the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_embeddings huggingface dataset:
Pontiac's War 
 The most common view among scholars today is that, rather than being planned in advance, the uprising spread as word of Pontiac's actions at Detroit traveled throughout the pays d'en haut, inspiring already discontented Native Americans to join the revolt.
Pontiac's War 
 The attacks on British forts did not happen at the same time: most Ohio Native Americans did not enter the war until nearly a month after the beginning of Pontiac's siege at Detroit.
Pontiac's War 
 Parkman also believed that Pontiac's War had been secretly instigated by French colonists who were stirring up the Native Americans in order to make trouble for the British.
Pontiac's War 
 This belief was widely held by British officials at the time, but historians have found no evidence of official French involvement in the uprising. (
Pontiac's War 
 The rumor of French instigation arose in part because French war belts from the Seven Years' War were still in circulation in some Native villages.)
Pontiac's War 
 Rather than the French stirring up the Native Americans, some historians now argue that the Native Americans were trying to stir up the French.
Pontiac's War 
 Pontiac and other native leaders frequently spoke about the fact that French power was about to return.
Pontiac's War 
 When this happened, the Franco-Native alliance would be revived; Pontiac even flew a French flag in his village.
Pontiac's War 
 All of this was apparently intended to inspire the French to rejoin the struggle against the British.
Pontiac's War 
 Although some French colonists and traders supported the uprising, the war was initiated and conducted by Native Americans who had Native—not French—objectives.
Pontiac's War 
 Historian Richard Middleton (2007) argues that Pontiac's vision, courage, persistence, and organizational abilities allowed him to activate a remarkable coalition of Indian nations prepared to fight successfully against the British.
Pontiac's War 
 The idea to gain independence for all Native Americans west of the Allegheny Mountains did not originate with Pontiac, but with two Seneca leaders, Tahaiadoris and Guyasuta.
Pontiac's War 
 At an emergency council meeting, Pontiac clarified his military support of the broad Seneca plan and worked to motivate other nations to join the military operation that he helped lead.
Pontiac's War 
 He achieved this coordination through the distribution of war belts: first to the northern Ojibwa and Ottawa near Michilimackinac; and then after the failure to seize Detroit by stratagem, to the Mingo (Seneca) on the upper Allegheny River, the Ohio Delaware near Fort Pitt, and the more westerly Miami, Kickapoo, Piankashaw and Wea peoples.
Pontiac's War 
 On April 27, 1763, Pontiac spoke at a council on the banks of the Ecorse River, in what is now Lincoln Park, Michigan, about 10 miles (15 km) southwest of Detroit.
Pontiac's War 
 Using the teachings of Neolin, Pontiac convinced a number of Ottawas, Ojibwas, Potawatomis, and Hurons to join him in an attempt to seize Fort Detroit.
Pontiac's War 
 According to a French chronicler, in a second council Pontiac proclaimed:It is important for us, my brothers, that we exterminate from our lands this nation which seeks only to destroy us.
Pontiac's War 
 You see as well as I that we can no longer supply our needs, as we have done from our brothers, the French.... Therefore, my brothers, we must all swear their destruction and wait no longer.
Pontiac's War 
 Hoping to take the stronghold by surprise, on May 7 Pontiac entered Fort Detroit with about 300 men carrying concealed weapons.
Pontiac's War 
 Pontiac and his allies killed all of the British soldiers and settlers they could find outside of the fort, including women and children.
Pontiac's War 
 One of the soldiers was ritually cannibalized, as was the custom in some Great Lakes Native cultures.
Pontiac's War 
 Meanwhile, on May 28, a British supply from Fort Niagara led by Lieutenant Abraham Cuyler was ambushed and defeated at Point Pelee.
Pontiac's War 
 After receiving reinforcements, the British attempted to make a surprise attack on Pontiac's encampment.
Pontiac's War 
 Groups of Native Americans began to abandon the siege, some of them making peace with the British before departing.
Pontiac's War 
 On October 31, 1763, finally convinced that the French in Illinois would not come to his aid at Detroit, Pontiac lifted the siege and removed to the Maumee River, where he continued his efforts to rally resistance against the British.
Pontiac's War 
 Before other British outposts had learned about Pontiac's siege at Detroit, Native Americans captured five small forts in a series of attacks between May 16 and June 2.
Pontiac's War 
 It had been built in 1761 by order of General Amherst, despite the objections of local Wyandots, who in 1762 warned the commander that they would soon burn it down.
