Sex Differences in Long COVID
Authors: Dimpy P. Shah, Tanayott Thaweethai, Elizabeth W. Karlson, Hector Bonilla, Benjamin D. Horne, Janet M. Mullington, Juan P. Wisnivesky, Mady Hornig, Daniel J. Shinnick, Jonathan D. Klein, Nathaniel B. Erdmann, Shari B. Brosnahan, Joyce K. Lee-Iannotti, Torri D. Metz, Christine Maughan, Ighovwerha Ofotokun, Harrison T. Reeder, Lauren E. Stiles, Aasma Shaukat, Rachel Hess, Hassan Ashktorab, Logan Bartram, Ingrid V. Bassett, Jacqueline H. Becker, Hassan Brim, Alexander W. Charney, Tananshi Chopra, Rebecca G. Clifton, Steven G. Deeks, Kristine M. Erlandson, Daniel S. Fierer, Valerie J. Flaherman, Vivian Fonseca, Jennifer C. Gander, Sally L. Hodder, Vanessa L. Jacoby, Pavitra Kotini-Shah, Jerry A. Krishnan, Andre Kumar, Bruce D. Levy, David Lieberman, Jenny J. Lin, Jeffrey N. Martin, Grace A. McComsey, Talal Moukabary, Megumi J. Okumura, Michael J. Peluso, Clifford J. Rosen, George Saade, Pankil K. Shah, Zaki A. Sherif, Barbara S. Taylor, Katherine R. Tuttle, Alfredo E. Urdaneta, Julie A. Wallick, Zanthia Wiley, David Zhang, Leora I. Horwitz, Andrea S. Foulkes, Nora G. Singer, Sushma K. Cribbs, Anyssa G. Francis, Tina P. Hang, Ketteria D. Ingram, Jordi Lainez, Zanthia Wiley, Kennedy C. Lewis, Arijan Ager, Mary Atha, Natalie Gray, Ash Grimes, Lauren N. Hewitt, Christopher Huerta, Brandi Johnson, Lana Khalil, Dean Kleinhenz, Alexandra Koumanelis, Rebecca Kozoman, Matthew A. Lee, Matthew Litvack, Bernadine Panganiban, Kazi Rahman, Veronica E. Smith, Andre Stringer, Maliya Tolbert, Jessica Traenkner, Kristen Unterberger, Erika Wimberly, Jenny E. Han, Vincent C. Marconi, Ighovwerha Ofotokun, Rachel E. Patzer, Tiffany A. Walker, Rachael Abraham, Franchesca A. Aguilar, Ghazal Ahmadi-Izad, Dilshad R. Ahmed, Alicarmen Alvarez, Blake Anderson, Faisal Anwar, Walter D. Asencios, Casey L. Beaty, Brahmchetna Bedi, Jasmine A. Berry, Donchel Boone, Mary Bower, James D. Bremner, Corbin Brent, Ke'Ara Brown-Smith, Rachel Bull, Gustavo Capo, Kelechi Carl-Igwe, Calista Chitadze, Nachi Chukwumerije, Erna Clyburn, Shelby Collins, Julie Costello, Grace Couture, Angel Craft, Xiangqin Cui, Carlos del Rio, Joshua F. Detelich, Cartia Dixon, Jeanne Dow, D'Andrea Doyle, Jannah Elchommali, Imani Elsey, Nicole Franks, Julia Gallini, Evan Gutter, Jess Harding, Liliana Hernandez, Carla Holloway, Cynthia Ifejika, Rijalda Jasarevic, Vidhi N. Javia, Mykayla Jeter, Yasha Joseph, Monica Juarez, Caitlin M. Kirkpatrick, Athena Koumanelis, Shilpa Krishnan, Jose D. Leon, Valerie Lew, Cheryl L. Maier, Nour Makkaoui, Mara Maroney, Christopher F. Martin, Loice Mbogo, Atuarra McCaslin, Jerrod McIntyre, Abeer Moanna, Miranda Montoya, Elena Morales, Caitlin A. Moran, Calista Murray, Roslin Nelson, Tran Nguyen, Bukkie Ojoawo, Eileen Osinski, Sofia Oviedo, Yolanda Paredes-Gaitan, Michael Prude, Grace Ramakrishnan, Paulina A. Rebolledo, Marjorie Roberts, Keysha Robinson, Chantrice Rogers, Nadine G. Rouphael, Charles Searles, Marni Segall, Anand