the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_embeddings huggingface dataset:
Pulmonary hypertension 
 IPAH is a rare disease with an incidence of about 2-3 per million per year and a prevalence of about 15 per million.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 In scleroderma the incidence has been estimated to be 6 to 60% of all patients, in rheumatoid arthritis up to 21%, in systemic lupus erythematosus 4 to 14%, in portal hypertension between 2 and 5%, in HIV about 0.5%, and in sickle cell disease ranging from 20 to 40%.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Treatment is determined by whether the PH is arterial, venous, hypoxic, thromboembolic, or miscellaneous.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Since pulmonary venous hypertension is synonymous with congestive heart failure, the treatment is to optimize left ventricular function by the use of diuretics, beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, etc.,
Pulmonary hypertension 
 In PAH, lifestyle changes, digoxin, diuretics, oral anticoagulants, and oxygen therapy are considered conventional therapy, but have never been proven to be beneficial in a randomized, prospective manner.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 High dose calcium channel blockers are useful in only 5% of IPAH patients who are vasoreactive by Swan-Ganz catheter.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Unfortunately, calcium channel blockers have been largely misused, being prescribed to many patients with non-vasoreactive PAH, leading to excess morbidity and mortality.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Three major pathways are involved in abnormal proliferation and contraction of the smooth-muscle cells of the pulmonary artery in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 These pathways correspond to important therapeutic targets in this condition and play a role in determining which of three classes of drugs—endothelin receptor antagonists, phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors, and prostacyclin derivatives—will be used.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Epoprostenol (synthetic prostacyclin, marketed as Flolan®) is given via continuous infusion that requires a semi-permanent central venous catheter.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Since it has a half-life of 3 to 5 minutes, the infusion has to be continuous (24/7), and interruption can be fatal.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Treprostinil (Remodulin®) can be given intravenously or subcutaneously, but the subcutaneous form can be very painful.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Iloprost (marketed as Ventavis®) is the only inhaled form of prostacyclin approved for use in the US and Europe.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 This form of administration has the advantage of selective deposition in the lungs with less systemic side effects.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 The dual (ETA and ETB) endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan (marketed as Tracleer®) was approved in 2001.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Two selective endothelin receptor antagonists (ETA only) are in the final stages of approval: sitaxsentan and ambrisentan.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Sildenafil, a selective inhibitor of cGMP specific phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5), was approved for the treatment of PAH in 2005.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Tadalafil (currently marketed as Cialis® for erectile dysfunction) is currently is Phase III trials.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Atrial septostomy is a surgical procedure that creates a communication between the right and left atria.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 It relieves pressure on the right side of the heart, but at the cost of lower oxygen levels in blood (hypoxia).
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Lung transplantation cures pulmonary arterial hypertension, but leaves the patient with the complications of transplantation, and a survival of about 5 years.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Pulmonary thromboendarterectomy (PTE) is a surgical procedure that is used for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 It is the surgical removal of an organized thrombus (clot) along with the lining of the pulmonary artery; it is a large and very difficult procedure that is currently performed in a few select centers.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Treatment for hypoxic and miscellaneous varieties of pulmonary hypertension have not been established.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Many physicians will treat these diseases with the same medications as for PAH, until better options become available.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 The NIH IPAH registry from the 1980s showed an untreated median survival of 2–3 years from time of diagnosis, with the cause of death usually being right ventricular failure (cor pulmonale).
Pulmonary hypertension 
 This may be because of newer drug therapy, better overall care, and earlier diagnosis (lead time bias).
Pulmonary hypertension 
 A recent outcome study of those patients who had started treatment with bosentan (Tracleer®) showed that 86% patients were alive at 3 years.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Impact of these agents on survival is not known, since many of them have been developed only recently.
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Facts About Primary Pulmonary Hypertension from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)
Pulmonary hypertension 
 Webcast: The Changing World of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Therapies - American College of CHEST Physicians
Decameron 
 In the book, ten friends, seven young women and three young men, leave the city of Florence because of the plague and stay in a large house in the countryside.
Decameron 
 The picture to the right shows a scene from the story of "The Pot of Basil" in which Isabella buries the head of her murdered lover Ferdinand inside a potplant.
Commodity 
 In the world of business, a commodity is a product, good or service that is traded based solely on its price, rather than quality and features.
Commodity 
 Examples include: electricity (most users of electric power are only concerned with energy consumption; only a minority of users are concerned with the quality and technical details of voltage and frequency deviations), wheat, bulk chemicals such as sulfuric acid, metals, and even orange juice.
Commodity 
 In the original and simplified sense, commodities were things of value, of uniform quality, that were produced in large quantities by many different producers; the items from each different producer are considered as of the same value.
