the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
They are usually found in places for Christian worship such as churches and cathedrals, although they may also be found in places like town halls and concert halls or even large private houses.
Very small organs can be called “chamber organs”.
Organs in large churches, cathedrals or halls are very large instruments indeed, and are built especially for the building they are in.
They are called “pipe organs” to distinguish them from modern “electronic organs”.
No two organs are ever quite the same, and they vary greatly from one country to another and one historical period to another.
The information here is about organs from Europe, Great Britain and America.
How an organ works
A description of the organ
In a pipe organ, the musical notes are made by blowing air through pipes.
Every organ must have pipes, something to blow the air and a way of controlling which pipes are played.
The pipes are made of metal or wood.
They are lined up in rows in the "organ case" which can be as big as a room.
The metal pipes are round tubes.
They can be made of different types of metal, but the most common type is an alloy (or mixture of metals) of tin and lead called "spotted metal" because it has round shiny spots on it.
This alloy makes pipes sound good as the harder tin provides clarity and definition while the softer lead produces tonal warmth.
Very small pipes can sometimes be made of silver, like flutes.
Some organs also have some pipes made of brass that sound like trumpets.
Most organs have a lot of wooden pipes.
The wooden pipes have four flat sides and make a sound different from that of the "spotted metal" pipes.
They are not usually seen; they are neatly lined up behind the large metal pipes at the front of the organ which are sometimes painted with colours and patterns.
All the pipes have to be made with an end that tapers at the bottom where the air blows in.
Each pipe can play only one note which depends on its size.
The small pipes play high notes and the large pipes play low notes.
Each pipe has its own special sound which depends on the material it is made from (whether it is wood or brass or spotted metal) and on the shape of the pipe.
The pipes are arranged in "ranks" so that all the pipes of the same shape and material can be controlled to play a tune together, without all the others.
To blow air through the organ, there are boxes called "wind chests".
When the organist is playing, he/she can see a little gauge that tells whether there is enough air.
The wind chests can be kept full in two ways.
The old-fashioned way is to have an enormous set of "bellows" (see the picture) which are pumped up and down by a person using a large handle.
This sucks in air and fills the wind chest.
Pumping the bellows of a large pipe organ is heavy work.
For this reason, most organs nowadays have an electric motor and a large fan which fills the wind chest.
The organist uses keyboards like those on a piano to play the organ.
A small organ may have just one keyboard, but many organs have two keyboards and a very big one may even have five.
Organists do not call them keyboards; they call them "manuals".
An organist will talk about "a four-manual organ" (which means it is a large one).
The manuals are arranged on the organ "console", and the organist sits on a bench in front of the console to play.
Apart from the manuals there are two other important parts of the console.
There are a set of long wooden pedals which the organist can play with his/her feet.
Each pedal plays a different note.
On either side of the manuals there are rows of "stops" which look like knobs.
The stops can be pulled out or pushed in.
When a stop is pulled out, it turns on some sets of pipes.
The organist can choose whether to play loud pipes or soft pipes, flute-sounding pipes or brassy pipes, sweet pipes or harsh-sounding pipes.
As the organist plays, he/she does not just have to think about the right notes.
He/she also has to think about the sort of "voice" that the organ should play in.
He/she can play different ranks of pipes together by pulling out several stops.
Some pipes, usually the biggest decorated pipes at the very front of the organ, are used only for the grandest music.
By tradition, these pipes are the symbol of the "Voice of God".
When the organist presses the keys of the organ, the sound comes from the air blowing through the pipes.
This is because a valve (an opening with a one-way door) opens up to let the air into the pipe, and closes again when the organist stops pressing that key.
This can happen in several ways.
Traditional organs have what is called a "tracker action".
The trackers are thin wooden rods and wires which move backwards and forwards, opening and shutting all the valves.
They are worked by levers under the keyboard.
A tracker action organ has to have the console right near the organ, usually under the big front pipes.
A more modern development was to have a "tubular pneumatic" action, in which the console could be away from the organ, but connected to it by tubes through which air could be pushed to open the valves.
In the most modern pipe organs, the manual is connected to the organ pipes by electric wires.
The power to open and shut the valves is controlled by electro-magnetic switches.
The console does not have to be close to the organ.
This makes it possible for the organist to sit in a position where he/she has good contact with the people in the church, or with other musicians.
The technical details
The manuals
A very small organ may only have one manual (keyboard).
Most organs have at least two.
In English and American Organs the lower manual is the main one and is called the Great.
The upper manual is called the Swell because it operates pipes which are inside a “swell box” which has  that can be opened or closed.
This makes the music get louder or quieter (crescendo or diminuendo).
The organist operates the swell box with a pedal which  (rocks to and fro).
It is in the centre just above the pedal board.
On old English organs the swell box is operated by a lever at the side.
This is quite difficult to use.
Most of these have now been replaced by central swell boxes.
If there is a third manual, it is called the Choir in English-speaking countries.
Originally the English called them “chair organs” because they were a separate instrument.
The organist had to turn round and face the other way to play it.
It is thought that the word "chair" gradually changed to "choir" because it was often used to accompany the choir.
In German organs the third manual was called the “Positiv”.