Shah, Ruvina Silva, Cheryl Simpson, Krystal Simpson-Derrell, Talib Sirajud-Deen, Jacob Stroud, Mehul S. Suthar, Cory Sylber, Ashley Sylvera, Larissa J. Teunis, Kodasha M. Thomas, Kehmia Titanji, Christopher Toy, Alex Truong, Viola Vaccarino, Kris Varney, Kartavya Vyas, Kurt Vyas, Max Walkow, Tamara Wesley, Juton R. Winston, Terra J. Winter, Cherry Wongtrakool, Jennifer C. Gander, Robert B. Neuman, Patricia A. Bush, Alex F. Hudgins, Imanii Kolailat, Monica Martinez, Sierra G. Thompson, Chiagoziem Agu, Priscilla Pemu, Annette Dandy, Carmel Ibeawuchi, Brianna Lawrence, Jan Morgan-Billingslea, Elizabeth I. Ojemakinde, Janet M. Mullington, Ai-Ris Collier, Tamara Fong, Monika Haack, Kristine S. Hauser, Jason H. Maley, Yuri Quintana, Lynn Shaughnessy, Kathryn Stephenson, Robert J. Thomas, Robert Torres, Jai G. Marathe, Elizabeth Duffy, Naomi Hamburg, Misaki . Kobayashi, George T. O'Connor, Fitzgerald M. Shepherd, Charles T. Williams, Haihua Zhang, Bruce D. Levy, Masanori Aikawa, Lindsey Baden, Gaston Baslet, Lindsey Bennett, Shamik Bhattacharyya, Julie Buring, Rebecca E. Cagnina, Li Qing Chen, Cheryl R. Clark, Pieter Cohen, Charles Czeisler, Peter Estill, Elizabeth Gay, Jessica Hong, Daniela Lamas, Sarina Lay, Nomi Levy-Carrick, JoAnn Manson, Tobasom Monafrared, Susan Redline, Elijah J. Remis, Daniel Schilkrut, Howard D. Sesso, Scott Solomon, Jeffrey A. Sparks, Lia L. Spencer, David Systrom, Phyo Phyo Min Thu, David Walt, George Washko, Maureen Whittelsey, Rebecca Wiener, Janice John, Amberly Ticotsky, Ingrid V. Bassett, George A. Alba, Taing N. Aung, Leo C. Ginns, Jennifer Haas, Yanxiang Hu, Boris D. Juelg, Diane G. Kanjilal, Arthur Y. Kim, Elizabeth B. Klerman, Gregory Lewis, Bisola Ojikutu, Roy Perlis, Jonathan Rosand, Zachary S. Wallace, Dean Xerras, Danielle Zionts, Honorine D. Ward, Deborah Blazey-Martin, Maher Ghamloush, Michael Jordan, Laura Kogelman, Thomas W. Carton, Lucio Miele, Todd Brown, Erica Sutherland, Jyotsna Fuloria, Paula Datri, Michael Hagensee, Cathryn Leggio, Allen Perkins, Amber Trauth, Siobhan Trotter, Alexander Van Deerlin, Sharon Weiser, Madeline Young, Nathaniel Erdmann, Emily B. Levitan, Alan T. Tita, Donna Armstrong, Susan E. Binkley, Kenneth Blackwell, Annalia Causey, Felice Cook, Julio Domingo, Conner Donahue, Maitlyn Eady, Jeffrey Edberg, Patrick Frazier, Noah Garcia-McClaney, Melissa Garner, Brandon Gray, Wanda Hall, Cady Hart, Camden L. Hebson, Bertha Hidalgo, Kaylen Holtzapfel, Alexis Jinright, Suzanne E. Judd, Teri Kennedy, Leigh Kirkwood, Megan Maier, Patricia McCormack, Kevin Mitchell, Aoyjai Montgomery, Myriam Peralta-Carcelen, Juan P. Pilco, Leigh Powell, Jacob Royster, Rachael Shevin, Sidney Skipworth, Leah Spurgeon, Courtney Steele, Gregory Ware, Rosanne Wilson, Dana Woodruff, Brandon Young, Mark Gillespie, Casey L. Daniel, Jamie Hansel, Jing Wu, Hassan Ashktorab, Hassan Brim, Adeyinka O. Laiyemo, Zaki A. Sherif, Saima Durrani, Ali Nezamloo, Julius Ngwa, Noelle Njoku, Monique P. Gentil, Alem