Python F-String: 73 Examples to Help You Master It
Tags: python, tutorial, beginners, 100daysofcode
Published: 2020-11-14 11:38:05

Python f-strings are impressive! 

Did you know you can use f-strings to string format almost anything in Python? You can use them to format floats, multiline strings, decimal places, objects and even use if-else conditionals within them.

In this post, I’ll show you at least 73 examples on how to format strings using Python 3's f-strings. You'll see the many ways you can take advantage of this powerful feature.

By the end of this guide, you'll have mastered:
- how to use f string to format **float numbers**
- how to format **multiline string**
- how to define **decimal places** in a f-string
- how to fix invalid syntax errors such as ***"syntaxerror: f-string: unmatched '['"*** or ***f-string: unmatched '('***
- how to use **if else statement** in a f-string
- basic string **interpolation formatting** using f-strings 
- how to **print f-strings**
- how to effectively add **padding** using fstring


Let's go!


## Table of Contents

1. [What Are Python 3's F-Strings - a.k.a Literal String Interpolation?](#what-are-python-f-strings-aka-literal-string-interpolation)
2. [How to Format Strings in Python 3 - The Basics](#how-to-format-strings-in-python-3-the-basics)
3. [Limitations](#limitations)
4. [How to Format an Expression](#how-to-format-an-expression)
5. [How to Use F-Strings to Debug Your Code](#how-to-use-f-strings-to-debug-your-code)
6. [How to Format a Multiline F-String (Dealing with New Lines and Variables)](#how-to-format-a-multiline-f-string-dealing-with-new-lines-and-variables)
7. [How to Fix F-String's Invalid Syntax Error](#how-to-fix-f-strings-invalid-syntax-error)
8. [How to Fix "formatting a regular string which could be a f-string"](#how-to-fix-formatting-a-regular-string-which-could-be-a-f-string)
9. [How to Format Numbers in Different Bases](#how-to-format-numbers-in-different-bases)
10. [How to Print Formatted Objects With F-Strings](#how-to-print-formatted-objects-with-f-strings)
11. [How to Use F-Strings to Format a Float](#how-to-use-f-strings-to-format-a-float)
12. [How to Format a Number as Percentage](#how-to-format-a-number-as-percentage)
13. [How to Justify or Add Padding to a F-String](#how-to-justify-or-add-padding-to-a-f-string)
14. [How to Escape Characters With f-string](#how-to-escape-characters-with-f-string)
15. [How to Add a Thousand Separator](#how-to-add-a-thousand-separator)

       15.1. [How to Format a Number With Commas as Decimal Separator](#how-to-format-a-number-with-commas-as-decimal-separator)

       15.2. [How to Format a Number With Spaces as Decimal Separator](#how-to-format-a-number-with-spaces-as-decimal-separator)
16. [How to Format a Number in Scientific Notation (Exponential Notation)](#how-to-format-a-number-in-scientific-notation-exponential-notation)
17. [Using `if-else` Conditional in a F-String](#using-if-else-conditional-in-a-f-string)
18. [How to Use F-String With a Dictionary](#how-to-use-f-string-with-a-dictionary)
19. [How to Concatenate F-Strings](#how-to-concatenate-f-strings)
20. [How to Format a Date With F-String](#how-to-format-a-date-with-f-strings)
21. [How to Add Leading Zeros](#how-to-add-leading-zeros)
22. [Conclusion](#conclusion)


## What Are Python F-Strings - a.k.a Literal String Interpolation?

String formatting has evolved quite a bit in the history of Python. Before Python 2.6, to format a string, one would either use the `%` operator, or `string.Template` module. Some time later, the `str.format` method came along and added to the language a more flexible and robust way of formatting a string.

Old string formatting with `%`:
```python
>>> msg = 'hello world'
>>> 'msg: %s' % msg
'msg: hello world'
```

Using `string.format`:
```python
>>> msg = 'hello world'
>>> 'msg: {}'.format(msg)
'msg: hello world'
```

To simplify formatting even further, in 2015, Eric Smith proposed the [
PEP 498 -- Literal String Interpolation
](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0498/), a new way to format a string for python 3.

PEP 498 presented this new string interpolation to be a simple and easy to use alternative to `str.format`. The only thing required is to put a 'f' before a string. And if you're new to the language, that's what **f** in Python means, it's a new syntax to create formatted strings.

