the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
It is an assembly of Islamic clerics who have the power to choose the successor of the Supreme Leader of Iran.
Assembly of Experts - Official website
Assembly of Experts in the Constitution of Islamic Republic of Iran
Understanding Iran's Assembly of Experts
Results of Assembly of Experts elections in 6 provinces
Results of Assembly of Experts elections in four provinces
Results of Assembly of Experts elections in some provinces
Ayatollah Ali Meshkini (1922-30 July 2007) was the chairman of the Assembly of Experts of the Islamic Republic of Iran from 1984 to 2007.
Ayatollah Meshkini In A Friday Sermon in Qom: An Islamic Rule Under Ayatollah Sistani Is Required in Iraq , video clip, 2004
In the law, the judiciary or judicial system is the system of courts that administers justice in the name of the sovereign or state.
A judicial system is used to resolve disputes.
Separation of powers causes separate branches of government that each have a different purpose.
The judiciary is the branch of government that interprets the law.
Such systems may have three branches: Legislature, Executive and Judiciary.
Often the judiciary branch has courts of first resort, appellate courts, and a supreme court or constitutional court.
Decisions of the lower courts may be appealed to the higher courts.
Judiciary in the USA
Ayatollah Seyyed Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi (15 August 1948 – 24 December 2018) was an Iranian politician.
He was the Chief Justice of Iran from 1999 to 2009.
He was born in Najaf, Iraq.
Ayatollah Shahroudi was best known for ordering a moratorium on stoning as a form of the death penalty.
However, later it was shown that executions by stoning are still being carried out, in spite of his claims that they have stopped.
Stoning is still happening inside prisons, where the public cannot see it.
Text: Human Rights Watch Protests Media Crackdown, Detentions in Iran  (April 2000)
Iran veil crackdown criticised APRIL 24, 2007
Chief Justices of Iran
The Expediency Discernment Council is a governmental body for resolving disputes between the Guardian Council and the legislature in the Islamic Republic of Iran.
GlobalSecurity.org on the Expediency Discernment Council
She was  a Dutch-Frisian exotic dancer and spy.
She was executed by a firing squad of the French Army.
French authorities thought she was a spy during World War I. Because she had relationships with both German and French officers, they thought she was a double agent (working for both sides).
Her dossier (file) was released in 2017, a hundred years after her death.
German documents unsealed in the 1970s proved that Mata Hari was truly a German agent.
In the autumn of 1915, she entered German service.
On the orders of section III B-Chief Walter Nicolai, she was instructed about her duties by Major Roepell during a stay in Cologne.
Her direct handler was Captain Hoffmann, who gave her the code name H-21.
Dutch artists
Erotic dancers
People from Leeuwarden
Father Damien, also Saint Damien of Molokai, born as Joseph de Veuster in Belgium on January 3, 1840 and died on April 15, 1889, was a Roman Catholic Priest and missionary.
He was known for helping people with leprosy in the colony of Kalaupapa on the island of Molokai in Hawaii.
Father Damien came to Hawaii in 1864.
During this time, many Native Hawaiians were dying from many of the diseases they caught from the white settlers.
The King of Hawaii, made the people who had leprosy live in a colony away from other people.
Father Damien went to help the sick people and gave them hope.
Father Damien also died from leprosy, but what he did helped many people.
In 1995, he was beatified (made an important person) by the Pope, and he is recognized by both the Catholic and Anglican churches.
Father Damien was canonized by Pope Benedict XVI on Sunday October 11, 2009.
His is Patron Saint of the Diocese of Honolulu, as well as all of Hawaii, of  people with leprosy, and of outcasts, as well as people suffering from HIV and AIDS as well.
Belgian priests
Belgian Roman Catholics
William Harrison "Jack" Dempsey (June 24, 1895 – May 31, 1983) was an American boxer who held the world heavyweight title between 1919 and 1926  Known as "The Manassa Mauler", Dempsey was a tremendous puncher famous for his exciting fights, many of which set financial and attendance records.
He won the title by beating Jess Willard on July 4, 1919.
He defended the title six times before losing it to Gene Tunney in 1926.
They had a rematch in 1927 and Tunney again beat Dempsey.
It was during this fight where the "Long Count" took place.
Dempsey knocked Tunney down in the seventh round.
The referee would not start counting until Dempsey went to a neutral corner, so it is estimated that Tunney had as many as fourteen seconds to rise (instead of the usual ten).
Dempsey retired in 1928.
He fought exhibitions after his retirement, served as a commander in the Coast Guard during World War II, and opened a restaurant in New York City.
Sportspeople from Colorado
Jess Willard (December 29, 1881–December 15, 1968) was an American boxer.
He was the heavyweight best puncher in the world from 1915 to 1919.
When Jack Johnson was the Black world champion, Willard was one of the many "White Hopes" who wanted to take the title.
He succeeded when he beat Johnson by a 26th round out-cold punch in Cuba in 1915.
He fought to keep the title and won once before losing it to Jack Dempsey in 1919.
Biography of Jess Willard
Sportspeople from Kansas
Nicholas II redirects here, for other people named Nicholas II, see Nicholas.
