Improving Environmental Interventions by Understanding Information Flows
Authors: Emiel de Lange, E.J. Milner-Gulland, Aidan Keane
Journal: Trends in Ecology & Evolution (2019)

Social scientists have advanced understanding of complex contagions – how behaviours spread through social networks – rapidly in recent years, suggesting new approaches to promote widespread behavioural change.Social network analysis is a powerful tool for understanding the social structures that influence the spread of behavioural changes, and can be used to inform these interventions. For example, measures of centrality can be calculated to identify key individuals, or community detection algorithms used to delineate socially important subgroups.Some interventional approaches are already being adopted in conservation, such as targeting influential opinion leaders, but further integrating understanding of information flows and social structures will make conservation behaviour-change interventions more effective, such as by targeting incubator neighbourhoods to initiate behavioural diffusion, or connecting subgroups for collective action. Conservationists are increasingly interested in changing human behaviour. One understudied aspect of such interventions is information flow. Different patterns of interpersonal communication and social structures within communities influence the adoption of behavioural changes through social influence and social reinforcement. Understanding the structure of information flow in a group, using tools such as social network analysis, can therefore offer important insights for interventions. For example, communications may be targeted to highly connected opinion leaders to leverage their influence, or communication may be facilitated between distinct subgroups to promote peer learning. Incorporating these approaches into conservation interventions can promote more effective behaviour change. This review introduces conservation researchers and practitioners to key concepts underpinning information flows for interventions targeting networks of individuals. Conservationists are increasingly interested in changing human behaviour. One understudied aspect of such interventions is information flow. Different patterns of interpersonal communication and social structures within communities influence the adoption of behavioural changes through social influence and social reinforcement. Understanding the structure of information flow in a group, using tools such as social network analysis, can therefore offer important insights for interventions. For example, communications may be targeted to highly connected opinion leaders to leverage their influence, or communication may be facilitated between distinct subgroups to promote peer learning. Incorporating these approaches into conservation interventions can promote more effective behaviour change. This review introduces conservation researchers and practitioners to key concepts underpinning information flows for interventions targeting networks of individuals. Conservation interventions frequently seek to change people's behaviour to stem human-driven loss of biodiversity [1St John F.A.V. et al.Effective conservation depends upon understanding human behaviour.in: Macdonald D.W. Willis K.J. Key Topics in Conservation Biology 2. John Wiley & Sons, 2013: 344-361Crossref Scopus (52) Google Scholar]. As people respond to information received about the world [2Schluter M. et al.A framework for mapping and comparing behavioural theories in models of social-ecological systems.Ecol. Econ. 2017; 131: 21-35Crossref Scopus (214) Google Scholar], information transfer (see Glossary) is a key component of all interventions (Table 1). Many types of information can be used to motivate behavioural change, such as information about the risks and benefits of an activity [3Thøgersen J. How may consumer policy empower consumers for sustainable lifestyles?.J. Consum. 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Q. 2019; 25: 69-87Crossref Scopus (44) Google Scholar].Table 1Selected Information Flow Concepts and Examples of Interventions Using These Concepts from Various DisciplinesConceptPublic health or development exampleMarketing or management exampleConservation exampleTargeting communications at opinion leadersIn a randomised trial across 32 villages, a sample of villagers were educated and given multivitamins, as well as vouchers to pass on to others. In villages where targets were identified using peer-nomination surveys a 12.2% increase in adoption was seen compared with villages where targets were randomly selected 53Kim D.A. et al.Social network targeting to maximise population behaviour change: a cluster randomised controlled trial.Lancet. 2015; 386: 145-153Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (192) Google Scholar.Microsoft identified opinion leaders and distributed pre-release copies of Windows 95 to 450 000 of them. The commercial product was quickly adopted and within 4 days of release 1 million copies were sold 80Galeotti A. Influencing the influencers: a theory of strategic diffusion.RAND J. Econ. 2009; 40: 509-532Crossref Scopus (129) Google Scholar.Rare, a US-based NGO, uses Pride campaigns to promote conservation in communities. Among other things, these campaigns seek to identify trusted messengers: influential community members that can drive widespread behavioural change, once a number of peers have already adopted the new behaviour and some momentum has been generated 56Butler P. et al.The Principles of Pride: The Science Behind the Mascots.. Rare, Arlington, VA2013Google Scholar.Targeting an incubator neighbourhoodIn a randomised controlled trial, agricultural extension workers in Malawi trained individuals in 200 villages on pit-planting (an agricultural technique), and trained them to disseminate this in their village. In some villages, these individuals were chosen to span the entire network, but in other villages they were chosen as clusters of connected individuals. In clustered villages, there was a 56% greater likelihood that diffusion would occur, and after three years a 3% greater adoption 57Beaman L. et al.Can network theory-based targeting increase technology adoption?.in: NBER Working Paper No. 24912. 