Using f-strings:
```python
>>> msg = 'hello world'
>>> f'msg: {msg}'
'msg: hello world'
```

And that was it! No need to use `str.format` or `%`. However, f-strings don’t replace `str.format` completely. In this guide I’ll show you an example where they are not suitable.

## How to Format Strings in Python 3 - The Basics

As I have shown in the previous section, formatting strings in python using f-strings is quite straightforward. The sole requirement is to provide it a valid expression. f-strings can also start with capital `F` and you can combine with raw strings to produce a formatted output. However, you cannot mix them with bytes `b""` or `"u"`.

![fig_5.png](https://cdn.hashnode.com/res/hashnode/image/upload/v1603916687914/zA7xXR7UF.png)

```python
>>> book = "The dog guide"

>>> num_pages = 124

>>> f"The book {book} has {num_pages} pages"
'The book The dog guide has 124 pages'

>>> F"The book {book} has {num_pages} pages"
'The book The dog guide has 124 pages'

>>> print(Fr"The book {book} has {num_pages} pages\n")
The book The dog guide has 124 pages\n

>>> print(FR"The book {book} has {num_pages} pages\n")
The book The dog guide has 124 pages\n

>>> print(f"The book {book} has {num_pages} pages\n")
The book The dog guide has 124 pages
```

And that's pretty much it! In the next section, I'll show you several examples of everything you can do - and cannot do - with f-strings.

## Limitations

Even though f-strings are very convenient, they don't replace `str.format` completely. f-strings evaluate expressions in the context where they appear. According the the  [PEP 498
](#https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0498/), this means the expression has full access to local and global variables. They're also an expression evaluated at runtime. If the expression used inside the `{ <expr> }` cannot be evaluated, the interpreter will raise an exception.

```python
>>> f"{name}"
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
NameError                                 Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-1-f0acc441190f> in <module>
----> 1 f"{name}"

NameError: name 'name' is not defined
``` 

This is not a problem for the `str.format` method, as you can define the template string and then call `.format` to pass on the context.

```python
>>> s = "{name}"

>>> s.format(name="Python")
'Python'

>>> print(s)
{name}
```

Another limitation is that you cannot use inline comments inside a f-string.

```python
>>> f"My name is {name #name}!"
  File "<ipython-input-37-0ae1738dd871>", line 1
    f"My name is {name #name}!"
    ^
SyntaxError: f-string expression part cannot include '#'
```

## How to Format an Expression

If you don't want to define variables, you can use literals inside the brackets. Python will evaluate the expression and display the final result.

```python
>>> f"4 * 4 is {4 * 4}"
'4 * 4 is 16'
```

Or if you prefer...

```python
>>> n = 4

>>> f"4 * 4 is {n * n}"
'4 * 4 is 16'
```

## How to Use F-Strings to Debug Your Code

One of most frequent usages of f-string is debugging. Before Python 3.8, many people would do `hello = 42; f"hello = {hello}"`, but this is very repetitive. As a result, Python 3.8 brought a new feature. You can re-write that expression as `f"{hello=}"` and Python will display `hello=42`. The following example illustrates this using a function, but the principle is the same.

```python
>>> def magic_number():
     ...:     return 42
     ...: 

>>> f"{magic_number() = }"
'magic_number() = 42'
```

## How to Format a Multiline F-String (Dealing with New Lines and Variables)

You can use the newline character `\n` with f-strings to print a string in multiple lines.

```python
>>> multi_line = (f'R: {color["R"]}\nG: {color["G"]}\nB: {color["B"
    ...: ]}\n')

>>> multi_line
'R: 123\nG: 145\nB: 255\n'

>>> print(multi_line)
R: 123
G: 145
B: 255
```
As an alternative, you can use triple quotes to represent the multiline string with variables. It not only allows you to add line breaks, it’s also possible to add `TAB`.

```python
>>> other = f"""R: {color["R"]}
    ...: G: {color["G"]}
    ...: B: {color["B"]}
    ...: """

>>> print(other)
R: 123
G: 145
B: 255

```
Example with `TAB`s.
```python
>>> other = f'''
    ...: this is an example
    ...: 
    ...: ^Iof color {color["R"]}
    ...:     
    ...: '''

>>> other
'\nthis is an example\n\n\tof color 123\n    \n'

>>> print(other)

this is an example

	of color 123
    


>>>
```