Nicholas II of Russia, (May 18, 1868 – July 17, 1918) was the last Tsar (Emperor) of the Russian Empire.
He became Tsar in 1894 after his father, Tsar Alexander III died.
His reign lasted until the 1917 Russian Revolution.
He married Princess Alix of Hesse, who was the daughter of Princess Alice of the United Kingdom and the  granddaughter of Queen Victoria , and they had five children, Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia, and Alexi.
Alexi suffered from a disease called haemophilia, which caused his parents great sadness.
After 1905, the royal family became friends with Grigori Rasputin, whom they believed could treat Alexi.
In the first 20 years of his reign, Nicholas tried to make Russia more modern, but these plans were held back by the nobles and the Tsar's weak leadership.
He and his chief ministers Sergei Witte and Pyotr Stolypin encouraged railways, land reform, education, the borrowing of money and friendship with France and the United Kingdom.
In 1905, after Russia lost a war with Japan and the killing of protestors on Bloody Sunday, there were large protests against his government by people who wanted a parliament.
He created one (the Duma), but he would not allow it to have many powers.
His reign also saw the Khodynka Tragedy, attacks on the Russian Jews, anger over the power of Rasputin, and the imprisonments and executions of people who opposed the government.
In 1914, he led Russia into World War I, but the war went badly for Russia and caused great hardship.
It led to the fall of the monarchy in the 1917 Russian Revolution.
He abdicated (quit being Tsar) in March of that year.
He and his family were held as prisoners under house arrest.
On July 17, 1918, Nicholas, his wife and their children were killed by a firing squad, on the orders of the new Bolshevik government.
In 1981, the Tsar and his family were made Saints by the Russian Orthodox Church.
In 1990, the bones of the Tsar and his family were found in the woods and given a proper burial in St Petersburg in 1998.
The historians of the Soviet Union often described Nicholas as a tyrant.
Modern historians see him as a man who tried to do what was right for his country but did not have the skills and was easily led by people who gave him bad advice.
William Tell was a folk hero from Switzerland.
In the story, William Tell is a man who refused to bow down to pole that was set up by an army who had taken over the place where he lived.
He was arrested and forced to shoot an apple off his son's head with a crossbow.
If he did not, both he and his son would be killed.
So he shot the apple off the son's head and did not harm his son.
He is considered a legend and his actions helped form Switzerland as a nation.
Wilhelm Tell (William Tell), a play by Friedrich Schiller
Guillaume Tell (William Tell), an opera by Gioachino Rossini, based on Schiller's play
It was founded near the end of the 4th century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals.
Antioch became a rival of Alexandria as the chief city of the nearer East and the cradle of gentile Christianity.
It was one of the four cities of the Syrian tetrapolis.
The geographical character of the district north and north-east of the elbow of Orontes makes it the perfect natural centre of Syria, so long as that country is held by a western power; and only Asiatic, and especially Arab, dynasties have neglected it for the oasis of Damascus.
During the Crusades, the Christian crusaders laid siege to Antioch.
One Wijerd Jelckamas ancestors from his father's side of the family had died at the Siege of Antioch.
History of Antioch
After Alexander's death in 323 BC, his generals divided up the territory he had conquered.
Seleucus I Nicator won the territory of Syria, and he founded four "sister cities" in north-western Syria - Antioch, Seleucia Pieria, Apamea and Laodicea-on-the-Sea.
Although Seleucia Pieria was at first the Seleucid capital city in north-western Syria, Antioch soon rose above it to become the Syrian capital.
The new city was populated by a mix of local settlers, Athenians brought from the nearby city of Antigonia, Macedonians, and Jews (who were given full status from the beginning).
The total free population of Antioch at its foundation has been estimated at between 17,000 and 25,000, not including slaves and native settlers.
During the late Hellenistic period and Early Roman period, the population reached its peak of over 500,000 inhabitants (estimates vary from 400,000 to 600,000) and it was the third largest city in the world after Rome and Alexandria.
By the 4th century, Antioch's declining population was about 200,000 according to John Chrysostom, a figure which again does not include slaves.
The Romans both felt and expressed boundless contempt for the hybrid Antiochenes; but the Roman emperors favoured the city from the first, seeing in it a more suitable capital for the eastern part of the empire than Alexandria could ever be, because of the isolated position of Egypt.
To a certain extent they tried to make it an eastern Rome.
Evangelized perhaps by Peter, according to the tradition upon which the Antiochene patriarchate still rests its claim for primacy (cf.
Acts xi.),
and certainly by Barnabas and Paul, who here preached his first Christian sermon in a synagogue, its converts were the first to be called Christians (Acts 11:26).
In recent years, what remains of the Roman and late antique city have suffered severe damage as a result of construction related to the expansion of Antakya.
In the 1960s, the last surviving Roman bridge was demolished to make way for a modern two-lane bridge.
The northern edge of Antakya has been growing rapidly over recent years, and this construction has begun to expose large portions of the ancient city, which are frequently bulldozed and rarely protected by the local museum.
Richard Stillwell, ed.
Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976: "Antioch on the Orontes (Antaky), Turkey"
Antioch (Antakya) Includes timeline, maps, and photo galleries of Antioch's mosaics and artifacts
Antakya Museum Many photos of the collection in Antakya's museum, in particular Roman mosaics
The Ancient City of Antioch  Map
Board (wood), a piece of lumber, or other rigid material made of wood, milled or sawn flat
Snowboard (often made of fibreglass)
Board of directors or a similar governing or advisory committee
Sound Board, an audio mixing console
Bulletin board system or Internet forum
Board (bridge), a device used in playing duplicate bridge
Board or level, a distinct area in or stage of a video game
Chalkboard, Blackboard or whiteboard, a reusable writing surface
Board, use accommodation in a house or hotel; to stay at school during term time, and sleep in a dormitory
The Pitman arm is a part used in automobiles, trucks, SUVs and other vehicles to steer the wheels.
When the steering wheel is turned right or left the pitman transmits the motion it receives from the steering gearbox to the tie rod.
A "drop pitman arm" is used to correct the steering when a vehicle has a suspension lift.
F1 is a function key on the keyboard.
It is mainly used to open help pages about an application or a part of it.
A solvent is a substance that becomes a solution by dissolving a solid, liquid, or gaseous solute.
A solvent is usually a liquid, but can also be a solid or gas.
The most common solvent in everyday life is water.
Most other commonly-used solvents are organic (carbon-containing) chemicals.
These are called organic solvents.
Solvents usually have a low boiling point and evaporate easily or can be removed by distillation, thereby leaving the dissolved substance behind.
Solvents should therefore not react chemically with the dissolved compounds - they have to be inert.
Solvents can also be used to extract soluble compounds from a mixture, the most common example is the brewing of coffee or tea with hot water.
Solvents are usually clear and colorless liquids and many have a characteristic smell.
The concentration of a solution is the amount of compound that is dissolved in a certain volume of solvent.
The solubility is the maximal amount of compound that is soluble in a certain volume of solvent at a specified temperature.
Common uses for organic solvents are in dry cleaning (e.g. tetrachloroethylene), as paint thinners (e.g. toluene, turpentine), as nail polish removers and glue solvents (acetone, methyl acetate, ethyl acetate), in spot removers (e.g. hexane, petrol ether), in detergents (citrus terpenes), in perfumes (ethanol), and in chemical syntheses.
Inorganic solvents are used in research chemistry and in a few technological processes.
Health and safety
Some solvents including chloroform and benzene (an ingredient of gasoline) are carcinogenic.
Many others can damage internal organs like the liver, the kidneys, or the brain.
Many also can catch fire easily.
Ways to work safely include:
Avoiding the generation of solvent vapors by working in a fume hood, local exhaust ventilation (LEV), or a well ventilated area
Keeping the storage containers tightly closed
Never using open flames near flammable solvents, use of electrical heating instead
Never flush flammable solvents down the drain to avoid explosions and fires
Avoiding the inhalation of solvent vapors
Avoiding contact of the solvent with the skin – many solvents are easily absorbed through the skin.
They also tend to dry the skin and may cause sores and wounds.
Properties table of common solvents
The solvents are grouped into non-polar, polar aprotic, and polar protic solvents and ordered by increasing polarity.
The polarity is given as the Dielectric constant.
The density of nonpolar solvents that are heavier than water is bolded.
Table and text  O-Chem Lecture
Tables  Properties and toxicities of organic solvents
Miscibility Table Phenomex Solvent Miscibility Table (includes Polarity Index)
Miscibility Table  GLS Solvent Miscibility Table (includes Dielectric Constant)
Solvent definition
he:תמיסה#הממס
In chemistry, the term inert is used to describe something that is not chemically active.
The noble gases were described as being inert because they did not react with the other elements or themselves.
Inert gases are completely inert to basic chemical reactions (such as combustion, for example) because their outer valence shell is completely filled with electrons.
With a filled outer valence shell, an inert atom is not able to acquire or lose an electron, and is therefore not able to participate in any chemical reactions.
For inert atoms or molecules, a lot of energy is involved before it can combine with other elements to form compounds.
A high temperature and pressure is necessary, and sometimes requires the presence of a catalyst.
For example, elemental nitrogen is inert under standard room conditions and exists as a diatomic molecule, N2.
The inertness of nitrogen is due to the presence of the very strong triple covalent bond in the N2 molecule.
Inert atmospheres of gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen and argon are routinely used in working with processes that will go wrong if air or water is present.
For example, some welding must be done in argon so the material will not burn.
In chemistry and atomic physics, an electron shell may be thought of as an orbit followed by electrons around an atom's nucleus.
All atoms have one or more electron shell(s), all of which have varying numbers of electrons.
Each electron shell has one or more electron sub-shells, or sub-levels.
Electron shells make up the electron configuration of an atom.
The number of electrons that can be in a certain shell is equal to .
The name for electron shells came from the Bohr model, which states that electrons orbit the nucleus at certain distances so that their orbits form "shells".
This term was presented by Niels Henrik David Bohr.
Valence shell
The valence shell is the outermost shell of an atom in its neutral state.
The valence shell contains the electrons most likely to be involved in reactions.
In a noble gas, an atom tends to have eight electrons in its outer shell (except helium, which is only able to fill its shell with two electrons).
