Gender norms and the wellbeing of girls and boys
Authors: Severi Luoto, Markus J Rantala, Marco Del Giudice
Journal: The Lancet Global Health (2021)

Elissa Kennedy and colleagues (December, 2020)1Kennedy E Binder G Humphries-Waa et al.Gender inequalities in health and wellbeing across the first two decades of life: an analysis of 40 low-income and middle-income countries in the Asia-Pacific region.Lancet. 2020; 8: e1473-e1488Scopus (14) Google Scholar described the emergence of gender disparities in health and wellbeing across the first two decades of life, arguing that they are caused by harmful gender norms. The gender inequalities framework1Kennedy E Binder G Humphries-Waa et al.Gender inequalities in health and wellbeing across the first two decades of life: an analysis of 40 low-income and middle-income countries in the Asia-Pacific region.Lancet. 2020; 8: e1473-e1488Scopus (14) Google Scholar implicitly presupposes that, in a just society, males and females would show equal outcomes on every metric considered. This expectation is at odds with a vast body of research on sex differences in psychobehavioural traits and life outcomes in humans and other species.2Archer J The reality and evolutionary significance of human psychological sex differences.Biol Rev. 2019; 94: 1381-1415PubMed Google Scholar, 3Geary DC Evolution of vulnerability: implications for sex differences in health and development. Academic Press, San Diego, CA2015Google Scholar, 4Welling LL Shackelford TK The Oxford handbook of evolutionary psychology and behavioral endocrinology. Oxford University Press, New York, NY2019Crossref Google Scholar A scientific approach to human health and behaviour cannot afford to ignore the insights provided by evolutionary biology.2Archer J The reality and evolutionary significance of human psychological sex differences.Biol Rev. 2019; 94: 1381-1415PubMed Google Scholar, 3Geary DC Evolution of vulnerability: implications for sex differences in health and development. Academic Press, San Diego, CA2015Google Scholar, 4Welling LL Shackelford TK The Oxford handbook of evolutionary psychology and behavioral endocrinology. Oxford University Press, New York, NY2019Crossref Google Scholar, 5Mauvais-Jarvis F Merz NB Barnes PJ et al.Sex and gender: modifiers of health, disease, and medicine.Lancet. 2020; 396: 565-582Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (259) Google Scholar Pure socialisation accounts overlook key evidence on the relations between biological sex and health, leading to biased understanding and potentially counterproductive interventions. Ascribing negative health outcomes to socially imposed harmful gender norms1Kennedy E Binder G Humphries-Waa et al.Gender inequalities in health and wellbeing across the first two decades of life: an analysis of 40 low-income and middle-income countries in the Asia-Pacific region.Lancet. 2020; 8: e1473-e1488Scopus (14) Google Scholar ignores the selection pressures that have shaped male and female physiology, cognition, and behaviour in sexually dimorphic ways.2Archer J The reality and evolutionary significance of human psychological sex differences.Biol Rev. 2019; 94: 1381-1415PubMed Google Scholar, 3Geary DC Evolution of vulnerability: implications for sex differences in health and development. Academic Press, San Diego, CA2015Google Scholar, 4Welling LL Shackelford TK The Oxford handbook of evolutionary psychology and behavioral endocrinology. Oxford University Press, New York, NY2019Crossref Google Scholar, 5Mauvais-Jarvis F Merz NB Barnes PJ et al.Sex and gender: modifiers of health, disease, and medicine.Lancet. 2020; 396: 565-582Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (259) Google Scholar For example, it is a general mammalian pattern for females to live longer than males, and for males to display more aggression, dominance, and physical risk-taking.2Archer J The reality and evolutionary significance of human psychological sex differences.Biol Rev. 2019; 94: 1381-1415PubMed Google Scholar, 3Geary DC Evolution of vulnerability: implications for sex differences in health and development. Academic Press, San Diego, CA2015Google Scholar, 4Welling LL Shackelford TK The Oxford handbook of evolutionary psychology and behavioral endocrinology. Oxford University Press, New York, NY2019Crossref Google Scholar These patterns can be attributed to differential sexual selection, and arise during prenatal and postnatal development through the action of genes and sex hormones.2Archer J The reality and evolutionary significance of human psychological sex differences.Biol Rev. 2019; 94: 1381-1415PubMed Google Scholar, 3Geary DC Evolution of vulnerability: implications for sex differences in health and development. Academic Press, San Diego, CA2015Google Scholar, 4Welling LL Shackelford TK The Oxford handbook of evolutionary psychology and behavioral endocrinology. Oxford University Press, New York, NY2019Crossref Google Scholar, 5Mauvais-Jarvis F Merz NB Barnes PJ et al.Sex and gender: modifiers of health, disease, and medicine.Lancet. 2020; 396: 565-582Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (259) Google Scholar Many observed sex disparities in health reflect the interplay between biologically shaped predispositions and aspects of the social context. Only a multilevel biosocial model—one that looks beyond socially constructed gender norms to our evolutionary history—can effectively promote health in both sexes. We declare no competing interests. Gender inequalities in health and wellbeing across the first two decades of life: an analysis of 40 low-income and middle-income countries in the Asia-Pacific regionThese findings call for a focus on gender policy and programming in later childhood and early adolescence before gender inequalities become embedded. Full-Text PDF Open AccessGender norms and the wellbeing of girls and boys – Author's replyWe are pleased our Article1 has generated interest and discussion, including around the need to include boys in gender policy, programming, and research. Full-Text PDF Open AccessGender norms and the wellbeing of girls and boysGender and health has become an area of major research and policy focus.1 Elissa Kennedy and colleagues' meticulous study2 on the health-based gender inequalities experienced by young people in the Asia-Pacific region offers timely insights. Underscoring the burden shouldered by adolescent girls and young women, their study also shines a light on boys and young men. We support their urgent call for a focus on adolescent males to address gender-related disparities. Full-Text PDF Open Access