The name “Rückpositiv” (“back positive”) was used because the pipes were behind the organist’s back as he/she sat facing the main organ.
These started to become popular again with organ builders in the 1950s when it was felt that the Romantic organ was not suitable for old music, and some organ builders started using Baroque principles again so that the music of composers such as Bach could sound like it used to.
The Choir manual is nearest to the player, the Great is in the middle and the Swell is farthest away.
The Choir or Positiv often contains soft stops which are suitable for accompanying the choir.
On French organs from the late 19th century onwards, the three manuals are arranged differently: the Great (“Grande Orgue”) is nearest to the player, the “Positif” is the middle manual and is like a smaller version of the Great, and the Swell (“Recit”) is the top manual.
This makes it easy for the organist to build up the music, getting louder gradually, by starting at the top and gradually coming down.
The fourth manual is called the Solo because the stops on this manual are used to play out the tune as a solo.
This manual is even farther away from the player than the Swell.
Large cathedral organs usually have four manuals.
The Solo will probably have a very loud stop indeed called the “Tuba” or “Tuba Mirabilis”.
If there is a fifth manual it may be called the Echo because it has very quiet stops that echo.
Alternatively, especially on American organs, it might be a Bombarde.
The Bombarde usually contains loud, bold reed stops, including stops called 'Bombarde'.
For instance: a State Trumpet or Pontifical Trumpet might be placed on this manual which can be heard above all the other stops playing.
The Bombarde is borrowed from French Organs where it is a standard stop on nearly all the manuals and pedals.
Having a Bombarde Manual is something of a luxury for an organist.
It can be found, for example, on the organ of Westminster Abbey.
It is extremely unusual to have more than five manuals, but in America there are a few very large organs.
The Wanamaker organ at Macy's store in Philadelphia has six manuals.
The world’s largest organ is in the Atlantic City Convention Hall.
It has seven manuals and over 33,000 pipes.
However, the largest organ in the world does not work since it would be too expensive to run it.
Using the manuals
Having two or three manuals makes it possible to have quick changes of sound during a piece.
The player can also play on two manuals at once: one with the left hand and one with the right.
This is particularly useful to make a tune louder than the accompaniment (on a piano this can be done by pressing harder).
The manuals can also be coupled together, for example, pulling out the “Swell to Great” stop will make all the sounds from the Swell come out on the Great as well.
On an organ with mechanical action the keys of the Swell will be seen “playing by themselves” like a pianola, but on some older organs it can be hard work for the organist’s fingers when the manuals are coupled as it makes the action very heavy.
The pedals
The notes on the pedals are arranged like the notes on a keyboard, but are obviously much bigger.
The player needs to learn to play by 'feel', otherwise he will have to spend all his time looking at his feet.
He plays each note, either with the toe or the heel and either on the inside of the foot or the outside.
The American and British Standard organ contains 30 notes giving a range of nearly 2 ½ octaves (C to F, or sometimes C to G: 32 notes).
They are not quite in a straight line but fan out a little to make it easier to play (it is called a ",  pedalboard").
In German and French organs and organs built before 1920, the pedalboard will be straight without any fan curvature to it.
Many organists find that this makes it more difficult to play.
Organists need a good pair of shoes: ones which have good  narrow heels and preferably pointed toes.
The soles need to be fairly slippery, but not too much, so that the player can slide the foot from one pedal to another.
Organists usually like to keep a pair of shoes which are worn only for playing the organ so that the soles do not have grit or dirt from the street.
The stops
The stops on an organ console give different sounds, like the instruments of an orchestra, and  have names which tell the organist what kind of sound they will produce.
The stops are usually to the left and right of the organist and they are pulled out (“drawstops” or “pulls” because they are “drawn” i.e. pulled).
Some organs have “tab stops” or “rocker stops” which are in front of the player and can be rocked forwards and backwards for on/off.
The chorus stops are the foundation stops, the basic ones which are good for building up the big, solid sound.
A diapason or principal  is a chorus stop.
The flute stops sound like flutes in an orchestra.
They are gentler than the diapasons and sound good for very quick and light music.
The reeds are stops like the oboe, clarinet, trumpet, fagotto, trombone.
Each pipe has a reed inside.
Their sound is very strong and nasal (like speaking through the nose).
The strings are quiet stops which sound like string instruments.
These are stops like the violone and gamba.
There is another way of grouping the stops.
Each stop will have a number underneath the name.
The number may be 16, 8, 4, 2, 1 or even 2 2/3 or 1 3/5.
If the number is 8 this is called an “eight foot stop”.
This is the normal pitch: the note will sound as it is written, e.g. when playing Middle C the sound will be Middle C.  A 4 foot stop will sound an octave higher than written, a 2 foot stop will be two octaves higher.
A 16 foot stop will sound an octave lower than an 8 foot stop.
8 foot is therefore the normal pitch, and the others are added to it to make a larger, brighter sound.
16 foot stops are normal in pedal parts.
Mutation stops are stops in which a note does not sound a whole number of octaves above the normal pitch.
Examples are the Tierce 1 3/5 (which sounds 2 octaves and a third above) and the Nazard or Twelfth 2 2/3 (one octave and a fifth).
