the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_embeddings huggingface dataset:
Scanning tunneling microscope 
 Chen, C. J.: Origin of Atomic Resolution on Metal Surfaces in Scanning Tunneling Microscopy, Physical Review Letters 65 (4), 1990, p. 448-451
Scanning tunneling microscope 
 R. V. Lapshin, Feature-oriented scanning methodology for probe microscopy and nanotechnology, Nanotechnology, volume 15, issue 9, pages 1135-1151, 2004
Energy level 
 A quantum mechanical system can only be in certain states, so that only certain energy levels are possible.
Energy level 
 The term energy level is most commonly used in reference to the electron configuration in atoms or molecules.
Energy level 
 In other words, the energy spectrum can be quantized (see continuous spectrum for the more general case).
Energy level 
 As with classical potentials, the potential energy is usually set to zero at infinity, leading to a negative potential energy for bound electron states.
Energy level 
 Energy levels are said to be degenerate, if the same energy level is obtained by more than one quantum mechanical state.
Energy level 
 The following sections of this article gives an overview over the most important factors that determine the energy levels of atoms and molecules.
Energy level 
 The energy of its state is mainly determined by the electrostatic interaction of the (negative) electron with the (positive) nucleus.
Energy level 
 where  is the Rydberg constant (typically between 1 eV and 103 eV), Z is the charge of the atom's nucleus,  is the principal quantum number, e is the charge of the electron,  is Planck's constant, and c is the speed of light.
Energy level 
 Fine structure arises from relativistic kinetic energy corrections, spin-orbit coupling (an electrodynamic interaction between the electron's spin and motion and the nucleus's electric field) and the Darwin term (contact term interaction of s-shell electrons inside the nucleus).
Energy level 
 If there is more than one electron around the atom, electron-electron-interactions raise the energy level.
Energy level 
 This takes both the magnetic dipole moment due to the orbital angular momentum and the magnetic momentum arising from the electron spin into account.
Energy level 
 Due to relativistic effects (Dirac equation), the magnetic moment arising from the electron spin is  with  the gyro-magnetic factor (about 2).
Energy level 
 Roughly speaking, a molecular energy state, i.e. an eigenstate of the molecular Hamiltonian, is the sum of an electronic, vibrational, rotational, nuclear and translational component, such that:
Energy level 
 where  is an eigenvalue of the electronic molecular Hamiltonian (the value of the potential energy surface) at the equilibrium geometry of the molecule.
Energy level 
 In molecular physics and quantum chemistry, an energy level is a quantized energy of a bound quantum mechanical state.
Energy level 
 The most important ones are the top of the valence band, the bottom of the conduction band, the Fermi energy, the vacuum level, and the energy levels of any defect states in the crystals.
Atomic nucleus 
 The size (diameter) of the nucleus is between 1.6 fm (10−15 m) (for a proton in light hydrogen) to about 15 fm (for the heaviest atoms, such as uranium).
Atomic nucleus 
 These sizes are much smaller than the size of the atom itself by a factor of about 23,000 (uranium) to about 145,000 (hydrogen).
Atomic nucleus 
 Almost all of the mass in an atom is made up from the protons and neutrons in the nucleus with a very small contribution from the orbiting electrons.
Atomic nucleus 
 Things that have the same charge repel each other: this repulsion is part of what is called electromagnetic force.
Atomic nucleus 
 Unless there was something else holding the nucleus together it could not exist because the protons would push away from each other.
Atomic nucleus 
 In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis wrote in his famous article The Atom and the Molecule that "the atom is composed of the kernel and an outer atom or shell".
Atomic nucleus 
 The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons (two types of baryons) joined by the nuclear force.
Atomic nucleus 
 These baryons are further made up of sub-atomic fundamental particles known as quarks joined by the strong interaction.
Atomic nucleus 
 The nucleus is more or less a spheroid and may be somewhat prolate (long) or oblate (flat) or otherwise not entirely round.
Atomic nucleus 
 If the nucleus can be considered to have a radius of the order of 5 fm (= 10 × 10-15 m), this means its cross-section is of the order of 10-28 m2, and its volume is about 10-42 m3.
