the-coorporation/the_squad_qg huggingface dataset:
It was not until the Northern and Southern dynasties that regular script rose to dominant status. During that period, regular script continued evolving stylistically, reaching full maturity in the early Tang dynasty. Some call the writing of the early Tang calligrapher Ouyang Xun (557–641) the first mature regular script. After this point, although developments in the art of calligraphy and in character simplification still lay ahead, there were no more major stages of evolution for the mainstream script.

Questions:
What were the North and South considered as?
What continued to evolve stylistically?
What script saw no more stages of evolution?
It was not until the end of the eighteenth century that migration as an explanation for the winter disappearance of birds from northern climes was accepted. Thomas Bewick's A History of British Birds (Volume 1, 1797) mentions a report from "a very intelligent master of a vessel" who, "between the islands of Minorca and Majorca, saw great numbers of Swallows flying northward", and states the situation in Britain as follows:

Questions:
When was migration finally accepted?
Who wrote A History of British Birds?
What year was Thomas Bewick's book published?
Where were Swallows seen flying?
Which directions were the Swallows flying?
It was not unusual for electric recordings to be played back on acoustic phonographs. The Victor Orthophonic phonograph was a prime example where such playback was expected. In the Orthophonic, which benefited from telephone research, the mechanical pickup head was redesigned with lower resonance than the traditional mica type. Also, a folded horn with an exponential taper was constructed inside the cabinet to provide better impedance matching to the air. As a result, playback of an Orthophonic record sounded like it was coming from a radio.

Questions:
What is one example of an acoustic phonograph on which one would listen to electric recordings?
What allowed better sounds inside the cabinet of the orthoponic phonograph?
What adjustments were made to the orthophonic  to accommodate electric recordings?
Was it common to hear electric recordings on phonographs?
How similar was the sound of a orthodontic  record to a radio?
It was only in the 1980s that digital telephony transmission networks became possible, such as with ISDN networks, assuring a minimum bit rate (usually 128 kilobits/s) for compressed video and audio transmission. During this time, there was also research into other forms of digital video and audio communication. Many of these technologies, such as the Media space, are not as widely used today as videoconferencing but were still an important area of research. The first dedicated systems started to appear in the market as ISDN networks were expanding throughout the world. One of the first commercial videoconferencing systems sold to companies came from PictureTel Corp., which had an Initial Public Offering in November, 1984.

Questions:
In what decade was digital telephony transmission made possible?
What is the minimum bit rate for compressed video and audio transmission?
What is an example of an early form of digital video and audio communication?
In what form did the first dedicated videoconferencing system appear as?
What company offered the first commercial videoconferencing system?
It was principally the widespread introduction of a single feature, the pointed arch, which was to bring about the change that separates Gothic from Romanesque. The technological change permitted a stylistic change which broke the tradition of massive masonry and solid walls penetrated by small openings, replacing it with a style where light appears to triumph over substance. With its use came the development of many other architectural devices, previously put to the test in scattered buildings and then called into service to meet the structural, aesthetic and ideological needs of the new style. These include the flying buttresses, pinnacles and traceried windows which typify Gothic ecclesiastical architecture. But while pointed arch is so strongly associated with the Gothic style, it was first used in Western architecture in buildings that were in other ways clearly Romanesque, notably Durham Cathedral in the north of England, Monreale Cathedral and Cathedral of Cefalù in Sicily, Autun Cathedral in France.

Questions:
What was the most important single design aspect that separated the Gothic style from the Romanesque? 
What is one example of a Gothic style element that was able to be incorporated because of technological innovation?
What is another example of a Gothic style element that was able to be incorporated because of technological innovation?
What is the name of the cathedral in Northern England that first displayed the use of the pointed arch?
What is the name of the cathedral in Sicily that first displayed the use of the pointed arch?
It was rumored that Schwarzenegger might run for the United States Senate in 2010, as his governorship would be term-limited by that time. This turned out to be false.

Questions:
What political office did people speculate Schwarzenegger might try for in 2010?
It was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia (and present-day Kazakhstan). It was in relative proximity to the other satem ethno-linguistic groups of the Indo-European family, like Thracian, Balto-Slavic and others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland (more precisely, the steppes of southern Russia to the north of the Caucasus), according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European.

Questions:
What language family did Thracian and Balto-Slavic belong to?
It was temporarily under the control of the Tibetan empire and Chinese from 650–680 and then under the control of the Umayyads in 710. The Samanid Empire, 819 to 999, restored Persian control of the region and enlarged the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara (both cities are today part of Uzbekistan) which became the cultural centers of Iran and the region was known as Khorasan. The Kara-Khanid Khanate conquered Transoxania (which corresponds approximately with modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan and southwest Kazakhstan) and ruled between 999–1211. Their arrival in Transoxania signaled a definitive shift from Iranian to Turkic predominance in Central Asia, but gradually the Kara-khanids became assimilated into the Perso-Arab Muslim culture of the region.