Using the stops
An organist needs to learn which combinations of stops sound good together and how to balance them well.
Each organ is different and has its own character.
The combination of stops that an organist chooses for a particular piece of music is called the “registration”.
The list of all the stops that a particular organ has is called the “specification”.
The specification of an organ shows the names of the stops for each of the manuals and for the pedals, as well as the list of couplers.
Organs also have buttons called “pistons” which help to change the registration in the middle of a piece.
There are “toe pistons” operated by the feet, and “thumb pistons” which are placed just below each manual so that they can be pushed by the thumb while the fingers keep playing.
Large organs often have “general pistons” which change any combination of stops across the organ.
These are often be computerised so that players can set them up differently depending on the music they are going to play.
If several players regularly use the instrument they can each have their own personal settings for the pistons which they can lock so that no one else can change them.
The pipes
Each stop controls a row of pipes, called a “rank”.
Each rank makes a different sound (one row for the “diapason” sound, another row for the “flute”, another for the “trumpet” and so on).
The stops control the air flow through the ranks.
Some stops may control more than one rank.
For instance, a Mixture stop of three ranks will have 182 pipes (3 ranks of 61 pipes each) and in some organs the Celeste is a 2 rank stop.
The celeste pipes are tuned slightly sharper than the rest of the organ so that, when played together with another quiet stop such as the Salicional, there will be a pleasant throbbing beat because two pipes are slightly out of tune with one another.
Organ Pipes are normally made of metal or wood.
High quality metal organ pipes usually contain 75 percent tin or more, and the rest is lead.
The Pipes are placed on windchests inside an "organ case" in a special room called an Organ chamber.
A windchest is a box-like device which contains pallets that are opened and closed to admit air to a pipe so that it sounds.
The pallets are operated by pull wires and rollers in the case of a tracker instrument but may also be operated by pneumatics or direct electric action using magnets.
There is always air being pumped into the windchest when the organ is switched on.
In the days before electricity someone (an organ blower) had to pump the air into the windchest using bellows.
This was hard work.
Large organs would have needed more than one organ blower to do this job.
The history of the pipe organ
No other instrument has developed in such a wide variety of ways as the organ.
If Bach, who lived in the early 18th century, had gone from his home in Germany to France, he would have found it impossible to play his music properly on French organs.
If Couperin, who lived at the same time, had gone from his home in France to Germany, he would not have been able to play his music on the organs that Bach was using.
Neither of them could possibly have played on an organ in England at the time.
For one thing, English organs in the 18th century still had no pedals.
This means that organists need to know a lot about what organs were like in other countries in other centuries in order to know what registrations to use when playing music by composers of the past.
The earliest organs
The earliest organs were water organs invented in Ancient Greece.
The Romans used them in circuses and gladiator combats because they were loud.
They were still popular in some countries a few hundred years ago, for example, in pleasure gardens.
The organ in the Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages large organs were built in the huge Gothic cathedrals in Britain.
These instruments did not have different stops: all the ranks sounded at once.
They were played by a slider mechanism.
Only in the 11th, 12th  and 13th centuries did they start to use a keyboard.
The so-called Mixture Organ (or Blockwerk) still sounded several pitches at once.
Very small organs called portatives (because they could be carried) were used in .
Positives were a bit bigger and were used to accompany singing in the church.
The Regal was like a portative but it had reeds and no pipes.
It could be put on a table.
The world's oldest organ is generally agreed to be the one built at Sion, Switzerland in the 15th century.
the organ.
The organ in the Renaissance (about 1450-1600)
By about 1450, the organs that were being built in Germany and the Netherlands had two or three manuals and pedals.
There were stops so that the player could choose which ranks he wanted to sound.
The collection of pieces called the Buxheimer Orgelbuch (about 1470), is one of the first collections we have of organ music.
French organs, too, were developing.
In England, organs were quite small.
Composers like John Bull, William Byrd and Orlando Gibbons wrote music for chamber organs.
In the Netherlands Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck was a very famous organist and teacher.
The organ in the Baroque period (about 1600-1750)
The Baroque period was a great period for organ music in Germany.
Organs there were built on the Werkprinzip (literally: work principle) which meant that each keyboard with its pipes was built separately, like two or three different organs, although they were played from the same console.
Organs like these were built by the famous Arp Schnitger (1648-1719).
Many famous German composers wrote organ music, especially Johann Pachelbel (1653-1709) in South Germany and (Dietrich Buxtehude) (1637-1707) in North Germany.
The great composer Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) learnt from these composers and wrote some of the most famous organ music of all times.
The great organ builder Gottfried Silbermann (1683-1753) lived during this time and built organs with a very beautiful tone.
Instead of a keyboard called a Choir (or Chair Organ) he built an Oberwerk which was above the Hauptwerk (Great).
French organ builders at this time were very interested in colour (meaning: different sounds).
Many stops had names like Cornet, Tierce and Prestant.
When all the stops of the Principal chorus played together it was called the Plein jeux.
This was like the medieval Blockwerk.
All the reed chorus together was called Grand jeux.
This would have sounded very loud and was used for dialogues and fugues.
