the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
However, crocodiles have little strength when opening their jaws, such that a person could hold the jaw shut with their hands.
Crocodiles live in rivers, lakes and dams in parts of America, Asia, Africa and Australia.
Some of the crocodiles from Australia live in salt water.
These saltwater crocodiles are normally bigger than the ones that live in fresh water.
While crocodiles spend most of their time in water, they can come out and move around on the land.
Crocodiles cannot breathe underwater: they breathe air, just like people.
When they are not active, they can hold their breath for a maximum of about two hours underwater before drowning.
Normally, when underwater, they are active and can hold their breath for a maximum of 20 minutes to one hour.
The crocodile looks like it is a log, and hides beneath the surface of the water.
When an animal comes down to the water to drink, the crocodile lunges out of the water, grabs the animal in its jaws, and pulls it underwater, where it drowns.
After the animal is dead, the crocodile will grab a piece of meat in its jaws and spin around in a "death roll".
What do they look like
Their colors range from brown to grey and have different patterns covering them.
They have many shapes and they differ in color.
They have sharp claws and teeth.
They can also be a greenish-brownish color.
Crocodile tongues are not free.
They are held in place by a membrane that can not move.
Crocodiles are unable to stick out their tongues.
Alligators and crocodiles
Although there is not much difference in their life-style, biologists put alligators in a separate family.
Gharials are also in a separate family, and Caimans are a sub-family of alligators.
The  difference between an alligator and a crocodile is that one can not see the fourth tooth in the lower jaw of an alligator when the alligator's mouth is closed.
One can see the fourth tooth in the lower jaw of a crocodile when its mouth is closed.
Ancient crocodiles
According to scientists, some ancient crocodiles walked on two legs like dinosaurs.
The scientists found preserved footprints in South Korea.
They found hind foot prints but no front foot prints or marks from a tail dragging behind.
They were able to tell that these ancient crocodiles walked on their hind legs with their front legs and tails off the ground.
They used the whole foot, the way a human or bear does, not just the toes, the way a dinosaur, bird or dog does.
Sixteen extinct species of crocodile have been discovered.
Hall's New Guinea crocodile
West Africa crocodile
Crocodilian Biology Database
Crocodile (Wikiversity)
Saltwater crocodiles in freedom: Authentic pictures and descriptions
Supersize Crocs - an interactive guide to crocodiles from PBS
Man shares bungalow with crocodile.
ZZT is a computer game made by Tim Sweeney.
People can make other games with this game's engine.
1991 video games
DOS games
The word "centre" often means places or buildings where an activity takes place.
Common examples are:
a town centre or city centre
a shopping centre is a place with lots of shops.
a sports centre is where people go to use sports facilities, such as squash courts, and swimming pools.
a centre (ice hockey), the position used in ice hockey
a Center (American football), the position used in American football
a balanced political position.
Centre, the former name of Centre-Val de Loire, an administrative region of France
Centre Department, the department of Haiti
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (, Pëtr Il’ič Čajkovskij; ) (born Kamsko-Votkinsk, 7 May 1840; died St Petersburg, 6 November 1893; pronounced chai-KOV-skee) was a Russian composer who lived in the Romantic period.
He is one of the most popular of all Russian composers.
He wrote melodies which were usually dramatic and emotional.
He learned a lot from studying the music of Western Europe, but his music also sounds very Russian.
His compositions include 11 operas, 3 ballets, orchestral music, chamber music and over 100 songs.
His famous ballets (Swan Lake, The Nutcracker  and Sleeping Beauty) have some of the best known tunes in all of romantic music.
He is widely regarded as the greatest composer of ballets.
Tchaikovsky’s father was a Ukrainian who worked as a mining engineer.
His mother’s grandfather was a Frenchman who had moved to Russia.
She was a nervous woman and Tchaikovsky may have gotten his nervous character from her.
Tchaikovsky was only five when he started taking piano lessons.
He was soon better than his teacher.
The family had an orchestrion (a kind of musical box) which played some tunes from classical music by Mozart, Bellini, Donizetti and Rossini.
In 1848 the family moved to St. Petersburg.
Tchaikovsky was unhappy and unsettled as he was often separated from his family who moved several times.
In 1854 his mother died.
He tried to comfort himself by playing music.
He spent nine years at the School of Jurisprudence.
When he left school, he had to get a job.
For four years he worked as a clerk in the Ministry of Justice.
Then the composer and pianist Anton Rubinstein helped him to become a music student at the newly opened conservatory in St. Petersburg.
He learned to play the flute and the organ as well as the piano and learning all about composition.
In 1866 he moved to Moscow where Nikolai Rubinstein, the brother of Anton, encouraged him to write music with a Russian character.
He worked very hard, and was often exhausted, but he managed to finish his First Symphony, which was performed in 1868.
Tchaikovsky met some famous musicians including the French composer Berlioz who was visiting Moscow.
He also became friendly with the Russian composer Mily Balakirev who was very helpful and persuaded him to rewrite one of his works several times until it was very good.
he result was a piece for orchestra called Romeo and Juliet which soon became internationally known.
Balakirev had four friends who were composers.
This circle of friends is often called “The Five” or “The Mighty Handful”.
They were interested in using Russian folktunes in their music.