Questions:
When was the region under Tibetan empire and the CHinese?
Who took control of the regin in 710?
Who restored Persian control of the region?
What was the name of the region when it was the cultural center of Iran?
When was the region under Tibetan empire and the CHinese?
Who took control of the regin in 710?
When was the region under Tibetan empire and the CHinese?
Who restored Persian control of the region?
Who took control of the regin in 710?
Who restored Persian control of the region?
What was the name of the region when it was the cultural center of Iran?
What was the name of the region when it was the cultural center of Iran?
When was the land under Tibetan empire and Chinese?
When was Tajikistan under Ymayyads contorl?
Who conquered Tansaxania?
When did the Samanid Empire rule the land?
It was ten years after the inception of the youth program, La Masia, when the young players began to graduate and play for their first team. One of the first graduates, who would later earn international acclaim, was previous Barcelona coach Pep Guardiola. Under Cruyff's guidance, Barcelona won four consecutive La Liga titles from 1991 to 1994. They beat Sampdoria in both the 1989 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup final and the 1992 European Cup final at Wembley, with a free kick goal from Dutch international Ronald Koeman. They also won a Copa del Rey in 1990, the European Super Cup in 1992 and three Supercopa de España trophies. With 11 trophies, Cruyff became the club's most successful manager at that point. He also became the club's longest consecutive serving manager, serving eight years. Cruyff's fortune was to change, and, in his final two seasons, he failed to win any trophies and fell out with president Núñez, resulting in his departure. On the legacy of Cruyff's football philosophy and the passing style of play he introduced to the club, future coach of Barcelona Pep Guardiola would state, "Cruyff built the cathedral, our job is to maintain and renovate it."

Questions:
How many consecutive La Liga titles did Barcelona win from 1991-94?
By 1992 who was Barcelona's most successful manager?
For how many years was Cruyff manager for Barcelona?
What feature of play did Cruyff introduce to Barcelona?
What failure did Cruyff have in his last two seasons as manager with Barcelona?
It was the pub that first introduced the concept of the bar counter being used to serve the beer. Until that time beer establishments used to bring the beer out to the table or benches, as remains the practice in (for example) beer gardens and other drinking establishments in Germany. A bar might be provided for the manager to do paperwork while keeping an eye on his or her customers, but the casks of ale were kept in a separate taproom. When the first pubs were built, the main room was the public room with a large serving bar copied from the gin houses, the idea being to serve the maximum number of people in the shortest possible time. It became known as the public bar[citation needed]. The other, more private, rooms had no serving bar—they had the beer brought to them from the public bar. There are a number of pubs in the Midlands or the North which still retain this set up but these days the beer is fetched by the customer from the taproom or public bar. One of these is The Vine, known locally as The Bull and Bladder, in Brierley Hill near Birmingham, another the Cock at Broom, Bedfordshire a series of small rooms served drinks and food by waiting staff. In the Manchester district the public bar was known as the "vault", other rooms being the lounge and snug as usual elsewhere. By the early 1970s there was a tendency to change to one large drinking room and breweries were eager to invest in interior design and theming.

Questions:
In Germany, what do servers do to serve beer in beer gardens?
Before the pub, where did beer establishments keep their casks of ale?
What establishments inspired pubs to set up serving bars?
In what settlement is the pub known as The Vine located?
What do the locals call The Vine?
It was unclear if Shell would recommence drilling in mid-2013, following the "Kulluk" incident and, in February 2013, the corporation stated that it would "pause" its closely watched drilling project off the Alaskan coast in 2013, and will instead prepare for future exploration. In January 2014, the corporation announced the extension of the suspension of its drilling program in the Arctic, with chief executive van Beurden explaining that the project is "under review" due to both market and internal issues.

Questions:
Following what event was it uncertain if Shell would recommence drilling?
In February 2013, Shell Corporation announced that it would pause what?
Shell Corporation announced what in January 2014?
Which Shell Corporation executive explained the reason for the January 2014 announcement?
What reason did the executive give for Shell's January 2014 announcement?
It would appear that living organisms are remarkably inefficient (in the physical sense) in their use of the energy they receive (chemical energy or radiation), and it is true that most real machines manage higher efficiencies. In growing organisms the energy that is converted to heat serves a vital purpose, as it allows the organism tissue to be highly ordered with regard to the molecules it is built from. The second law of thermodynamics states that energy (and matter) tends to become more evenly spread out across the universe: to concentrate energy (or matter) in one specific place, it is necessary to spread out a greater amount of energy (as heat) across the remainder of the universe ("the surroundings").[note 3] Simpler organisms can achieve higher energy efficiencies than more complex ones, but the complex organisms can occupy ecological niches that are not available to their simpler brethren. The conversion of a portion of the chemical energy to heat at each step in a metabolic pathway is the physical reason behind the pyramid of biomass observed in ecology: to take just the first step in the food chain, of the estimated 124.7 Pg/a of carbon that is fixed by photosynthesis, 64.3 Pg/a (52%) are used for the metabolism of green plants, i.e. reconverted into carbon dioxide and heat.