Noble gases serve as the model for the octet rule, which states that atoms tend to form bonds or create ions so that they can have eight electrons in their outermost shell.
This is mostly applicable to the main-group elements of the second and third periods.
For coordination complexes containing transition metals, the valence shell consists of 18 electrons.
This is referred to as the eighteen electron rule.
Sub-shells
Electron sub-shells are identified by the letters s, p, d, f, g, h, i, etc.,
corresponding to the azimuth quantum numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.
Each shell is able to hold 2, 6, 10, 14, and 18 electrons respectively.
Tipler, Paul & Ralph Llewellyn (2003).
Modern Physics (4th ed.).
New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Wheelchairs are used by people for whom walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability.
Wheelchairs can have extra cushions and other parts added to improve support if the wheelchair user cannot keep their body in a good sitting position, or to make the wheelchair more comfortable to sit in.
The earliest record of the wheelchair in England dates from the 1670s [Oxford English Dictionary, (2nd Ed.),
1989, Vol.
XX.,
p. 203.],
and in continental Europe this technology dates back to the German Renaissance.
In 1655, Stephan Farffler, a 22-year-old paraplegic watchmaker, built the world's first self-propelling chair on a three-wheel chassis using a system of cranks and cogwheels.
However, the device resembled a hand bike more than a wheelchair since the design included hand cranks mounted at the front wheel.
Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center on Wheeled Mobility
Dept of Transportation   Information for air travelers with disabilities and their rights in the US
Etiquette: Wheelchair users  Suggestions for better communication with people who use wheelchairs
Broadly speaking, fuel oil is any liquid petroleum product that is burned in a furnace or boiler for the generation of heat or used in an engine for the generation of power, except oils having a flash point of approximately +40 °C and oils burned in cotton or wool-wick burners.
In this sense, diesel is a type of fuel oil.
Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics.
The term fuel oil is also used in a stricter sense to refer only to the heaviest commercial fuel that can be obtained from crude oil, heavier than gasoline and naphtha.
Six classes
Fuel oil in the United States is classified into six classes, according to its boiling temperature, composition and purpose.
The boiling point, ranging from 175 to 600 °C, and carbon chain length, 20 to 70  atoms, of the fuel increases with number.
Viscosity also increases with fuel oil number and the heaviest oil has to be heated to get it to flow.
Price usually decreases as the fuel number increases.
1 fuel oil, No.
2 fuel oil (heating oil), and No.
3 fuel oil are referred to as distillate fuel oils, diesel fuel oils, light fuel oils, gasoil or just distillate.
For example, No.
2 fuel oil, No.
2 distillate and No.
2 diesel fuel oil are almost the same thing.
Diesel is different in that it also has a cetane number limit which describes the ignition quality of the fuel.
Distillate fuel oils are distilled from crude oil.
Bunkerworld - media site for the marine fuels industry
National Park Service - Fuel Oil
How Stuff Works - Oil Refining
The True Cost of #6 Oil
Burning #6 Fuel Oil
Identity and Analysis of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons
Poten & Partners: Advisors to the Fuel Oil Industry
Classification of Fuel Oils
Marine Fuel Oil (ISO 8217)
This is a list of large wind farms, with a generating capacity of 100 megawatts (MW) or more, which are currently operating, under construction, or proposed.
Wind power is widely used in Europe, and more recently in the United States and Asia.
Operational wind farms
Many of the largest onshore wind farms are in the USA.
As of January 2014, the Alta Wind Energy Center is the largest onshore wind farm in the world at 1,020 MW.
Many of the largest offshore wind farms are in Europe.
As of January 2014, the London Array is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 630 MW.
Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center is a large wind farm with 735.5 megawatt (MW) capacity.
It consists of 291 GE 1.5 MW wind turbines and 130 Siemens 2.3 MW wind turbines spread over nearly 47,000 acres (190 km²) of land in Taylor and Nolan County, Texas.
Jury Sides With Horse Hollow Wind Farm
Wind farms in Texas
This is a list of solar thermal power stations.
These include the 354 megawatt (MW) Solar Energy Generating Systems power plant in the USA, Solnova solar power station (Spain, 150 MW), Andasol solar power station (Spain, 100 MW), Nevada Solar One (USA, 64 MW), PS20 solar power tower (Spain, 20 MW), and the PS10 solar power tower (Spain, 11 MW).
Many other plants are under construction or planned, mainly in Spain and the USA.
Andasol Solar Power Station is a large solar thermal power plant, near Guadix in Andalusia, in the province of Granada, one of the sunniest regions in Spain.
The plant will cost 310 million euros and is currently under construction.
Andasol will have a generating capacity of 50 megawatts and liquid salt heat storage will allow for electricity to be generated for seven hours after the sun has gone down.
Annual electricity production will be 179 gigawatt hours which will cover the electricity demands of 50,000 households or 200,000 people.
List of Solar thermal power stations
2009 establishments in Europe
The Atlantic slave trade was the selling of African slaves by Europeans that happened in and around the Atlantic Ocean.
It lasted from the 15th century to the 19th century.
Most slaves were shipped from West Africa and brought over to the New World on a slave ship.