Tchaikovsky was never a member of the group, although he liked their ideas.
Tchaikovsky was different to them: he had learned music at the Conservatoire where he had studied Western music.
The harmonies that he used in his works were often not suitable for Russian folktunes.
He wrote many songs which are romantic in character.
One of them, None But the Lonely Heart, is especially well known in English.
By now, Tchaikovsky was writing works which were to make him very famous.
He wrote two more symphonies, and his First Piano Concerto, one of the most popular of all piano concertos, was given its first performance in Boston.
He was also writing operas and chamber music.
Years of fame
In 1875, Tchaikovsky began making a long tour of Europe.
He liked Bizet’s opera Carmen, but Wagner’s operas from the Ring cycle bored him.
In 1877 he finished Swan Lake, the first of his three ballets.
The audience did not like it at first because the dancers were not very good.
Tchaikovsky was a closeted homosexual.
In the summer of 1877 Tchaikovsky decided to marry.
His wife was called Antonina Milyukova.
The marriage was a disaster.
A few weeks after the marriage, he ran away and never lived with her again.
Another woman was to become important in his life, but in a very different way.
It was to be a very unusual relationship.
Her name was Nadezhda von Meck.
She was the wife of a rich man.
She loved Tchaikovsky’s music and promised him that she would pay him a lot of money every month so long as he promised her that he would never try to meet her.
Tchaikovsky no longer needed to work.
He was able to give up his teaching job at the Conservatory.
For several years he spent the winters in Europe and the summers in Russia.
Nadezhda and Tchaikovsky wrote long letters to one another, often quite passionate and dreamy they talked about love, life and how they wanted it to change, but they never saw one another.
He had plenty of time to write music: he wrote several operas including Eugene Onegin and his Fourth and Fifth Symphonies, the Violin Concerto, the Serenade for Strings, Capriccio Italienne and the 1812 Overture.
Tchaikovsky loved Nadezhda very much but never actually told her his true feelings.
His last years
By 1885, Tchaikovsky had tired of travelling around.
He rented a country house in Klin, just outside Moscow.
He lived a regular life, reading, walking in the forest, composing during the day and playing music with his friends in the evenings.
He started to have more confidence as a conductor and toured Europe twice, conducting in Leipzig, Berlin, Prague, Hamburg, Paris and London.
In 1889 he finished his second ballet, The Sleeping Beauty and the next year, while staying in Florence, he wrote his famous opera The Queen of Spades based on a story by Pushkin.
Later that year Nadezhda von Meck wrote to him that she had lost nearly all her money and could not continue to support him.
In the spring of 1891 he was invited to conduct in New York where the Carnegie Hall was being opened.
He also conducted concerts in Baltimore and Philadelphia.
When he returned to Russia he wrote his last ballet The Nutcracker and his Sixth Symphony, known as the “Pathétique” which was dedicated to his nephew with whom he was passionately in love.
This work is often considered his best.
It was performed in St Petersburg on October 16 1893.
Five days later he suddenly became ill with cholera, a disease many people were catching in the city.
Tchaikovsky died four days later.
Many people think that he committed suicide by deliberately drinking contaminated water.
He may have wanted to (or even been forced to) commit suicide in order to avoid a scandal because he was having a relationship with a nephew of an important aristocratic man.
Exactly what happened is still a mystery.
1840 births
1893 deaths
LGBT composers
Russian composers
Russian LGBT people
BBC Radio 1 (often known as Radio 1) is an international radio station that is based in the United Kingdom.
It is owned by BBC and BBC Radio.
Radio 1 started broadcasting at 7.00 am on September 30, 1967.
Tony Blackburn presented the first (later known as Breakfast) programme on the station.
The station is meant to be listened to mainly by people aged 15–29.
Before the launch of Radio 1, the BBC ran three radio stations (the BBC Light Programme, the BBC Home Service and the BBC Third Programme), but these were considered old fashioned and were closed down in 1967.
They were replaced with Radio 1, 2, 3 and 4.
The launch of Radio 1 in 1967 was because of the popularity of pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline.
They had been outlawed by Act of Parliament, and the BBC needed to provide alternative radio stations.
The daytime shows (Monday-Thursday 4.00 - 19.00, Friday 4.00 - 18.00, Saturday 6.00 - 16.00 and Sunday 6.00 - 19.00) are very speech-focused and use an extensive playlist to introduce unknown and emerging material alongside more established, top 40 hits from the recent past (usually in a 5-year cycle).
The nighttime shows focus specifically on new music, with each show devoted to a particular genre.
These genres include electronica, dance, hip-hop, rap and rock.
All programs during this time are playlisted and presented by the DJs without any influence of the station's music editor.
At least 40% of music played in daytime are from British artists
At least 50% of music played in daytime are not older than 12 months old each year, with continuous particular support for new and emerging UK artists alongside established acts
60 hours of specialist music per week
Broadcast from at least 25 live events and festivals per year from the UK and abroad
At least 250 new sessions each year
1 hour of news in daytime each weekday, including two extended bulletins
1967 establishments in the United Kingdom
In Korea, the printing press is invented.
1910 (MCMX) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar.
It was the 910th year of the 2nd millennium, the 10th year of the 20th century and the first year of the 1910s.
