the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Clinton was convinced Washington would attack him in New York.
He was afraid of sending troops home and having to depend more on Loyalist militia.
Cornwallis was ready to go ahead with what troops he had.
Clinton was suspicious Cornwallis' return from England was to  get a command for himself.
In fact, Cornwallis had secured a commission to replace Clinton if Clinton repeated his threats to resign.
Clinton sent Cornwallis south to recapture Charleston, South Carolina following the new plan.
Soon, Cornwallis began acting independently of Clinton, who stayed safe in New York City.
Cornwallis wasn't going to play it safe and advance by careful steps as he had been instructed.
When he saw a chance to attack the new patriot army under Major General Horatio Gates, he did so without orders nearly wiping out the Americans.
Cornwallis moved carelessly.
He left American units, such as the one led by Francis Marion (called the "Swamp Fox"), in his rear.
The American general Nathanael Greene noticed this right away.
He broke up his command into smaller units in order to plague Cornwallis.
Finally the two armies met at the Battle of Guilford Court House, which neither army won.
During this time Cornwallis was not sending messages to Clinton telling him where he was.
After Guilford Court House, Cornwallis moved to the coast of North Carolina to rest his men.
Then, again without orders, he decided to march north to Virginia.
Frustrated by this, Clinton sent Cornwallis a number of contradictory messages.
Most of them were worded as suggestions rather than orders.
But he did order Cornwallis to find a defensible position.
This was so he could be evacuated by the Royal Navy, possibly to Philadelphia.
Cornwallis decided on the community of Yorktown and his men started building defenses there in August of 1781 to wait for the Navy.
In New York, Washington learned that the French Admiral François Joseph Paul de Grasse was sailing north from the West Indies.
Rochambeau convinced Washington they could attack and defeat Cornwallis.
The two commanders began marching south to meet de Grasse's 27 ships and 3,200 troops.
Clinton learned of this and sent a British naval fleet to the Chesapeake Bay to cut them off.
But the French and Americans arrived first.
In the Battle of the Chesapeake the French navy forced the British ships back to New York City.
Clinton warned Cornwallis in early September he would soon be facing American and French troops but promised him reinforcements by sea.
Clinton had not yet learned of the French naval victory and did not know he could not rescue Cornwallis by sea.
By the end of September, Washington and Rochambeau had surrounded Yorktown.
Cornwallis received another message in late September from Clinton telling him help was on the way.
Cornwallis was misled again and thought he only had to hold out for a few days.
The Siege of Yorktown
Just after the clash between the French and British Fleets, a smaller French squadron carrying the French army's siege artillery slipped into the Chesapeake.
Now the French and Americans had bigger guns than Cornwallis had behind his earthen fortifications.
Marching out of Williamsburg, Virginia the Americans and French arrived on September 28, 1781 at Yorktown.
They surrounded the earthworks in a Semicircle with the York River completing the circle.
Cornwallis made the first move, abandoning his outer works made up of four redoubts.
Washington and Rochambeau thought this was a mistake.
They sent troops to occupy the outer earthworks.
The Americans and French began setting up their siege operations on September 30, first on the east side.
By October 9, they were close enough to begin the bombardment.
The Americans and French stormed two of the redoubts on October 14, forcing the British back even further.
By that time it became obvious the British could not hold out much longer.
On October 16, the British attacked two of the redoubts they had abandoned and spiked the guns.
At the same time Cornwallis attempted to slip past the guards to Gloucester (now Gloucester Point, Virginia) across the river but was turned back by a storm.
Finally, with no sign of relief as promised by Clinton, Cornwallis' army of 6,000 soldiers surrendered.
The casualties were about 500 British, 200 French and 80 Americans.
Captured were 240 artillery pieces, a large supply of small arms and ammunition, plus equipment.
General Cornwallis did not attend the surrender.
Claiming to be sick, he sent General Charles O'Hara to surrender for him.
O'Hara first tried to surrender to Comte de Rochambeau.
Rochambeau directed him to surrender to General Washington.
In turn, Washington directed him to surrender to General Benjamin Lincoln who accepted O'Hara's sword.
As the British stacked their guns marching out of the fortress, their band played "The World Turned Upside Down".
When Lord North, the British Prime Minister, received news of the surrender he cried out "Oh God, it is all over!"
The battles of Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781 were two major turning points in the Revolutionary war.
Both were American victories over the British, but with very different results.
The British defeat at Saratoga prolonged the war, while the battle at Yorktown foretold its end.
Saratoga convinced the French to join the Americans against the British.
Yorktown was a joint victory by the French and the Americans over the British.
France and her allies continued to fight hard for two more years, but there was little fighting anymore on the American continent.
The Treaty of Paris (1783) ended the war.
America's Final Victory - 1781; YouTube
The Surrender of Yorktown 1781; YouTube
Battles of the American Revolutionary War
1781 in North America
1780s in the United States
18th century in Virginia
The Battle of Saratoga is considered the turning point of the American Revolution.
The battle was fought in late 1777.
It was actually two engagements: the Battle of Freeman's Farm (September 19) and the Battle of Bemis Heights (October 7).
The Americans were led by General Horatio Gates.
The British were led by General John Burgoyne.
On October 17 Burgoyne surrendered his army of nearly 6,000 British soldiers.