## How to Fix F-String's Invalid Syntax Error

If not used correctly, f-strings can raise a `SyntaxError`. The most common cause is using double-quotes inside a double quoted f-string. The same is also true for single quotes.

```python
>>> color = {"R": 123, "G": 145, "B": 255}

>>> f"{color["R"]}"
  File "<ipython-input-43-1a7f5d512400>", line 1
    f"{color["R"]}"
    ^
SyntaxError: f-string: unmatched '['


# using only single quotes
>>> f'{color['R']}'
  File "<ipython-input-44-3499a4e3120c>", line 1
    f'{color['R']}'
    ^
SyntaxError: f-string: unmatched '['
```

This error not only happens with `'['`, but also `'('`. The cause is the same, it happens when you close a quote prematurely.

```python
>>> print(f"price: {format(round(12.345), ",")}")
  File "<ipython-input-2-1ae6f786bc4d>", line 1
    print(f"price: {format(round(12.345), ",")}")
                                           ^
SyntaxError: f-string: unmatched '('
```

To fix that, you need to use single quotes.

```python
>>> print(f"price: {format(round(12.345), ',')}")
price: 12

>>> color = {"R": 123, "G": 145, "B": 255}

>>> f"{color['R']}"
'123'

>>> f'{color["R"]}'
'123'
```

Another common case is to use f-strings in older versions of Python. f-strings were introduced in Python 3.6. If you use it in an older version, the interpreter will raise a `SyntaxError: invalid syntax`.

```python
>>> f"this is an old version"
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    f"this is an old verion"
                            ^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
```

If you see `invalid syntax`, make sure to double check the Python version you are running. In my case, I tested in on Python 2.7, and you can find the version by calling `sys.version`.

```python
>>> import sys; print(sys.version)
2.7.18 (default, Apr 20 2020, 19:27:10) 
[GCC 8.3.0]
```

## How to Fix "formatting a regular string which could be a f-string"

This error happens because pylint detects the old way of formatting string such as using `%` or the `str.format` method.

```
C0209: Formatting a regular string which could be a f-string (consider-using-f-string)
```

To fix that you can either:
- replace the old formatting method with a f-string
- ignore the pylint error using 

In [this post](https://miguendes.me/pylint-consider-using-f-string), I explain how to fix this issue step-by-step.

### Replacing with f-strings

The following examples illustrate how to convert old method to f-string.

```python
>>>  ip_address = "127.0.0.1"

# pylint complains if we use the methods below
>>> "http://%s:8000/" % ip_address
'http://127.0.0.1:8000/'

>>> "http://{}:8000/".format(ip_address)
'http://127.0.0.1:8000/'

# Replace it with a f-string
>>> f"http://{ip_address}:8000/"
'http://127.0.0.1:8000/'
```

### Disable `pylint`

Alternatively, you can disable `pylint` by specifying the "disable" flag with the error code.

```python
>>>  ip_address = "127.0.0.1"

# pylint complains if we use the methods below, so we can disable them
>>> "http://%s:8000/" % ip_address  # pylint: disable=C0209
'http://127.0.0.1:8000/'

>>> "http://{}:8000/".format(ip_address)  # pylint: disable=C0209
'http://127.0.0.1:8000/'
```

Another way of disabling that error is to add it to the `.pylintrc` file.

```
# .pylintrc
disable=
    ...
    consider-using-f-string,
    ...
```

There's yet another way of disabling it, which is by placing a comment at the top of the file, like so:

```python
 # pylint: disable=consider-using-f-string

def your_function(fun):
    """Your code below"""
    ...
```

## How to Format Numbers in Different Bases

![fig_6.png](https://cdn.hashnode.com/res/hashnode/image/upload/v1603918242247/zSDHIu-F8.png)

f-strings also allow you to display an integer in different bases. For example, you can display an `int` as binary without converting it by using the `b` option.

```python
>>> f'{7:b}'
'111'
```

In summary, you can use f-strings to format: 
- `int` to binary
- `int` to hex
- `int` to octal
- `int` to HEX (where all chars are capitalized)