Atomic nucleus 
 Different isotopes in a sample of a chemical can be separated by using a centrifuge or by using a mass spectrometer.
Atomic nucleus 
 The first method is used in producing enriched uranium from regular uranium, and the second is used in carbon dating.
Atomic nucleus 
 Protons and neutrons have nearly equal masses, and their combined number, the mass number, is about equal to the atomic mass of an atom.
Atomic nucleus 
 The combined mass of the electrons is very small when compared to the mass of the nucleus; protons and neutrons weigh about 2000 times more than electrons.
Atomic nucleus 
 The discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson was the first sign that the atom had internal structure.
Atomic nucleus 
 At the turn of the 20th century the accepted model of the atom was J. J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model in which the atom was a large positively charged ball with small negatively charged electrons embedded inside of it.
Atomic nucleus 
 By the turn of the century physicists had also discovered three types of radiation coming from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation.
Atomic nucleus 
 Experiments in 1911 by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous rather than discrete.
Atomic nucleus 
 That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energies that were observed in gamma and alpha decays.
Atomic nucleus 
 This was a problem for nuclear physics at the time, because it indicated that energy was not conserved in these decays.
Atomic nucleus 
 In 1906 Ernest Rutherford published "Radiation of the α Particle from Radium in passing through Matter".
Atomic nucleus 
 Geiger expanded on this work in a communication to the Royal Society with experiments he and Rutherford had done passing α particles through air, aluminum foil and gold foil.
Atomic nucleus 
 More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and Marsden and further greatly expanded work was published in 1910 by Geiger, In 1911-2 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it.
Atomic nucleus 
 Around the same time that this was happening (1909) Ernest Rutherford performed a remarkable experiment in which Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden under his supervision fired alpha particles (helium nuclei) at a thin film of gold foil.
Atomic nucleus 
 The plum pudding model predicted that the alpha particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent.
Atomic nucleus 
 He was shocked to discover that a few particles were scattered through large angles, even completely backwards in some cases.
Atomic nucleus 
 The discovery, beginning with Rutherford's analysis of the data in 1911, eventually led to the Rutherford model of the atom, in which the atom has a very small, very dense nucleus consisting of heavy positively charged particles with embedded electrons in order to balance out the charge.
Atomic nucleus 
 As an example, in this model nitrogen-14 consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons, and the nucleus was surrounded by 7 more orbiting electrons.
Atomic nucleus 
 The Rutherford model worked quite well until studies of nuclear spin were carried out by Franco Rasetti at the California Institute of Technology in 1929.
Atomic nucleus 
 By 1925 it was known that protons and electrons had a spin of 1/2, and in the Rutherford model of nitrogen-14 the 14 protons and six of the electrons should have paired up to cancel each other's spin, and the final electron should have left the nucleus with a spin of 1/2.
Atomic nucleus 
 In 1930 Wolfgang Pauli was unable to attend a meeting in Tübingen, and instead sent a famous letter with the classic introduction "Dear Radioactive Ladies and Gentlemen".
Atomic nucleus 
 In his letter Pauli suggested that perhaps there was a third particle in the nucleus which he named the "neutron".
Atomic nucleus 
 He suggested that it was very light (lighter than an electron), had no charge, and that it did not readily interact with matter (which is why it had not yet been detected).
Atomic nucleus 
 This desperate way out solved both the problem of energy conservation and the spin of nitrogen-14, the first because Pauli's "neutron" was carrying away the extra energy and the second because an extra "neutron" paired off with the electron in the nitrogen-14 nucleus giving it spin one.
Atomic nucleus 
 Pauli's "neutron" was renamed the neutrino (Italian for little neutral one) by Enrico Fermi in 1931, and after about thirty years it was finally demonstrated that a neutrino really is emitted during beta decay.
Atomic nucleus 
 In 1932 Chadwick realized that radiation that had been observed by Walther Bothe, Herbert L. Becker, Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie was actually due to a massive particle that he called the neutron.
Atomic nucleus 
 In the same year Dmitri Ivanenko suggested that neutrons were in fact spin 1/2 particles and that the nucleus contained neutrons and that there were no electrons in it, and Francis Perrin suggested that neutrinos were not nuclear particles but were created during beta decay.