The American victory helped convince France to come to the aid the Continental Army.
It also helped them recognize the United States.
In early 1777, General William Howe asked London to approve his plan to attack Philadelphia.
This would destroy the rebellious American government.
In Canada, General John Burgoyne submitted a plan to move down through New York and meet General Howe at Albany.
This would divide the colonies.
London approved both plans.
Burgoyne began moving down the Hudson River valley from Canada.
He split his force into two columns.
One, under Colonel Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario down the Mohawk Valley.
They attacked the Americans at Fort Stanwix.
The Americans sent two parties to relieve the fort.
The second, under the command of Benedict Arnold, drove the British away from the fort.
St. Leger's column retreated back to Lake Ontario.
Burgoyne continued south with his own column of about 7,000 British and Hessian soldiers.
He was joined by about 500 native Americans, allied to the British.
Burgoyne made a proclamation to his Indians to go out and strike at the enemy.
He added that women and children, or any who did not oppose them should not be killed.
But men, women and children were killed.
One famous incident upset all the colonists.
A young woman named Jane McCrea was engaged to marry one of Burgoyne's young tory officers.
Indians bringing her to Burgoyne fought over her, killed and scalped her.
Burgoyne wouldn't punish the Indian who killed her.
This proved he could not even protect friendly colonists.
Newspapers in the colonies spread the story.
As a result, a great many Americans who had been neutral took up arms against the British.
The story even reached England.
In the House of Commons Edmund Burke spoke out against the British policy of using Native American allies.
Battle of Freeman's Farm
Howe had captured Philadelphia.
But it took so long he did not send any forces north to support Burgoyne.
On September 19 Burgoyne attacked the Americans who were entrenched on Bemis Heights near Saratoga.
He again fought Americans at Freeman's Farm.
This time it was American riflemen under the command of Daniel Morgan.
American Marksman killed a large number of British and Hessian officers.
This was intended to cause confusion among the British forces.
Burgoyne lost about 600 casualties.
He claimed victory although he was still held in place by the Americans.
Battle of Bemis Heights
Burgoyne tried and failed to attack the Americans again on October 7.
But the Americans held out against him.
A counterattack led by Benedict Arnold pushed the British back further until they finally retreated back to Saratoga.
This battle cost Burgoyne another 600 casualties.
The American losses were less than 150.
Burgoyne's army was now surrounded by a much larger and growing American army.
On October 13, 1777 Burgoyne asked for a Ceasefire.
Horatio Gates, the American commander asked for Burgoyne's surrender.
But Burgoyne stalled and did not give an answer.
The terms given by Gates were harsh.
Finally Gates offered better terms.
On October 17, Burgoyne surrendered.
British surrender
Burgoyne surrendered his whole army of 5,752.
He gave up 42 cannons, 7,000 muskets and all his supplies.
Officers were separated from their men and placed on parole.
Unlike their men they were allowed to keep their pistols.
Gates invited Burgoyne to dine with him.
The two men were friendly.
Each toasted the other's leader.
The British and Hessian soldiers were marched to Boston.
Per the agreement they were to return to England on their promise not to fight again.
While some did return to England, Congress changed the terms.
Many were sent to prisons in the colonies to wait out the war.
Battle Of Saratoga - Sept & Oct 1777
The Battle of Saratoga 1777; British Battles
1777 in New York (state)
January 21 – Philip II of France and Richard I of England begin to assemble troops to wage the Third Crusade
September 3– Richard I of England is crowned as king of England.
August 29– Ban Kulin wrote "The Charter of Kulin", which become a symbolic "birth certificate" of Bosnian statehood
This year was fixed as the start of time immemorial in English law in 1276.
Beginning of the Siege of Acre.
The Crusader castles of Montreal and Kerak are captured by Saladin.
Yuri II, grand prince of Vladimir (d. 1238)
July 6 — King Henry II of England (b. 1133)
Horatio Gates (1726 - 1806) was an American general in the American Revolutionary War.
General Gates fought for the Continental Army and is credited with the decisive American victory at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777.
However, Gates also lost to British General Charles Cornwallis at the Battle of Camden in 1780.
He had a child named Robert.
1726 births
February – The court of the Southern Song Dynasty of China and hundreds of thousands of its citizens move from Hangzhou to Fujian and then Guangdong to get away from an invasion by the Mongol Empire.
March 9 – Augsburg becomes an Imperial Free City.
Ravensburg also does in the same year.
June – King Rudolph I of Germany starts a war with King Otakar II of Bohemia; by November, Otakar II has to give him four important pieces of land. (
The diet of Nuremberg already decided this in 1274.)
Four different men are pope in this year, as Popes Gregory X, Innocent V, and Adrian V all die in a short time.
King Otakar II of Bohemia lays the foundation stone of the Minorite Church in Vienna.
Mamluk sultan Baibars takes Al-Maris, which was part of Makuria, and goes through it into Egypt.
A 23-year drought begins to change the Grand Canyon area.
In the end, the agriculture-dependent Anasazi culture has to migrate out of the region.
October 19 – Prince Hisaaki, Japanese shogun (died 1328)
Christopher II of Denmark (died 1332)
Vakhtang III of Georgia (died 1308)
Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford (died 1322)
Yesün Temür Khan of the Mongol Empire (died 1328)
Louis d'Évreux, son of King Philip III of France
May 7 – The Second Council of Lyons, held by the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church convenes to consider the conquest of the Holy Land via Crusades and address the East-West Schism with the Byzantine church.