Pontiac's War 
 On May 16, 1763, a group of Wyandots gained entry under the pretense of holding a council, the same stratagem that had failed in Detroit nine days earlier.
Pontiac's War 
 The dead were ritually scalped and the fort—as the Wyandots had warned a year earlier—was burned to the ground.
Pontiac's War 
 Fort St. Joseph (the site of present-day Niles, Michigan) was captured on May 25, 1763, by the same method as at Sandusky.
Pontiac's War 
 On May 27, 1763, the commander was lured out of the fort by his Native mistress and shot dead by Miami Native Americans.
Pontiac's War 
 In the Illinois Country, , Kickapoos, and Mascoutens took Fort Ouiatenon (about  west of present Lafayette, Indiana) on June 1, 1763.
Pontiac's War 
 The Native Americans around Fort Ouiatenon had good relations with the British garrison, but emissaries from Pontiac at Detroit had convinced them to strike.
Pontiac's War 
 The warriors apologized to the commander for taking the fort, saying that "they were obliged to do it by the other Nations."
Pontiac's War 
 The fifth fort to fall, Fort Michilimackinac (present Mackinaw City, Michigan), was the largest fort taken by surprise.
Pontiac's War 
 On June 2, 1763, local Ojibwas staged a game of stickball (a forerunner of lacrosse) with visiting Sauks.
Pontiac's War 
 The ball was hit through the open gate of the fort; the teams rushed in and were given weapons which Native women had smuggled into the fort.
Pontiac's War 
 The warriors killed about 15 of the 35-man garrison in the struggle; later they killed five more in ritual torture.
Pontiac's War 
 Iroquois Senecas took Fort Venango (near the site of the present Franklin, Pennsylvania) around June 16, 1763.
Pontiac's War 
 They killed the entire 12-man garrison, keeping the commander alive to write down the grievances of the Senecas.
Pontiac's War 
 Possibly the same Seneca warriors attacked Fort Le Boeuf (on the site of Waterford, Pennsylvania) on June 18, but most of the 12-man garrison escaped to Fort Pitt.
Pontiac's War 
 On June 19, 1763, about 250 Ottawa, Ojibwa, Wyandot, and Seneca warriors surrounded Fort Presque Isle (on the site of Erie, Pennsylvania), the eighth and final fort to fall.
Pontiac's War 
 After holding out for two days, the garrison of about 30 to 60 men surrendered, on the condition that they could return to Fort Pitt.
Pontiac's War 
 Simeon Ecuyer, the Swiss-born British officer in command, wrote:  "We are so crowded in the fort that I fear disease...; the smallpox is among us."
Pontiac's War 
 In the meantime, war parties raided deep into Pennsylvania, taking prisoners and killing unknown numbers of settlers in scattered farms.
Pontiac's War 
 Meanwhile, Delaware and Shawnee war parties raided deep into Pennsylvania, taking captives and killing unknown numbers of settlers in scattered farms.
Pontiac's War 
 Two smaller strongholds that linked Fort Pitt to the east, Fort Bedford and Fort Ligonier, were fired upon throughout the conflict, but were never taken.
Pontiac's War 
 Before the war, Amherst did not believe that the  Native Americans would offer any effective resistance to British rule.
Pontiac's War 
 To Colonel Henry Bouquet at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, who was preparing to lead an expedition to relieve Fort Pitt, Amherst wrote on about June 29, 1763: "Could it not be contrived to send the smallpox among the disaffected tribes of Indians?
Pontiac's War 
 P.S. I will try to inocculate [sic] the Indians by means of Blankets that may fall in their hands, taking care however not to get the disease myself.
Pontiac's War 
 As it is pity to oppose good men against them, I wish we could make use of the Spaniard's Method, and hunt them with English Dogs.
Pontiac's War 
 Supported by Rangers, and some Light Horse, who would I think effectively extirpate or remove that Vermine.
Pontiac's War 
 P.S. You will Do well to try to Innoculate [sic] the Indians by means of Blankets, as well as to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execrable Race.
Pontiac's War 
 I should be very glad your Scheme for Hunting them Down by Dogs could take Effect, but England is at too great a Distance to think of that at present.
Pontiac's War 
 Officers at the besieged Fort Pitt had already attempted to do what Amherst and Bouquet were discussing.
Pontiac's War 
 During a parley at Fort Pitt on June 24, 1763, Ecuyer gave Delaware representatives, Turtleheart and Mamaltee, two blankets and a handkerchief that had been exposed to smallpox, hoping to spread the disease to the Native Americans in order to "extirpate" them from the territory.