January – In Greece, the Military League forces parliament and George I of Greece to summon National Assembly to revise Constitution.
January 15 – In the United Kingdom, General Election held in response to House of Lords rejection of David Lloyd George's (1909) budget results in reduced Liberal Party majority (Liberals, 275 seats; Labour, 40; Irish Nationalists, 82; Unionists (the title then preferred by the British Conservative Party), 273).
January 16 – Constant rains in Paris, France cause the Seine to overflow its banks, flooding the city.
All but one line of the Paris Métro become filled with water, effectively draining water from the city.
February 20 – Boutros Ghali, first native born prime minister of Egypt, assassinated.
March – Uprising against Ottoman rule breaks out in Albania.
March 19 – In America, Republicans reduce the powers of the Speaker of the House of Representatives to influence Committee membership.
April – Albanian revolt suppressed by Turkish army.
April 27 – Louis Botha and James Hertzog (James Barry Munnik Hertzog) found South Africa Party.
April 27 – British House of Commons passes Lloyd George's 1909 'People's Budget' for second time; passed by House of Lords, 28 April
April 29 – Andrew Fisher becomes Prime Minister of Australia for the second time.
Korea becomes a colony of Japan.
Albrecht Kossel, German doctor, won the 1910 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
January 5 – Jack Lovelock, New Zealand athlete (d. 1949)
January 7 – Orval Faubus, Governor of Arkansas (d. 1994)
January 8 – Galina Sergeyevna Ulanova, Russian dancer (d. 1998)
January 12 – Luise Rainer, German-born actress
January 16 – Dizzy Dean, baseball player (d. 1974)
January 21 – Albert Rosellini, Governor of Washington (d. 2011)
January 23 – Django Reinhardt, Belgian guitarist (d. 1953)
January 30 – C Subramaniam, Indian politician ( d. 2000)
February 5 – Francisco Varallo, Argentine footballer
February 6 – Irmgard Keun, German writer (d. 1982)
February 9 – Jacques Monod, French biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1976)
February 10 – Georges Pire, Belgian monk, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1969)
February 13 – William Shockley, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1989)
February 15 – Stanley Vann, British musician (d. 2010)
February 27 – Joan Bennett, American actress (d. 1990)
March 1 – Archer John Porter Martin, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)
March 1 – David Niven, English actor (d. 1983)
March 5 – Momofuko Ando, Taiwanese businessman (d. 2007)
March 9 – Samuel Barber, American composer (d. 1981)
March 11 – Robert Havemann, German chemist (d. 1982)
March 13 – Karl Gustav Ahlefeldt, Danish actor (d. 1985)
March 23 – Akira Kurosawa, Japanese screenwriter, producer, and director (d. 1998)
April 10 – Ivan Goff, Australian screenwriter (d. 1999)
April 10 – Paul Sweezy, American economist and editor (d. 2004)
April 23 – Simone Simon, French actress (d. 2005)
April 30 – Al Lewis, American actor (died in 2006)
May 8 – Mary Lou Williams, American musician (d. 1981)
May 12 – Johan Ferrier, Surinamese President (d. 2010)
May 12 – Giulietta Simionato, Italian opera singer (d. 2010)
May 19 – Nathuram Godse, Indian assassin of Mahatma Gandhi (d. 1949)
May 23 – Artie Shaw, American musician (d. 2004)
May 28 – T-Bone Walker, American musician (d. 1975)
September 3 – Maurice Papon, French Nazi collaborator (d. 2006)
October 6 – Barbara Castle, British politician (d. 2002)
October 14 – John Wooden, Basketball coach (d. 2010)
December 29 – Ronald Coase, British economist
1443 was a common year.
It started on a Tuesday.
July 22 – Zürich is defeated in the Battle of St. Jakob an der Sihl.
January 27 – Albert, Duke of Saxony (died 1500)
February 23 – Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (died 1490)
May 17 – Edmund, Earl of Rutland, brother of King Edward IV of England and King Richard III of England (died 1460)
May 31 – Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII of England (died 1509)
December 5 – Pope Julius II (died 1513)
Rodolphus Agricola, Dutch scholar and humanist (died 1485)
John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, English leader (died 1513)
Piero del Pollaiuolo, Italian painter (died 1496)
Philip II, Duke of Savoy (died 1497)
Ygo Gales Galama, Frisian warlord and rebel (died 1492)
Anne Beauchamp, 15th Countess of Warwick (died 1449)
Zeami – Japanese actor.
November 17 – Elizabeth I becomes Queen of England.
For the effects of global warming on sea levels, see global warming
The sea level is the average height of the ocean (informally called the sea).
The word 'average' must be used because the height of the sea changes with the tides.
The height of mountains, countries, and so on, is almost always given as "above sea level".
Sea level is generally used to refer to mean sea level (MSL).
This is the average level for the surface of one or more of Earth's oceans.
MSL is a type of standardised geodetic reference point.
It is used, for example, as a geodetic datum in cartography and marine navigation.
In aviation it is the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured.
This is used to calibrate altitude, which influences aircraft flight levels.
A common mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular place.
Sea levels can be affected by many factors.
They have varied greatly over geological time scales.
The careful measurement of variations in MSL offers insights into ongoing climate change.
The present slight rise in sea levels is offered as proof of ongoing global warming.