The Council eventually approves a tithe to support efforts to conquer the Holy Land from Muslims, and reaches apparent resolution of the schism which ultimately proves unsuccessful.
November – The diet at Nuremberg orders that all crown estates seized since the death of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor be restored to Rudolph I of Germany; almost all European rulers agree, with the notable exception of King Otakar II of Bohemia, who had benefited greatly by conquering or otherwise coming into possession of many of those lands.
Pope Gregory X decrees that conclaves (meetings during which the electors have no contact with the outside) should be used for papal elections, reforming the electoral process which had taken over three years to elect him.
End of the reign of Emperor Go-Toba, emperor of Japan
Emperor Tsuchimikado ascends to the throne of Japan
January 8 – Pope Innocent III ascends Papal Throne
Frederick II, infant son of German King Henry VI, crowned King of Sicily
August 24 — King Alexander II of Scotland (d. 1249)
Ertugrul, Turkish leader, father of Osman I (d. 1281)
Ferdinand III of Castile (d. 1252)
Sybilla of Lusignan, wife of Leo II of Armenia (d. c. 1230)
January 8 — Pope Celestine III (b. c. 1106)
March 11 — Marie de Champagne, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1145)
April 16 — Duke Frederick I of Austria (b. c. 1175)
September 1 — Dulce Berenguer, Queen of Portugal, spouse of King Sancho I of Portugal (b. 1160)
November 27 — Queen Constance of Sicily, wife of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1154)
December 10 — Averroes, Arab philosopher and physician (b. 1126)
Ruaidri mac Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, High King of Ireland
Alix of France, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1150)
William III of Sicily (b. 1190)
June 2 — Lord Ygo III of Galama, Frisian knight and nobleman (b. 1139)
William of Newburgh, English historian (b. 1135)
Winter: Much of the English town of Alnwick in Northumbria burnt by Scottish a raiding party.
The Ming dynasty in China disbands their navy, altering the balance of power in the Indian Ocean, making it easier for Portugal and other Western naval powers to gain dominance over the seas.
September 21 – Peace of Arras between Charles VII of France and Philip III of Burgundy, ending the English-Burgundian alliance.
Francis of Paola founds the Order of the Minims in Italy.
Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf (HHU) () is the university of Düsseldorf, Germany, named after the most famous son of Düsseldorf, the poet Heinrich Heine.
So in the further 19th century there was only a Medical Academy and the famous Arts School of Düsseldorf and a Teacher Academy (Special University only for studying to became a teacher) until the 1970s, but no regular university, in Düsseldorf.
In the 1960s the state government of North Rhine-Westphalia decided to have a regular university in the state's capital.
The university started about 1970.
It has a lot of subjects in sciences, arts, economics, and so on.
The deep points are on biological-medicinal research in sciences and some deep points in arts, economics, political sciences, and philosophy.
http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de
Colleges and universities in Germany
June 17 – King Edward I of England (died 1307)
December 17 – Kujo Yoritsugu, Japanese shogun (died 1256)
Peter III of Aragon (died 1285)
John II, Duke of Brittany (died 1305)
Ippen, Japanese monk (died 1289)
The Siberian tiger or Amur tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is the largest felid in the world.
They live in eastern Russia's birch forests, and there are some in China and North Korea.
It is estimated that there are around 400 to 500 Siberian tigers left in the wild.
Siberian tigers are the largest of all tigers, as well as the largest of all the big cats.
They can grow up to the length of 6–9 ft (1.8–2.7 meters), but some can be as long as .
They usually weigh around 300–600 pounds, but can weigh as much as 700 pounds or more.
To keep themselves from becoming cold in the winters, Siberian tigers have thicker fur coats than tigers which live in southern Asia.
They also have a thick layer of fat which helps keep them warm.
Like all other tigers, Siberian tigers have orange fur with black stripes.
Siberian tigers have extra fur around their necks and paws which helps them keep warm.
Siberian tigers have less orange in their coats, and have fewer stripes.
Siberian tigers are located in northeast China, the Russian Far East and parts of North Korea.
This region is called the "Amur Region", which is named after the Amur River.
This region is covered with mountainous areas and coniferous forests.
In the summer, the temperature is between mild and hot.
In the winter, it may be very cold, especially at higher altitudes.
Like other tigers, the Siberian tiger likes to live on its own.
Each Siberian tiger has its own large amount of territory.
Male tigers' territories will usually cross those of several females' territories, but will usually not cross the territories of other males.
In their territories, Siberian tigers usually have a lair in a cave or another area.
Since Siberian tigers live in such cold regions, an adult needs to eat at least  of food every day to survive, but adults can eat as much as 50 kilograms of meat.
Siberian tigers are carnivores.
Siberian tigers are apex predators.
Siberian tigers feed mainly on wild boar, moose and deer.
If regular prey is unavailable they will eat fish, rodents, rabbits and even small bears.
During normal conditions, around 50 percent of the tiger's diet will be of wild boar.
While hunting, a Siberian tiger can run faster than , but running at this speed takes a lot of energy, so the Siberian tiger will only run short distances.