Composers included Nicolas de Grigny (1672-1703), Louis Marchand (1669-1732), Louis Nicolas Clérambault (1676-1749), Louis Claude Daquin (1694-1772) and François Couperin (1683-1733).
In England there was not much interest in developing the organ.
It was used for accompanying the choir.
There were no pedals.
Pieces for organ were called voluntaries.
Henry Purcell wrote a few organ pieces.
The organ in the Classical period: about 1750-1840
Organ composition reached a great peak in the work of J.S.Bach, but then people started to lose interest.
Not many developments took place in organ-building during the Classical music period.
Although Mozart played the organ and called it the “King of Instruments” he did not often write music for it.
Among the organ builders at this time were Joseph and Claude-Ignace Callinet who built the organ at Notre-Dame's (St. Etienne, Loire) in 1837.
The organ in the Romantic period
The organ in 19th century Germany started to be used for imitating the sound of an orchestra.
People also started to be interested in playing the music of J.S. Bach.
Many Classical organs were re-built and sometimes they lost their original character.
Organs in different countries started to sound the same.
Gradually, composers started writing for the organ again.
Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847) wrote some excellent sonatas and preludes and fugues  which were inspired by Bach’s music and made other composers want to write organ music.
Robert Schumann (1810-1856) and Franz Liszt (1811-1886) wrote for the organ and later in the century Max Reger (1873-1916) and Sigfrid Karg-Elert (1877-1933).
In France, the organ builder Aristide Cavaillé-Coll (1811-1899) was a real genius.
His organs had lots of new ideas including the Barker lever (which made it easier to play on coupled manuals) and placing families of stops on to separate chests.
Organists could change their registrations quickly, pushing in or pulling out the stops that they needed.
Composers included César Franck (1822-1890), Charles-Marie Widor (1845-1937) and Louis Vierne (1870-1937).
The last two wrote long works in several movements which they called Symphonies because they were full of colourful sounds like those in a symphony orchestra.
There were usually three manuals called Grand, Positif and Récit placed in that order (with Grand nearest to the player).
The Grand had warm foundation stops and big reeds (it was like combining the classical plein jeux and grand jeux).
The Positif had string stops as well as a solo reed, and the Récit had lighter reeds.
In England, Samuel Wesley (1766-1837) wrote some important organ music inspired by J.S. Bach, and his son Samuel Sebastian Wesley (1810-1876) was influenced by Continental Romantic composers such as Mendelssohn.
In 1851, the organ builder Henry Willis built a large organ for Crystal Palace Exhibition.
It had three manuals and a pedal board.
This set the standard in English organ building for the future.
The organ in the Twentieth century
During the 20th century organ builders became more and more interested in returning to some of the ideas of the Baroque and Classical periods.
Many organs now have electric action, but a good mechanical action has the advantage that the player feels more close to the instrument that he is playing.
Some large 20th century organs are able to play many kinds of organ music.
Other 20th century organs were built as copies of Baroque or Classical instruments, but this means these instruments are mainly suitable for Baroque or Classical music, and are not well suited for music of the 19th and 20th centuries.
In the 19th century, many organs in England and America were placed in corners of churches where they could not be heard very well.
In the 20th century, organ builders thought more about the best position for the organ, so that the sound would fill the main part of the church, the nave.
Among the most famous 20th century organ composers are Marcel Dupré (1886-1971), Jehan Alain (1911-1940) and Olivier Messiaen (1908-1992) in France, Paul Hindemith (1895-1963) in Germany, and Edward Elgar (1857-1934) and Herbert Howells (1892-1983) in England.
The Czech composer Petr Eben (1929-2007) was one of the most important organ composers at the end of the 20th century, writing in an individual style.
The organ as an accompanying instrument
As well as the obvious use of the organ for accompanying church choirs and  singing the organ has often been used to accompany instruments.
In the Baroque period small organs were used to accompany solo instruments or small groups of instruments or orchestras.
This kind of accompaniment was called continuo.
Occasionally composers have written organ concertos in which the organ is the solo instrument and the orchestra accompanies.
Handel wrote several of these.
In modern times Francis Poulenc wrote an organ concerto.
There is an important organ solo in Symphony no 3 by Saint-Saëns.
Other orchestral works sometimes have organ parts.
Organists have often made organ “transcriptions”, i.e. arranged music written for other instruments so that it can be played on the organ.
Electronic organ
Organ tablature
“Organ” by Arthur Wills, London 1984 ()
Pipedreams Listen to pipe organ music, organ pictures and other information
Sacred Classics Online radio program of pipe organ and choral music
The Pipe Organ
Organlive.com Listen to streaming pipe organ music from a library of more than 7700 tracks.
Celt, either ancient or Modern Celts
Celtic languages, descending from the Proto-Celtic language, spoken by these people and their modern descendants
Celtici, Celts from ancient Lusitania (which is now Portugal). (
See also Celtiberians for a Celtic people on the Iberian peninsula)
Irish music, folk music that started in "Celtic" cultures.
Celtic art, art from the "Celtic" culture
Celtic calendar
Boston Celtics professional basketball team
Celtic F.C. a football team in Glasgow
It is a Celtic languages of the Gaelic language family.