Pontiac's War 
 William Trent, the militia commander, left records that showed the purpose of giving the blankets was "to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians."
Pontiac's War 
 On July 22, Trent writes, "Gray Eyes, Wingenum, Turtle's Heart and Mamaultee, came over the River told us their Chiefs were in Council, that they waited for Custaluga who they expected that Day".
Pontiac's War 
 There are eyewitness reports that outbreaks of smallpox and other diseases had plagued the Ohio Native Americans in the years before the siege of Fort Pitt.
Pontiac's War 
 Colonists also caught smallpox from Native Americans at a peace conference in 1759 which then led to an epidemic in Charleston and the surrounding areas in South Carolina.
Pontiac's War 
 Historian Francis Jennings concluded that the attempt was "unquestionably successful and effective" and inflicted great damage to the Native Americans.
Pontiac's War 
 Historian Michael McConnell writes that, "Ironically, British efforts to use pestilence as a weapon may not have been either necessary or particularly effective", noting that smallpox was already entering the territory by several means, and Native Americans were familiar with the disease and good at isolating the infected.
Pontiac's War 
 It is estimated that 400,000–500,000 (possibly up to 1.5 million) Native Americans died during and years after the Pontiac's War, mostly from smallpox,
Pontiac's War 
 On August 1, 1763, most of the Native Americans broke off the siege at Fort Pitt in order to intercept 500 British troops marching to the fort under Colonel Bouquet.
Pontiac's War 
 Although his force suffered heavy casualties, Bouquet fought off the attack and relieved Fort Pitt on August 20, bringing the siege to an end.
Pontiac's War 
 His victory at Bushy Run was celebrated in the British colonies—church bells rang through the night in Philadelphia—and praised by King George.
Pontiac's War 
 Fort Niagara, one of the most important western forts, was not assaulted, but on September 14, 1763, at least 300 Senecas, Ottawas, and Ojibwas attacked a supply train along the Niagara Falls portage.
Pontiac's War 
 More than 70 soldiers and teamsters were killed in these actions, which Anglo-Americans called the "Devil's Hole Massacre", the deadliest engagement for British soldiers during the war.
Pontiac's War 
 The violence and terror of Pontiac's War convinced many western Pennsylvanians that their government was not doing enough to protect them.
Pontiac's War 
 This discontent was manifested most seriously in an uprising led by a vigilante group that came to be known as the Paxton Boys.
Pontiac's War 
 They had this name because they were primarily from the area around the Pennsylvania village of Paxton (or Paxtang).
Pontiac's War 
 The Paxtonians turned their anger towards Native Americans—many of them Christians—who lived peacefully in small enclaves in the midst of white Pennsylvania settlements.
Pontiac's War 
 Prompted by rumors that a Native war party had been seen at the Native village of Conestoga, on December 14, 1763, a group of more than 50 Paxton Boys marched on the village and murdered the six Susquehannocks they found there.
Pontiac's War 
 Pennsylvania officials placed the remaining 16 Susquehannocks in protective custody in Lancaster, but on December 27 the Paxton Boys broke into the jail and slaughtered most of them.
Pontiac's War 
 Governor John Penn issued bounties for the arrest of the murderers, but no one came forward to identify them.
Pontiac's War 
 The Paxton Boys then set their sights on other Native Americans living within eastern Pennsylvania, many of whom fled to Philadelphia for protection.
Pontiac's War 
 Several hundred Paxtonians marched on Philadelphia in January 1764, where the presence of British troops and Philadelphia militia prevented them from committing more violence.
Pontiac's War 
 Benjamin Franklin, who had helped organize the local militia, negotiated with the Paxton leaders and brought an end to the immediate crisis.
Pontiac's War 
 One leader of the Paxton Boys was Lazarus Stewart who would be killed in the Wyoming Massacre of 1778.
Pontiac's War 
 In spring and summer of 11764, there were more Native American raids on frontier settlements that usual.
Pontiac's War 
 In July, four Delaware Indian soldiers killed and scalped a school teacher and ten children in what is now Franklin County, Pennsylvania.
Pontiac's War 
 Incidents such as these prompted the Pennsylvania Assembly, with the approval of Governor Penn, to reintroduce the scalp bounties offered during the French and Indian War: money was paid for every Native killed above the age of ten, including women.