The Siberian tiger has good night vision and likes to hunt during the night, when it can more easily surprise its prey.
It also has excellent hearing and sense of smell which it uses to find and attack prey.
Siberian tigers live alone and only come together in mating season.
The mating season usually begins in December, and lasts through January.
Females are pregnant for around three to three and a half months before giving birth to their cubs in early spring.
Females usually give birth to around 3–4 cubs at a time.
When born, the Siberian tiger cub is blind and toothless and is no larger than a normal house cat.
It stays blind for around two weeks.
The mother starts teaching the cubs how to hunt when the cubs are around 1 year old.
The cubs then stay with their mother until they are 3–5 years old.
"The Amur tiger in the 20th century"  article from the Tigris Foundation website
Siberian Tiger at the AMUR website
Other calendars
Buddhist calendar: 1997 - 1998
Hebrew calendar: 5215 - 5216
Islamic calendar: 859 - 860
February 9 – Wars of the Roses: Richard, Duke of York dismissed as Protector
February 23 – Johannes Gutenberg prints the first Bible on a printing press
May 22 – Wars of the Roses: First Battle of St Albans – Richard, Duke of York and his ally, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick defeat the Lancastrians under Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, who is killed.
York captures King Henry VI of England and has himself appointed Constable of England.
May 25 – Victorious Yorkish lords ritually renew the monarchy of Henry VI in St. Paul's Cathedral.
Audio cassettes, a kind of cassette which can store music and sounds.
It is used with a "cassette player" or "cassette recorder".
Videotape cassettes, which can store video and sounds
Cassette single, a recording of a single song sold on a compact audio cassette
Digital Compact Cassette, a format of magnetic tape, developed to replace the compact cassette
An audio cassette is a type of cassette which can store music and sounds.
To play a tape, a cassette player or cassette recorder is used.
This is also known as a cassette deck, by analogy with reel-to-reel decks.
Cassettes store the sound on a magnetic tape that is wound around the two reels in the cassette.
Like vinyl records, most cassettes have two sides, called the A-side and B-side.
The listener flips the cassette over to play or record on the other side.
Some players have auto-reverse, meaning they can play both sides on their own.
Cassettes have a tab in the upper left corner that can be removed to prevent accidentally recording over the tape.
Cassettes typically hold anywhere from a few minutes up to an hour of audio per side.
The longer the tape, the thinner it must be.
Tapes longer than 60 minutes (30 minutes per side), and especially those longer than 90 minutes (45 minutes per side), tend to be fragile and more likely to break or get jammed inside the player.
The standard audio cassette was invented in 1962 by Lou Ottens of the Philips company.
They named it the "Compact Cassette".
The first cassettes and cassette recorders had poor audio quality.
They were used for recording speech rather than music.
Over time, audio quality improved, and they became usable for music.
During the 1970s, the cassette grew to be a popular physical audio format.
Their popularity grew further during the following decades.
The Walkman, released in 1979, made the cassette very popular in the 1980s.
In the 1990s, CDs became more popular than cassettes for prerecorded music, however the cassette remained the most popular format for homemade recordings until CD recorders became affordable in the early 2000s.
Types of cassette
There are four types of cassettes, each using a different magnetic particle bonded to the plastic tape stock.
The tape type alone is not an indicator of the quality of the tape.
Type I - Ferric - Type I was the original cassette formulation and is made from rust-like ferric oxide particles.
These particles give the tape its characteristic brown color.
Type I tapes have strong, high-quality bass and midrange, but less treble response than the other types.
Type II - CrO2 and cobalt - Type II tapes are made from chromium dioxide or a mixture of cobalt and ferric oxide particles.
The tape is typically black or very dark brown.
Type II tapes have good treble response, and acceptable bass response, although the bass is not as strong as Type I.
Type III - Ferrochrome - Type III tapes are a hybrid of Types I and II.
They consist of a layer of ferric tape for strong bass, and a layer of chromium dioxide tape for strong treble.
Type III tapes are no longer made and were never very popular.
Many tape recorders do not have a setting for them.
On decks without a Type III setting, they should be recorded as a Type I.
Type IV - Metal - Type IV tapes are made from metal particles rather than metal oxides.
The tape is typically a shiny metallic black color.
They have good treble and bass response and very high dynamic range.
Type IV tapes are no longer made.
Decline in popularity
As compact discs grew in popularity, cassettes were used less.
In 2011, the Oxford English Dictionary attempted to remove the word "cassette tape" from a small version of its book.
Cassettes are still popular with some audiophiles, as it is an analog format that is portable and more convenient than vinyl.
February 6 – The colony Quilombo dos Palmares is destroyed.
July 27 – A Royal Charter is granted to the Bank of England.
December 22 – The Triennial Bill became law.
December 28 – Queen Mary II of England dies; King William III of England, Scotland and Ireland is now sole ruler after his co-ruler's death.
Much of the town of Warwick, England destroyed by fire.
The Lao empire of Lan Xang unofficially ends.
March 1 – The University of Coimbra is founded in Lisbon, Portugal by King Denis of Portugal; it moves to Coimbra in 1308.
July 18 – King Edward I of England banishes all Jews (numbering about 16,000) from Britain; Jews traditionally hold that this event occurs on Tisha B'Av, a sorrowful Jewish holiday.