It is in the same family as Scottish Gaelic and Irish Gaelic.
Manx is spoken mainly by people who learn it through interest.
It died out as a natural community language in the 20th century.
The last of the old native speakers died in 1974.
Manx was beginning to differ from Middle Irish in about 900–1600 AD, and it is called Yn Ghaelg / Yn Ghailck by Manx speakers.
There became fewer and fewer Manx speakers during the 19th century and the language was replaced by English.
In 1901, 9% of the people in the Isle of Man were said to speak Manx but in 1921 the number dropped to only 1%.
Today, Manx is used as the only language taught at five of the Isle of Man’s pre-schools.
Manx is taught as a 2nd language at all of the Island's primary and secondary schools.
Manx today
There is now a school that teaches all of its lessons in Manx.
The census of 2001 said that 2.2% of the population of the island could speak the language.
There are currently 54,000 second language Manx speakers, mainly in the Isle of Man.
The Goidelic languages or Gaelic languages are a group of  Celtic languages.
They are spoken in Scotland, Ireland and the Isle of Man.
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)
Irish (Gaeilge)
Manx (Gaelg)
The Manx is a breed of domestic cat.
It either has no tail at all, a "rumpy", or it has a very short tail, a "stumpy".
This is because of a natural difference in spine length.
The back legs are also longer than the front legs.
The breed comes from the Isle of Man, where it was found as early as three hundred years ago.
The Manx's character is nervous.
The Manx's appearance is round on the whole.
They are skilled hunters.
Cat breeds
Horn (anatomy), something some animals have on their heads
A car has a horn on the steering wheel to warn people of danger.
Horn, Switzerland, a place in Switzerland
Horn of Africa, a peninsula in East Africa
Agave is a type of succulent plant from Mexico and the southwestern parts of the United States.
They have thick, sharp leaves.
Agave plants flower only once, produce seeds and then die.
Before flowering they usually live for 10 to 25 years.
Because they live for a long time they are sometimes called "century plants".
Agave is used to make things like tequila, agave syrup and pulque.
They were an important food for many indigenous people in the southwestern United States, such as the Navajo and the Hokoham.
Apple sauce (or applesauce) is a sauce made from stewed and mashed apples.
Peeled or unpeeled apples can be used and different spices or additives like cinnamon can be used.
Sugar or high fructose corn syrup is often added to the applesauce to sweeten it.
Applesauce can be fine or coarse textured, and can include large pieces of apple.
It is easy to make at home, and it is also sold ready-made in supermarkets.
It is a common food or snack for children and people who have problems eating solid food.
Parents often feed it to their babies because teeth are not needed to eat it.
Use and availability
Charles Francis Richter (April 26, 1900 – September 30, 1985) was an American seismologist (someone who studies earthquakes) and a physicist.
He is known for creating the Richter scale of magnitude, which says how big an earthquake is.
Richter went to work at the Carnegie Institute in 1927 after Robert Millikan offered him a position as a research assistant there, where he began a collaboration with Beno Gutenberg.
The Seismology Lab at the California Institute of Technology wanted to begin publishing regular reports on earthquakes in southern California and had a pressing need for a system of measuring the strength of earthquakes for these reports.
Together, Richter and Gutenberg devised the scale that would become known at the Richter scale to fill this need, based on measuring quantitatively the displacement of the earth by seismic waves, as Kiyoo Wadati had suggested.
Charles Richter interview, at USGS
Charles F. Richter Papers, Caltech Archives
September 3 – St. Cuthbert reburied in the Durham Cathedral
The Venice Arsenal, is founded in Venice.
Alfonso I of Aragon becomes King of Aragon and Navarre.
Historian Guibert of Nogent becomes abbot of Notre Dame de Nogent.
Baldwin I of Jerusalem captures Acre.
Baldwin II, count of Edessa, is taken prisoner by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Harran; Tancred becomes regent.
Kilij Arslan I, Sultan of Rüm, starts a war with the Danishmends.
Charles II (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685) was king of England, Ireland, and Scotland from 1649 to 1685.
His father was Charles I, who was executed after losing a war with Parliament.
Prince Charles was the king's eldest son.
As a little boy, he was made Prince of Wales as a sign that he would one day be king.
Prince Charles did not take much part in the fighting.
His mother, Henrietta Maria, was French, and she took her children to France when the war broke out, to keep them safe.
This made him King, and he started calling himself King Charles II immediately.
However, Parliament was still in control of Britain and would not let him take his throne because after Charles I's execution, Oliver Cromwell became the Lord Protector of Britain from 1653-1658.
The King's escape
Later, he was forced to disguise himself as a servant.
A young lady called Jane Lane helped him to escape, and he sailed to the Netherlands to re-join his supporters.
He kept his own royal court there until 1660.
While Charles was in Holland, Britain was being ruled by Oliver Cromwell, an extraordinary man who had no title, but many followers.
He was chosen as leader of the country by Parliament.
When Cromwell died in 1658, his son Richard was chosen to be the next leader.
Richard Cromwell was not the man his father had been.
Charles II was asked to come back and rule Britain.
In 1660, Charles II was brought back to Britain and took his throne.
This was the English Restoration.