Long-term changes in sea level
In Earth's long history, the continents and sea floor have changed due to plate tectonics.
This affects global sea level because it alters the depths of various ocean basins, and also changes the distribution of glaciers.
Over most of geologic time, the long-term mean sea level has been higher than today (see graph).
Only at the Permian-Triassic boundary ~250 million years ago was the long-term mean sea level lower than today.
This included the PermianTriassic extinction event, though this may not be relevant to the concept of sea level.
Rapid changes in sea level
Rapid changes may happen by huge lakes breaking through into seas.
This has happened on a number of occasions.
When the latest ice age was ending, melting caused huge lakes in central North America.
This eventually broke through into the Atlantic.
Melting ice in the North Sea are also broke through into the English Channel.
The largest known example of marine flooding was when the Atlantic breached the Strait of Gibraltar about 5.2 million years ago.
This restored Mediterranean sea levels, which had dried up.
The present rise in sea level is taken from tide gauges.
It is about 1.8 mm/yr.
Active research continues in this field.
Flooding, food and climate change in Bangladesh
Sea level rise - How much and how fast will sea level rise over the coming centuries?
Fear Factory is an American death/industrial metal group.
They were formed in Los Angeles, California in 1989 and disbanded in early 2002.
They have reformed in the following year adding Byron Stroud (of Strapping Young Lad) as their current bass player.
Their classic line-up was Burton C. Bell (vocals), Dino Cazares (guitars), Christian Olde Woblers (bass) and Raymond Herrera (drums) between 1994 and break up time.
Sublime was a popular punk/ska rock band.
The band was formed in 1988 in Long Beach, California.
They have released popular hit singles like "Date Rape", "Doin' Time", "Santeria" and "What I Got".
Sublime broke up 1996, because singer, guitarist and songwriter Bradley Nowell died.
He died in a hotel room in San Francisco, California on May 25th of the same year from a heroin overdose.
He was 28 years old.
Their third and final album Sublime was released two months after Nowell's death.
The album's song "What I Got" was what made Sublime famous.
Cultural references
A few of Sublimes songs have been used in video games. "
Santeria" was included in Guitar Hero World Tour.
The song "Seed" was included in Tony Hawk's Underground and the song "What I Got" was included in Dave Mirra Freestyle BMX.
Compilations and live albums
1988 establishments in California
Musical groups from Long Beach, California
Crass was one of the first anarcho-punk bands.
The band was formed in Essex, England in 1977.
The band split up in 1984.
The group was first of all made up of Penny Rimbaud (playing drums) and Steve Ignorant (who sang).
Later they were joined by other people who also lived together in their shared house (or commune) called Dial House.
First concerts
Crass did their first concert at a squatted festival in Huntley Street, North London.
Soon after they played at the famous punk club The Roxy in  London's Covent Garden area.
However the group were made to come off of the stage because they were very drunk.
They also did early concerts with punk band the UK Subs, but not many people went to watch these concerts.
First fashion statements
After this members of Crass decided to be more serious about what they were doing.
They decided to wear black clothes all of the time, whether or not they were on stage.
This was so that no member of the band would be seen as the group 'leader'.
They also made a banner that they hung up behind them when they were playing live.
This had a logo on it that was made up of symbols like the Christian cross, the swastika and the British flag, as well as a snake with two heads that is eating itself.
The meaning of this logo was the idea that "power will destroy itself".
Crass released their first record in 1978.
It was called The Feeding of the 5000.
It was meant to have 18 songs on it, but one song was banned by the people who worked at the factory where the records were made.
This was because they thought it was blasphemous.
This song was  called "Asylum".
The band instead released the record with a 2-minute gap where that song had been, which they called "The Sound of Free Speech".
After this they set up their own record label, Crass Records.
This was so that they could control what was on their own records in the future.
They re-recorded and released the song that had been banned as a single.
They also re-released the first LP with the banned song put back on it.
Second album
The second LP released by Crass was the double album Stations of the Crass.
It was released in 1979.
One side of this LP was a recording of a live concert that the band played at the Pied Bull pub in Islington, London on August 7, 1979.
Their next LP was released in 1981.
It was called Penis Envy.
The band had deliberately changed their sound for this record.
The lyrics and the record cover artwork had a strong feminist message.
Steve Ignorant did not appear upon it.
Instead only the women members of the band, Eve Libertine and Joy DeVivre sung the songs.
Other albums recorded
The Crass Records label also released many other records by other musicians and bands.
These included Flux Of Pink Indians, Conflict, Poison Girls, Zounds, Honey Bane, Rudimentary Peni and others.
English punk bands
Anarcho-punk bands
Black Flag was an American hardcore punk band.
They formed in California in 1976 and broke up in 1986.
There were many different members in the band, but the leader was Greg Ginn.
Ginn was the guitarist and wrote many of the songs.
Black Flag was one of the groups that created the hardcore punk style.
They toured the United States and Canada to play many live shows.
They influenced many other musicians and fans to make their own hardcore bands.
The band's first album, Damaged (1981), has been recognized as a classic punk album and one of the most influential punk records ever made.
Musical groups disestablished in 1986
Musical groups established in 2003
2003 establishments in California
Musical groups disestablished in 2003
2003 disestablishments in the United States
Tarika is the Arabic word for a Sufi order in Islam.