Questions:
What states that energy tends to become more evenly spread out across the universe?
What are remarkably inefficient in their use of the energy they receive?
Complex organisms can occupy this, that are not available to their simpler brethern?
It's generally accepted that there are around 750 verses in the Quran dealing with natural phenomenon. In many of these verses the study of nature is "encouraged and highly recommended," and historical Islamic scientists like Al-Biruni and Al-Battani derived their inspiration from verses of the Quran. Mohammad Hashim Kamali has the stated that "scientific observation, experimental knowledge and rationality" are the primary tools with which humanity can achieve the goals laid out for it in the Quran. Ziauddin Sardar built a case for Muslims having developed the foundations of modern science, by highlighting the repeated calls of the Quran to observe and reflect upon natural phenomenon. "The 'scientific method,' as it is understood today, was first developed by Muslim scientists" like Ibn al-Haytham and Al-Biruni, along with numerous other Muslim scientists.

Questions:
Nature and its phenomena are mentioned in approximately how many of the Quran's verses?
Al-Battani is an example of a Muslim scientist who drew inspiration from which text?
Who recommended science as a way to achieve the goals of the Quran?
Who argued that the Quran inspired the first practitioners of the scientific method we use today?
Al-Biruni is a example of a scientists of which religion?
It's likely[weasel words] that alb ("white") and albus have common origins deriving from the association of the tops of tall mountains or steep hills with snow.

Questions:
What words are likely to have common origins?
Where do Alb and Albus share their origin from?
Alb can also mean what?
Italian unification was the political and social movement that annexed different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of Italy in the 19th century. There is a lack of consensus on the exact dates for the beginning and the end of this period, but many scholars agree that the process began with the end of Napoleonic rule and the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and approximately ended with the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, though the last città irredente did not join the Kingdom of Italy until after World War I.

Questions:
What is Italian Unification?
When did the Italian Unification occur?
In what year do most  Scholars agree the Italian Unification ended?
In what year do most  Scholars agree the Italian Unification began?
After what event did the last citta irredente join Italy?
Italians in different regions today may also speak regional varieties of standard Italian, or regional Italian dialects, which, unlike the majority of languages of Italy, are actually dialects of standard Italian rather than separate languages. A regional Italian dialect is generally standard Italian that has been heavily influenced or mixed with local or regional native languages and accents.

Questions:
Regional Italian dialects are often influenced by regional languages and what other language?
Italy became a major industrialized country again, due to its post-war economic miracle. The European Union (EU) involved the division of powers, with taxation, health and education handled by the nation states, while the EU had charge of market rules, competition, legal standards and environmentalism. The Soviet economic and political system collapsed, leading to the end of communism in the satellite countries in 1989, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union itself in 1991. As a consequence, Europe's integration deepened, the continent became depolarised, and the European Union expanded to subsequently include many of the formerly communist European countries – Romania and Bulgaria (2007) and Croatia (2013).

Questions:
What does EU stand for?
What was the European Union tasked with managing?
When did communism fall in allies of the Soviet Union?
When did the USSR dissolve?
In what year was Croatia admitted to the European Union?
Italy is home to a vast array of native regional minority languages, most of which are Romance-based and have their own local variants. These regional languages are often referred to colloquially or in non-linguistic circles as Italian "dialects," or dialetti (standard Italian for "dialects"). However, the majority of the regional languages in Italy are in fact not actually "dialects" of standard Italian in the strict linguistic sense, as they are not derived from modern standard Italian but instead evolved locally from Vulgar Latin independent of standard Italian, with little to no influence from what is now known as "standard Italian." They are therefore better classified as individual languages rather than "dialects."