Mehari, Akbar Solemani, Linda Chang, Paul Thuluvath, Mhret Alemu, Jordan Anderson, Mahak Chauhan, Sung Cho, Karli Goodman, Gandi Lanke, Ralph Lebron, Anurag Maheshwari, Jina Ok, Chau To, Judd Shellito, Frank L. Greenway, John P. Kirwan, Clifford J. Rosen, Abigail Arruda, Ivette F. Emery, Theresa Roelke, Paul Berger, Susan E. Hoover, Lora Black, Brian Tjarks, Vivian Fonseca, Shaveeta Gupta, Michele Longo, Mei Yang, Cecilia M. Shikuma, Dominic C. Chow, Louis MarGangcuangco, Mario Castro, Charles Bengtson, Theresa Howard, Brandon Koontz, Leslie A. Spikes, Christopher Simmons, Sidney W. Whiteheart, Beth Garvy, Jeremy P. Wood, Gailen D. Marshall, Vishnu Garla, Joy Kuebler, Utsav Nandi, Andrew Vasey, David E. Warren, John D. Dickinson, Timothy M. VanWagoner, Amanda Bogie, Judith A. James, James Scott, Fatima I. Sukhera, Carlos A. Luciano Roman, Sigrid Perez Frontera, Jorge Santana Bagur, Sally L. Hodder, James M. Bardes, Daphne Dominique-Villanueva, Joy Juskowich, Rebecca Reece, Arif Sarwari, Marta Certa, Erica Chessier, Emily Everett, Elijah Kindred, Pastor C. Harris, Praveen Sudhindra, Lela Olds, Lisa Aponte-Soto, Marina Del Rios, Maya Z. Diaz, Alejandra L. Ibanez, Cesar Rolon, Savannah Cranford, Daniel Brown, Jennifer Dixon, Lisa Gale, Savannah Hammerl, Kimberly Hartwig, Abhigna Madineni, Peyton Swearingen, Monica Hendrickson, Seth Noland, Tracy Terlinde, Brianna Hobbs, Jonathan D. Klein, Jerry A. Krishnan, Janet Y. Lin, Naoko Muramatsu, Bellur S. Prabhakar, Heather M. Prendergast, Terry L. Vanden Hoek, Dara Adams, Aileen Baker, Sunni Barbera, Sanjib Basu, Susan Bleasdale, Andrew D. Boyd, Taylor Breiter, Irina A. Buhimschi, Michael D. Carrithers, Rashmika Chalamalla, David Chestek, Judith A. Cook, Dawood Darbar, Raktima Dasgupta, Felicia Davis Blakley, Julie A. DeLisa, Kathleen R. Diviak, Meghan F. Donlon, Mark S. Dworkin, Angela Ellison, Clarie Flanigan, Michael B. Freedman, Lynn B. Gerald, Wayne H. Giles, Howard S. Gordon, Bayan Hammad, Sharon Hasek, Wendy Hasse, Martyna Hryniewicka, Sai D. Illendula, Nahed Ismail, Akash Jain, Kyle J. Jennette, Grace Kadubek, Denise Kent, Denise A. Kent, Keri S. Kim, Pavitra Kotini-Shah, Lucia Large, James . Lash, Jun Lu, Abeer M. Mahamed, Sergey Malchenko, Miriam Martinez, Cammeo Mauntel-Medici, Mark McCauley, Martha Menchaca, Robin Mermelstein, David J. Moreno, Liam Morrissy, Hugh Musick, Lourdes Norwick, Richard M. Novak, Marilyn Ortiz, Khushboo Patel, Nicolas L. Perez, Neil H. Pliskin, Sam Pope, Bharati Prasad, Barbara Predki, John G. Quigley, Ramaswamy Ramchandran, Ana Ramirez, Sarah Rappe, Jalees Rehman, Matthew Rowley, Gowrisree Rudraraju, Melissa Rutherfoord, Jennifer A. Sculley, Jerisha Smith-Mack, Jun Sun, Nancy Tartt, Laura Villanueva, Sara Warfield Kelly, Cemal Yazici, Sarah A. Stewart de Ramirez, Dawn Bolliger, Jerusha Boyineni, Praneeth Chebrolu, Hannah L. Curry, Sarah E. Donohue, Sherrie Edmonds, Sara W. Kelly, Phoebe Maholovich, Samer B. Sader, Tiffany Thompson, Hannah