The slaves were transported on a ship on which slaves lived in bad conditions.
The journey by ship was known as the Middle Passage.
Sources of slaves
Some slaves were captured in battles or through raids and kidnapping.
Some were sold into slavery as punishment or to pay a debt, usually by other Africans.
Then they were shackled together and marched to the coast on journeys lasting weeks or months.
When they arrived they were imprisoned in forts where they were purchased by Europeans.
Most historians today think that between 12 million and 13 million Africans arrived in the New World.
The Dahomian army was involved and traded slaves for weapons to protect themselves.
King Gezo of Dahomey said in the 1840s:
{{quote|The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people.
It is the source and the glory of their wealth...the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery...}}
The slave-trade is sometimes called the Maafa'' by African and African-American scholars.
It means catastrophe in the Swahili language.
Some slave ships worked a three-part economic cycle often called the triangular trade.
It tied the economies of several regions and continents together.
The main triangular trading countries were England, The Netherlands, France, Spain and Portugal.
Other ships just worked the slave trade.
Christopher Columbus first came to the Americas in 1492 while seeking the West Indies.
This led to an economic reason for the transatlantic slave trade.
Slaves were first imported in large numbers for mining and later to grow sugarcane in plantations.
Slavery is much more ancient than the transatlantic trade.
Slaves were used in many ancient societies.
Abolition and illegal trade
In the 18th century, a small opposition developed against the slave trade in Britain, America, and some parts of Europe.
In Britain and America, opposition to the trade was led by the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) and establishment Evangelicals such as William Wilberforce.
People who protested against the trade were opposed by the owners of land in the Americas.
After 1772, slaves became free upon entering the British isles.
Abolitionism became stronger in the 19th century.
Denmark was the first European country to ban the slave trade, in 1792, which took effect in 1803.
On 22 February 1807, the work of William Wilberforce was rewarded with victory.
By an overwhelming 283 votes for to 16 against, the motion for the Slave Trade Act to abolish the Atlantic slave trade was carried in the House of Commons.
The United States abolished it later that year.
The Royal Navy set up a Blockade of Africa to stop the trade, and treaties with other nations allowed the blockade ships to stop their slave trade.
However, smuggling of slaves was very common and hundreds of thousands of black people were enslaved illegally.
New York City was a center for this illegal slave trade, and judges in New York avoided punishing slave traders through the 19th century.
Many slaves continued to be sent to Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico and Cuba as well as much of South America.
Historic slave trade
The African slave trade was a trade in slaves and, like most of the world, has carried on for thousands of years in Africa.
The first main route passed through the Sahara.
After the Age of Exploration, African slaves became part of the Atlantic slave trade, from which comes the modern, Western type of slavery.
Despite being against the law, slavery continues in all parts of the world, including Africa.
In Mauritania, slavery was not made illegal until August 2007.
The Pocking Solar Park is a 10-megawatt (MWp) solar photovoltaic plant which is among the largest in the world.
Construction of the power plant started in August 2005 and was completed in March 2006.
On the former military training area in the Lower-Bavarian town of Pocking, sheep are now grazing under and around the 57,912 photovoltaic modules.
Waldpolenz Solar Park in Germany
Fractional distillation is a process of separating a mixture of chemical compounds.
This means that each part (called a "fraction") of the mixture can be kept apart from the other chemicals.
Different chemicals have different boiling points.
Fractional distillation is done by heating the mixture so that it evaporates and then each fraction condenses in its own separate compartment.
The reason we don't use simple distillation is because for liquids that boil at less than 25°C from each other, some of the other liquid(s) may evaporate and so part of the separated liquid may have part of the other liquid(s).
It is a special type of distillation.
Generally, the component parts boil at less than 25°C from each other under a pressure of one atmosphere (atm).
If the difference in boiling points is greater than 25°C, a simple distillation is used.
Fractionation is done by boiling a mixture in a fractionating column.
The mixture evaporates at different times and is caught in a container as a pure compound.
Industrially, crude oil is heated and sent up along the fractionating column that has decreasing temperatures with height and several platforms at different levels to collect the condensate.
Different components of crude oil have different boiling points.
High molecular weight components have higher boiling points and condense at lower portions of the column while fractions with lower boiling points rise to the top of the column to condense.
The main fractions include refinery gases, gasoline (petrol), naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil, fuel oil, and a residue that contains bitumen.
These fractions are mainly used as fuels, although they do have other uses too.
Hydrocarbons with small molecules make better fuels than those with large molecules because they are volatile, flow easily and are easily ignited
Continuous distillation -Citizendium
de:Destillation#Fraktionierte Destillation
ja:蒸留#精留
The Monte Alto photovoltaic power plant in Spain has a generating capacity of 9.55 megawatts peak (MWp) and will generate 14 million kilowatt-hours of electricity per year.
It cost 65 million Euros [US$87 million].
The plant covers an area of 51 hectares on agricultural land near the locality of Milagro (Navarre) and contains 889 solar structures, of which 864 have automated solar tracking.
The rest are fixed structures adapted to the terrain.
Odors are also called smells, which can be used to describe both pleasant and unpleasant odors.