Questions:
What are Italian dialects termed in the Italian language?
What language are many Italian dialects derived from?
What does 'dialetti' mean in Italian?
Why might Italian dialects be regarded as independent languages rather than dialects of standard Italian?
Its average annual temperature is 18.4 °C (65.1 °F). 22.8 °C (73.0 °F) during the day and 13.8 °C (56.8 °F) at night. In the coldest month – January, the maximum temperature typically during the day ranges from 13 to 21 °C (55 to 70 °F), the minimum temperature typically at night ranges from 4 to 12 °C (39 to 54 °F). In the warmest month – August, the maximum temperature during the day typically ranges from 28–34 °C (82–93 °F), about 23 °C (73 °F) at night. Generally, temperatures similar to those experienced in the northern part of Europe in summer last about 8 months, from April to November. March is transitional, the temperature often exceeds 20 °C (68 °F), with an average temperature of 19.0 °C (66 °F) during the day and 10.0 °C (50 °F) at night. December, January and February are the coldest months, with average temperatures around 17 °C (63 °F) during the day and 7 °C (45 °F) at night. Valencia has one of the mildest winters in Europe, owing to its southern location on the Mediterranean Sea and the Foehn phenomenon. The January average is comparable to temperatures expected for May and September in the major cities of northern Europe.

Questions:
What is Valencia's average yearly temperature?
Which month is the hottest in Valencia?
Which month is the chilliest in Valencia?
In northern Europe, which months have temperatures similar to Valencia's in January?
What is the average maximum daytime temperature in August in Valencia?
Its knowledge and uses spread from China through the Middle East to medieval Europe in the 13th century, where the first water powered paper mills were built. Because of paper's introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, it was first called bagdatikos. In the 19th century, industrial manufacture greatly lowered its cost, enabling mass exchange of information and contributing to significant cultural shifts. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres.

Questions:
In what century did the papermaking process spread from China to Europe?
Which middle eastern city did the papermaking process to Europe from?
What name did the process take on in Baghdad?
In which century did the process become much cheaper than before?
Which Canadian inventor helped F.G. Keller to develop their own process?
Its main body is solid sterling silver and silver gilt, while its plinth is made of malachite, a semi-precious stone. The plinth has a silver band around its circumference, upon which the names of the title-winning clubs are listed. Malachite's green colour is also representative of the green field of play. The design of the trophy is based on the heraldry of Three Lions that is associated with English football. Two of the lions are found above the handles on either side of the trophy – the third is symbolised by the captain of the title winning team as he raises the trophy, and its gold crown, above his head at the end of the season. The ribbons that drape the handles are presented in the team colours of the league champions that year.

Questions:
What is the Premier League Championship trophy based on?
Where on the trophy can two of the lions be seen?
Where can the third lion be seen?
What do the ribbons on the trophy mean?
The Golden Boot is made of sterling silver, silver gilt and which semi-precious stone?
On what type of metal band are the title-winning clubs listed on the Golden Boot?
What does the green colour of Malachite on the Golden Boot represent?
How many lions are found on the Golden Boot?
Who symbolizes the third lion not found on the Golden Boot trophy?
Its mission is to provide high quality education, training and research in the areas of science and technology to produce qualified professionals that can apply their knowledge and skills in the country's development.

Questions:
If the mission is achieved, professionals will apply what they've learned to what goal?
Its services include RIBA Insight, RIBA Appointments, and RIBA Publishing. It publishes the RIBA Product Selector and RIBA Journal. In Newcastle is the NBS, the National Building Specification, which has 130 staff and deals with the building regulations and the Construction Information Service. RIBA Bookshops, which operates online and at 66 Portland Place, is also part of RIBA Enterprises.

Questions:
What are three divisions of RIBA Enterprises?
What are two publications produced by RIBA Publishing?
What does NBS stand for?
How many people work for the NBS?
Where is the NBS located?
Its written transmission, along with the veneration bestowed on certain classical works, has led to the expectation that performers will play a work in a way that realizes in detail the original intentions of the composer. During the 19th century the details that composers put in their scores generally increased. Yet the opposite trend—admiration of performers for new "interpretations" of the composer's work—can be seen, and it is not unknown for a composer to praise a performer for achieving a better realization of the original intent than the composer was able to imagine. Thus, classical performers often achieve high reputations for their musicianship, even if they do not compose themselves. Generally however, it is the composers who are remembered more than the performers.

Questions:
How are performers expected to play a work due to written transmission?
When did details that composers put in their scores increase?
Admiration of performers for new interpretations can be seen when composers feel the performer achieve what?
What do classical performers often achieve?
J'ouvert, or "Dirty Mas", takes place before dawn on the Monday (known as Carnival Monday) before Ash Wednesday. It means ""opening of the day". Revelers dress in costumes embodying puns on current affairs, especially political and social events. "Clean Mud" (clay mud), oil paint and body paint are familiar during J'ouvert. A common character is "Jab-jabs" (devils, blue, black or red) complete with pitchfork, pointed horns and tails. A King and Queen of J'ouvert are chosen, based on their witty political/social messages.