Commodity 
 Generally, it is all traded at the same price; wheat from farm A has not another price than wheat from farm B.  Some uniform standard of quality is assumed. (
Commodity 
 There may be various standards leading to different pools:  one say for genetically modified wheat, and one for unmodified wheat.)
Commodity 
 Markets for trading commodities can be very efficient, particularly if the division into pools matches demand segments.
Commodity 
 In classical political economy and especially Karl Marx's critique of political economy, a commodity is simply any good or service offered as a product for sale on the market.
Commodity 
 Some items are also seen as being treated as if they were commodities, e.g. human labour or labor power, works of art and natural resources, even though they may not be produced specifically for the market, or be non-reproducible goods.
Commodity 
 Marx's analysis of the commodity is intended to help solve the problem of what establishes the economic value of goods, using the labor theory of value.
Commodity 
 This problem was extensively debated by Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Rodbertus-Jagetzow among others.
Commodity 
 Value and price are not equivalent terms in economics, and theorising the specific relationship of value to market price has been a challenge for both liberal and Marxist economists.
Commodity 
 By contrast, a fallen log of deadwood sat upon in the forest is not a commodity, as it was not produced by human work for the purpose of trade.
Commodity 
 Nor is a chair a commodity (as a chair) if its only use would be as scrap firewood (unless one purchases a chair specifically to chop it up for fire wood).
Commodity 
 A chair that nobody could sit on has no use-value, and cannot be a commodity (unless it has an ornamental value, e.g. in a doll's house).
Commodity market 
 These raw commodities are traded on regulated commodities exchanges, in which they are bought and sold in standardized contracts.
Commodity market 
 It covers physical product (food, metals, electricity) markets but not the ways that services, including those of governments, nor investment, nor debt, can be seen as a commodity.
Commodity market 
 Articles on reinsurance markets, stock markets, bond markets and currency markets cover those concerns separately and in more depth.
Commodity market 
 One focus of this article is the relationship between simple commodity money and the more complex instruments offered in the commodity markets.
Commodity market 
 While wheat and corn, cattle and pigs, were widely traded using standard instruments in the 19th century in the United States, other basic foodstuffs such as soybeans were only added quite recently in most markets.
Commodity market 
 For a commodity market to be established, there must be very broad consensus on the variations in the product that make it acceptable for one purpose or another.
Commodity market 
 Through the 19th century "the exchanges became effective spokesmen for, and innovators of, improvements in transportation, warehousing, and financing, which paved the way to expanded interstate and international trade."
Commodity market 
 Historically, dating from ancient Sumerian use of sheep or goats, or other peoples using pigs, rare seashells, or other items as commodity money, people have sought ways to standardize and trade contracts in the delivery of such items, to render trade itself more smooth and predictable.
Commodity market 
 Commodity money and commodity markets in a crude early form are believed to have originated in Sumer where small baked clay tokens in the shape of sheep or goats were used in trade.
Commodity market 
 Sealed in clay vessels with a certain number of such tokens, with that number written on the outside, they represented a promise to deliver that number.
Commodity market 
 This made them a form of commodity money - more than an "I.O.U." but less than a guarantee by a nation-state or bank.
Commodity market 
 However, they were also known to contain promises of time and date of delivery - this made them like a modern futures contract.
Commodity market 
 Regardless of the details, it was only possible to verify the number of tokens inside by shaking the vessel or by breaking it, at which point the number or terms written on the outside became subject to doubt.
Commodity market 
 However, the Commodity status of living things is always subject to doubt -  it was hard to validate the health or existence of sheep or goats.
Commodity market 
 Excuses for non-delivery were not unknown, and there are recovered Sumerian letters that complain of sickly goats, sheep that had already been fleeced, etc.
Commodity market 
 If a seller's reputation was good, individual "backers" or "bankers" could decide to take the risk of "clearing" a trade.
Commodity market 
 The observation that trust is always required between market participants later led to credit money.
Commodity market 
 Classical civilizations built complex global markets trading gold or silver for spices, cloth, wood and weapons, most of which had standards of quality and timeliness.
Commodity market 
 Considering the many hazards of climate, piracy, theft and abuse of military fiat by rulers of kingdoms along the trade routes, it was a major focus of these civilizations to keep markets open and trading in these scarce commodities.
Commodity market 
 Reputation and clearing became central concerns, and the states which could handle them most effectively became very powerful empires, trusted by many peoples to manage and mediate trade and commerce.
Commodity market 
 Early on these "forward" contracts (agreements to buy now, pay and deliver later) were used as a way of getting products from producer to the consumer.
Commodity market 
 Forward contracts have evolved and have been standardized into what we know today as futures contracts.
Commodity market 
 Although more complex today, early “Forward” contracts for example, were used for rice in seventeenth century Japan.