The words fragrance, scent, or aroma are used mostly by the food and cosmetic industry to describe a pleasant odor, and is sometimes used to refer to perfumes.
On the other hand, the words stench, reek, and stink are used specifically to describe unpleasant odors.
After that the psychological part follows.
The stimuli are processed by the region of the human brain which is responsible for smelling.
While odor feelings are very personal perceptions, individual reactions are related to gender, age, state of health and private affectations.
Common odors that people are used to, such as their own body odor, are less noticeable to individuals than external or uncommon odors.
For most people, the process of smelling gives little information concerning the ingredients of a substance.
It only offers information related to the emotional impact.
However, experienced people, such as flavorists and perfumers can pick out individual chemicals in complex mixes through smell alone.
Odor analysis
The concentrations of odorant in Germany are defined by the “Olfaktometrie” since the 1870s.
In this connection it’s about the standard method to define the sense barrier of odors on basis the thinner of concentrated odor loaded assays.
Following parameters are defined: odor substance concentration, intensity of odor and hedonism assessment.
Pheromones are odors that are deliberately used for communication.
A female moth may release a pheromone that can entice a male moth that is several kilometers away.
Honeybee queens constantly release pheromones that regulate the activity of the hive.
Workers can release such smells to call other bees into an appropriate cavity when a swarm moves in or to "sound" an alarm when the hive is threatened.
Odors categorized by main chemical constituent and organized by odor class, percept, etc.
The European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) is a kind of ash tree.
It is found throughout Europe and not just Scandinavia.
It is a deciduous tree that grows to a height of 20–35 metres.
Ash wood is very easy to bend.
It is therefore the material of choice to make bows.
Tennis rackets, and the long poles used for snooker are sometimes made from it.
In Norse mythology, the tree Yggdrasil was a European ash.
The tree linked all the nine world, Niflheim and Asgard, amongst others.
Below the tree resides Hel as well as the Well of Urd.
Spain is the fourth largest manufacturer in the world of solar power technology and exports 80 percent of this output to Germany.
Spain is one of the most attractive countries with regard to the development of solar energy, as it has the greatest amount of available sunshine of any country in Europe.
The Spanish government wants to produce 12 percent of primary energy from renewable energy by 2010.
That would mean a solar generating capacity of 400 megawatts.
Through a ministerial ruling in March 2004, the Spanish government removed economic barriers to grid-connection of renewable energy.
The widely applauded Royal Decree 436/2004 equalises conditions for large-scale thermal and photovoltaic plants and guarantees feed-in tariffs.
Solar thermal power plants
In March 2007, Europe's first commercial concentrating solar power tower plant was opened near the sunny southern Spanish city of Seville.
The 11 megawatt plant, known as the PS10 solar power tower, produces electricity with 624 large heliostats.
Each of these mirrors has a surface measuring 120 square meters (1,290 square feet) that concentrates the Sun's rays to the top of a 115-meter (377 foot) high tower where a solar receiver and a steam turbine are located.
The turbine drives a generator, producing electricity.
PS10 is the first of a set of solar electric power generation plants to be constructed in the same area that will total more than 300MW by 2013.
This power generation will be accomplished using a variety of technologies.
Solar thermal power plants designed for solar-only generation are ideally matched to summer noon peak loads in prosperous areas with significant cooling demands, such as Spain.
Using thermal energy storage systems, solar thermal operating periods can even be extended to meet base-load needs.
For example, the 50-MWe AndaSol solar trough power plants are designed with six to twelve hours of thermal storage, which increases annual availability by some 1,000 to 2,500 hours.
Construction has started on a 20MW solar photovoltaics power system in Trujillo, Cáceres, in Spain.
Costing €150m, the new plant will have double the output of the 10MW Bavaria Solar Park in Germany, the previous largest ever photovoltaic (PV) system.
The project will use 200 100 kW units (120,000 PV modules in total), gaining the top feed-in tariff for this type of plant.
For phase one of the Madrid expansion, BP Solar is aiming to expand its annual cell capacity from 55 megawatts (MW) to around 300 MW.
Construction of this facility is underway, with the first manufacturing line expected to be fully operational this year.
The new cell lines use innovative screen-printing technology.
By fully automating wafer handling, the manufacturing lines will be able to handle the very thinnest of wafers available and ensure the highest quality.
This is of particular importance since there has been a silicon shortage in recent years.
New building codes
New building code laws in Spain are now mandating solar hot water for new and remodeled private residences, and photovoltaic to offset some power requirements for all new and remodeled commercial buildings.
The new laws also reflect inceased awareness of the importance of better building insulation and the use of daylighting.
Andasol 1 solar power station
Spain pioneers grid-connected solar-tower thermal power
A sensation is something that produces excitement.
A new song or a new play might be termed a "sensation" or producing "sensation".
A thrilling ride on a roller coaster might be described as "sensational".
In the West, the human body's senses are divided into eight: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, cutaneous, kinesthetic, vestibular, organic.
The ways in which these senses are divided from one another in concept, and combined in varying ratios in perceiving the world, differs based on individual physiology, social and cultural context, and physical surroundings.
