The power spectrum of a signal
The spectrum of activity of a chemical
The ZX Spectrum, an early British home computer
IEEE Spectrum, a magazine
Spectrum (magazine), published by the Seventh-day Adventist Church
Spectrum Value Partners, a management consulting firm
Spectrum (band), an Australian group of the 1970s led by Mike Rudd
Spectrum, a band headed by Peter Kember
The Smith Spectrum, a sports arena in Logan, Utah, U.S.A.
The Wachovia Spectrum, formerly The Spectrum, a sports arena in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Guildford Spectrum, a leisure complex in Guildford, England
Spectrum London, UK, an art gallery
The Gaylactic Spectrum Awards or Spectrums, a literary award
Spectrum (album), debut album of fusion drummer, Billy Cobham
In social and medical sciences
The economic spectrum
The political spectrum of opinion
A spectrum disorder, in psychiatry
The spectrum of a matrix, in linear algebra
The spectrum of an operator, in functional analysis (a generalisation of the spectrum of a matrix)
The spectrum of a ring, in commutative algebra
The spectrum of a C*-algebra
A spectrum (homotopy theory)
The Stone space of Boolean algebra
The spectrum of a theory, in mathematical logic
The space-time continuum
Continuum (mathematics), the real line, or more generally any space, ordering, or cardinal that shares certain properties of the real line (e.g., "connectedness" or "size")
Language continuum - a group of dialects, where the dialect of each area is understandable in neighboring areas, and these dialects may gradually 'slide' from one language to another related language, even though speakers of the different languages who live farther apart may have more difficulty understanding one another.
Continuum concept, Jean Liedloff's articulation of the natural principles upon which attachment parenting was founded
Continuum Entertainment, a Brazilian game developer
Continuum Health Partners, a consortium of New York City Hospitals
Continuum hypothesis, a mathematical hypothesis
Continuum International Publishing Group, a publishing house
Continuum mechanics, a branch of physics that deals with continuous matter
Continuum RPG, the time travel role-playing game C°ntinuum
Apache Continuum, a continuous integration server for building Java based projects
Q Continuum, a parallel existence in the fictional Star Trek universe
Continuum (song), a song by Jaco Pastorius released on his self-titled album, August 1976
Continuum (album), an album by John Mayer released September 12, 2006
Continuum (CD), the debut album by music project Continuum released in 2005
Continuum (computer game), the North American version of the classic computer game, Alpha Waves
Continuum (game client), a game client for the SubSpace computer game
Continuum (games convention), a biannual British roleplaying convention dedicated to the worlds of Greg Stafford, Michael Moorcock, H.P.Lovecraft and many others
Continuum (instrument), a "fretless keyboard"
Continuum (Ligeti), a composition for harpsichord by György Ligeti
Continuum (music project), the musical collaboration between Steven Wilson and Dirk Serries
Stargate: Continuum, a direct-to-DVD movie of the Stargate franchise
Revenge is a studio album by the American hard rock/heavy metal band Kiss.
It was released on May 14, 1992.
God Gave Rock 'N' Roll To You II
Heart Of Chrome
Every Time I Look At You
Carr Jam 1981
1992 albums
A dialect continuum is a group of language dialects that change over an area.
In a dialect continuum, two dialects are more different when they are farther away from each other.
Paul Joseph Goebbels (German pronunciation: , often called Dr. Goebbels; 29 October 1897 in Mönchengladbach – 1 May 1945 in Berlin) was a German politician and the minister of propaganda during the Nazi regime.
He studied literature and philosophy at the Heidelberg university.
He was a close friend of Adolf Hitler.
Goebbels stayed with Hitler in the Führerbunker until Hitler's suicide on 30 April 1945.
After Hitler's death, Goebbels was chancellor of Germany for one day, before he and his wife Magda Goebbels killed themselves.
Just before she died, Magda killed their six children with poison.
Joseph Goebbels was born as Paul Joseph Goebbels in Mönchengladbach on 29 October 1897.
His father, Friedrich Goebbels, was a bookkeeper and his mother was Maria Goebbels (born Oldenhausen).
He was the third child of the family and grew up with five siblings.
Due to an illness in his childhood in 1901, Goebbels' right foot was malformed and he was .
He went to a Roman Catholic school in Rheydt in 1908.
In 1914, Goebbels went to high school in Rheydt.
When the First World War started in August 1914, he volunteered to be part of the Army.
This was refused because of his limp.
Goebbels took his Abitur (school exams) in 1917.
He was the best in his class.
He gave a speech at the end of the school year.
However, his headteacher said, that he would not become a good speaker.
Later, in 1917, Goebbels studied ancient philology, history and German philology at the University of Bonn.
He received his PhD in Drama from the Heidelberg university in 1921.