Pontiac's War 
 In 1764, Gage sent two expeditions into the west to crush the rebellion, rescue British prisoners, and arrest the Native Americans responsible for the war.
Pontiac's War 
 According to historian Fred Anderson, Gage's campaign, which had been designed by Amherst, prolonged the war for more than a year because it focused on punishing the Native Americans rather than ending the war.
Pontiac's War 
 Gage's one significant departure from Amherst's plan was to allow William Johnson to conduct a peace treaty at Niagara, giving those Native Americans who were ready to "bury the hatchet" a chance to do so.
Pontiac's War 
 Although most Iroquois had stayed out of the war, Senecas from the Genesee River valley had taken up arms against the British, and Johnson worked to bring them back into the Covenant Chain alliance.
Pontiac's War 
 As restitution for the Devil's Hole ambush, the Senecas were compelled to cede the strategically important Niagara portage to the British.
Pontiac's War 
 This Iroquois expedition captured a number of Delawares and destroyed abandoned Delaware and Shawnee towns in the Susquehanna Valley, but otherwise the Iroquois did not contribute to the war effort as much as Johnson had desired.
Pontiac's War 
 After they had secured the area around Fort Niagara, the British launched two military expeditions into the west.
Pontiac's War 
 The first expedition, led by Colonel John Bradstreet, was to travel by boat across Lake Erie and reinforce Detroit.
Pontiac's War 
 Bradstreet was to subdue the Native Americans around Detroit before marching south into the Ohio Country.
Pontiac's War 
 The second expedition, commanded by Colonel Bouquet, was to march west from Fort Pitt and form a second front in the Ohio Country.
Pontiac's War 
 Bradstreet set out from Fort Schlosser in early August 1764 with about 1,200 soldiers and a large contingent of Native allies enlisted by Sir William Johnson.
Pontiac's War 
 When strong winds on Lake Erie forced him to stop at Presque Isle on August 12, he decided to negotiate a treaty with a delegation of Ohio Native Americans led by Guyasuta instead.
Pontiac's War 
 Bradstreet exceeded his authority by conducting a peace treaty rather than a simple truce, and by agreeing to halt Bouquet's expedition, which had not yet left Fort Pitt.
Pontiac's War 
 Gage rejected the treaty, believing that Bradstreet had been convinced to abandoning his offensive in the Ohio Country.
Pontiac's War 
 Gage may have been correct: the Ohio Native Americans did not return prisoners as promised in a second meeting with Bradstreet in September, and some Shawnees were trying to enlist French aid in order to continue the war.
Pontiac's War 
 In an attempt to discredit Pontiac, who was not present, Bradstreet chopped up a peace belt the Ottawa leader had sent to the meeting.
Pontiac's War 
 According to historian Richard White, "such an act, roughly equivalent to a European ambassador's urinating on a proposed treaty, had shocked and offended the gathered Indians."
Pontiac's War 
 Bradstreet also claimed that the Native Americans had accepted British sovereignty as a result of his negotiations, but Johnson believed that this had not been fully explained to the Native Americans and that further councils would be needed.
Pontiac's War 
 Although Bradstreet had successfully reinforced and reoccupied British forts in the region, his diplomacy proved to be controversial and inconclusive.
Pontiac's War 
 He marched to the Muskingum River in the Ohio Country, within striking distance of a number of native villages.
Pontiac's War 
 Now that treaties had been negotiated at Fort Niagara and Fort Detroit, the Ohio Native Americans were isolated and, with some exceptions, ready to make peace.
Pontiac's War 
 In a council which began on October 17, Bouquet demanded that the Ohio Native Americans return all captives, including those not yet returned from the French and Indian War.
Pontiac's War 
 Guyasuta and other leaders reluctantly handed over more than 200 captives, many of whom had been adopted into Native families.
Pontiac's War 
 Because not all of the captives were present, the Native Americans were compelled to surrender hostages as a guarantee that the other captives would be returned.
Pontiac's War 
 The Ohio Native Americans agreed to attend a more formal peace conference with William Johnson, which was finalized in July 1765.
Pontiac's War 
 Some Native Americans still called for resistance in the Illinois Country, where British troops had yet to take possession of Fort de Chartres from the French.
Pontiac's War 
 A Shawnee war chief named Charlot Kaské emerged as the most strident anti-British leader in the region, temporarily surpassing Pontiac in influence.
Pontiac's War 
 In 1765, the British decided that the occupation of the Illinois Country could only be accomplished by diplomatic means.