The whole sensory system, including both physical sensation and interpretation (or cognition) of information from the senses, is referred to as a sensorium.
Sensory  system
In the visual system Light enters the eyes through the cornea.
It then passes through the pupil, and is refracted by the crystalline lens of the eyes.
Light is then channeled through the vitreous humour and then on to the retina.
In the retina, there are two kinds of cells, rods and cones.
Rods see black-and-white colors, and are dominant in the night (because, as physics states, there are no colors in the night, because what we see is the colors reflected from the atmosphere).
Cones then, see colored structures.
Cones are exceptionally abundant in the fovea.
Cones are reactive to the three colors of red, blue, and green.
Other colours are sensed as combinations of these.
in the Auditory system Sound is received by the ear via the pinna, the outer ear structure, which then leads the sound inside through the external auditory meatus.
After the sound passes through the meatus, it goes to the eardrum, or tympanus, then vibrates its way through the tiny ossicles, the hammer (malleus), anvil (incus), and stirrup (stapes), then to the cochlea.
The cochlea converts vibration into electrical impulses which are transmitted to the brain.
Taste, or gustation, is the ability to detect sensory changes in the tongue, through the use of taste buds, situated deep into the papillae.
Intriguingly, the sense called gustation is in fact comprised of varying ratios of multiple sensory systems, shifting in importance and attention as food is chewed, tasted and swallowed.
These include the taste buds, the sense of touch in the structures of the mouth and digestive system, chemical sensation of irritation in the trigeminal nerve system, and unique receptors for sensing the properties of water located at the rear of the oral cavity.
Smell, or olfaction, is received by the olfactory bulb and connected to the brain by the olfactory nerve, the first cranial nerve of the brain, just after the nasal turbinates of the nose warm, strain and filter the air.
For touch Please see the skin article for more details.
The kinesthetic sense is the sense of posture and movement.
It is also referred to as proprioception.
The vestibular sense is the sense of balance.
It is mediated by the action of the fluid inside the Semicircular canals.
The organic sense, per se, refers only to sensation from the internal organs, or viscera, but can, however, be expanded to include certain physiological processes, such as hunger, thirst, drowsiness and air hunger.
It is also referred to as interoception.
Instant soups are a kind of soup.
They are produced on an industrial scale.
Later they are treated in different ways to preserve them.
Usually they are dried, canned, or treated by freezing.
A packet of dry soup (like the ramen image below).
These do not contain water.
They are prepared by adding water and heating, or by adding hot water.
A tin (or can) containing cold soup.
To prepare those need to only be heated (for 3–5 minutes usually).
Sensation, psychological term relating to perception
Sensation and perception psychology
Sensation (song), by The Who
The Sensations, an American musical R&B/pop quartet of the 1950s and early 1960s
The Sensations (television), a popular television show of the Philippines
Sensations of 1945, American film
Sensation (ship), Carnival Cruise Line ship
Sensation Comics, comic book series
Sensation (event), indoor dance event which includes:
Sensation Black
Sensation White
Sensation exhibition, controversial British art exhibition
Sensation novel, British literary genre
Sensation Animation, subsidiary group of the Walt Disney Corporation
Sensation play (BDSM), BDSM term
Walkers Sensations, Type of potato crisp
In psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of taking in, picking, organizing, and understanding sensory information.
It includes collecting data from sense organs and interpreting it in the brain.
Consider this: Light enters our eyes, and the brain works on this information to build up a mental picture of what is going on "out there".
Perception is a lot more than just "information coming in".
It is an active process.
There are many ways to study perception.
There are  biological or physiological approaches, psychological approaches through the philosophy of mind and experiments.
There are studies by philosophers such as David Hume, John Locke, George Berkeley.
History of the study of perception
The study of perception started with the study of sight.
This makes sense because humans understand the world largely by looking at it.
The first studies of perception happened in the years 460-371 BC by the Greek philosopher Democritus.
He believed the shapes we see were pictures which flew to our eyes, where our soul would then recognize them.
The philosopher Plato (427- 348 BC) later came up with a new idea, he believed the eyes worked by first making light and then scanning the world.
Another Greek philosopher and student of Plato called Aristotle (384 to 322 BC) did not agree with these ideas.
He presented a new theory :
Light can only come from bright objects, like fire and the sun.
Light is not something you can touch
Light hits objects and then bounces off the object to hit our eyes
Light moves through something that humans can't see
10th & 11th Century
17th Century
Kepler explained what is inside of the eye.
Descartes said that the way our physical senses see the world does not affect how we think about the world.
Locke and Descartes both thought humans saw color because of the senses.
18th Century
Kant suggested that humans can't know about things which our senses don’t see.
Because of this he stated that a god and a soul were not possible.
19th Century
New techniques were created and used to study the brain and perception.
Many of these studies were paired with data on human behavior.
The psychologist Wundt stated that perception could not just be explained by the way the body works and that psychology was needed too.
Gestalt psychology was formed.
The idea behind this group of thinkers was that perception is more than the sum of our senses.
Process of Perception
Bruner's model of perception
When we see someone we don't know, we are looking for signs which will tell us things about them.
As we pick up on some signs, we match this person to a group we have seen before.