There were also some people who did not like King Charles II because of his religious beliefs.
He had been brought up by his mother, who was Roman Catholic, while most people in the country were Protestant.
He married a princess from Portugal, Catherine of Braganza.
They did not have any children, but Charles refused to divorce Catherine.
Before he was married, he had several girlfriends and lovers, and even after he was married, he went on having lovers, who were called mistresses.
The most famous was an actress called Nell Gwyn.
Several of Charles's lovers had babies.
However, none of these children were allowed to follow Charles as king because they were bastards, meaning that they had been born to parents who were not married to each other.
The most popular of Charles II's children was James Scott.
Charles gave him the title Duke of Monmouth.
James's mother had been Charles's girlfriend when he was living in Holland, and some people said that they had been secretly married.
If this had been true, then James would have been allowed to be king when Charles died.
There were many who wanted this to happen, because they did not like the thought of Charles's younger brother being the next king.
This brother, who was also called James, was a Roman Catholic and was not popular.
Charles II died quite suddenly of an illness, and his son James, Duke of Monmouth, started a rebellion in the hope of becoming the next king.
He was defeated by the royal army, which supported Charles's brother James.
The Duke of Monmouth was executed by having his head chopped off, and Charles's brother became the next ruler, King James II.
Letters claiming that she bore Charles a son named James de la Cloche in 1646 are dismissed by historians as forgeries.
James Crofts, later Scott (1649–1685), created Duke of Monmouth (1663) in England and Duke of Buccleuch (1663) in Scotland.
Ancestor of Sarah, Duchess of York.
Lucy Walter had a daughter, Mary Crofts, born after James, but Charles II was not the father.
Charlotte Jemima Henrietta Maria FitzRoy (1650–1684), married the 2nd Earl of Yarmouth
Charles FitzCharles (1657–1680), known as "Don Carlo", created Earl of Plymouth (1675)
Catherine FitzCharles (born 1658; she either died young or became a nun at Dunkirk)
Anne Palmer (Fitzroy) (1661–1722), Countess of Sussex, married Thomas Lennard, 1st Earl of Sussex.
She may have been the daughter of Roger Palmer, but Charles accepted her anyway.
Charles Fitzroy (1662–1730) created Duke of Southampton (1675),
Henry Fitzroy (1663–1690), created Earl of Euston (1672), Duke of Grafton (1675), also 7 Greats-Grandfather of Diana, Princess of Wales
Charlotte Fitzroy (1664–1717).
She married Edward Lee, 1st Earl of Lichfield.
George Fitzroy (1665–1716), created Earl of Northumberland (1674), Duke of Northumberland (1678)
Barbara (Benedicta) Fitzroy (1672–1737) – She was probably the child of John Churchill,
Charles Beauclerk (1670–1726), created Duke of St Albans (1684)
James, Lord Beauclerk (1671–1680)
Charles Lennox (1672–1723), created Duke of Richmond (1675) in England and
Duke of Lennox (1675) in Scotland.
Ancestor of Diana, Princess of Wales, Camilla, The Duchess of Cornwall,
Lady Mary Tudor (1673–1726), married Edward Radclyffe, 2nd Earl of Derwentwater; after Edward's death, she married Henry Graham, and upon his death she married James Rooke.
Christmastime Wyndham
Hortense Mancini, Duchess of Mazarin
Winifred Wells – one of the Queen's Maids of Honour
Jane Roberts – the daughter of a clergyman
Elizabeth Berkeley, née Bagot, Dowager Countess of Falmouth – the widow of Charles Berkeley, 1st Earl of Falmouth
Elizabeth Fitzgerald, Countess of Kildare
1630 births
1685 deaths
Crunk is a sub-genre of hip hop music that started in the clubs of Memphis, Tennessee in the mid-1990s.
The word 'crunk' is the past tense version of the word 'crank' as in "crank the music up".
It can also be used as an adjective.
It is a mixture of Miami bass, Southern rap, and electronica with a lot of yelling and chanting.
Lil Jon is the most popular crunk artist, and his song 'Get Low' with the Ying Yang Twins is the song that made crunk music mainstream.
After this song came out, crunk became a really popular style of music and it saw it's heyday in the mid-2000s, but it eventually started to fade away and disappear, being replaced with trap music in the 2010s.
Hip hop genres
A pimp is a person who makes money from other people prostituting themselves.
Usually, the prostitutes make money for themselves, but the pimp takes a percentage of the money in exchange for providing them with security and other services.
Pimps has gotten connected to a special look, often a male with fancy and colorful clothes with gold accessories.
Allan Kardec  (Hippolyte Léon Denizard Rivail 3 October 1804  31 March 1869) was a French philosopher and teacher.
He dedicated the last 15 years of his life to organise a philosophical doctrine called Spiritism.
He spread the educational ideas  of Pestalozzi in the 19th century.
He published books on grammar, mathematics and suggestions for the improvement of public education in France.
He was a teacher of physiology, astronomy, physics and chemistry.
The classes were at his home in Paris.
In 1854, Kardec started studying phenomena which some people call "paranormal" or "supernatural".
This were quite common at that time.
Allan Kardec Educational Society
ALLAN KARDEC: spiritisme, spiritism...