Pontiac's War 
 As Gage commented to one of his officers, he was determined to have "none our enemy" among the Indian peoples, and that included Pontiac, to whom he now sent a wampum belt suggesting peace talks.
Pontiac's War 
 Pontiac had by now become less militant after hearing of Bouquet's truce with the Ohio country Native Americans.
Pontiac's War 
 Even thogh he was injured along the way in an attack by Kickapoos and Mascoutens, he managed to meet and negotiate with Pontiac.
Pontiac's War 
 While Charlot Kaské wanted to burn Croghan at the stake, Pontiac urged moderation and agreed to travel to New York, where he made a formal treaty with William Johnson at Fort Ontario on July 25, 1766.
Pontiac's War 
 Rather than accept British sovereignty, Kaské left British territory by crossing the Mississippi River with other French and Native refugees.
Pontiac's War 
 About 400 British soldiers were killed in action and perhaps 50 were captured and tortured to death.
Pontiac's War 
 George Croghan estimated that 2,000 settlers had been killed or captured, a figure sometimes repeated as 2,000 settlers killed.
Pontiac's War 
 The violence compelled approximately 4,000 settlers from Pennsylvania and Virginia to flee from their homes.
Pontiac's War 
 Scholars now usually view it as a military stalemate: while the Native Americans had failed to drive away the British, the British were unable to conquer the Native Americans.
Pontiac's War 
 Negotiation and accommodation, rather than success on the battlefield, ultimately brought an end to the war.
Pontiac's War 
 The Native Americans had in fact won a victory of sorts: They forced the British government to abandon Amherst's policies and instead create a relationship with the Native Americans modeled on the Franco-Native alliance.
Pontiac's War 
 Relations between British colonists and Native Americans, which had been severely strained during the French and Indian War, reached a new low during Pontiac's Rebellion.
Pontiac's War 
 According to historian David Dixon, "Pontiac's War was unprecedented for its awful violence, as both sides seemed intoxicated with genocidal fanaticism."
Pontiac's War 
 Historian Daniel Richter characterizes the Native attempt to drive out the British, and the effort of the Paxton Boys to eliminate Native Americans from their midst, as parallel examples of ethnic cleansing.
Pontiac's War 
 People on both sides of the conflict had come to the conclusion that colonists and Native Americans were inherently different and could not live with each other.
Pontiac's War 
 According to Richter, the war saw the emergence of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other."
Pontiac's War 
 The British government also came to the conclusion that colonists and Native Americans must be kept apart.
Pontiac's War 
 On October 7, 1763, the Crown issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, an effort to reorganize British North America after the Treaty of Paris.
Pontiac's War 
 Officials drew a boundary line between the British colonies along the seaboard, and Native American lands west of the Allegheny Ridge (i.e., the Eastern Divide).
Pontiac's War 
 This created a vast 'Indian Reserve' that stretched from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi River and from Florida to Quebec.
Pontiac's War 
 It also confirmed the demarcation line that had been set before the war by the Treaty of Easton in 1758.
Pontiac's War 
 By forbidding colonists from trespassing on Native lands, the British government hoped to avoid more conflicts like Pontiac's Rebellion. "
Pontiac's War 
 The Royal Proclamation," writes historian Colin Calloway, "reflected the notion that segregation not interaction should characterize Indian-white relations."
Pontiac's War 
 Because the Proclamation officially recognized that indigenous people had certain rights to the lands they occupied, it has been called the Native Americans' "Bill of Rights", and still informs the relationship between the Canadian government and First Nations.
Pontiac's War 
 For British colonists and land speculators, however, the Proclamation seemed to deny them the fruits of victory—western lands—that had been won in the war with France.
Pontiac's War 
 According to Colin Calloway, "Pontiac's Revolt was not the last American war for independence—American colonists launched a rather more successful effort a dozen years later, prompted in part by the measures the British government took to try to prevent another war like Pontiac's."
Pontiac's War 
 For Native Americans, Pontiac's War demonstrated the possibilities of cooperation between tribes for resisting colonial expansion.
Pontiac's War 
 Although the conflict divided tribes and villages, the war also saw the first extensive multi-tribal resistance to European colonization in North America, and was the first war between Europeans and Native North Americans that did not end in complete defeat for the Native Americans.
Pontiac's War 
 The Proclamation of 1763 ultimately did not prevent British colonists and land speculators from expanding westward, and so Native Americans found it necessary to form new resistance movements.