the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_embeddings huggingface dataset:
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 Between midnight and 8:00 a.m. on June 3, 1961, someone broke into the Bay Harbor Pool Room in Panama City, Florida.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 The person broke a door, smashed a cigarette machine and a record player, and stole coins from a cash register.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 Later that day, a witness said he had seen Clarence Earl Gideon in the pool room at around 5:30 that morning.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 Based only on this information, the police arrested Gideon and charged him with breaking and entering with intent to commit petty larceny.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 In Florida, at the time, "petty" larceny meant that the person stole something that was worth less than $50.)
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 In this case, the Court ruled that if a defendant was charged with a capital crime, he had to be be assigned a lawyer if he could not pay for one.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 However, as long as the defendant was not charged with a capital crime, the states did not have to assign free lawyers to every defendant who could not afford them.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 In their decision, the Court did rule that there were special cases where a court should assign a lawyer.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 In these special cases, not having a lawyer would make it difficult for a defendant to get a fair trial.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 These "specialized circumstances" included things like a defendant not having education or not knowing the rules of the court.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 What this meant was that in 1961, throughout the state of Florida, most defendants did not have lawyers.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 A Florida lawyer remembers that "[before] 1963, lawyers were likely to appear in Florida courtrooms only for the wealthy."
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 The Florida Supreme Court summarily denied his request  meaning they refused to even hold a court hearing or hear Gideon's arguments.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 From his prison cell, using the prison library and writing in pencil on prison paper, Gideon then appealed to the United States Supreme Court.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 He asked the Supreme Court to review his case "because the 'due process clause' of the fourteenth admendment of the constitution and the fifth and sixth articales of the Bill of rights has been violated" sic.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 In Betts v. Brady, the Supreme Court had ruled that the Sixth Amendment did not apply to the states.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 The Fourteenth Amendment says that no state can take away any person's "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws."
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 Gideon argued that without assigning lawyers to poor defendants, the state of Florida was not giving those defendants due process or equal protection under the laws.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 They had already decided that under the Sixth Amendment, everyone accused of a crime in federal court had the right to have a lawyer, even if they could not pay for one.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 Now they needed to decide whether the Sixth Amendment applied to the states like it did to the federal government.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 He argued that under the Fourteenth Amendment's "due process" requirement, the states had to give a person a fair trial before taking away their freedom.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 By denying Gideon a lawyer, the state of Florida denied him a fair trial and violated his right to due process under the Fourteenth Amendment.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 Jacob argued that the Constitution allows states to make their own rules about the criminal procedure (how to run criminal trials).
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 He talked about federalism  the separation of powers between federal and state governments that is written into the Constitution.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 By making a rule saying the states always had to give poor defendants free lawyers, the federal government would be over-stepping its powers.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 The states would be unable to make their own rules, and this would take away a right the Constitution gave to the states.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 He said that judges, and even prosecutors, help protect the rights of people who defend themselves in court.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 If the Court ruled that a lawyer was needed for a fair trial, then the state would also have to give poor defendants free lawyers for other types of trials, like appeals and civil trials.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 If a person does not get a fair trial, they are not getting the "due process of law" that the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 In other words, because people have the right to due process, they have the right to a fair trial; and because they cannot get a fair trial without a lawyer, they also have the right to a lawyer.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 This ruling overturned the Supreme Court's earlier decision in Betts v. Brady (meaning the Betts decision was no longer valid).
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 Almost thirteen years later, the American Civil Liberties Union paid for a headstone to be put on Gideon's grave.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 On the gravestone, there is a quote based on something Gideon wrote in a letter to Abe Fortas: "I believe that each era finds an improvement in law for the benefit of mankind.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 Based on the Supreme Court decision, each of Florida's 5,200 prisoners who had been convicted without counsel had the right to a new trial  this time with a lawyer.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 This happened because witnesses in their cases had died or moved away, and the state of Florida did not have enough evidence to try them again.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 The same year Gideon was decided, the Florida state legislature set up their public defender system.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 When Gideon was decided, there were still 13 states that did not always give lawyers to poor criminal defendants.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 Like in Florida, many of these poor defendants did not get fair trials because they did not have a lawyer's help.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 After the Gideon decision, every person who is charged with a crime, in any court in the United States, has the right to a lawyer  even if they cannot pay for one.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 Defendants can decide they do not want a lawyer, but when they do that, they are giving up their right to a lawyer because they want to.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 Four years after Gideon, in a case called Burget v. Texas, the Supreme Court ruled that the Gideon decision applied "retroactively."