Atomic nucleus 
 To cap the year off, Fermi submitted a theory of the neutrino to Nature (which the editors rejected for being "too remote from reality").
Atomic nucleus 
 Fermi continued working on his theory and published a paper in 1934 which placed the neutrino on solid theoretical footing.
Atomic nucleus 
 In the same year Hideki Yukawa proposed the first significant theory of the strong force to explain how the nucleus holds together.
Atomic nucleus 
 The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force.
Atomic nucleus 
 Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or positron).
Atomic nucleus 
 After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high energy photons (gamma decay).
Atomic nucleus 
 The study of the strong and weak nuclear forces led physicists to collide nuclei and electrons at ever higher energies.
Atomic nucleus 
 This research became the science of particle physics, the most important of which is the standard model of particle physics which unifies the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces.
Atomic nucleus 
 A nucleus can contain hundreds of nucleons  which means that with some approximation it can be treated as a classical system, rather than a quantum-mechanical one.
Atomic nucleus 
 In the resulting liquid-drop model, the nucleus has an energy which arises partly from surface tension and partly from electrical repulsion of the protons.
Atomic nucleus 
 The liquid-drop model is able to reproduce many features of nuclei, including the general trend of binding energy with respect to mass number, as well as the phenomenon of nuclear fission.
Atomic nucleus 
 Superimposed on this classical picture, however, are quantum-mechanical effects, which can be described using the nuclear shell model, developed in large part by Maria Goeppert-Mayer.
Atomic nucleus 
 Nuclei with certain numbers of neutrons and protons (the magic numbers 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126, ...) are particularly stable, because their shells are filled.
Atomic nucleus 
 Much of current research in nuclear physics relates to the study of nuclei under extreme conditions such as high spin and excitation energy.
Atomic nucleus 
 Nuclei may also have extreme shapes (similar to that of American footballs) or extreme neutron-to-proton ratios.
Atomic nucleus 
 Experimenters can create such nuclei using artificially induced fusion or nucleon transfer reactions, employing ion beams from an accelerator.
Atomic nucleus 
 Beams with even higher energies can be used to create nuclei at very high temperatures, and there are signs that these experiments have produced a phase transition from normal nuclear matter to a new state, the quark-gluon plasma, in which the quarks mingle with one another, rather than being segregated in triplets as they are in neutrons and protons.
Atomic nucleus 
 If a nucleus has too few or too many neutrons it may be unstable, and will decay after some period of time.
Atomic nucleus 
 For example, nitrogen-16 atoms (7 protons, 9 neutrons) beta decay to oxygen-16 atoms (8 protons, 8 neutrons) within a few seconds of being created.
Atomic nucleus 
 In this decay a neutron in the nitrogen nucleus is turned into a proton and an electron by the weak nuclear force.
Atomic nucleus 
 The element of the atom changes because while it previously had seven protons (which makes it nitrogen) it now has eight (which makes it oxygen).
Atomic nucleus 
 When two light nuclei come into very close contact with each other it is possible for the strong force to fuse the two together.
Atomic nucleus 
 It takes a great deal of energy to push the nuclei close enough together for the strong force to have an effect, so the process of nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high densities.
Atomic nucleus 
 Once the nuclei are close enough together the strong force overcomes their electromagnetic repulsion and squishes them into a new nucleus.
Atomic nucleus 
 A very large amount of energy is released when light nuclei fuse together because the binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up until nickel-62.
Atomic nucleus 
 Stars like our sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos.
Atomic nucleus 
 Research to find an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction is currently being undertaken by various research establishments (see JET and ITER).
Atomic nucleus 
 It is therefore possible for energy to be released if a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two lighter ones.
Atomic nucleus 
 This process produces a highly asymmetrical fission because the four particles which make up the alpha particle are especially tightly bound to each other, making production of this nucleus in fission particularly likely.
Atomic nucleus 
 For certain of the heaviest nuclei which produce neutrons on fission, and which also easily absorb neutrons to initiate fission, a self-igniting type of neutron-initiated fission can be obtained, in a so-called chain reaction. [
Atomic nucleus 
 Chain reactions were known in chemistry before physics, and in fact many familiar processes like fires and chemical explosions are chemical chain reactions].
