Race, Ethnicity, Sex, Sexual Orientation, and Discrimination in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study
Authors: Zhenqiang Zhao, Jinjin Yan, Yijie Wang, Cindy H. Liu, Lijuan Wang, Heining Cham, Tiffany Yip
Journal: JAMA Network Open (2025)

Importance Children are disproportionately exposed to sexual orientation–based discrimination and ethnic or racial discrimination due to intersections of sexual orientation, ethnicity, race, and assigned sex at birth. Yet, there is sparse evidence in clinical settings. Objective To investigate how social strata of sexual orientation, ethnicity, race, and assigned sex at birth intersect and are associated with experiences of sexual orientation–based discrimination and ethnic or racial discrimination. Design, Setting, and Participants This survey study included data retrieved from children enrolled in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study between 2016 and 2020. Children were recruited from 21 study sites across 17 states. Eligible participants were between ages 9 and 11 years at recruitment. Baseline data (2016-2018), first-year follow-up data (2017-2019), and second-year follow-up data (2018-2020) were included. Analyses were conducted between June and October 2024. Main Outcomes and Measures Logistic regressions were conducted to test the association between children’s social strata indicated by intersections of sexual orientation, ethnicity, race, and assigned sex at birth and discrimination based on sexual orientation and ethnic or racial discrimination. Results Among 9854 children (mean [SD] age at baseline, 9.5 [0.5] years; 4582 girls [46.5%]; 202 Asian [2.0%], 1488 Black [15.1%], 2030 Latinx [20.6%], 906 multiple races [9.2%], 4921 White [49.9%]), White sexual minority girls reported the highest percentage of sexual orientation–based discrimination (113 of 312 [36.2%]). Ethnically or racially minoritized boys reported the highest percentage of ethnic or racial discrimination (41 of 174 [23.7%]). After accounting for covariates, ethnically or racially minoritized sexual minority girls were less likely to report sexual orientation–based discrimination compared with ethnically or racially minoritized heterosexual boys (odds ratio [OR], 0.60; 95% CI, 0.43-0.85). Ethnically or racially minoritized sexual minority boys (OR, 3.17; 95% CI, 1.71-5.88) and girls (OR, 2.09; 95% CI, 1.47-2.97) were more likely to report ethnic or racial discrimination compared with ethnically or racially minoritized heterosexual boys. Moreover, ethnically or racially minoritized sexual minority boys (OR, 3.39; 95% CI, 1.81-6.34) and girls (OR, 2.24; 95% CI, 1.56-3.21) were more likely to report ethnic or racial discrimination compared with ethnically or racially minoritized heterosexual girls. Conclusions In this survey study investigating experience of sexual orientation–based discrimination alongside ethnic or racial discrimination during late childhood, findings highlighted that intersections of sexual orientation, ethnicity, race, and assigned sex at birth contributed to disproportionate exposures to sexual orientation–based discrimination and ethnic or racial discrimination among children. These findings provide valuable insight into intersectional experiences of discrimination among children.