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 In other words, the Court was admitting that defendants should have had the right to counsel all along, even before Gideon.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 The Court decided in Gideon that people could not get a fair trial without lawyers; that was just as true for people who were convicted before 1963.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 The Gideon decision still guarantees free counsel to every poor individual charged with a crime in the United States.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 However, many legal scholars agree that there are many problems with the public defender system in the 21st century.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 Because of these problems, they argue, many poor defendants are not getting the rights the Gideon decision gave them.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 According to these scholars, one of the biggest problems with today's public defender programs is that they do not get enough money from the government to deal with the number of poor defendants they have to represent.
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 When lawyers have too many cases, they have very little time to work on each case, and they cannot do their jobs as well
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 These lawyers are not paid well, and because their jobs are also very stressful, many lawyers do not stay in public defender jobs for long
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 Many poor defendants are given free counsel at trial, then later are told they have to pay for the lawyer's services
Gideon v. Wainwright 
 When public defenders cannot do their jobs well because they have too many cases, have too little experience, or are too overwhelmed, defendants get more severe punishments when they are convicted.
Radical Face 
 Radical Face is a musical act whose main member is Ben Cooper, who sings and plays multiple instruments.
Radical Face 
 The Family Tree: The Branches was released on October 22, 2013 in America and on November 1 in Europe.
Radical Face 
 The Bastards: Volume Three and The Bastards: Volume Four were both released in 2015, before the release of The Family Tree: The Leaves in March 2016.
Radical Face 
 Clone, an album by Ben Cooper and Richard Colado, was supposed to be released before fall of 2012, but it kept getting delayed.
2015–16 La Liga 
 The 2015–16 La Liga season (known as the Liga BBVA for sponsorship reasons) is the 85th since its establishment.
Test case (law) 
 An example of a test case might be a person who files a lawsuit in order to see if the court considers a certain law or a certain legal precedent applies in certain circumstances.
Strict scrutiny 
 It is part of the hierarchy of standards that courts use to weigh the government's interest against a constitutional right or principle.
Strict scrutiny 
 These standards are used to test statutes and government action at all levels of government within the United States.
Strict scrutiny 
 The idea of "levels of judicial scrutiny", including strict scrutiny, was introduced in United States v. Carolene Products Co. (1938), one of a series of decisions testing the constitutionality of New Deal legislation.
Strict scrutiny 
 The first and most notable case in which the Supreme Court applied the strict scrutiny standard and found the government's actions valid was Korematsu v. United States (1944).
Strict scrutiny 
 In Korematsu the Court upheld the government ruling 6-3 that the need to protect the country from espionage outweighed the rights of Mr. Korematsu.
Strict scrutiny 
 U.S. courts apply the strict scrutiny standard in two contexts: when a fundamental constitutional right is infringed, particularly those found in the Bill of Rights and those the court has deemed a fundamental right protected by the Due Process Clause or "liberty clause" of the 14th Amendment, or when a government action applies to a "suspect classification," such as race or national origin.
Strict scrutiny 
 While the Courts have never clearly defined how to determine if an interest is compelling, the concept generally refers to something necessary or crucial.
Strict scrutiny 
 Examples include national security, preserving the lives of multiple individuals, and not violating explicit constitutional protections.
Strict scrutiny 
 If the government action includes too much (overbroad) or fails to address important parts of the compelling interest, then the rule is not considered narrowly tailored.
Strict scrutiny 
 That is, there cannot be a less restrictive way to effectively achieve the compelling government interest.
Strict scrutiny 
 Some legal scholars consider this "least restrictive means" requirement part of being narrowly tailored, though the Court generally evaluates it separately.
Cancer of unknown primary origin 
 Cancer of unknown primary origin (CUP, "occult cancer") is a term used to describe a cancer that is said to be at the metastatic stage at the time of diagnosis, but a primary tumor cannot be identified.
Cancer of unknown primary origin 
 A diagnosis of CUP requires a clinical picture  with metastatic disease and one or more biopsy results inconsistent with a primary tumor.
Cancer of unknown primary origin 
 CUP is found in about 3 to 5% of all people diagnosed with invasive cancer, and carries a poor prognosis in most (80 to 85%) of those circumstances.
Cancer of unknown primary origin 
 The other 15 to 20% of patients, however, have a relatively long survival with appropriate treatment.
Joe Garagiola, Sr. 
 February 12, 1926 – March 23, 2016) was an American professional baseball catcher and later an announcer and television host.
Joe Garagiola, Sr. 
 Garagiola played nine seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the St. Louis Cardinals, Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago Cubs and the New York Giants.
Joe Garagiola, Sr. 
 He was also well known outside of baseball for having been one of the regular panelists on The Today Show for many years and for his many appearances on game shows both as a host and panelist.
Joe Garagiola, Sr. 