Welter, Brittany Woolley, John Hafner, Keith A. Hanson, Robert Hutton, Alexander W. Charney, Patricia Kovatch, Miriam Merad, Girish N. Nadkarni, Juan P. Wisnivesky, Judith A. Aberg, Steven Ascolillo, Emilia Bagiella, Logan Bartram, Jacqueline Becker, Noam D. Beckmann, Ashley Bendl, Benjamin K. Chen, Alyssa Civil, Ginger Y. Crawford, Kaberi Dhar, Lorraine Evo-Ortega, Daniel Fierer, Emily J. Gallagher, Adolfo Garcia-Sastre, Sacha Gnjatic, Ian Gray, Sabina Guliyeva, Lori Harvey-Ingram, Julia Herrera-Moreno, Matthew Hill, Carol R. Horowitz, Rachel Jackson, Din Kastrat, Anu Lala-Trindade, Jenny Lin, Nick Macaluso, Kathryn Marcon, Dara Meyer, Janice Morinigo, Benjamin H. Natelson, Maya Nussenzweig, Tiffani Padua, David Putrino, Lynne Richardson, Scott Russo, Alan C. Seifert, Abdullah Serri, Jordan Walker, Michell Yee, Lucinda Bateman, Suzanne D. Vernon, Sara J. Deakyne Davies, Edward M. Gardner, Tanner W. Bryan, Kaitlin E. Buck, Kellie L. Hawkins, Judy L. Oakes, Benjamin D. Horne, Kirk Knowlton, Scott C. Woller, Bailee Aguirre, Jeff Anderson, Tami Bair, Lindsay Bosh, Lorlie Evans, Chase Garrett, Dixie Harris, Katherine Herrera, Leslie Iverson, McKenna M. Jensen, James Juan, Stacey Knight, Lindsay Leither, Heather Maestas, Heidi T. May, Gabriel Najarian, Tiaura Webb, Shyanne Zubal, Kristine M. Erlandson, Ron J. Sokol, Marisa Brightman, Debra Davis, Elen M. Feuerriegel, Harrison Z. Fudge, Lohit Garg, Paige Graham, Janine Higgins, Brandon M. Johnson, Sarah E. Jolley, Tim Lockie, Sean A. McCandless, Joie Molden, Megan Owen, Chloe Pitch, Kayleigh M. Reid, Jane E. Reusch, Brook Thurman, Huong Tran, Shelby C. West, Thomas Wodushek, Naomi P. Friedman, Katelyn R. Ludwig, Lauren A. Decker, Hengameh Raissy, Natalie L. Adolphi, David A. Archuleta, Steven B. Bradfute, Rebecca Brito, Jamie Elifritz, Noella D. Garcia-Soberanez, Frederick D. Gentry, Michelle S. Harkins, Noah I. Martinez, Lorenzo A. Montoya, Alisha N. Parada, Davin K. Quinn, Alfredo Ramos, Elyce B. Sheehan, Irena S. Treacher, Rachel Hess, Dongngan T. Truong, Natalya Alekhina, Jackson Barlocker, Jeanette P. Brown, Melissa Cortez, Dagny K Donohue, Julio C. Facelli, Isaac Ford, Ramkiran Gouripeddi, Jessica A. Hermansen, Jace D. Johnny, Ashton M. Lindsay, Leah Ling, Jennifer Lloyd, Yue Lu, Juliemar C. Medina, Sarah Shizuko Morimoto, Laura A. Pace, Jenny M. Powell, Mary Beth Scholand, Kevin S. Shah, Nasser Sharareh, Adam M. Spivak, Caitlyn Stringham, Joel D. Trinity, Matt Velinder, Lisa J. Weaver, Grace McComsey, Cara Adams, John Andrefsky, Ornina Atieh, Jhonny Baissary, Nicholas Boldt, Ann Conrad, Brian D’Anza, Ziad Daher, Jovianne Daher, Sarah Dawson, Kathryn DiFrancesco, Jared Durieux, Theresa Foster (Rodgers), Michelle Gallagher, Amit Gupta, Jami Harrill, Paul Harris, Carla Hernandez, Sarah Ialacci, Frank Jacono, Jordyn Kelly, Rohini Kumar, Danielle Labbato, Elizabeth Lesco, Joaquin Lim, Kimberly Pettinato, Michael Rodgers, Breandan Rosolia, Arnab Roy, Sarah Scott, Beth Smith, Viral