The first Tarikas were founded in the 12th and 13th century and many of them still exist today.
The head of a Tarika is called a sheikh, the disciples are called dervishes.
Before becoming a ringtone to download  onto mobile phones, The Crazy Frog started as a TruboForce 3D animated creature.
It was called “The Annoying Thing” in 2003 by its creator, Erik Wernquist of Sweden.
With big eyes and a bigger mouth, the high resolution anthropomorphic “thing” is dappled grey-blue and nude save for a helmet, goggles and biker vest.
All original videos and images also show small male humanoid genital in a relaxed state that move realistically.
Some sources pixel out or remove the genitals.
Music remixes
Members of Bass Bumpers had a dance remix of Harold Faltermeyer’s “Axel F”  in early-2005, the Beverly Hills Cop theme, adding Daniel Malmedahl’s impression of a moped engine (Ring-a-ding-dong) and a Max Headroom, “What’s going on?” (
among other dubbed words).
In the music video for that remix the “Thing” says featured bites from Daniel’s bit (Ding, ding.)
and zooms around on a mimed bike to escape a robot minion on a hover bike.
The internet and media dubbed it both a Frog and crazy.
Erik went along with it.
First, it was simply a vocal imitation of a two stroke, internal combustion engine.
Daniel Malmedahl of Sweden created a recording of his imitation in 1997 that eventually spread through peer to peer file sharing on the Internet.
Sales and revenue
The company that sells Crazy Frog ringtones (Jamba!)
has made £14 million from it.
Animated characters
For the city in British Columbia, see Surrey, British Columbia.
Surrey is a county in southern England.
The size of Surrey is about 1,663 km² and it has about 1,059,000 people (2002).
It is near London.
Surrey's largest town is Guildford.
In Guildford there is also a university.
The River Thames forms part of Surrey's north border.
Surrey is a setting of War of the Worlds by H. G. Wells (Woking, Leatherhead in particular).
Surrey is near London's Heathrow and Gatwick airports.
It has access to major road routes (including the M25, M3 and M23).
It has frequent rail services into Central London.
The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is technology that allows a person to connect an electronic device to a computer.
It is a fast serial bus.
It is mostly used on personal computers.
USB is also used on other devices, such as smartphones and video game consoles.
USB connects different devices using a standard interface.
Most people use USB for computer mice, keyboards, scanners, printers, digital cameras, and USB flash drives.
There are over six billion USB devices around the world.
The standard was made to improve plug and play devices.
This means that a device can be plugged into a free socket, and simply work.
The computer will notice the device.
The computer sometimes installs special software to use the device.
The device can be removed after it stops being used.
This technology is called "hot swapping". "
Hot swapping" means it can be plugged and unplugged while the power is on.
The computer does not need to be turned off for people to change the devices.
USB can provide a small amount of power to the attached device through the USB cord.
Devices that only need a little power can get it from the bus, and do not need a separate electric power plug.
That allows gadgets like USB battery chargers, lights, and fans.
As of 2015, USB has mostly replaced several older standards.
Those include the parallel port, serial port and SCSI.
These old standards are still used for a few jobs where USB cannot replace them.
The first version of the Universal Serial Bus was created in 1995.
This new technology became an instant success.
Since the introduction of USB, people that make electronic devices thought about how it could be used in the future.
Today, USB connects a computer or other devices like laptops and MP3 players to peripheral devices.
Several years earlier, adopters and developers of USB held a meeting called Plugfest at a special hotel in California to test their devices.
They selected a hotel that included rooms for sleeping and for testing.
The meeting lasted three days.
During the meeting, the representatives of about 50 companies connected their USB devices to one general host system.
The logo of the USB device also has its own history.
The USB logo was in development for several months.
1994 - Seven companies united to begin the development of USB.
1995 - 340 companies formed the USB Implementation Forum.
1996 - More than five hundred USB products were already developing around the world.
1997 - USB Implementation Forum became richer with 60 more companies.
1998 - USB becomes the most popular technology on the market of electronics.
2000 - The introduction of USB 2.0.
Today it represents the most widely used USB device.
2005 - USB becomes wireless.
2008 - USB 3.0 is introduced.
It is over 10 times faster than USB 2.0.
2013 - USB 3.1 is introduced.
It is about twice as fast as USB 3.0.
2015 - USB Type-C is introduced.
It is a reversible connector, which means that you can plug it in both ways.
Different standards
Currently, five different USB standards are used: USB 1.0, USB 1.1, USB 2.0, USB 3.0 and USB 3.1.
USB 3.1 was released in 2016 and doubled the speed of 3.0.
It optionally uses a different connector called USB Type-C, which is reversible (meaning you can plug it in both ways).
USB 1.0 is now rarely used.
USB offers five different transfer speeds: 1.5 MBit per second (called low speed), 12 MBit per second (Full Speed), 480 MBit/second (Hi Speed), 5Gbit per second (called super speed),  and 10 Gbit/s (“super speed+“).
Hi speed is only available in USB 2.0 and later, and Super speed is only available in USB 3.0.
These speeds are raw bit rates (in Million bits per second).
The actual data rate is usually lower due to protocol overhead.