Commodity market 
 Modern "forward", or futures agreements, began in Chicago in the 1840s, with the appearance of the railroads.
Commodity market 
 Chicago, being centrally located, emerged as the hub between Midwestern farmers and producers and the east coast consumer population centers.
Commodity market 
 "Hedging", a common (and sometimes mandatory) practice of farming cooperatives, insures against a poor harvest by purchasing futures contracts in the same commodity.
Commodity market 
 If the cooperative has significantly less of its product to sell due to weather or insects, it makes up for that loss with a profit on the markets, since the overall supply of the crop is short everywhere that suffered the same conditions.
Commodity market 
 Whole developing nations may be especially vulnerable, and even their currency tends to be tied to the price of those particular commodity items until it manages to be a fully developed nation.
Commodity market 
 For example, one could see the nominally fiat money of Cuba as being tied to sugar prices, since a lack of hard currency paying for sugar means less foreign goods per peso in Cuba itself.
Commodity market 
 In effect, Cuba needs a hedge against a drop in sugar prices, if it wishes to maintain a stable quality of life for its citizens.
Commodity market 
 Typically, trading must end two (or more) business days prior to the delivery day, so that the routing of the shipment (which for soybeans is 30,000 kilograms or 1,102 bushels) can be finalized via ship or rail, and payment can be settled when the contract arrives at any delivery point.
Commodity market 
 U.S. soybean futures, for example, are of standard grade if they are "GMO or a mixture of GMO and Non-GMO No.
Commodity market 
 2 yellow soybeans of Indiana, Ohio and Michigan origin produced in the U.S.A. (Non-screened, stored in silo)," and of deliverable grade if they are "GMO or a mixture of GMO and Non-GMO No.
Commodity market 
 2 yellow soybeans of Iowa, Illinois and Wisconsin origin produced in the U.S.A. (Non-screened, stored in silo)."
Commodity market 
 Note the distinction between states, and the need to clearly mention their status as "GMO" ("Genetically Modified Organism") which makes them unacceptable to most "organic" food buyers.
Commodity market 
 Similar specifications apply for orange juice, cocoa, sugar, wheat, corn, barley, pork bellies, milk, feedstuffs, fruits, vegetables, other grains, other beans, hay, other livestock, meats, poultry, eggs, or any other commodity which is so traded.
Commodity market 
 The concept of an interchangeable deliverable or guaranteed delivery is always to some degree a fiction.
Commodity market 
 No magic of the commodity contract itself makes "units" of the product totally uniform nor gets it to the delivery point safely and on time.
Commodity market 
 Cotton, kilowatt-hours of electricity, board feet of wood, long distance minutes, royalty payments due on artists' works, and other products and services have been traded on markets of varying scale, with varying degrees of success.
Commodity market 
 One issue that presents major difficulty for creators of such instruments is the liability accruing to the purchaser:
Commodity market 
 Unless the product or service can be guaranteed or insured to be free of liability based on where it came from and how it got to market, e.g. kilowatts must come to market free from legitimate claims for smog death from coal burning plants, wood must be free from claims that it comes from protected forests, royalty payments must be free of claims of plagiarism or piracy, it becomes impossible for sellers to guarantee a uniform delivery.
Commodity market 
 Generally, governments must provide a common regulatory or insurance standard and some release of liability, or at least a backing of the insurers, before a commodity market can begin trading.
Commodity market 
 This is a major source of controversy in for instance the energy market, where desirability of different kinds of power generation varies drastically.
Commodity market 
 In some markets, e.g. Toronto, Canada, surveys established that customers would pay 10-15% more for energy that was not from coal or nuclear, but strictly from renewable sources such as wind.
Commodity market 
 However, if there are two or more standards of risk or quality, as there seem to be for electricity or soybeans, it is relatively easy to establish two different contracts to trade in the more and less desirable deliverable separately.
Commodity market 
 If the consumer acceptance and liability problems can be solved, the product can be made interchangeable, and trading in such units can begin.
Commodity market 
 Since the detailed concerns of industrial and consumer markets vary widely, so do the contracts, and "grades" tend to vary significantly from country to country.
Commodity market 
 These are more than one-to-one representations of units of a given type of commodity, and represent more than simple futures contracts for future deliveries.
Commodity market 
 Building on the infrastructure and credit and settlement networks established for food and precious metals, many such markets have proliferated drastically in the late 20th century.
Commodity market 
 Oil was the first form of energy so widely traded, and the fluctuations in the oil markets are of particular political interest.
Commodity market 
 Some commodity market speculation is directly related to the stability of certain states, e.g. during the Gulf War, speculation on the survival of the regime of Saddam Hussein in Iraq.
Commodity market 
 Some argue that this is not so much a commodity market but more of an assassination market speculating on the survival (or not) of Saddam or other leaders whose personal decisions may cause oil supply to fluctuate by military action.