Tejani, Megan Tribout, George Yendewa, David Zhang, Nora Singer, Mirna Ayache, Emma Barnboym, Alexis Brown, Hailey Chesnick, Marissa Edminston, Carla Greenwood, Maricela Haghiac, Elizabeth Kaufman, Ketrin Lengu, Rebecca Lowenthal, Shahdi Malakooti, Christine Oleson, Ann Pearman, Allison Rizea, Cheryl Smith, Maggie Washington, Elisheva Weinberger, Peter Chen, Antonina Caudill, Tananshi Chopra, Fatima Contreras, Lea Dahlke, Lasya Gudipudi, Susan Jackman, Matthew Modes, Nicole Muttera, Tanyalak Parimon, Nancy Salinas, Josie Tadeo, Sam Torbati, James R. Heath, Conor Brennan, Rick Edmark, Vanessa Gutierrez, Jennifer Hadlock, Sarah Li, Andrew T. Magis, Connor McDonald, Kim M. Murray, Lee Rowen, Dan Yuan, Katherine R. Tuttle, Radica Alicic, Joni Baxter, Sarah Emerson, Susan Hood, Kelli Kuykendall, Shane White, Lauren E. Wilcox, Jason D. Goldman, Heather A. Algren, James Del Alcazar, Alexandria M. Duven, John Kaneko, Christina Kim, Paula Manner, Carly Mason, Rachel Poussier, Richard Satira, Julie A. Wallick, Helen Y. Chu, Anna Elias-Warren, Alex Harteloo, Jennifer K. Logue, Kathryn McCaffrey, Helen Nguyen, Keren Hasbani, Anoop M. Nambiar, Thomas F. Patterson, Jennifer S. Potter, Marzieh Salehi, Kumar Sharma, Monica Verduzco-Gutierrez, Reed Anderson, Azaneth Arellanes, Rose A. Barajas, Suneet P. Chauhan, Geoffrey D. Clarke, Cheryl E. Farner, Melinda S. Fischer, Mark P. Goldberg, Gabrielyd Hastings, Patricia Heard, Jessica Hernandez, Italia Herrera, Edgar Infante, Hillary Johnson, Johnnie Jones, Dean L. Kellogg, Ellen Kraig, Lisa Longoria, Emeka Okafor, Jan E. Patterson, Alexis Pinones, W. B. Reeves, Irma Scholler, Sudha Seshadri, Pankil Shah, Dimpy P. Shah, Bridgette Soileau, Pamela Solis, Carmen Stoebner, Michael Sullivan, Barbara S. Taylor, Robin Tragus, Joel Tsevat, George R. Saade, Kavita Sharma, Claudia C. Paredes, Stephanie Alvarado, Andre Kumar, Yvonne Maldonado, Paul J. Utz, Catherine A. Blish, Minjoung Go, Prasanna Jagannathan, Upinder Singh, Neera Ahuja, Andra L. Blomkalns, Hector Bonilla, Richard Brotherton, Kimberly Clinton, Vaidehi Dingankar, Linda N. Geng, Francois Haddad, Christopher Jamero, Kathryn Jee, Xiaolin K. Jia, Naresh Khurana, Mitchell G. Miglis, Ellen O'Conor, Kelly Olszewski, Divya Pathak, Orlando Quintero, Corey Saperia, Jake Scott, Alfredo E. Urdaneta, Mary R. Varkey, Eric M. Reiman, Christian Bime, Lillian Hansen, Trina Hughes, David Lieberman, Francisco Soto, Cathleen Wilson, Alyssa Zapien, Joyce K. Lee-Iannotti, Lynn Autry, Hassan Beydoun, Sabine Borwege, Jacquelynn Copeland, Marjorie DiLise-Russo, Susan Fadden, Isaias Gomez, Garrett Grischo, William Hartley, Leah Hillier, Hira Ismail, Stephanie Iusim, Michelle James, Mrinalini Kala, Daniel Kim, Ganesh Murthy, Samuel Unzek, Sheila Vadovicky, Sharry Veres, Janko Z. Nikolich, Sairam Parthasarathy, Kacey C. Ernst, Denise R. Esquivel, David T. Harris, Stefanie Harris, Michael Hernandez, Harvey Hsu, Maria Karnafel, Kenneth S. Knox, Alison Koleski, Bonnie