Atomic nucleus 
 The fission or "nuclear" chain-reaction, using fission-produced neutrons, is the source of energy for nuclear power plants and fission type nuclear bombs such as the two that the United States used against Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II.
Atomic nucleus 
 Heavy nuclei such as uranium and thorium may undergo spontaneous fission, but they are much more likely to undergo decay by alpha decay.
Atomic nucleus 
 For a neutron-initiated chain-reaction to occur, there must be a critical mass of the element present in a certain space under certain conditions (these conditions slow and conserve neutrons for the reactions).
Atomic nucleus 
 There is one known example of a natural nuclear fission reactor, which was active in two regions of Oklo, Gabon, Africa, over 1.5 billion years ago.
Atomic nucleus 
 Measurements of natural neutrino emission have demonstrated that around half of the heat emanating from the earth's core results from radioactive decay.
Atomic nucleus 
 As the Universe cooled after the big bang  it eventually became possible for particles as we know them to exist.
Atomic nucleus 
 The most common particles created in the big bang which are still easily observable to us today were protons (hydrogen) and electrons (in equal numbers).
Atomic nucleus 
 Some heavier elements were created as the protons collided with each other, but most of the heavy elements we see today were created inside of stars during a series of fusion stages, such as the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle and the triple-alpha process.
Atomic nucleus 
 Since the binding energy per nucleon peaks around iron, energy is only released in fusion processes occurring below this point.
Atomic nucleus 
 Since the creation of heavier nuclei by fusion costs energy, nature resorts to the process of neutron capture.
Atomic nucleus 
 The heavy elements are created by either a slow neutron capture process (the so-called s process) or by the rapid, or r process.
Atomic nucleus 
 The s process occurs in thermally pulsing stars (called AGB, or asymptotic giant branch stars) and takes hundreds to thousands of years to reach the heaviest elements of lead and bismuth.
Atomic nucleus 
 The r process is thought to occur in supernova explosions because the conditions of high temperature, high neutron flux and ejected matter are present.
Atomic nucleus 
 These stellar conditions make the successive neutron captures very fast, involving very neutron-rich species which then beta-decay to heavier elements, especially at the so-called waiting points that correspond to more stable nuclides with closed neutron shells (magic numbers).
List of governors of Florida 
 He is not the head of all parts of the government, but is like the state's president, and is head of the executive branch of the state, which is where decisions about running the state are made.
List of governors of Florida 
 During that period, there were five military governors: William Duval (April 17, 1822 - April 24, 1834), John Eaton (April 24, 1834 - March 16, 1836), Richard Call (March 16, 1836 - December 2, 1839), Robert R. Reid (December 2, 1839 - March 19, 1841), Richard Call (his 2nd time) (March 19, 1841 - August 11, 1844), and John Branch (August 11, 1844 - June 25, 1845).
Fred McDowell 
 Fred McDowell (January 12 1904 – July 3 1972) (also known as Mississippi Fred McDowell) was a Delta blues singer and guitar player.
Fred McDowell 
 Mostly, he played slide guitar using a pocket knife and then a slide made from a beef rib bone, later switching to a glass slide.
Fred McDowell 
 He started playing on electric guitar rather than acoustic but said "I do not play no rock and roll".
Fred McDowell 
 McDowell died of cancer in 1972 and is buried at Hammond Hill M.B. Church, between Como and Senatobia.
Taurus Mountains 
 Taurus Mountains (Turkish: Toros Dağları) are a mountain range in Turkey, from which the Euphrates (Turkish: Fırat) and Tigris (Turkish: Dicle) descend into Syria and Iraq.
Taurus Mountains 
 The mountain range extends along a curve from Lake Eğirdir in the west to the upper reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris in the east.
Taurus Mountains 
 It has many peaks rising above 10,000–12,000 ft (3,000–3,700 m), with the Demirkazık summit in the region known as Aladağlar, at 3,756 meters (12,322 ft.)
Taurus Mountains 
 Limestone has eroded to form karstic landscapes of waterfalls, underground rivers, and the largest caves of Asia.
Montes Taurus 
 These peaks are on a highland region to the east of the Mare Serenitatis, in the northeastern quadrant of the Moon's near side.