Allan Kardec Biographic Information
The Spirits' Book  by Allan Kardec
Le Livre des Esprits  (PDF file)
The Book on Mediums  by Allan Kardec (PDF file)
The Gospel According to Spiritism  by Allan Kardec (PDF file)
French esotericists
People from Lyon
19th-century French philosophers
Hyves is a website where people can have contact with friends online.
It can be used to make new friends or to stay in touch with old friends.
It was started in 2004 and has over 9 million users; most of them are Dutch.
That is the reason why it is very popular in the Netherlands.
Pictures and videos can be put and shared on it.
Hyves is similar to Facebook or the German VZ Networks.
http://www.hyves.nl
The sex organs, which scientists call the genitalia or genitals, are the parts of the body that allow sexual reproduction (the making of young) to take place.
They are also for urination (peeing), to remove waste products from the body.
While all animals have sex organs, this article is about the sex organs of human beings.
The genitals are the main parts of the human body that make men and women different.
Some parts of the genitals are outside the body, while other parts are inside.
In a man, his external genitals are the penis and the scrotum (a bag that contains the testicles).
Inside his body the testicles produce sperm and a substance called testosterone which makes a person grow into a man and to feel like a man.
Other glands produce a fluid called semen.
The part of a woman's genitals that is outside her body is called the vulva.
Inside her body are the vagina, which holds the penis during sexual intercourse; the uterus (womb), in which a baby grows when the woman is pregnant; the ovaries, which produce ova (egg cells) and a substance called estrogen which makes a person grow into a woman and to feel like a woman; and the Fallopian tubes, which connect the ovaries to the uterus.
Many human societies are prudish about genitals.
This prudery has resulted in public indecency laws which makes it a crime for genitals to be left uncovered in public except in special places called nudist colonies.
If a man and a woman want to reproduce sexually, they have to engage in sexual intercourse.
This involves placing the man's erect penis into the woman's vagina.
The vagina rubs and puts pressure on the penis, which makes the man have an orgasm.
During his orgasm the man ejaculates, and his semen flows into the woman.
If a sperm in the semen reaches the woman's Fallopian tubes and fuses with an ovum, this causes the woman to become pregnant.
A man and woman can also have sexual intercourse for pleasure, without wishing to have a baby.
Men and women, and gay couples (two women or two men) can also use their sex organs in other ways for pleasure.
The sex organs are the parts of the body that allow sexual reproduction (the making of young) to take place.
All animals have some kind of sex organs.
This article is about the sex organs of human beings.
In humans, the sex organs are in the lower abdomen, at the part of the body where the legs join the torso.
The scientific name for the sex organs is genitalia or genitals.
They are also commonly called the reproductive organs.
The genitals include both organs that can be seen on the outside of the body (the primary genitalia or external genitalia), as well as internal organs (the secondary genitalia or internal genitalia).
Sometimes, however, the words genitalia or genitals are used to refer only to the external sex organs.
The sex organs are informally referred to as the private parts or privates.
Males and females have different sex organs.
In fact, the genitals are the main parts of the human body that make men and women different.
A man's genitals are made up of many parts.
The parts that can be seen on the outside of a man's body are his penis, which is shaped like a banana or a sausage; and his scrotum, which is a bag that hangs beneath the penis and contains the two testicles.
A man's penis may be circumcised.
Inside a man's body, the testicles make tiny cells called sperm, which are needed for sexual reproduction.
The testicles also make a hormone called testosterone.
This is a chemical that makes a person grow into a man and feel like a man.
The testicles are glands, which are special parts of the body that make chemicals.
Other glands that make up the genitals are the prostate, seminal vesicles and bulbourethral glands (also called the Cowper's glands).
Together, these glands make a white, sticky fluid called semen that sperm float in.
Finally, a man's body contains ducts (tubes) such as the two vasa deferentia or ducta deferentia, which carry sperm out of the testicles; and the urethra, which carries semen through the penis and out of the body.
The urethra also carries urine away from the bladder.
In reproduction the job of the penis is to carry sperm from the testicles into a woman's body so that a sperm can join together with the woman's ovum (egg cell) to form a new cell that will grow into a baby.
The process of fusion of a sperm and an ovum is called fertilization.
When a man becomes aroused (sexually excited), the inside of his penis fills with blood.
This causes the penis to become bigger, thicker and harder and to stand upright, and is called having an erection.
When a man has an erection, he is able to have sexual intercourse by putting his penis into a woman's vagina.
This is why it is very difficult for a man to urinate when he is having an erection.
Young boys can have erections, but their bodies do not start producing sperm until they have reached puberty.
This usually happens when they are in their teens.
The part of a woman's genitals that is on the outside of her body is called the vulva.
The main parts of the vulva are two sets of fleshy "lips" called the labia.
The outer labia can be seen at the front of the woman's body.
On an adult woman, they are generally covered with some hair.
Between the outer labia are the inner labia which do not have hair and are very sensitive.
At the front of the inner labia is the outside part of the clitoris which is covered by the clitoral hood.
During sexual intercourse, the clitoris gives feelings of pleasure to the woman.
Most of a woman's genitals are tucked inside her body.