LaFleur, Brenda Lambert, Sicily LaRue, Karen Lutrick, Nirav Merchant, Christopher Morton, Jarrod M. Mosier, Toluwanimi Olorunnisola, Jeanette Peralta, William (. Pilling, Kristen Pogreba-Brown, Franz P. Rischard, Lee T. Ryan, Terry Smith, Manuel Snyder, Vignesh Subbian, Kyle Suhr, Deanna Velarde, Steven G. Deeks, John D. Kelly, Jeffrey N. Martin, Michael J. Peluso, Grace Anderson, Khamal Anglin, Urania Argueta, Kofi Asare, Melissa Buitrago, Celina Chang Song, Alexus Clark, Emily Conway, Nicole Del Castillo, Monika Deswal, Matthew S. Durstenfeld, Elnaz Eilkhani, Avery Eun, Emily Fehrman, Tony Figueroa, Diana Flores, Halle Grebe, Timothy J. Henrich, Rebecca Hoh, Priscilla Hsue, Beatrice Huang, Rania Ibrahim, Marian Kerbleski, Raushun Kirtikar, Megan T. Lew, James Lombardo, Monica Lopez, Michael Luna, Carina Marquez, Sadie Munter, Lynn Ngo, Jesus Pineda-Ramirez, Aric Prather, Kim Rhoads, Antonio Rodriguez, Justin Romero, Dylan Ryder, Matthew So, Ma Somsouk, Viva Tai, Brandon Tran, Julian Uy, Daisy Valdivieso, Deepshika Verma, Meghann Williams, Andhy Zamora, Lisa T. Newman, Julie Abella, Quinn Barnette, Christine Bevc, Jennifer Beverly, Patricia Ceger, Julie Croxford, Mike Enger, Katie Fain, Tonya Farris, Sean Hanlon, David Hines, Vicki Johnson-Lawrence, Kevin Jordan, Craig Lefebvre, Beth Linas, Bryan Luukinen, Meisha Mandal, Nikki J. McKoy, Susan Nance, Demian Pasquarelli, Claire Quiner, Rita Sembajwe, Gwendolyn Shaw, Vanessa Thornburg, Kendall Tosco, Hannah Wright, Rachel S. Gross, Judith S. Hochman, Leora I. Horwitz, Stuart D. Katz, Andrea B. Troxel, Lenard Adler, Precious Akinbo, Ramona Almenana, Malate Aschalew, Lara Balick, Ola Bello, Sultana Bhuiyan, Nina Blachman, Ryan Branski, Jasmine Briscoe, Shari Brosnahan, Elliott Bueler, Yvette Burgos, Nina Caplin, Domonique N. Chaplin, Yu Chen, Shen Cheng, Peter Choe, Jess Choi, Alicia Chung, Richard Church, Stanley Cobos, Nakia Croft, Angelique Cruz Irving, Phoebe Del Boccio, Iván Díaz, Jasmin Divers, Vishal Doshi, Benard Dreyer, Samantha Ebel, Shari Esquenazi-Karonika, Arline Faustin, Elias Febres, Jeffrey Fine, Sandra Fink, Catherine Freeland, Jennifer Frontera, Richard Gallagher, Alejandra Gonzalez-Duarte, Denise Hasson, Sophia Hill, Jennifer Hossain, Shahidul Islam, Stephen Johnson, Neha Kansal, Rachel Kenney, Tammy Kershner, Deepshikha Kewlani, Judy Kwak, Michelle F. Lamendola-Essel, Sarah Laury, Gregory Laynor, Lei Lei, Terry Leon, Zoe A. Lewczak, Janelle Linton, Max Logan, Nadia Malik, Lia Mamistvalova, Hannah Mandel, Gabrielle Maranga, Patenne D. Mathews, Aprajita Mattoo, Tony Mei, Alan Mendelsohn, Emmanuelle Mercier, Patricio Millar Vernetti, Marc Miller, Maika Mitchell, Andre Moreira, Praveen C. Mudumbi, Erica Nahin, Nandini Nair, Joseph Nekulak, Kellie Owens, Brendan Parent, Nandan Patibandla, Peter Petrov, Radu Postelnicu, Francesca Pratt, Isabelle Randall, Priyatha Rao, Amy Rapkiewicz, JohnRoss Rizzo, Johana Rosas, Chelsea Rose, Christina Saint-Jean, Michelle Santacatterina, Binita