Questions:
When does  Dirty Mas take place on the Monday before Ash Wednesday?
What do the costumes worn by the revelers pun about?
What is "Clean Mud"?
What are "jab-jabs"?
How are the King and Queen of J'ouvert chosen?
J. Barrie Jones suggests that "amongst the works that Chopin intended for concert use, the four ballades and four scherzos stand supreme", and adds that "the Barcarolle Op. 60 stands apart as an example of Chopin's rich harmonic palette coupled with an Italianate warmth of melody." Temperley opines that these works, which contain "immense variety of mood, thematic material and structural detail", are based on an extended "departure and return" form; "the more the middle section is extended, and the further it departs in key, mood and theme, from the opening idea, the more important and dramatic is the reprise when it at last comes."

Questions:
What piece does J. Barrie Jones pinpoint as a great example of Chopin's palette?
What does J. Barrie Jones feel stands supreme of Chopin's concert pieces?
What form does Temperley feel that Chopin's ballades and scherzos are based on?
J. Brent Walker, Executive Director of the Baptist Joint Committee, responded to Hamburger's claims noting; "The fact that the separation of church and state has been supported by some who exhibited an anti-Catholic animus or a secularist bent does not impugn the validity of the principle. Champions of religious liberty have argued for the separation of church and state for reasons having nothing to do with anti-Catholicism or desire for a secular culture. Of course, separationists have opposed the Catholic Church when it has sought to tap into the public till to support its parochial schools or to argue for on-campus released time in the public schools. But that principled debate on the issues does not support a charge of religious bigotry"

Questions:
Who is the Executive Director of the Baptist Joint Committee?
What does Walker feel does not impugn the validity of the principle of separation of church and state?
Who have argued for the separation of church and state for reasons having nothing to do with a desire for a secular culture?
Separationists opposed the Catholic church when it sought to do what?
What does a principled debate on the issues not support a charge of?
J. Edgar Hoover served as Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, and FBI. He was chiefly responsible for creating the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory, or the FBI Laboratory, which officially opened in 1932, as part of his work to professionalize investigations by the government. Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure. After Hoover's death, Congress passed legislation that limited the tenure of future FBI Directors to ten years.

Questions:
Who was Director from 1924 to 1972?
How many years was Hoover the FBI director?
What laboratory was Hoover responsible for creating?
What was the other name for the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory?
When did the FBI laboratory open?
J. M. E. McTaggart of Cambridge University, argued that minds alone exist and only relate to each other through love. Space, time and material objects are unreal. In The Unreality of Time he argued that time is an illusion because it is impossible to produce a coherent account of a sequence of events. The Nature of Existence (1927) contained his arguments that space, time, and matter cannot possibly be real. In his Studies in Hegelian Cosmology (Cambridge, 1901, p196) he declared that metaphysics are not relevant to social and political action. McTaggart "thought that Hegel was wrong in supposing that metaphysics could show that the state is more than a means to the good of the individuals who compose it". For McTaggart "philosophy can give us very little, if any, guidance in action... Why should a Hegelian citizen be surprised that his belief as to the organic nature of the Absolute does not help him in deciding how to vote? Would a Hegelian engineer be reasonable in expecting that his belief that all matter is spirit should help him in planning a bridge?

Questions:
With what university is J.M.E. McTaggart affiliated?
In what year was The Nature of Existence published?
According to McTaggart, what are the only things that have real existence?
What does McTaggart believe space and time to be?
How does McTaggart believe minds relate to one another?
Jack Brickhouse manned the Cubs radio and especially the TV booth for parts of five decades, the 34-season span from 1948 to 1981. He covered the games with a level of enthusiasm that often seemed unjustified by the team's poor performance on the field for many of those years. His trademark call "Hey Hey!" always followed a home run. That expression is spelled out in large letters vertically on both foul pole screens at Wrigley Field. "Whoo-boy!" and "Wheeee!" and "Oh, brother!" were among his other pet expressions. When he approached retirement age, he personally recommended his successor.

Questions:
Who manned the Cubs radio and TV booth for parts of five decades?
What was Jack Brickhouse's trademark call?
What did Jack Brickhouse do when he approached his retirement age?
James Liebman, a professor of law at Columbia Law School, stated in 1996 that his study found that when habeas corpus petitions in death penalty cases were traced from conviction to completion of the case that there was "a 40 percent success rate in all capital cases from 1978 to 1995." Similarly, a study by Ronald Tabak in a law review article puts the success rate in habeas corpus cases involving death row inmates even higher, finding that between "1976 and 1991, approximately 47 percent of the habeas petitions filed by death row inmates were granted." The different numbers are largely definitional, rather than substantive. Freedam's statistics looks at the percentage of all death penalty cases reversed, while the others look only at cases not reversed prior to habeas corpus review.