August 1 – The country of Wallachia is founded (traditional date).
December – The twelve Eleanor crosses are erected between Lincolnshire and London in England as King Edward I mourns the death of his queen consort Eleanor of Castile.
Construction of Llandaff Cathedral is completed in Cardiff, Wales, 170 years after it was begun.
The Mongol Empire invades the Bessarabia region of Moldavia.
The second of the Statutes of Mortmain are passed under king Edward I of England, which prevents land from passing into possession of the church.
The statute Quia Emptores is also passed, reforming the feudal system of land leases and allowing the sale of fee simple estates.
King Denis of Portugal decrees that Portuguese be the official language of Portugal, replacing classical Latin in that capacity.
Construction on the Akershus Fortress of Oslo, Norway is begun.
Fight Club is a 1999 American drama movie.
It stars Edward Norton, Brad Pitt, and Helena Bonham Carter.
The movie was directed by David Fincher.
It is based on a novel of the same name by Chuck Palahniuk.
The story is about an unnamed character's path during a dark form of personal enlightenment (or eternal happiness) which is achieved primarily through fighting.
The story is dark and, in both the book and the movie, contains strong depictions of violence.
There are a large number of metaphors which are revealed in its complex and twisted storyline.
Some would think that the morals and life guidelines taught in the story would be an extreme form of Buddhism, such as the idea of detachment from material possessions (things).
The central character has dissociative identity disorder.
Edward Norton as the Narrator
Helena Bonham Carter as Marla Singer
Meat Loaf as Robert Paulson
Jared Leto as Angel Face
Fight club wallpapers
1999 drama movies
1990s satirical movies
American satirical movies
Dissociative identity disorder in movies
Movies about terrorism
Movies directed by David Fincher
Top of the Pops is a British music show, which featured popular artists performing their songs.
It started in 1964 and ended in 2006 because not enough people were watching it any more.
It was hosted by many presenters over the years, most notably by Sir Jimmy Savile, who opened the very first show on New Year's Day 1964 on BBC1.
TOTP2 (Top of the Pops 2) is a variant of the show.
However, it featured a collection of archive performances by artists spanning the past four decades.
The show was regularly hosted by Steve Wright, up until 2009, when Mark Radcliffe replaced him.
A new episode of the programme is shown on 25 December each year.
1990s British television series
Music television series
1964 in music
The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is a nation in the south Caribbean Sea.
It is 11 km (7 miles) away from Venezuela.
The country has two bigger islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and many smaller islands.
The capital is Port-of-Spain.
The country has about 1,262,366 people in it.
Trinidad and Tobago received independence from the United Kingdom on August 31, 1962.
Before that, it was ruled by the U.K.  Right now, the head of state (person who is in charge of the country) is Ms Paula-Mae Weekes.
The head of government (person who is in charge of the government) are Prime Minister Keith Rowley and President Paula-Mae Weekes.
Trinidad and Tobago is very diverse.
It has people of many different races and religions.
There are people who are children of Africans, Europeans, Arabs, Indians, and Chinese who moved to the islands a long time ago.
The biggest religions in the country are Christianity and Hinduism.
There are also Islam and African religions in the country.
Trinidad and Tobago was home to the indigenous Caribs.
The country has some natural gas beneath the ground and underwater in the ocean.
Natural gas is a liquid that makes machines work and heats houses.
Also, many people called tourists visit the islands.
They take pictures and learn about the islands.
The people in the country are famous for their music and artists such as Nicki Minaj and Haddaway.
They also play football and cricket.
The population of Trinidad and Tobago is 1.17 million as of (2002).
40.3%: East Indian
39.5%: West African descent
18.4%: Mixed Race
1.2%: Chinese and Other
0.6%: European descent
National emblems of Trinidad and Tobago
Central Statistical Office, Government of Trinidad and Tobago
Mount St. Helens is a volcano in the U.S. state of Washington.
It is 96 miles (154 km) south of Seattle and 53 miles (85 km) northeast of Portland, Oregon.
The volcano is in Cascade Range of mountains.
It is part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc in the Pacific Ring of Fire that includes over 160 active volcanos.
This is a deadly volcano.
Mount St. Helens was first called Louwala-Clough, which means "smoking" or "fire mountain" in the language of the Native American Klickitat people.
This volcano is well known for its explosions and flows of lava.
Its most famous volcanic eruption was on May 18, 1980.
In 1982, U.S. President Ronald Reagan and the United States Congress made the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument, a 110,000 acre (445 km²) area around the volcano that is also a part of the Gifford Pinchot National Forest.
The 1980 eruption was the deadliest and most economically destructive volcanic event in the history of the United States.
57 people were killed; 250 homes, 47 bridges, 15 miles of railways, and 185 miles of highway were destroyed.
A massive debris avalanche was triggered by an earthquake measuring 5.1 on the Richter scale.
This caused the eruption, which reduced the height of the mountain's summit from  to  and replacing it with a  wide horseshoe-shaped crater.
The earthquake was caused by a sudden surge of magma from the Earth's mantle.
The debris avalanche was up to 0.7 cubic miles (3.1 cubic kilometers) in volume.
Before the eruption in 1980, Mount St. Helens was the fifth-highest peak in Washington State.