Commodity market 
 Most markets are not so tied to the politics of volatile regions - even natural gas tends to be more stable, as it is not traded across oceans by tanker as extensively.
Commodity market 
 Developing countries (democratic or not) have been moved to harden their currencies, accept IMF rules, join the WTO, and submit to a broad regime of reforms that amount to a "hedge" against being isolated.
Commodity market 
 China's entry into the WTO signalled the end of truly isolated nations entirely managing their own currency and affairs.
Commodity market 
 The need for stable currency and predictable clearing and rules-based handling of trade disputes, has led to a global trade hegemony - many nations "hedging" on a global scale against each other's anticipated "protectionism", were they to fail to join the WTO.
Commodity market 
 U.S. trade sanctions against Canadian softwood lumber (within NAFTA) and foreign steel (except for NAFTA partners Canada and Mexico) in 2002 signalled a shift in policy towards a tougher regime perhaps more driven by political concerns - jobs, industrial policy, even sustainable forestry and logging practices.
Commodity market 
 Commodity thinking is undergoing a more direct revival thanks to the theorists of "natural capital" whose products, some economists argue, are the only genuine commodities - air, water, and calories we consume being mostly interchangeable when they are free of pollution or disease.
Commodity market 
 Whether we wish to think of these things as tradeable commodities rather than birthrights has been a major source of controversy in many nations.
Commodity market 
 Most types of environmental economics consider the shift to measuring them inevitable, arguing that reframing political economy to consider the flow of these basic commodities first and foremost, helps avoids use of any military fiat except to protect "natural capital" itself, and basing credit-worthiness more strictly on commitment to preserving biodiversity aligns the long-term interests of ecoregions, societies, and individuals.
Commodity market 
 They seek relatively conservative sustainable development schemes that would be amenable to measuring well-being over long periods of time, typically "seven generations", in line with Native American thought.
Commodity market 
 It has matured not only into a system of interlocking guarantees, but also into a system of indirectly trading on the actual damage done by weather, using "weather derivatives".
Commodity market 
 What are the chances that we will have a cold winter, driving natural gas prices higher and creating havoc in Florida orange areas?
Commodity market 
 Weather trading is just one example of "negative commodities", units of which represent harm rather than good.
Commodity market 
 "Economy is three fifths of ecology" argues Mike Nickerson, one of many economic theorists who holds that nature's productive services and waste disposal services are poorly accounted for.
Commodity market 
 One way to fairly allocate the waste disposal capacity of nature is "cap and trade" market structure that is used to trade toxic emissions rights in the United States, e.g. SO2.
Commodity market 
 In this market, the atmosphere's capacity to absorb certain amounts of pollutants is measured, divided into units, and traded amongst various market players.
Commodity market 
 Critics of such schemes argue that unauthorized or unregulated emissions still happen, and that "grandfathering" schemes often permit major polluters, such as the state governments' own agencies, or poorer countries, to expand emissions and take jobs, while the SO2 output still floats over the border and causes death.
Commodity market 
 In practice, political pressure has overcome most such concerns and it is questionable whether this is a capacity that depends on U.S. clout: The Kyoto Protocol established a similar market in global greenhouse gas emissions without U.S. support.
Commodity market 
 This highlights one of the major issues with global commodity markets of either the positive or negative kind.
Commodity market 
 A community must somehow believe that the commodity instrument is real, enforceable, and well worth paying for.
Commodity market 
 A very substantial part of the anti-globalization movement opposes the commodification of currency, national sovereignty, and traditional cultures.
Commodity market 
 The capacity to repay debt, as in the current global credit money regime anchored by the Bank for International Settlements, does not in their view correspond to measurable benefits to human well-being worldwide.
Commodity market 
 They seek a fairer way for societies to compete in the global markets that will not require conversion of natural capital to natural resources, nor human capital to move to developed nations in order to find work.
Commodity market 
 Some economic systems by green economists would replace the "gold standard" with a "biodiversity standard".
Commodity market 
 It remains to be seen if such plans have any merit other than as political ways to draw attention to the way capitalism itself interacts with life.
Commodity market 
 While classical, neoclassical, and Marxist approaches to economics tend to treat labor differently, they are united in treating nature as a resource.
Commodity market 
 The green economists and the more conservative environmental economics argue that not only natural ecologies, but also the life of the individual human being is treated as a commodity by the global markets.
Commodity market 
 A good example is the IPCC calculations cited by the Global Commons Institute as placing a value on a human life in the developed world "15x higher" than in the developing world, based solely on the ability to pay to prevent climate change.
Commodity market 
 Accepting this result, some argue that to put a price on both is the most reasonable way to proceed to optimize and increase that value relative to other goods or services.