Questions:
What institution does James Liebman work for?
What does James Liebman teach?
According to Liebman, about what percentage of death penalty habeas corpus petitions were successful between 1978 and 1995?
According to Tabak, what percentage of habeas corpus petitions were granted to death row inmates between 1976 and 1991?
In what year did Liebman announce his findings?
James Rassmann, a Green Beret advisor who was aboard Kerry's PCF-94, was knocked overboard when, according to witnesses and the documentation of the event, a mine or rocket exploded close to the boat. According to the documentation for the event, Kerry's arm was injured when he was thrown against a bulkhead during the explosion. PCF 94 returned to the scene and Kerry rescued Rassmann who was receiving sniper fire from the water. Kerry received the Bronze Star Medal with Combat "V" for "heroic achievement", for his actions during this incident; he also received his third Purple Heart.

Questions:
What boat was Rassmann on?
Who fell overboard from Kerry's boat?
What was Rassmann's job?
What medal did Kerry earn for rescuing Rassmann?
What does the Combat V mean?
James Wilson said during the Philadelphia Convention in 1787 that, "Laws may be unjust, may be unwise, may be dangerous, may be destructive; and yet not be so unconstitutional as to justify the Judges in refusing to give them effect." George Mason agreed that judges "could declare an unconstitutional law void. But with regard to every law, however unjust, oppressive or pernicious, which did not come plainly under this description, they would be under the necessity as judges to give it a free course." Chief Justice John Marshall (joined by Justice Joseph Story) took a similar position in 1827: "When its existence as law is denied, that existence cannot be proved by showing what are the qualities of a law."

Questions:
When was the Philadelphia Convention?
Who spoke at the Philadelphia Convention about the potential chaos from not having judges be able to enforce laws?
What was John Marshall's title?
What did George Mason state that judges could do to a law?
Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn (1556?–1623?), a Dutch colleague of Adams' on their ill-fated voyage to Japan in the ship De Liefde, was also given similar privileges by Tokugawa Ieyasu. It appears Joosten became a samurai[citation needed] and was given a residence within Ieyasu's castle at Edo. Today, this area at the east exit of Tokyo Station is known as Yaesu (八重洲). Yaesu is a corruption of the Dutchman's Japanese name, Yayousu (耶楊子). Also in common with Adam's, Joostens was given a Red Seal Ship (朱印船) allowing him to trade between Japan and Indo-China. On a return journey from Batavia Joosten drowned after his ship ran aground.

Questions:
What nationality was Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn?
Around when was Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn born?
What was Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn's Japanese name?
What permission allowed trade between Japan and Indo-China?
How did Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn die?
Jantar Mantar located in Connaught Place was built by Maharaja Jai Singh II of Jaipur. It consists of 13 architectural astronomy instruments. The primary purpose of the observatory was to compile astronomical tables, and to predict the times and movements of the sun, moon and planets.

Questions:
Who was responsible for constructing the Jantar Mantar?
In what area of New Delhi is the Jantar Mantar observatory located?
The Jantar Mantar consists of how many architectural astronomy instruments?
What is the name of the observatory built in Connaught Place by Maharaja Jai Singh II of Jaipur?
What is one of the primary purposes of the Jantar Mantar observatory?
Japan and Germany are great powers too, though due to their large advanced economies (having the third and fourth largest economies respectively) rather than their strategic and hard power capabilities (i.e., the lack of permanent seats and veto power on the UN Security Council or strategic military reach). Germany has been a member together with the five permanent Security Council members in the P5+1 grouping of world powers. Like China, France, Russia and the United Kingdom; Germany and Japan have also been referred to as middle powers.

Questions:
What countries are great powers mostly based on economic reasons?
Due to lack of strategic and hard power, countries are excluded from what?
What is the name for the grouping of countries of China, France, Russia and the United Kingdom; Germany and Japan?
Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Formosa (Taiwan). To a small extent, some Vichy French, Indian National Army, and Burmese National Army forces were active in the area of the Pacific War. Collaborationist units from Hong Kong (reformed ex-colonial police), Philippines, Dutch East Indies (the PETA) and Dutch Guinea, British Malaya and British Borneo, Inner Mongolia and former French Indochina (after the overthrow of Vichy French regime) as well as Timorese militia also assisted Japanese war efforts.

Questions:
Where did many of Japan's soldiers come from?
What type of soldiers came from Hong Kong? 
What other Asian country, a group of islands, helped the Japanese?
What French forces assisted Japan?
What colonies did Japan conscript soldiers from?
Who were the collaborators assisting Japan in Hong King?
Japan saw the release of the Satellaview, a modem which attached to the Super Famicom's expansion port and connected to the St.GIGA satellite radio station. Users of the Satellaview could download gaming news and specially designed games, which were frequently either remakes of or sequels to older Famicom titles, released in installments. Satellaview signals were broadcast from April 23, 1995 through June 30, 2000. In the United States, the similar but relatively short-lived XBAND allowed users to connect to a network via a dial-up modem to compete against other players around the country.