The peak rose more than 5,000 feet (1,525 m) above its base, where it rises from the ridges that are around it.
It stood out from the surrounding hills because of the symmetrical cone shape and the snow that covered the top.
Because of its cone-shape, it was called the "Mount Fuji of America", after the famous Mount Fuji which is a symbol of Japan.
Modern eruptions
In the months before the large eruption that took place on May 18, 1980, there were many signs of volcanic activity.
On March 20, 1980, Mount St. Helens was the center of a magnitude 4.2 earthquake.
Steam venting from the volcano started on March 27.
By the end of April, the north side of the volcano started to grow larger.
On May 18, a second earthquake of magnitude 5.1 made a huge part of the north face of the volcano collapse.
It was the largest known debris avalanche in recorded history.
At 8:32 a.m. Pacific Daylight Time, the magma inside of St. Helens exploded.
On the Volcanic Explosivity Index scale, the eruption was rated a five, which is the same rating of the famous Vesuvius eruption in 79 AD.
For more than nine hours, ash erupted from the volcano, rising into the air for 12 to 16 miles (20 to 27 km) above sea level in the air.
This cloud rising from a volcano is called a "plume".
The pyroclastic flow of heated rocks and gas that poured out of the Volcano spread over an area of over 230 square miles (600 km²), destroying plants and buildings.
The ash spread east at about 60 miles per hour (95 km/h), with some ash reaching Idaho by about 12:00 pm, almost 3.5 hours after the eruption.
By about 5:30 pm the plume of ash became smaller.
Through the night and for several days after, there were smaller eruptions.
As well as the effect of the fast-moving hot gasses and stones from the explosion, the collapse of the northern side of Mount St. Helens caused lahars, or volcanic mudflows.
These were mixtures of volcanic ash with melted ice and snow.
The lahars went many miles down the Toutle and Cowlitz rivers, destroying bridges and killing many trees.
A total of 3.9 million cubic yards (3.0 million m³) of material was carried 17 miles (27 km) south into the Columbia River by the lahars.
The St. Helens May 18 eruption released 24 megatons of thermal energy.
It released more than 0.67 cubic miles (2.8 cubic km) of ash and other material.
The collapse of the north side of the volcano shortened St. Helens' height by about 1,300 feet (400 m) and left a volcanic crater one to two miles (1.6 to 3.2 km) wide and half of a mile (800 m) deep.
The eruption
killed 57 people, nearly 7,000 game animals (deer, elk, and bear), and about 12 million fish from a fish farm.
It destroyed or damaged over 200 homes, 185 miles (300 km) of highway and  of railways.
1980-2004
Between 1980 and 1986, more volcanic activity continued at Mount Saint Helens, with a new lava dome made in the crater.
Several small explosions and eruptions took place, making more lava domes.
From December 7, 1989 to January 6, 1990, and from November 5, 1990 to February 14, 1991, the volcano erupted with sometimes huge clouds of ash.
2004 to present activity
Magma bubbles came to the top of the volcano on about October 11, 2004, and a new lava dome was made on the first dome's south side.
This new dome grew throughout 2005 and into 2006.
Several new features were seen, such as the "whaleback," which is solid magma being pushed to the top of the volcano by magma under it.
These features do not last long and break down soon after they are formed.
On July 2, 2005, the tip of the whaleback broke off, and a rockfall sent ash several hundred meters into the air.
Mount St. Helens showed important new activity on March 8, 2005, when a 36,000-foot (11,000 m) plume of steam and ash came from the volcano.
The plume was seen from as far away as Seattle, a city that is 96 miles away.
This fairly small eruption took place because of a new lava dome being formed and a 2.5 magnitude earthquake.
Another feature that grew from the dome is a "fin" or "slab."
About half the size of a football field, the large volcanic rock was being moved up as fast as 6 feet (2 m) per day.
In mid-June 2006, the slab had rockfalls very often, but was still being pushed up from inside the volcano.
On October 22, 2006, at 3:13 p.m. PST, a magnitude 3.5 earthquake broke the lava dome.
The resulting collapse and avalanche sent an ash plume 2,000 feet (610 m) over the crater, although it quickly disappeared.
On December 19, 2006, a large white plume of steam was seen, and some journalists from the media thought there had been a small eruption.
However, the Cascades Volcano Observatory of the United States Geological Survey says that there was no large ash plume, so it could not have been an eruption.
The volcano has been erupting on occasion since October 2004.
Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument website from the U.S. Forest Service.
Mount St. Helens picture and current status from the United States Geological Survey website
The VolcanoCam Live camera from the U.S. Forest Service
Frankfort becomes capital of Kentucky.
The Oder-Neisse line (named after the Oder and Neisse rivers) is the border between Germany and Poland since the end of the Second World War.
As a result of the defeat Germany lost a part of its territory to Poland.
Previously, the German Empire had to cede the former Prussian provinces of Posen and Westpreußen, as well as parts of upper Silesia, to the newly founded Polish state after the First World War in 1919.
In earlier centuries these territories were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
They were annexed to the Kingdom of Prussia, as a result of the tripartite partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by the Kingdom Prussia, the Holy Roman Empire and the Russian Empire.