The following example uses the padding feature and the base formatting to create a table that displays an `int` in other bases.

```python
>>> bases = {
       "b": "bin", 
       "o": "oct", 
       "x": "hex", 
       "X": "HEX", 
       "d": "decimal"
}
>>> for n in range(1, 21):
     ...:     for base, desc in bases.items():
     ...:         print(f"{n:5{base}}", end=' ')
     ...:     print()

    1     1     1     1     1 
   10     2     2     2     2 
   11     3     3     3     3 
  100     4     4     4     4 
  101     5     5     5     5 
  110     6     6     6     6 
  111     7     7     7     7 
 1000    10     8     8     8 
 1001    11     9     9     9 
 1010    12     a     A    10 
 1011    13     b     B    11 
 1100    14     c     C    12 
 1101    15     d     D    13 
 1110    16     e     E    14 
 1111    17     f     F    15 
10000    20    10    10    16 
10001    21    11    11    17 
10010    22    12    12    18 
10011    23    13    13    19 
10100    24    14    14    20
```

## How to Print Formatted Objects With F-Strings

You can print custom objects using f-strings. By default, when you pass an object instance to a f-string, it will display what the `__str__` method returns. However, you can also use the [explicit conversion flag](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3101/#explicit-conversion-flag) to display the `__repr__`.

```
!r - converts the value to a string using repr().
!s - converts the value to a string using str().
```

```python
>>> class Color:
    def __init__(self, r: float = 255, g: float = 255, b: float = 255):
        self.r = r
        self.g = g
        self.b = b

    def __str__(self) -> str:
        return "A RGB color"

    def __repr__(self) -> str:
        return f"Color(r={self.r}, g={self.g}, b={self.b})"

>>> c = Color(r=123, g=32, b=255)

# When no option is passed, the __str__ result is printed
>>> f"{c}"
'A RGB color'

# When `obj!r` is used, the __repr__ output is printed
>>> f"{c!r}"
'Color(r=123, g=32, b=255)'

# Same as the default
>>> f"{c!s}"
'A RGB color'
```

Python also allows us to [control the formatting on a per-type basis](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3101/#controlling-formatting-on-a-per-type-basis)  through the `__format__` method. The following example shows how you can do all of that.

```python
>>> class Color:
    def __init__(self, r: float = 255, g: float = 255, b: float = 255):
        self.r = r
        self.g = g
        self.b = b

    def __str__(self) -> str:
        return "A RGB color"

    def __repr__(self) -> str:
        return f"Color(r={self.r}, g={self.g}, b={self.b})"

    def __format__(self, format_spec: str) -> str:
        if not format_spec or format_spec == "s":
            return str(self)

        if format_spec == "r":
            return repr(self)

        if format_spec == "v":
            return f"Color(r={self.r}, g={self.g}, b={self.b}) - A nice RGB thing."

        if format_spec == "vv":
            return (
                f"Color(r={self.r}, g={self.g}, b={self.b}) "
                f"- A more verbose nice RGB thing."
            )

        if format_spec == "vvv":
            return (
                f"Color(r={self.r}, g={self.g}, b={self.b}) "
                f"- A SUPER verbose nice RGB thing."
            )

        raise ValueError(
            f"Unknown format code '{format_spec}' " "for object of type 'Color'"
        )

>>> c = Color(r=123, g=32, b=255)

>>> f'{c:v}'
'Color(r=123, g=32, b=255) - A nice RGB thing.'

>>> f'{c:vv}'
'Color(r=123, g=32, b=255) - A more verbose nice RGB thing.'

>>> f'{c:vvv}'
'Color(r=123, g=32, b=255) - A SUPER verbose nice RGB thing.'

>>> f'{c}'
'A RGB color'

>>> f'{c:s}'
'A RGB color'

>>> f'{c:r}'
'Color(r=123, g=32, b=255)'

>>> f'{c:j}'
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError                                Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-20-1c0ee8dd74be> in <module>
----> 1 f'{c:j}'

<ipython-input-15-985c4992e957> in __format__(self, format_spec)
     29                 f"- A SUPER verbose nice RGB thing."
     30             )
---> 31         raise ValueError(
     32             f"Unknown format code '{format_spec}' " "for object of type 'Color'"
     33         )

ValueError: Unknown format code 'j' for object of type 'Color'
```

Lastly, there's also the `a` option that escapes non-ASCII chars. For more info: https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#ascii

```python
>>> utf_str = "Áeiöu"

>>> f"{utf_str!a}"
"'\\xc1ei\\xf6u'"
```

## How to Use F-Strings to Format a Float

f-strings allow format float numbers similar to `str.format` method. To do that, you can add a `:` (colon) followed by a `.` (dot) and the number of decimal places with a `f` suffix. 