Shah, Aasma Shaukat, Naomi Simon, Aylin Simsir, Miranda Stinson, Wenfei Tang, Vasishta Tatapudi, Sujata Thawani, Mary Thomas, Lorna Thorpe, MeeLee Tom, Ethan Treiha, Jennifer Truong, Mmekom Udosen, Carlos Valencia, Jessica Velazquez-Perez, Patricio M. Vernetti, Crystal Vidal, Anand Viswanathan, Amy Willerford, Natasha Williams, Crystal Wong, Marion J. Wood, Shannon W. Wuller, Shonna H. Yin, Chloe Young, Jonah Zaretsky, Susanna Zavlunova, Andrea Foulkes, Elizabeth W. Karlson, Shawn Murphy, Shreya Ahirwar, Shifa Ahmed, Layne L. Ainsworth, Rachel Atchley-Challenner, Paul Avilach, Trisha T. Balan, Nicholas Benik, Barbara Benoit, Marie-Abèle C. Bind, William J. Bonaventura, Natalie Boutin, Beverly Brion, Andrew Cagan, Tianrun Cai, Tingyi Cao, Victor M. Castro, Xander R. Cerretani, James G. Chan, David Cheng, Lori B. Chibnik, Mark Ciriello, Karen Costenbader, Dimitar S. Dimitrov, Hossein Estiri, Maria Fayad, Candace H. Feldman, Vivian Gainer, Bhaswati Ghosh, Randy Gollub, Zoe Guan, Alan Harris, Karl Helmer, Andrew Hendrix, Ana Holzbach, Weixing Huang, Daniel Kaufman, Diane Keogh, James D. Kerr, Jeffrey G. Klann, Aparna Krishnamoorthy, Jessica A. Lasky-Su, Katherine P. Liao, Doug MacFadden, Anupama Maram, Megan W. Martel, Michael Mendis, Reeta Metta, Jonathan Monteiro, Eduardo Morales, Richard E. Morse, Marc-Danie Nazaire, Gregory Neils, Amber N. Nguyen, James Norman, Henry H. Paik, Deepti Pant, Heekyong Park, Dustin J. Rabideau, Harrison T. Reeder, Kathleen Rossi-Roh, Leah M. Santacroce, Katherine Schlepphorst, Carolin Schulte, Caitlin A. Selvaggi, Daniel J. Shinnick, William Simons, Lynn A. Simpson, Mary L. St. Jean Flanders, Zachary Strasser, Mansi R. Thakrar, Tanayott Thaweethai, Madeleine Thorn, Philip Trewett, Dustin Van Fleet, Kavishwar B. Wagholikar, Taowei D. Wang, Nich Wattanasin, Griffin Weber, Michael A. Williams, Ren Zhe Zhang, Marta Cerda, Victor H. Clash, Brittany Taylor, Mike Zissis, Teresa Akintonwa, Frank Blancero, Heather-Elizabeth Brown, Megan Carmilani, Debra Copeland, Yvonka Hall, kevin kondo, Lydia Lerma, Jacqui Lindsay, Heather Marti, Christine Maughan, Tony Minor, Hyatt Vincent, Brett Anderson, Sujata Bardhan, Leah Castro-Baucom, Deena Chisolm, Claudia Corchado, Walter Dehority, Gniesha Dinwiddie, Lisa Goldman Rosas, Gelise L. Thomas, Keila Lopez, Shelly MacDonald Pinkett, Lidia Regino, Nita Vangeepuram, Anita Walden, Neely A. Williams, Phoebe Burton, Marina Catallozzi, Beth Dworetzky, Belinda Edwards, Robert L. Ferrer, Gail Pearson, Russell Rothman, Laura Wagner, Ann Wallace, Leyna Aragon, Bryan Bander, Karyn Bishof, Etienne Carignan, Leah Castro Baucom, Victor Clash, Krista Coombs, Claudia G. Corchado, Hannah Davis, Marissa Diggs, Matthew Dunn, Liza Fisher, Megan Fitzgerald, Margot Gage Witvliet, Tyler Gustafson, Verna Holmes, Mady Hornig, Maxwell Hornig, Nita Jain, Julie Lam, Rebecca Letts, Juan Lewis, Thomas Martinez, Lisa McCorkell, Rebecca McGrath, Kian Nguyen, Lauren Nichols, Lisa O'Brien, Aimee Peddie, Alice Perlowski, Elizabeth Phillips-Lorenzo, Lisa Prentiss, Nadia Raytselis, Megan Rockwell, Jacqueline Rutter, Elle Seibert, Anisha Sekar, Emily Taylor, Rochelle Wilensky, Melissa Williams, Neely Williams, Kay Williams-Dawson, Andrew Wylam