Most of the ethnically-German part of the population of these provinces, alongside most of the German minority population in what was Poland before the Second World War (741,000 people), either fled before the Red Army to central and western Germany or were forcibly resettled later.
It should be noted here that German citizens of Polish descent and ethically-Polish residents of these regions and other parts of Germany faced systematic discrimination, internment in concentration camps, property-confiscations, forced-resettlement and expulsion under the Nazi administration.
Geography of Germany
Geography of Poland
Jimmy Donal "Jimbo" Wales (; born August 7, 1966) is an American-born British Internet entrepreneur.
He is one of the people who started Wikipedia and Wikia.
Wales was born in Huntsville, Alabama, United States.
There, he went to Randolph School.
He then earned bachelor’s and master’s degrees in finance.
In 1996, he and two partners started Bomis.
Bomis was an Internet portal with entertainment and adult content.
The company gave money for Nupedia (2000–2003) and, after that, Wikipedia.
Wales has been married three times.
He also has two children.
When he was 20, Wales married Pam.
Pam was a worker at a store in Alabama.
He met his second wife, Christine Rohan, through a friend in Chicago.
They had a daughter before their marriage ended.
Wales moved to San Diego in 1998.
In 2002, he moved again to Florida.
In 2007, he still lived there.
As of 2012 he lives in London, England.
In 2012, Wales married Kate Garvey, a government worker for Tony Blair.
Wales has three daughters: one with Rohan and two with Garvey.
Wales says that he follows the ideas of Objectivism.
He also says that he is a libertarian to some extent, meaning that he thinks people should be allowed to do whatever they want so long as they do not hurt others.
On January 15, 2001, with Larry Sanger and others, Wales started  Wikipedia.
Wikipedia is a free, open content encyclopedia.
It grew and became popular very quickly.
As Wikipedia became known to the public, he became the project’s promoter and spokesperson.
He is often called a co-founder of Wikipedia, though he has argued against the "co-" part.
He said he was the only founder.
Wales is on the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation.
In 2004, he co-founded Wikia, a wiki-hosting service which tries to make money.
In 2015, Wales started the Jimmy Wales Foundation for freedom of expression, to try to help bloggers or internet activists who are in prison.
Businesspeople from Alabama
Writers from Huntsville, Alabama
Wikipedia people
Libertarians
British bloggers
Exeter is a city in South West England on the River Exe, from which it takes its name.
It is the county town of Devon.
Just over 100,000 live there.
In the city are a ruined castle, much of the old Roman city wall, and Exeter Cathedral.
Exeter was built by the Romans, who called it Isca Dumnoniorum (Isca of the Dumnonii, the local British tribe).
After the Romans left and the Anglo-Saxons moved into the area in the seventh century, the name changed to Exeter.
In the 1060s, Exeter was a centre of resistance to the Norman conquest.
In 1050, the Bishop of Crediton moved to Exeter; from then until 1876 the bishops were the heads of the church in the whole of Devon and Cornwall.
Now, only Devon is within the Exeter diocese.
Settlements in Devon
The United States Congress is the legislative, or law making, branch of the United States government.
It meets in the United States Capitol.
It has two houses (parts): The United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate.
This two house system is known as a bicameral (bi is the Latin word for "two", and camera is Latin for "chamber" or "room") legislature.
There are 435 Representatives in Congress, split between the states based on how many people live in the state.
There are 100 Senators in Congress, with two coming from each state.
The primary duty of Congress is to write, debate, and pass bills (laws they want).
For Congress to pass a bill, both houses must pass exactly the same bill.
For each house to pass a bill, more than half of its members must vote in favor of passing the bill.
After both houses pass the same bill, this bill is then sent to the President.
If the President agrees the bill should be a law he or she signs the bill within 10 days.
If the president does not agree, then he or she can veto the bill and send it back to Congress.
If the bill is neither signed nor vetoed by the president within 10 days, the bill becomes law anyway if Congress does not adjourn (end its session) within that time.
If Congress adjourns within that time, the bill does not become a law.
Congress may override a president's veto of a bill by having more than two thirds of its members passing the bill.
In that case, the bill becomes law even though the president vetoed it.
Lord Charles Cornwallis (31 December 1738  5 October 1805) was a British general and colonial governor.
He is best known for leading the British forces in the American Revolution.
Cornwallis moved to the 13 colonies in North America in 1776 to try to control the rebelling colonies.
He fought at the Battle of Princeton.
George Washington led the Americans in that battle.
Later, Cornwallis led British forces through North Carolina and South Carolina, where he fought against American forces under Nathanael Greene.
In October 1781, Cornwallis's forces surrendered to George Washington at the Battle of Yorktown, ending the American Revolution.
1738 births
1805 deaths
People from London
British in the American Revolutionary War
British Earls
British Marquesses
November 13 – Treaty of Vienna
Ethan Allen – January 21
Lord Charles Cornwallis – December 31
Charles Townshend – June 21
The Battle of Princeton was a battle during the American Revolution.
It was fought in January of 1777 near Princeton, New Jersey.
The battle came a week after the Battle of Trenton, where General George Washington had led the Continental Army to a surprise victory over the British.
The Continental Army, led by Washington, advanced to Princeton after their victory at Trenton.
The army defeated a small British force.
A larger British force, led by Charles Cornwallis, was alerted and gave chase.