 Joe Garagiola hosting "Monitor" on the NBC Radio Network, Saturday, February 22, 1969, from 3 to 4 p.m. ET
Phife Dawg 
 Malik Isaac Taylor (November 20, 1970 – March 22, 2016), better known by his stage name Phife Dawg (or simply Phife), was an American rapper.
Phife Dawg 
 He was a member of the group A Tribe Called Quest with high school classmates Q-Tip and Ali Shaheed Muhammad (and for a short time Jarobi White).
Peter Brown (actor) 
 He was known for his four-year role as young Deputy Johnny McKay in the 1958 to 1962 ABC/Warner Brothers western television series, Lawman and as Texas Ranger Chad Cooper on Laredo from 1965 to 1967.
Peter Brown (actor) 
 Brown died on March 21, 2016 in Phoenix, Arizona from complications of Parkinson's disease, aged 80.
Glen Dawson 
 Glen Dawson (June 3, 1912 – March 22, 2016) was an American rock climber, mountaineer, antiquarian bookseller, publisher and environmentalist.
Glen Dawson 
 On July 6, 1930, during the Sierra Club's annual High Trip, he first teamed up with Jules Eichorn to make the third ascent of Red-and-White Mountain in the Sierra.
Jimmy Riley 
 Martin James Norman Riley (22 May 1954 – 23 March 2016), better known as Jimmy Riley, was a Jamaican singer.
Jimmy Riley 
 In September 2013 he released the album Contradiction, that featured guest appearances from his son Tarrus, Sizzla, and Fantan Mojah.
Carolyn Squires 
 Squires was a member of the Montana House of Representatives for the 96th district from 2010 to 2015.
Carolyn Squires 
 From 2002 to 2010, she was a member of the Montana Senate, representing District 48, where she served as Majority Whip.
Missoula, Montana 
 the United States Census Bureau estimated the city's population at 69,821 and the population of the Missoula Metropolitan Area at 112,684.
Santiago J. Erevia 
 Erevia worked as a mail carrier for the United States Postal Service, retiring in 2002 after thirty-two years of service.
Santiago J. Erevia 
 Erevia was awarded the Medal of Honor by President Barack Obama in a March 18, 2014 ceremony at the White House.
EDVAC 
 Functionally, EDVAC was a binary serial computer with automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication, programmed division and automatic checking with a capacity of 1,000 44-bit words.
EDVAC 
 EDVAC's average addition time was 864 microseconds and its average multiplication time was 2,900 microseconds.
Naked singularity 
 In general relativity, a naked singularity is a gravitational singularity that is viewable from the outside.
Naked singularity 
 Inside the event horizon, the pull of the light cannot escape, so we are unable to view objects inside the event horizon.
Naked singularity 
 The existence of naked singularities is a very important topic in physics, because it would mean we could actually see phenomena made by black holes that we wouldn't be able to see otherwise.
Naked singularity 
 In addition, naked singularities would pose big problems for general relativity, since scientists still have not figured out a working idea for what happens to space-time in and around a black hole.
Naked singularity 
 Quantum mechanics, the main other scientific theory scientists turn to in physics, is also unable to explain how space-time would behave in such a situation.
Naked singularity 
 Although the cosmic censorship hypothesis says that naked singularities cannot exist, some research says that if loop quantum gravity (a scientific theory that says the universe is made of small 'loops') is correct, naked singularities could exist in nature.
Naked singularity 
 If it spins faster than that maximum, its horizon disappears, leaving the singularity inside it wide open.
Naked singularity 
 M. C. Werner and A. O. Peters, "Magnification relations for Kerr lensing and testing cosmic censorship", Physical Review D, Vol.
Civil Rights Cases 
 The Civil Rights Cases , were a group of five similar cases consolidated into one issue for the United States Supreme Court to review.
Civil Rights Cases 
 The Court held that Congress lacked the constitutional authority under the Fourteenth Amendment to outlaw racial discrimination by private individuals and organizations, rather than state and local governments.
Civil Rights Cases 
 The Court held that the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which provided that "all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations, advantages, facilities, and privileges of inns, public conveyances on land or water, theaters, and other places of public amusement; subject only to the conditions and limitations established by law, and applicable alike to citizens of every race and color, regardless of any previous condition of servitude" was unconstitutional.
Civil Rights Cases 
 The decision itself involved five consolidated cases (United States v. Stanley, United States v. Ryan, United States v. Nichols, United States v. Singleton, and Robinson v. Memphis & Charleston Railroad 109 U.S. 3, 3 S. Ct.
Civil Rights Cases 
 coming from different lower courts in which Black Americans had sued theaters, hotels and transit companies that had refused them service or excluded them from "white only" facilities.