In order to use the hi speed transfer rate, the USB controller and the connected device both need to support it.
USB is backwards compatible.
Faster and slower USB devices and controllers can be connected together, but they will run at the slower speed.
USB Hubs
Almost all computers sold today have USB ports, and most of them support USB 2.0 or later.
The number of ports they have is usually limited, though.
Between two and six ports are common.
USB allows connecting USB hubs to add more USB ports.
The hubs themselves are also compliant to one of the USB standards.
Devices connected to a USB 1.1 hub will only go as fast as USB 1.1 rates.
Devices connected to a later controller can use different standards.
USB Connectors
USB was designed to be easy to use.
The engineers learned from other connectors before they designed USB connectors.
There are 3 connectors.
Type A, commonly used at computer end of cable
Micro-A (rare)
Type B, at peripheral end, rare except for printers
Micro-B, at peripheral end, for most smartphones
Type C, at either end.
As of 2017, many new computers, phones and peripherals use it.
Usability and Probability
It's not possible to plug in a USB A or B connector the wrong way.
They can not go in upside down, and it is obvious from the look and kinesthetic feeling, when it goes in properly.
Sometimes, however, a user doesn't understand or see how the connector goes, so it might be necessary to try both ways.
Type C USB connectors can be plugged in both ways.
It does not matter which way the connector is plugged in.
There is no need to push or pull very hard to plug or unplug it.
This was in the specification.
USB cables and small USB devices are held in place by the gripping force from the receptacle.
USB does not need screws, clips, or other fasteners.
The force needed to make or break a connection is small.
This allows connections to be made in awkward positions or by those with motor disabilities.
Before the advent of Type C, the connectors enforced the directed topology of a USB network.
USB does not support cyclical networks, so the connectors from incompatible USB devices are themselves incompatible.
Unlike other communications systems (e.g. RJ-45 cabling) gender-changers were almost never used before the advent of USB-On-The-Go (OTG), making it difficult to create a cyclic USB network.
The connectors are designed to be tough.
Early connector designs were fragile, with pins or other delicate components which could easily bend or break, even if treated gently.
The electrical contacts in a USB connector are protected by a plastic tongue.
The entire connecting assembly is usually further protected by an enclosing metal sheath.
As a result, USB connectors can safely be handled, inserted, and removed, even by a small child.
The connector construction always ensures that the external sheath on the plug contacts with its counterpart in the receptacle before the four connectors within are connected.
This sheath is typically connected to the system ground, allowing otherwise damaging static charges to be safely discharged by this route (rather than via delicate electronic components).
This means of enclosure also means that there is a (moderate) degree of protection from electromagnetic interference afforded to the USB signal while it travels through the mated connector pair (this is the only location when the otherwise twisted data pair must travel a distance in parallel).
As well, the power and common connections are made after the system ground but before the data connections.
This type of staged make-break timing allows for safe hot-swapping and has been used for connectors in the aerospace industry.
The newer USB micro receptacles are designed to allow up to 10,000 cycles of insertion and exertion between the receptacle and plug, compared to 500 for the standard USB and Mini-USB receptacle.
This is done by adding a locking device and by moving the leaf-spring connector from the jack to the plug, so that the most-stressed part is on the cable side of the connection.
This change was made so that the connector on the (relatively inexpensive) cable would bear the most wear instead of the micro-USB device.
The USB standard specifies relatively big tolerances for compliant USB connectors.
This is done to minimize incompatibilities in connectors produced by different vendors (a goal that has been very successfully achieved).
Unlike most other connector standards, the USB specification also defines limits to the size of a connecting device in the area around its plug.
This was done to prevent a device from blocking adjacent ports due to its size.
Compliant devices must either fit within the size restrictions or support a compliant extension cable which does.
Two-way communication is also possible.
Usually cables have only plugs, and hosts and devices have only receptacles: hosts having type-A receptacles and devices type-B. Type-A plugs only join with type-A receptacles, and type-B with type-B. However, an extension to USB called USB On-The-Go allows a single port to act as either a host or a device — chosen by which end of the cable plugs into the socket on the unit.
Even after the cable is hooked up and the units are talking, the two units may "swap" ends under program control.
This facility targets units such as PDAs where the USB link might connect to a PC's host port as a device in one instance, yet connect as a host itself to a keyboard and mouse device in another instance.
How USB works
A USB system has an asymmetric design.
It is made of a host, several downstream USB ports, and multiple peripheral devices connected in a star topology.
Additional USB hubs may be included in the tiers, allowing branching into a tree structure with up to five tier levels.
A USB host can have multiple host controllers.
Each host controller provides one or more USB ports.
There is always one hub known as the root hub.
The root hub is built into the host controller.
There are special hubs, called "sharing hubs".
These allow multiple computers to access the same peripheral devices.
They work by switching the access between PCs, either manually or automatically.
They are popular in small-office environments.
In network terms, they converge rather than diverge branches.
A physical USB device can have several logical sub-devices that are referred to as device functions.
A single device may provide several functions, for example, a webcam (video device function) with a built-in microphone (audio device function).
USB device communication is based on pipes (logical channels).
Pipes are connections from the host controller to a logical entity on the device named an endpoint.
The term endpoint is occasionally used to incorrectly refer to the pipe.