However, the Continental Army burned the bridges behind them and sniped at the British army before escaping to Morristown, New Jersey.
The battle resulted in about 200 casualties (deaths) for the British along with another 300 injured or captured, while the Americans suffered minimal losses.
The battle boosted American morale.
1777 in the United States
18th century in New Jersey
A fork is a tool for eating.
It has points called tines.
Most forks have three or four tines.
Some cooking-forks have two tines.
The tines help you pick up your food.
Forks are useful only for eating solid food.
For example, a fork would be useless for eating soup because all the soup would fall through the tines and into your lap.
Most forks are made of metal.
Some are made of plastic or wood.
The word "fork" is also used to describe a two choices of course.
A fork in the road would be a split in the road leading in two (or more) directions.
A forked tongue would have two parts or tips.
Forks are very common in Western culture.
Many countries do not use forks, but instead have their own ways to eat food, such as chopsticks.
de:Essbesteck#Gabel
Backgammon is a game played by two players.
Each player moves pieces around a board.
Players roll two dice to find out how far their pieces can move in one turn.
The winner of one game is the first to get all pieces all the way around, and off, the board.
The game is laid-out asymmetrically.
White's direction of travel is counter-clockwise, whereas black's direction of travel is clockwise. (
There is no advantage  to either side due to this asymmetry.)
White moves from white's far right to white's home area on white's close right, in the shape of a right-hand "C" from white's point of view.
Black moves along the same "C", beginning from black's far left and ending at black's home area on black's close left. (
The "C" is the same for both sides - the "C" points to the right for white and points to the left for black.)
As shown in the image, some pieces (for each side) begin already in the home quadrant, and some pieces must make their way all the way around.
Pieces can be sent backwards to their starting position during play.
Usual playing time is around 15– 30 minutes, for a single game (which could be thought of as something like one particular long "hand" of a card game).
An overall championship or round of backgammon involves a number of ongoing single games, with the involvement of points, a "doubling cube," and other complications.
The game has a long history.
Games that resemble it have been played for thousands of years.
Archaeologists doing excavations at a place called Burnt City in modern-day Iran have found parts of a game that resembled backgammon.
They have found 60 pieces to play with, and two dice.
They could show that the game utensils date from around 3000 BC.
These pieces around 100–200 years older than another set, found in Ur, in Mesopotamia.
http://www.backgammon-fr.com
A cell wall is the wall of a cell in plants,  bacteria, fungi, algae, and some archaea.
Animal cells do not have cell walls, nor do protozoa.
Cell walls protect the cells from damage.
It is also there to make the cell strong, to keep its shape, and to control the growing of the cell and plant.
The cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells.
It is outside the cell membrane and gives these cells support and protection, as well as acting as a filter.
The cell wall also acts as a pressure vessel, preventing over-expansion when water enters the cell by osmosis.
The material in the cell wall varies.
In plants and algae, the cell wall is made of long molecules of cellulose, pectin, and hemicellulose.
The cell wall has channels which let some proteins in and keeps others out.
Water and small molecules can go through the cell wall and the cell membrane.
The cell wall has mechanical strength, and supports cell shape.
This mechanical strength is its main function:
"Think of the cell wall as a wicker basket in which a balloon has been inflated so that it exerts pressure from the inside.
Such a basket is very rigid and resistant to mechanical damage.
Thus the [organisms] cell that have a cell wall) gain strength from a flexible plasma membrane pressing against a rigid cell wall".
Although the plant cell wall is strong, it is not rigid or stiff.
The flexibility of the cell walls is seen when plants wilt, so that the stems and leaves begin to droop.
Some plants add stiffening material to some of their cell walls.
A secondary cell wall is an additional layer of cellulose which increases wall rigidity.
More layers may be added containing lignin in xylem cell walls, or containing suberin in cork cell walls.
These compounds are rigid and waterproof.
They make the secondary wall stiff.
Other parts of plants such as the leaf stalk may get reinforcement to resist the strain of physical forces.
Small molecules, including small proteins, can easily get through the primary plant cell wall.
Water and carbon dioxide are distributed throughout the plant.
The pH is an important factor in the transport of molecules through cell walls.
Bacterial cell wall
Around the outside of the cell membrane is the bacterial cell wall.
Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan, which is made from polysaccharide chains cross-linked by unusual peptides containing D-amino acids.
Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi which are made of cellulose and chitin, respectively.
The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan.
The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria.
The antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by preventing the cross-linking of peptidoglycan and this causes the cell wall to weaken and lyse.
The lysozyme enzyme can also damage bacterial cell walls.
Middle lamella
The middle lamella gives the cell shape, support, and strength.
It is made of calcium and magnesium.
Even though it is called middle lanella, it is the outer part of the cell.
The middle lamella is the first wall of the cell to give protection.
Animal cell membrane
They have microfilaments (the thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton).
Friction is a force that acts to stop the movement of two touching things.
The energy lost to friction is turned into sound and heat.
Two kinds of friction are static and kinetic.
Static friction is when the friction is strong enough to stop movement between two objects.
Kinetic friction is used when the frictional force is not strong enough to stop all motion.
An effect of kinetic friction is heat production.
Many everyday mechanisms that utilize friction include car brakes, suitcases, and shoes.
Even a person sliding across the floor uses a form of friction.