Montes Taurus 
 At the southwestern edge of the range is Römer crater, and Newcomb crater is in the northeastern section.
Sassari 
 The first time that the city appeared in a map was in 1131 with the name Jordi de Sassaro, in 1135 the name was Tathari.
Sassari 
 In the early 14th century the island of Sardinia was occupied by the Aragonese, the municipality sent a delegation to the court of Aragon, but they did not achieve any agreement.
Sassari 
 So with the support of the Republic of Genoa and the Doria's family, the people of Sassari rose up against the invaders, until 1417 when the king Alfonso V granted an acceptable status to the town.
Sassari 
 In 1713, after the Treaty of Utrecht, in the island of Sardinia started the brief period of the Austro-Hungarian administration.
Sassari 
 In fact since 1720 the island was annexed by the House of Savoy and since then was born the Kingdom of Sardinia.
Sassari 
 But in 1793, after years of political struggle, in the island started an uprising, called “Sarda rivoluzione” (Sardinian revolution), led by the patriot Giovanni Maria Angioy, who entered triumphantly in the city of Sassari, followed by thousand of revolutionaries coming from all over the island.
Sassari 
 In 1861 the Kingdom of Sardinia, after the campaign to unify Italy and the annexation of many small states, it became the founding state of the new Kingdom of Italy.
Sassari 
 Palazzo Sciuti, piazza d'Italia, (Sciuti's Palace) the Provincial Legislative Building Provincia di Sassari, 1873
Bull Hill 
 It is part of the mountain range known as the Hudson Highlands which are part of the Appalachian Mountains.
Zagros Mountains 
 The north end is in northwestern Iran and they run near the border with Iraq and along the north coast of the Persian Gulf.
French Revolution of 1848 
 The February 1848 Revolution in France ended the reign of King Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation of the French Second Republic (1848-1852).
French Revolution of 1848 
 The revolution established the principle of the "right to work" (droit au travail), and decided to establish "National Workshops" for the unemployed.
French Revolution of 1848 
 At the same time a sort of industrial parliament was established at the Luxembourg Palace, under the presidency of Louis Blanc.
French Revolution of 1848 
 Tensions between liberal Orleanist and Radical Republicans and Socialists would cause the June Days Uprising a few months later.
French Revolution of 1848 
 The era of revolution in France came to an end when Louis Napoleon dissolved the National Assembly without having the constitutional right to do so, and became the sole ruler of France.
French Revolution of 1848 
 Karl Marx's Essay The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852) describes the 1848 revolution as a class struggle.
Skip James 
 Nehemiah Curtis "Skip" James (June 21, 1902 – October 3, 1969) was an American Delta blues singer, guitarist, pianist and songwriter.
Skip James 
 He worked on road construction in the early 1920s, and wrote his earliest song, "Illinois Blues", about his experience as a worker.
Skip James 
 Not many people bought them because of this and James had to give up Blues music and worked in a church with his father.
Skip James 
 In July 1964, James started playing again and he recorded for the Takoma, Melodeon, and Vanguard labels and played until his death in 1969.
Skip James 
 Can't Find No Heaven: The Mysteries of Skip James  by Matt R. Lohr, a speculative study of Skip James' personality
Nirvana (band) 
 Nirvana had many drummers, but the final and most well known drummer was Dave Grohl, who joined in 1990.
Nirvana (band) 
 After signing to record label DGC Records, in 1991, Nirvana became very popular after releasing the song "Smells Like Teen Spirit".
Nirvana (band) 
 This song was the first single from their second album Nevermind (1991), which sold over 30 million copies worldwide.
Nirvana (band) 
 After many tours and the 1992 compilation album Incesticide and EP Hormoaning, Nirvana released their third studio album In Utero (1993).
Nirvana (band) 
 Singer and guitarist Kurt Cobain and bassist Krist Novoselic met while they were at Aberdeen High School.
Nirvana (band) 
 They became friends after high school while they were both often in the practising space of the Melvins Cobain wanted to start a band with Novoselic, but Novoselic did not answer for a long time.
Nirvana (band) 
 Three years later, Novoselic told Cobain he had listened to the tape and said they should start a band.