A USB device can have up to 32 active pipes, 16 into the host controller and 16 out of the controller.
Each endpoint can transfer data in one direction only, either into or out of the device, so each pipe is uni-directional.
Endpoints are grouped into interfaces and each interface is associated with a single device function.
An exception to this is endpoint zero, which is used for device configuration and which is not associated with any interface.
When a USB device is first connected to a USB host, the USB device enumeration process is started.
The enumeration starts by sending a reset signal to the USB device.
The speed of the USB device is determined during the reset signaling.
After reset, the USB device's information is read by the host, then the device is assigned a unique 7-bit address.
If the device is supported by the host, the device drivers needed for communicating with the device are loaded and the device is set to a configured state.
If the USB host is restarted, the enumeration process is repeated for all connected devices.
Host controllers
The computer hardware that contains the host controller and the root hub has an interface for the programmer.
It is called Host Controller Device (HCD) and is defined by the hardware implementer.
For USB 1.0 and 1.1, there were two different HCD implementations, Open Host Controller Interface (OHCI) and Universal Host Controller Interface (UHCI).
OHCI was developed by Compaq, Microsoft and National Semiconductor, UHCI by Intel.
VIA Technologies licensed the UHCI standard from Intel; all other chipset implementers use OHCI.
UHCI relies more on software.
This means UHCI is slightly more processor-intensive than OHCI but easier and cheaper to make.
Because there were two different implementations, operating system vendors and hardware vendors  needed to develop and test on both of them.
This increased cost.
The USB specification does not specify any HCD interfaces and is not concerned with them.
In other words, USB defines the format of data transfer through the port, but not the system by which the USB hardware communicates with the computer it sits in.
During the design phase of USB 2.0, the USB-IF insisted  that there was only one implementation.
The USB 2.0 HCD implementation is called the Enhanced Host Controller Interface (EHCI).
Only EHCI can support hi-speed (480 Mbit/s) transfers.
Most of PCI-based EHCI controllers have other HCD implementations called 'companion host controller' to support Full Speed (12 Mbit/s) and may be used for any device that claims to be a member of a certain class.
An operating system is supposed to implement all device classes, so it can provide generic drivers for any USB device.
Device classes are decided upon by the Device Working Group of the USB Implementers Forum.
USB device classes
Use class information in the Interface Descriptors.
This base class is defined to be used in Device Descriptors to indicate that class information should be determined from the Interface Descriptors in the device.
Computer buses
Punk rock (or "punk") is a music genre and kind of rock music.
It is often described as harder, louder, and cruder than other rock music.
Many punk rock songs have lyrics (words) which tell angry stories or which use rude words.
About punk rock
Punk rock is a style of rock music.
Many musicians and punk rock music listeners ("punk rockers") want to protest or rebel against the norms or rules of society.
Punks say that people should "Do It Yourself", which means that people should try to accomplish their goals using the materials in their own communities.
Many punk bands make their own music recordings and distribute them without using a major record company.
Many punks have strong political beliefs.
Punk rock musicians are often mad at the government, the police, and laws.
Many punk rock songs protest injustice, lies, and unfairness in countries.
Almost all punks are leftists, who believe that a country should share the products and food that it produces with all the people in the country.
Some punks are vegetarian or vegans, because they believe that animals should not be killed for food.
Some punks are anarchists.
Very few punks are conservative, libertarian, or Republican.
Many punk musicians put colored hair dye in their hair or put gel to make it stand up.
They wear distinctive clothes as a form of protest or rebellion against the norms and rules of society.
Punk rock developed in New York City in the mid-1970s.
Bands like The Ramones, Television, The Heartbreakers, Blondie, joy division and Patti Smith played loud, angry songs.
Many bands played at a club called CBGB's.
The music soon spread to Australia and Britain, were bands started playing punk rock in 1976–1977.
British bands like Buzzcocks, The Clash, The Damned, Generation X, The Jam, and Sex Pistols played punk rock music that was inspired by the music being played in New York, as well as by garage rock, pub rock, and other protopunk music.
These early "punks" rejected the excesses of mainstream 1970s rock.
They created fast, hard-edged music, with short songs, stripped-down instrumentation, and often political, anti-establishment lyrics.
They often did controversial things, such as saying bad words in public.
Many newspapers wrote articles about the "bad" behavior of punk rock musicians.
In the 1980s, a new type of punk rock called "hardcore punk" or "hardcore" developed.
It was louder, harder, and faster than the original punk rock.
By the mid-1980s, hardcore punk rock began being mixed with Heavy Metal rock music.
Many hardcore bands began playing in the United States and in the UK.
In the 1990s, punk rock began being mixed with pop music to create a new lighter style of music called pop-punk.
Pop-punk bands include Green Day and Good Charlotte.
Some pop-punk bands mixed punk rock stars
Pop-punk was still popular in the 2000s.
Some people who like the 1970s-style punk rock criticize pop-punk because pop-punk is commercialized.
Some people say that punk rock is dead.
But that is not true, because the spirit lives on and many punk rockers are around today.
Notable artists
Johnny Thunders & The Heartbreakers
Richard Hell & The Voidoids
The Sex Pistols
Pop-punk
Edip Yüksel (born December 20, 1957 in Güroymak, Turkey) is an American thinker and activist.