For instance, you can round a float to 2 decimal places and print the variable just like this:

```python
>>> num = 4.123956

>>> f"num rounded to 2 decimal places = {num:.2f}"
'num rounded to 2 decimal places = 4.12'
```
If you don't specify anything, the float variable will use the full precision.

```python
>>> print(f'{num}')
4.123956
```

## How to Format a Number as Percentage

Python f-strings have a very convenient way of formatting percentage. The rules are similar to float formatting, except that you append a `%` instead of `f`. It multiplies the number by 100 displaying it in a fixed format, followed by a percent sign. You can also specify the precision.

```python
>>> total = 87

>>> true_pos = 34

>>> perc = true_pos / total

>>> perc
0.39080459770114945

>>> f"Percentage of true positive: {perc:%}"
'Percentage of true positive: 39.080460%'

>>> f"Percentage of true positive: {perc:.2%}"
'Percentage of true positive: 39.08%'
```

## How to Justify or Add Padding to a F-String

You can justify a string quite easily using `<` or `>` characters.  


![how to justify or add padding to a string in python](https://cdn.hashnode.com/res/hashnode/image/upload/v1604743387727/6iBt6HyIw.png)

```python
>>> greetings = "hello"

>>> f"She says {greetings:>10}"
'She says      hello'

# Pad 10 char to the right
>>> f"{greetings:>10}"
'     hello'

>>> f"{greetings:<10}"
'hello     '

# You can omit the < for left padding
>>> f"{greetings:10}"
'hello     '
```

![fig_2.png](https://cdn.hashnode.com/res/hashnode/image/upload/v1603829974543/sBUN1XIqv.png)

```python
>>> a = "1"

>>> b = "21"

>>> c = "321"

>>> d = "4321"

>>> print("\n".join((f"{a:>10}", f"{b:>10}", f"{c:>10}", f"{d:>10}")))
         1
        21
       321
      4321
```

## How to Escape Characters With f-string

In case you want to display the variable name surrounded by the curly brackets instead of rendering its value, you can escape it using double `{{<expr>}}`.

```python
>>> hello = "world"

>>> f"{{hello}} = {hello}"
'{hello} = world'
```
Now, if you want to escape a double quote, you can use the backslash `\"`.

```python
>>> f"{hello} = \"hello\""
'world = "hello"'
```

## How to Center a String

![fig_1.png](https://cdn.hashnode.com/res/hashnode/image/upload/v1603564554049/19ujHtjzT.png)

Centering a string can be achieved by using `var:^N` where `var` is a variable you want to display and `N` is the string length. If `N` is shorter than the `var`, then Python display the whole string.

```python
>>> hello = "world"

>>> f"{hello:^11}"
'   world   '

>>> f"{hello:*^11}"
'***world***'

# Extra padding is added to the right
>>> f"{hello:*^10}"
'**world***'

# N shorter than len(hello)
>>> f"{hello:^2}"
'world'
```

## How To Add a Thousand Separator

![fig_4.png](https://cdn.hashnode.com/res/hashnode/image/upload/v1603872626078/l1AR3uXzj.png)

f-strings also allow us to customize numbers. One common operation is to add an underscore to separate every thousand place.

```python
>>> big_num = 1234567890

>>> f"{big_num:_}"
'1_234_567_890'
```

### How to Format a Number With Commas as Decimal Separator

In fact, you can use any char as separator. It’s also possible to use a comma as separator.

```python
>>> big_num = 1234567890

>>> f"{big_num:,}"
'1,234,567,890'
```

You can also format a float with commas and set the precision in one go.

```python
>>> num = 2343552.6516251625

>>> f"{num:,.3f}"
'2,343,552.652'
```

### How to Format a Number With Spaces as Decimal Separator

> What about using spaces instead?

Well, this one is a bit “hacky” but it works. You can use the `,` as separator, then replace it with space.

```python
>>> big_num = 1234567890

>>> f"{big_num:,}".replace(',', ' ')
'1 234 567 890'
```

Another option is to set the locale of your environment to one that uses spaces as a thousand separator such as `pl_PL`. For more info, see this thread on [stack overflow](https://stackoverflow.com/a/17484665).