Journal: JAMA Network Open (2025)

Importance A substantial number of individuals worldwide experience long COVID, or post-COVID condition. Other postviral and autoimmune conditions have a female predominance, but whether the same is true for long COVID, especially within different subgroups, is uncertain. Objective To evaluate sex differences in the risk of developing long COVID among adults with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Design, Setting, and Participants This cohort study used data from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Researching COVID to Enhance Recovery (RECOVER)–Adult cohort, which consists of individuals enrolled in and prospectively followed up at 83 sites in 33 US states plus Washington, DC, and Puerto Rico. Data were examined from all participants enrolled between October 29, 2021, and July 5, 2024, who had a qualifying study visit 6 months or more after their initial SARS-CoV-2 infection. Exposure Self-reported sex (male, female) assigned at birth. Main Outcomes and Measures Development of long COVID, measured using a self-reported symptom-based questionnaire and scoring guideline at the first study visit that occurred at least 6 months after infection. Propensity score matching was used to estimate risk ratios (RRs) and risk differences (95% CIs). The full model included demographic and clinical characteristics and social determinants of health, and the reduced model included only age, race, and ethnicity. Results Among 12 276 participants who had experienced SARS-CoV-2 infection (8969 [73%] female; mean [SD] age at infection, 46 [15] years), female sex was associated with higher risk of long COVID in the primary full (RR, 1.31; 95% CI, 1.06-1.62) and reduced (RR, 1.44; 95% CI, 1.17-1.77) models. This finding was observed across all age groups except 18 to 39 years (RR, 1.04; 95% CI, 0.72-1.49). Female sex was associated with significantly higher overall long COVID risk when the analysis was restricted to nonpregnant participants (RR, 1.50; 95%: CI, 1.27-1.77). Among participants aged 40 to 54 years, the risk ratio was 1.42 (95% CI, 0.99-2.03) in menopausal female participants and 1.45 (95% CI, 1.15-1.83) in nonmenopausal female participants compared with male participants. Conclusions and Relevance In this prospective cohort study of the NIH RECOVER-Adult cohort, female sex was associated with an increased risk of long COVID compared with male sex, and this association was age, pregnancy, and menopausal status dependent. These findings highlight the need to identify biological mechanisms contributing to sex specificity to facilitate risk stratification, targeted drug development, and improved management of long COVID.