He has written many books on the Qur'an and is very an influential figure in modern Islamic reform.
Yüksel was a student of Rashad Khalifa and was a member of his group United Submitters International.
He sometimes works as a legal researcher and a community college teacher, but is mostly a supporter to change the Islamic religion.
He lives in Tucson, Arizona.
Some works in English
The Prime Argument/Asal Tartışma (1995).
An argument with 2 "rounds", or parts, with Professor Carl Sagan on how the Qur'an is set up and what it means to the people who follow it.
Running Like Zebras (1995).
An Internet debate with Abdurrahman Lomax on how the Qur'an is set up.
Unorthodox Essays (1994).
A small book that has essays on loaning people money with unfair amounts to pay back, beating up wives, and abortion.
One of the essays, "Distinguished usury from interest" suggested a new way to translate for the verse 4:34 in the Qur'an.
Nineteen Questions for Christian Clergy/Hristiyan Din Adamlarına 19 Soru (1993–1999).
A study about the Christian religion and what is taught to people who are Christians.
Nineteen Questions for Muslim Clergy/Müslüman Din Adamlarına 19 Soru (1991).
Some questions to the leaders of the Muslim faith about how much power they should have and if what they teach is biased, or narrow-minded.
Edip Yüksel's official site
Online Quran Project includes the Qur'an translation by Edip Yüksel.
Turkish writers
Writers from Tucson, Arizona
Epididymitis is a painful inflammation of the epididymis, usually resulting from bacterial infection, but also occasionally caused by injury or viral infection.
Perth is the capital city of the state of Western Australia.
It is built on the banks of the Swan River.
Almost 2,1 million people live in the city.
It is the fourth biggest city in Australia, behind Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane.
Perth was founded in 1829 by Captain James Stirling.
Perth is famous for its beautiful white, sandy beaches.
Popular local beaches include Cottesloe and Scarborough.
These beaches are ideal for swimming and bodysurfing.
A popular local tourist attraction is Rottnest Island, which is populated by small native mammals called Quokkas.
Another famous attraction is Kings Park, which is one of the biggest city parks in the world.
Perth is a sister city with many other cities.
Sister cities can share students and business contacts.
Perth is a sister city to these cities:
Kagoshima, Japan
Rhodes, Greece
Megisti, Greece
Vasto, Italy
Nanjing, People's Republic of China
Chengdu, People's Republic of China
Perth is home to four public and one private university.
University of Notre Dame (Western Australia) (private)
Perth has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate.
It is the windiest city in Australia.
It is also considered to be the third windiest capital city in the world.
Perth is also the sunniest city in Australia.
Famous people from Perth
Amy Fuller, singer
1829 establishments
Osama bin Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden  ; 10 March 1957 2 May 2011) was the founder of al-Qaeda, the Sunni militant Islamist organization.
It claimed responsibility for the September 11 attacks on the United States.
It is also responsible of many other mass-casualty attacks against civilian and military targets.
He was a Saudi Arabian, a member of the wealthy bin Laden family, and an ethnic Yemeni Kindite.
He was born in the bin Laden family to billionaire Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden in Saudi Arabia.
He studied there in college until 1979, when he joined the mujahideen forces in Pakistan against the Soviets in Afghanistan.
He helped to fund the mujahideen by funneling arms, money and fighters from the Arab world into Afghanistan, also gaining popularity from many Arabs.
In 1988, he formed al-Qaeda.
He was banished from Saudi Arabia in 1992, and shifted his base to Sudan, until US pressure forced him to leave Sudan in 1996.
After establishing a new base in Afghanistan, he declared a war against the United States, initiating a series of bombings and related attacks.
Bin Laden was on the American Federal Bureau of Investigation's (FBI) lists of Ten Most Wanted Fugitives and Most Wanted Terrorists for his involvement in the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings.
From 2001 to 2011, bin Laden was a major target of the War on Terror, as the FBI placed a $25 million reward on him in their search for him.
On May 2, 2011, bin Laden was shot and killed inside a private residential compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, by members of the United States Naval Special Warfare Development Group and Central Intelligence Agency operatives in a covert operation ordered by U.S. President Barack Obama.
Beliefs and ideology
Bin Laden probably believed that the restoration of Sharia law would set things right in the Muslim world, and that all other ideologies—"pan-Arabism, socialism, communism, democracy"—must be opposed.
These beliefs, along with violent expansive jihad, have sometimes been called Qutbism.
He believed Afghanistan under the rule of Mullah Omar's Taliban was "the only Islamic country" in the Muslim world.
Bin Laden had consistently talked about his belief in the need for violent jihad to make right what he believed are injustices against Muslims perpetrated by the United States and sometimes by other non-Muslim states, the need to eliminate the state of Israel, and the necessity of forcing the US to withdraw from the Middle East.
He had also called on Americans to "reject the immoral acts of fornication and homosexuality, intoxicants (e.g. alcohol), gambling, and usury" in an October 2002 letter.
One of Bin Laden's most infamous beliefs was that civilians, including women and children, are legitimate targets of jihad.
Bin Laden was antisemitic, and had delivered warnings against alleged Jewish conspiracies: "These Jews are masters of usury and leaders in treachery.
They will leave you nothing, either in this world or the next".