Questions:
What modem was available for the Japanese SNES?
What service did the Satellaview connect to?
When did the Satellaview begin operation?
When did the Satellaview end operation?
What was the US equivalent of Satellaview?
Japan sponsored several puppet governments, one of which was headed by Wang Jingwei. However, its policies of brutality toward the Chinese population, of not yielding any real power to these regimes, and of supporting several rival governments failed to make any of them a viable alternative to the Nationalist government led by Chiang Kai-shek. Conflicts between Chinese communist and nationalist forces vying for territory control behind enemy lines culminated in a major armed clash in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.

Questions:
Who was the leader of the Nationalist government?
When did cooperation between communist and nationalist forces end?
Did Japan support rival governments?
When did the co-operation between Chinese nationalist forces and communists end?
What was Wang Jingwei's government considered?
What government did Chiang Kai-shek lead?
Japan used the name Greater East Asia War (大東亜戦争, Dai Tō-A Sensō?), as chosen by a cabinet decision on 10 December 1941, to refer to both the war with the Western Allies and the ongoing war in China. This name was released to the public on 12 December, with an explanation that it involved Asian nations achieving their independence from the Western powers through armed forces of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan–China Incident (日支事変, Nisshi Jihen?) into the Greater East Asia War.

Questions:
By what name was the war with Japan referred?
What did Japanese officials call the war?
What was the reason Japan gave for the war?
What date was the new name of the war released?
What name did Japan call the war?
When did Japan adobt the name for the war?
What was Japan's publicised war goal?
What did Japan call the occupied group of Asian nations?
How was the name of the war chosen by Japan?
Japanese (Famicom) cartridges are shaped slightly differently. While the NES used a 72-pin interface, the Famicom system used a 60-pin design. Unlike NES games, official Famicom cartridges were produced in many colors of plastic. Adapters, similar in design to the popular accessory Game Genie, are available that allow Famicom games to be played on an NES. In Japan, several companies manufactured the cartridges for the Famicom. This allowed these companies to develop their own customized chips designed for specific purposes, such as chips that increased the quality of sound in their games.

Questions:
Which cartridges were shaped slightly differently?
Which interface did the NES use?
Which interface did Famicom use?
Various companies in Japan did what to their games for certain specifics?
Japanese comics and cartooning (manga),[g] have a history that has been seen as far back as the anthropomorphic characters in the 12th-to-13th-century Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga, 17th-century toba-e and kibyōshi picture books, and woodblock prints such as ukiyo-e which were popular between the 17th and 20th centuries. The kibyōshi contained examples of sequential images, movement lines, and sound effects.

Questions:
What picture books from the 17th century show manga origins?
What is ukiyo-e an example of?
Japanese land forces continued to advance in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. From July 1942, a few Australian reserve battalions, many of them very young and untrained, fought a stubborn rearguard action in New Guinea, against a Japanese advance along the Kokoda Track, towards Port Moresby, over the rugged Owen Stanley Ranges. The militia, worn out and severely depleted by casualties, were relieved in late August by regular troops from the Second Australian Imperial Force, returning from action in the Mediterranean theater. In early September 1942 Japanese marines attacked a strategic Royal Australian Air Force base at Milne Bay, near the eastern tip of New Guinea. They were beaten back by Allied (primarily Australian Army) forces.

Questions:
What mountains did the Australian battalions fight a rearguard action over on the Kokoda Track?
What forces releived the worn Australian reserve battalions? 
In 1942, what Australian Air Force base was attacked by Japanese marines?
Where was Milne Bay located in New Guinea?
What theater did the Second Australian Imperial Force come from before they relieved the reserve battalions in New Guinea?
Japanese seismologist Yuji Yagi at the University of Tsukuba said that the earthquake occurred in two stages: "The 155-mile Longmenshan Fault tore in two sections, the first one ripping about seven yards, followed by a second one that sheared four yards." His data also showed that the earthquake lasted about two minutes and released 30 times the energy of the Great Hanshin earthquake of 1995 in Japan, which killed over 6,000 people. He pointed out that the shallowness of the epicenter and the density of population greatly increased the severity of the earthquake. Teruyuki Kato, a seismologist at the University of Tokyo, said that the seismic waves of the quake traveled a long distance without losing their power because of the firmness of the terrain in central China. According to reports from Chengdu, the capital of Sichuan province, the earthquake tremors lasted for "about two or three minutes".