In 1923, Goebbels worked for the Deutsche Bank.
Involvement in the Nazi Party
Goebbels joined the National Socialist German Workers' Party in 1926.
In the same year, Hitler made him a Gauleiter for Berlin and Brandenburg.
In 1927, Goebbels published the first Nazi newspaper, Der Angriff (The Attack), in Berlin.
The newspaper was printed twice a week.
In 1928, he became a member of the German Reichstag.
He kept this position until 1945.
In 1929, Goebbels saw his first movie with sound,  "The Singing Fool".
He said it would be the future of propaganda.
In 1930, he became the Reichspropagandaleiter (Chief of the German Propaganda) and the deputy of Heinrich Himmler.
Goebbels married Magda Quand in 1931.
Franz Ritter von Epp and Adolf Hitler were the witnesses at the wedding.
The Nazi regime
Pre-World War time
In 1934, Goebbels moved to a villa near Berlin.
On 30 June 1934, he saw the arrest of Ernst Röhm in Bad Wiessee.
Goebbels gave the order to confiscate about 650 art exhibits in 1937.
He put them on display in show called Degenerate Art.
On 9 November 1938, a German diplomat was killed in France by a Jewish teenager.
Because of this murder, Goebbels gave the order to the SS for what is now called Kristallnacht.
At the start of the Second World War, Goebbels ordered to broadcast special announcements at the cinema  and on the radio.
On 26 May 1940, he published the new weekly newspaper Das Reich (The Imperium) for the first time.
In 1942, Goebbels took part in the Wannsee Conference.
He was one of the Nazi leaders who planned the Final Solution to kill all the Jewish people.
In 1943, he gave a well known speech in the Berlin Sportpalast where he called the Germans to support total war.
The coup on 20 July 1944 failed, because of Goebbels' quick thinking.
He broadcast on radio that the coup had failed, before the plan of Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg could succeed.
On 22 April 1945, two days after Adolf Hitler's birthday, he arrived in the Führerbunker in Berlin.
He was one of the witnesses to the marriage of Hitler to Eva Braun.
On the same day, he took over the leadership from Hitler.
After Hitler's suicide on 30 April, he became the Chancellor of Germany.
He only held this job for one day, because on 1 May 1945, his wife poisoned their six children with the help of an SS doctor.
Immediately afterward he and his wife went up to the garden of the Chancellery, where they killed themselves.
The details of their suicides are uncertain.
After the war, Rear-Admiral Michael Musmanno, a U.S. naval officer and judge, published several accounts apparently based on eye-witness testimony: According to one account. "
While Schwägermann was preparing the petrol, he heard a shot.
Goebbels had shot himself and his wife took poison.
Schwägermann ordered one of the soldiers to shoot Goebbels again because he was unable to do it himself."
One SS officer said they each took cyanide and ordered an SS trooper to shoot them both.
According to another account, Goebbels shot his wife and then himself.
Gauleiters
Carl Maria von Weber (born Eutin, Holstein, baptised 20 November 1786; died 5 June, 1826 in London), was one of the most important German composers of the early Romantic period.
He wrote many operas, of which Der Freischütz, Euryanthe and Oberon are especially famous.
He wrote instrumental music, especially for the clarinet, and wrote very well for orchestra.
Weber was the eldest of the three children of Franz Anton von Weber.
The word “von” in front of a German surname normally means that the family had noble ancestry, but the Weber family do not appear to be of noble blood.
Weber was never a strong, healthy child.
He had a damaged hip-bone and always walked with a limp.
His father worked in the theatre, and the family often moved from one town to another.
This was difficult for his education.
His mother was called Rosa, she influenced him to go to military school at the age of 20, but his love for music meant that he would go to Cranbrook in Germany.
His daughter Laurel was well known for playing the viola in many Orchestras.
Weber’s mother died of tuberculosis when he was eleven.
Later that year Weber went to Salzburg, to study with Michael Haydn (the brother of the famous Joseph Haydn), and later to Munich.
He started to publish some piano music, and even composed an opera.
When he was 14 the family moved to Freiberg in Saxony.
He had an opera performed there, and he started to write articles as a critic in a Leipzig newspaper.
In 1801 the family went back to Salzburg and Weber had more lessons from Michael Haydn.
He also studied in Vienna with a famous musician called Abbé Vogler.
Through him he got to know another of his pupils, Giacomo Meyerbeer, who became a famous composer and was a close friend of Weber.
Vogler thought Weber was very talented, and helped him to get a job in Breslau.
Weber had lots of good ideas about how to improve the music there: by changing the way that the orchestra sat, having more rehearsal time, not playing bad pieces of music, and pensioning off old singers.
A lot of people there did not like these ideas and made life difficult for him.
One night he absent-mindedly drank from a wine bottle.