## How to Format a Number in Scientific Notation (Exponential Notation)

Formatting a number in scientific notation is possible with the `e` or `E` option.

```python
>>> num = 2343552.6516251625

>>> f"{num:e}"
'2.343553e+06'

>>> f"{num:E}"
'2.343553E+06'

>>> f"{num:.2e}"
'2.34e+06'

>>> f"{num:.4E}"
'2.3436E+06'
```

## Using `if-else` Conditional in a F-String

f-strings also evaluates more complex expressions such as inline `if/else`.

```python
>>> a = "this is a"

>>> b = "this is b"

>>> f"{a if 10 > 5 else b}"
'this is a'

>>> f"{a if 10 < 5 else b}"
'this is b'
```

## How to Use F-String With a Dictionary

You can use dictionaries in a f-string. The only requirement is to use a different quotation mark than the one enclosing the expression. 

```python
>>> color = {"R": 123, "G": 145, "B": 255}

>>> f"{color['R']}"
'123'

>>> f'{color["R"]}'
''123'

>>> f"RGB = ({color['R']}, {color['G']}, {color['B']})"
'RGB = (123, 145, 255)'
```

## How to Concatenate F-Strings

Concatenating f-strings is like concatenating regular strings, you can do that implicitly, or explicitly by applying the `+` operator or using `str.join` method.

```python
# Implicit string concatenation
>>> f"{123}" " = " f"{100}" " + " f"{20}" " + " f"{3}"
'123 = 100 + 20 + 3'

# Explicity concatenation using '+' operator
>>> f"{12}" + " != " + f"{13}"
'12 != 13'

# string concatenation using `str.join`
>>> " ".join((f"{13}", f"{45}"))
'13 45'

>>> "#".join((f"{13}", f"{45}"))
'13#45'
```

## How to Format a Date With F-String

f-strings also support the formatting of `datetime` objects. The process is very similar to how `str.format` formats dates. For more info about the supported formats, check this  [table](https://docs.python.org/3/library/datetime.html#strftime-and-strptime-format-codes)  in the official docs.

![fig_7.png](https://cdn.hashnode.com/res/hashnode/image/upload/v1603958577730/LILz0KDf2.png)

```python
>>> import datetime

>>> now = datetime.datetime.now()

>>> ten_days_ago = now - datetime.timedelta(days=10)

>>> f'{ten_days_ago:%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S}'
'2020-10-13 20:24:17'

>>> f'{now:%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S}'
'2020-10-23 20:24:17'
```

## How to Add Leading Zeros

You can add leading zeros by adding using the format `{expr:0len}` where `len` is the length of the returned string. You can include a *sign* option. In this instance, `+` means the sign should be used for positive and negative numbers. The `-` is used only for negative numbers, which is the default behavior. For more info, check the  [string format specification page](https://docs.python.org/3/library/string.html#format-specification-mini-language) .

```python
>>> num = 42

>>> f"{num:05}"
'00042'

>>> f'{num:+010}'
'+000000042'

>>> f'{num:-010}'
'0000000042'

>>> f"{num:010}"
'0000000042'

>>> num = -42

>>> f'{num:+010}'
'-000000042'

>>> f'{num:010}'
'-000000042'

>>> f'{num:-010}'
'-000000042'
```

## Conclusion

That’s it for today, folks! I hope you’ve learned something different and useful. Knowing how to make the most out of f-string can make our lives so much easier. In this post, I showed the most common tricks I use in a day-to-day basis.

Other posts you may like:

- [How to Check if an Exception Is Raised (or Not) With pytest](https://miguendes.me/how-to-check-if-an-exception-is-raised-or-not-with-pytest)
- [Everything You Need to Know About Python's Namedtuples](https://miguendes.me/everything-you-need-to-know-about-pythons-namedtuples)
- [The Best Way to Compare Two Dictionaries in Python](https://miguendes.me/the-best-way-to-compare-two-dictionaries-in-python)
- [11 Useful Resources To Learn Python's Internals From Scratch](https://miguendes.me/useful-resources-to-learn-pythons-internals-from-scratch)
- [7 pytest Features and Plugins That Will Save You Tons of Time](https://miguendes.me/7-pytest-features-and-plugins-that-will-save-you-tons-of-time)

See you next time!