Behind the labia is a tube called the vagina, which cannot be seen on the outside of the body. (
People often incorrectly use the word vagina to refer to the vulva.)
When a man and a woman have sexual intercourse, the man's penis is placed into the woman's vagina.
When a woman menstruates (has her menstrual period), blood and other fluid from the uterus pass out from her body through the vagina.
If a woman uses a tampon (a specially-made wad of material) to absorb this fluid, she puts it into her vagina.
The vagina is also called the birth canal, because when a pregnant woman has a baby, it passes through the vagina.
Like a man, a woman has a tube called the urethra connecting the bladder to the vulva through which urine is removed from the body.
The opening of the urethra is between the clitoris and the opening to the vagina.
In many women, the opening of the vagina is partly or completely blocked by a thin tissue called the hymen.
Some women are born without a hymen.
The hymen usually breaks when a woman has sexual intercourse for the first time, that may cause or not some bleeding depending particularly on each woman.
In some cultures, a broken hymen is taken as a sign that a girl has had sex.
However, a broken hymen is not a clear sign of sexual intercourse because other activities such as exercise can also cause the hymen to break.
In some women, the hymen may remain unbroken even after sex.
At the top of the vagina is the cervix which is a ring of muscle separating the vagina from the uterus or womb.
The cervix allows menstrual fluid to flow from the uterus into the vagina, and during sexual intercourse it allows semen from a man's penis to flow from the vagina into the uterus.
The uterus is a very muscular and stretchy organ in which babies grow during pregnancy.
When a woman is not pregnant, each month the lining of the uterus grows thicker, then breaks down, causing her to menstruate.
Connected to the top of the uterus are two Fallopian tubes, on the left and right.
These tubes join the uterus to the two ovaries.
The ovaries produce ova, or egg cells, that are needed for reproduction.
Each month, an ovum travels from one of the ovaries into a Fallopian tube.
If, after the woman has had sexual intercourse with a man, the ovum fuses with a sperm and implants in the wall of the uterus, the woman will become pregnant.
The ovaries also produce the female hormone estrogen which causes a person to grow into a woman and to feel like a woman.
Young girls do not start producing ova and menstruating until they have reached puberty.
Like boys, this usually happens in their teens.
Once a woman starts menstruating, she is capable of becoming pregnant.
Reproduction, sexual intercourse and masturbation
The sex organs or genitals are used for sexual reproduction and for sexual intercourse.
For sexual reproduction to happen, a man and a woman need to have sexual intercourse with each other.
A man's penis becomes erect when he is aroused, for example when he sees a naked woman or is touched by her.
When a woman is aroused, her clitoris and vulva also swell, and the inside of her vagina produces mucus, a substance that makes it slippery.
To reproduce, the man places his penis inside the woman's vagina and moves it in and out (a movement called thrusting), while the woman moves her hips back and forth, or in a circular motion.
The friction caused by this movement, together with the warmth and pressure of the vagina, causes the man to have pleasurable feelings in the penis.
As intercourse continues, these feelings grow stronger and stronger until the man reaches a sexual climax called an orgasm.
At this point, the man's penis spasms and then contracts strongly again and again to push semen through the urethra.
The semen then ejaculates or shoots out from the end of the penis into the woman's vagina.
The woman may also have an orgasm, which causes the vagina to tense up and relax repeatedly.
Some believe that the orgasm helps the sperm in the man's semen to swim up the  vagina into the cervix, so that it is more likely that a sperm cell will fuse with an egg cell.
Others think that the female orgasm causes the vagina to grip the penis more tightly, which makes sex more exciting for the man and causes him to ejaculate more quickly or to produce more semen; or that it encourages a woman to have sex more often as it feels good.
Both of these events would make pregnancy more likely to happen.
After the man has ejaculated, the blood flows out of his penis and it becomes smaller and soft again.
Sometimes, a man and a woman may have sexual intercourse because it gives them pleasure, without wishing for the woman to become pregnant.
They may try to stop fertilization from happening by using methods of contraception or birth control.
Common methods of birth control include the man wearing a condom on his penis, and the woman taking birth control pills that stop her ovaries from releasing egg cells.
Apart from the man putting his penis into the woman's vagina, the sex organs can be used in other ways in sexual intercourse.
The man and woman can rub each other's sex organs with their hands.
They can use sex toys such as dildos or vibrators.
They can also engage in oral sex.
When a person uses his or her mouth, lips and tongue to touch a woman's clitoris and vulva, this is called cunnilingus.
When a person uses his or her mouth, lips, and/or tongue to touch a man's penis, this is called fellatio.
A man or a woman (using an strap-on dildo or harness) can also put the sexual organ into a person's anus, this is called anal sex.
People who are gay or homosexual also use their genitals to have sexual intercourse with each other.
Two women can rub each other's sex organs, put sex toys into them, or perform oral sex on each other.
Two men can also rub each other's sex organs, or perform oral or anal sex on each other.
The sex organs are also used for urination, which is one of the ways in which the body removes waste products.
Both men and women have a bladder, which is an organ that stores urine.
In a man, a thin tube called the urethra passes from his bladder right through his penis.
In a woman, the urethra opens into the vulva.