Questions:
How many people were killed in the Hanshin earthquake?
How did Yuji Yagi say the quake happened?
What fault tore in two places?
Besides the population density, what else contributed to the severity of the quake?
How much greater was the energy of this quake than that released in the earthquake of 1995 in Japan?
Why did the seismic waves travel so far?
Jared Diamond describes an "Evil Quartet" of habitat destruction, overkill, introduced species, and secondary extinctions. Edward O. Wilson prefers the acronym HIPPO, standing for Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, human over-Population, and Over-harvesting. The most authoritative classification in use today is IUCN's Classification of Direct Threats which has been adopted by major international conservation organizations such as the US Nature Conservancy, the World Wildlife Fund, Conservation International, and BirdLife International.

Questions:
Who describes the "Evil Quartet"?
What describes habitat destruction, overkill, introduced species, and secondary extinctions?
What describes Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, human over-Population, and Over-harvesting?
What is the most authoritative classification in use today?
What funding organization uses the IUCN's Classification of Direct Threats?
Jean Macfarlane founded the University of California, Berkeley's Institute of Human Development, formerly called the Institute of Child Welfare, in 1927. The Institute was instrumental in initiating studies of healthy development, in contrast to previous work that had been dominated by theories based on pathological personalities. The studies looked at human development during the Great Depression and World War II, unique historical circumstances under which a generation of children grew up. The Oakland Growth Study, initiated by Harold Jones and Herbert Stolz in 1931, aimed to study the physical, intellectual, and social development of children in the Oakland area. Data collection began in 1932 and continued until 1981, allowing the researchers to gather longitudinal data on the individuals that extended past adolescence into adulthood. Jean Macfarlane launched the Berkeley Guidance Study, which examined the development of children in terms of their socioeconomic and family backgrounds. These studies provided the background for Glen Elder in the 1960s, to propose a life-course perspective of adolescent development. Elder formulated several descriptive principles of adolescent development. The principle of historical time and place states that an individual's development is shaped by the period and location in which they grow up. The principle of the importance of timing in one's life refers to the different impact that life events have on development based on when in one's life they occur. The idea of linked lives states that one's development is shaped by the interconnected network of relationships of which one is a part; and the principle of human agency asserts that one's life course is constructed via the choices and actions of an individual within the context of their historical period and social network.

Questions:
Who founded the University of California, Berkeley's Institude of Human Development?
What year was the University of California, Berkeley's Instutute of Human Development founded?
What was the Univerity of California, Berkeley's Institute of Human Development formerly called?
What year was the Oakland Growth Study initiated?
What year did data for the Oakland Growth Study stop being collected?
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was the first of many to present the Alps as a place of allure and beauty, banishing the prevalent conception of the mountains as a hellish wasteland inhabited by demons. Rousseau's conception of alpine purity was later emphasized with the publication of Albrecht von Haller's poem Die Alpen that described the mountains as an area of mythical purity. Late in the 18th century the first wave of Romantics such as Goethe and Turner came to admire the scenery; Wordsworth visited the area in 1790, writing of his experiences in The Prelude. Schiller later wrote the play William Tell romanticising Swiss independence. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Alpine countries began to see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians, as visitors came to experience the sublime effects of monumental nature.

Questions:
Who was the first of many to present the Alps as a place of allure and beauty?
Who wrote the poem Die Alpen?
When did the Alpine countries see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians?
What did the visitors come to experience in the Alpine countries?
Jefferson and James Madison's conceptions of separation have long been debated. Jefferson refused to issue Proclamations of Thanksgiving sent to him by Congress during his presidency, though he did issue a Thanksgiving and Prayer proclamation as Governor of Virginia. Madison issued four religious proclamations while President, but vetoed two bills on the grounds they violated the first amendment. On the other hand, both Jefferson and Madison attended religious services at the Capitol. Years before the ratification of the Constitution, Madison contended "Because if Religion be exempt from the authority of the Society at large, still less can it be subject to that of the Legislative Body." After retiring from the presidency, Madison wrote of "total separation of the church from the state." " "Strongly guarded as is the separation between Religion & Govt in the Constitution of the United States," Madison wrote, and he declared, "practical distinction between Religion and Civil Government is essential to the purity of both, and as guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States." In a letter to Edward Livingston Madison further expanded, "We are teaching the world the great truth that Govts. do better without Kings & Nobles than with them. The merit will be doubled by the other lesson that Religion flourishes in greater purity, without than with the aid of Govt." Madison's original draft of the Bill of Rights had included provisions binding the States, as well as the Federal Government, from an establishment of religion, but the House did not pass them.[citation needed]

Questions:
Whose conceptions of separation have long been argued over?
What did Jefferson refuse to issue, when it was sent to him by Congress during his presidency?
Where did both Jefferson and Madison attend religious services?
How many religious proclamations did Madison issue while President?
What is essential to the purity of both religion and civil government?