Civil Rights Cases 
 The Court, in an 8-1 decision by Justice Joseph P. Bradley, held that the language of the 14th Amendment, which prohibited denial of equal protection by a state, did not give Congress power to regulate these private acts.
Civil Rights Cases 
 This was because it was the result of conduct by private individuals, not state law or action, that blacks were suffering.
Civil Rights Cases 
 Legislation by Congress on subjects which are within the domain of the state are not authorized by the 14th Amendment.
Civil Rights Cases 
 Private acts of racial discrimination were simply private wrongs that the national government was powerless to correct.
Civil Rights Cases 
 Bradley commented that "individual invasion of individual rights is not the subject-matter of the [14th] Amendment.
Civil Rights Cases 
 It nullifies and makes void all state legislation, and state action of every kind, which impairs the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, or which injures them in life, liberty or property without due process of law, or which denies to any of them the equal protection of the laws."
Civil Rights Cases 
 The Court also acknowledged that the 13th Amendment does apply to private actors, but only to the extent that it prohibits people from owning slaves, not exhibiting discriminatory behavior.
Civil Rights Cases 
 The Court said that "it would be running the slavery argument into the ground to make it apply to every act of discrimination which a person may see fit to make as to guests he will entertain, or as to the people he will take into his coach or cab or car; or admit to his concert or theatre, or deal with in other matters of intercourse or business."
Civil Rights Cases 
 Many African-American leaders were outraged and disappointed that the Supreme Court declared the first two sections of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to be unconstitutional.
Civil Rights Cases 
 On October 20, 1883, T. Thomas Fortune, the editor of the New York Globe wrote: "The colored people of the United States feel to-day as if they had been baptized in ice water".
Civil Rights Cases 
 Many felt it was the end of an era in which the Federal government would protect the rights of African-American citizens.
Civil Rights Cases 
 The Supreme Court decision severely restricted the power of the federal government to guarantee equal status under the law to blacks.
Civil Rights Cases 
 State officials in the South took advantage of the decision and began to enact laws that legalized the treatment of blacks as second-class citizens for another seventy years.
Civil Rights Cases 
 The court's decision thus ultimately led to the enactment of state laws, such as Jim Crow laws, which made racial segregation the law.
United States Statutes at Large 
 The United States Statutes at Large, commonly referred to as the Statutes at Large and abbreviated Stat.,
United States Statutes at Large 
 is the official record of Acts of Congress and concurrent resolutions passed by the United States Congress.
United States Statutes at Large 
 Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law (abbreviated Pub.
United States Statutes at Large 
 At the end of a Congress session, slip laws (now commonly called session laws) are compiled into Statutes at Large, which are numbered and organised by Congress session.
United States Statutes at Large 
 They are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws (Statutes at Large), and codification (United States Code).
Civil Rights Act of 1875 
 The Civil Rights Act of 1875 (–337), sometimes called Enforcement Act or Force Act, was a United States federal law enacted during the Reconstruction era to guarantee African Americans equal treatment in public accommodations, public transportation, and to prevent being excluded from jury duty.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 
 The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 
 Several years later, the Supreme Court ruled in Civil Rights Cases (1883) that sections of the act were unconstitutional.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 
 It was with the assistance of John Mercer Langston, a prominent African-American who established the law department at Howard University.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 
 The bill was proposed by Senator Sumner and co-sponsored by Representative Benjamin F. Butler, both Republicans from Massachusetts, in the 41st United States Congress in 1870.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 
 The act was eventually passed by the 43rd Congress in February 1875 and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 
 The Supreme Court, in an 8 to 1 decision, declared the act unconstitutional in the Civil Rights Cases on October 15, 1883.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 
 The Court held the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination by the state and local government, but it does not give the federal government the power to prohibit discrimination by private individuals and organizations.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 
 The Court also held that the Thirteenth Amendment was meant to eliminate "the badge of slavery," but not to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 
 The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last civil rights bill to be signed into law in the United States until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 
 The Civil Rights Act of 1875 is notable as one of the major pieces of legislation related to Reconstruction that were passed by Congress after the American Civil War.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 
 These include the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the four Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and 1868, the three Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871, and the three Constitutional Amendments adopted between 1865 and 1870.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 
 Provisions contained in the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later adopted by Congress during the Civil Rights Movement as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 
 This legislation relied on the Commerce Clause contained in Article One of the Constitution of the United States.
Garner v. Louisiana 
 Garner v. Louisiana, , was an important civil rights case argued by Thurgood Marshall before the Supreme Court.
Garner v. Louisiana 
 On December 11, 1961, the court unanimously ruled that Louisiana could not convict peaceful sit-in protesters who refused to leave dining establishments under the state's "disturbing the peace" laws.