The search for signs that tell us about who they are becomes less broad.
We now only search for signs that put this person into the group we have matched them to.
Saks and Johns model of perception
The perceiver : This is the person doing the observing and perceiving.
There are three things that can have an effect on someone's perception.
These are : How much experience someone has, how motivated this person is, and how they are feeling.
Also, in some situations someone can use a "perceptual defense", this is when they only see what they want to see.
The person who is being watched and perceived : The least the other person knows about them the more they will try to guess.
The time and place this situation is happening at : This affects the amount of attention the perceiver gives to a situation.
Types of perception
Vision is what you see.
Seeing something happens when light enters the eyes.
This light is turned into an electric message which travels to the brain and gets turned into a picture.
Sound is what you hear.
The ears catch movement from sound waves which move in every direction.
The brain takes these in, creating what we hear.
Touch is what you feel with your skin.
The skin's top layer has receptors that take information in when touched.
These receptors can sense pain, how hot or cold something is and how heavy something is.
Receptors then send this information to our nervous system.
Taste is the flavor of things we eat or drink.
Our tongue has many little bumps which take in our food's flavor.
These bumps then send a message to our brain for us to taste.
The skin inside your nose has small cells which send messages to your brain when you breathe in.
Your brain then senses the smell.
Theories of Perception
Theories of perception can be sorted into two groups.
The first group believes in Bottom-Up processing.
This approach means that to perceive, humans only needs information from their senses.
For example : light enters the eye, this light is sent to the brain and the brain turns it into something we see.
The second group is Top-Down processing.
In this approach, perception starts off with something general and becomes specific.
What we already know or expect has a big effect here.
For example : if you see half of a cat, you will have an idea of what it looks like even though half of it is hidden.
This is because you have seen a cat before.
Top down processing helps humans quickly make sense of their environment without having to think too much.
Bottom-up processing
Gibson's Ecological Theory
James Gibson (1904-1979) states that perception happens because of our human instincts.
This means it can't be learned.
He suggests that perception is needed for humans to stay alive.
Neanderthals would have needed perception to escape danger, suggesting perception is the result of evolution.
Gibson's theory is known as the "Ecological Theory" , because he says that perception can only be explained by our environment.
To Gibson, Sensation = perception.
Top-down processing
Stephen E. Palmer
Palmer states that people have ideas about how the world looks like, and they use that knowledge to figure out what things are.
He did a study in 1975 to show this.
In his study, people were shown groups of 4 pictures.
One picture was a location, a kitchen for example.
The other three pictures were one object you would find in a kitchen (bread) , and two pictures that had no ties to the kitchen (an instrument and a mailbox).
This was repeated with many different places and objects.
His findings showed that people found it harder to recognize the objects that had no relationship to the location.
References and more reading
Arnheim R. 1969.
Visual thinking.
Berkeley: University of California Press. .
Flanagan J.R., Lederman S.J. 2001.Neurobiology: Feeling bumps and holes, News and Views, Nature, 412(6845):389–91.
Gregory R.L. 1966.
Eye and Brain: the psychology of seeing.
London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson; 5th edition 1997, Oxford University Press/Princeton University Press.
Gregory R.L. 1981.
Mind in Science: a history of explanations of psychology and physics.
London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson; USA: CUP.
Paperback, Peregrine.
Popper A.N. & Platt C. 1993.
Inner ear and lateral line of bony fishes.
In Evans D.H. The Physiology of Fishes.
99–136.
Robles-De-La-Torre, G. The importance of the sense of touch in virtual and real environments .
IEEE Multimedia 13(3), Special issue on Haptic User Interfaces for Multimedia Systems, pp.
24–30 (2006).
Online papers on perception , by various authors, compiled by David Chalmers
Paradoxical haptic objects .
An example of touch illusions of shape.
See also the MIT Technology Review article:
The Cutting Edge of Haptics, by Duncan Graham-Rowe.
is a type of thin Japanese noodle.
It is made from buckwheat flour.
It is served either chilled with a dipping sauce, or in hot broth as a noodle soup.
Moreover, it is not uncommon in Japan to refer to any thin noodle as soba in contrast to udon which are thick noodles made from wheat.
Because noodles made out of pure buckwheat can easily fall apart when boiled, the buckwheat flour is usually mixed with binders - often wheat flour.
Under the Japan Agricultural Standards regulations, the noodles must contain at least 30% buckwheat in order to be called soba but noodles with a high buckwheat content are seen as more desirable.
The raw noodles are made by making a dough out of buckwheat flour and binder.
The dough is then spread out flat.
After that, strands of noodles are sliced off with a special knife.
The quality of noodles is highly dependent on the skill of the maker, especially for soba noodles with high buckwheat content.
The raw noodles are boiled before being served hot or cold.
In Japan, soba noodles are served in a variety of situations.
They are a popular inexpensive fast food at train stations throughout Japan, they are served by exclusive and expensive specialty restaurants, and they are also made at home.
Markets sell dried noodles and men-tsuyu, or instant noodle broth, to make home preparation easy.
Some establishments, especially cheaper and more casual ones, may serve both soba and udon (thick wheat noodles) as they are often served in a similar manner.