2018Crossref Google Scholar.None foundNone foundRecruiting opinion leaders as change agentsAn anti-conflict intervention was experimentally introduced to 54 schools with 24 191 students, after measuring their social networks. Selected students were trained and then took the lead in designing anti-conflict strategies for their school. Schools where highly connected students were recruited had a 30% greater reduction in conflict than where students were randomly selected 54Paluck E.L. et al.Changing climates of conflict: a social network experiment in 56 schools.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2016; 113: 566-571Crossref PubMed Scopus (238) Google Scholar.Marketers working for Hokey Pokey, a premium ice-cream store in India, researched the local social media market. They identified influential social media users that were observed to have many connections and gained many responses to their activity, in addition to other characteristics. Influencers with relevant interests were invited to create a personal ice-cream creation and incentivised to tweet and post on Facebook about their creation. Customers could also see these creations on a wall at the store and purchase them. Flavours used in these creations increased in popularity, and brand awareness and sales revenue increased dramatically 81Kumar V. Mirchandani R. Increasing the ROI of social media marketing.MIT Sloan Manag. Rev. 2012; 54: 54-61Google Scholar.Ewaso Lions' Warrior Watch programme recruits Samburu Warriors to act as ambassadors for wildlife in their community, raising awareness and mitigating conflicts with predators. These warrior ambassadors are selected in cooperation with community leaders, and are provided a small stipend and education in return. Attitudes toward wildlife were found to have improved for 90% of community members, with most attributing this to information received from the warriors (H. Gurd, MSc thesis, Imperial College London, 2012).Connecting subgroupsIn 1995 the US Public Health Service launched the National Information Infrastructure. One of the key objectives was to improve communication between healthcare providers across the US, as well as other actors essential to delivering public health such as the media, government and citizens. For example, medical practices across a city now began to share information with a central database, which enabled monitoring of wider trends and early warnings for epidemics 82Lasker R.D. et al.Making a Powerful Connection: The Health of the Public and the National Information Infrastructure.1995Google Scholar.A global consultancy firm believed one of their highly skilled strategic teams was underperforming. An SNA was performed to understand the information flows, revealing two disconnected subgroups within the team. Each group had a different expertise and skillset, with little knowledge of the other. A facilitated discussion was held with the entire team, resulting in practice changes designed to encourage closer connection: projects were jointly led by one member of each group, and new communication channels were opened. This led to improvement in outcomes, and a follow-up SNA revealed a much more connected group 83Borgatti S.P. Parker A. Making invisible work visible: using social network analysis to support strategic collaboration.Calif. Manag. Rev. 2002; 44: 25-47Crossref Scopus (580) Google Scholar.Three settlements in Nepal made use of the same forest, but had organised themselves into two separate forest associations, as two of the settlements were more closely connected. This led to conflicts over boundaries and memberships. Meetings were organised between the leaders of the three settlements where residents agreed to merge the two forest associations. The new, single, forest association functions well and has overseen improvements in the condition of the forest 84Varughese G. Ostrom E. The contested role of hetrogenity in collective action: some evidence from community forestry in Nepal.Word Dev. 2001; 29: 747-765Crossref Scopus (321) Google Scholar.Connecting peers for learning and reinforcementAlcoholics Anonymous is one of the few models to show positive abstinence outcomes. Participants join support groups where they are connected with peers undergoing the same behavioural change, and discuss their experiences. Support-group peers often replace non-supportive friends in participants social-networks; this method is most effective for individuals with harmful social networks 85Groh D.R. et al.Social network variables in alcoholics anonymous: a literature review.Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2008; 28: 430-450Crossref PubMed Scopus (111) Google Scholar.As part of a strategy to increase the effectiveness of institutions in developing countries, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development organises peer-learning sessions. For example, individuals working at anti-corruption organisations in Eastern Europe and Central Asia were invited to a workshop to meet with experts and discuss their experiences and knowledge. Though little evaluation has been done, it is thought that this enables greater learning and that the connections generated between peers will sustain long-term knowledge sharing 86Andrews M. Manning N. A Guide to Peer-to-Peer Learning.2016Google Scholar.Following requests from local women, Ewaso Lions' Mama Simba project provides general and environmental education to women in Samburu communities. Participants learn and share their knowledge together, including of environmentally sustainable practices, and disseminate this knowledge to their peers (see http://ewasolions.org/conservation/mamasimba/).Inducing multi-step communication flows to indirectly reach the target audienceInjecting drug users (seeds) were given coupons to distribute to their peers, which contained information about a safety education class. When a peer redeemed a coupon at the education centre, they were given additional coupons to distribute, and the seed was awarded $10, incentivising distribution. An additional $10 was awarded if the peer had been given some education by the seed before arriving. Compared to worker-based outreach, this method recruited 36% more participants over a 2-year period, and a wider range of individuals. Peer outreach was also found to be more effective at reducing risk-related behaviours, and many times more cost-effective 87Broadhead R.S. et al.Harnessing peer networks as an instrument for AIDS prevention: results from a peer-driven intervention.Pub. Health Rep. 1998; 113: 42-57PubMed Google Scholar.In 2008, Burger King began their Whopper Sacrifice campaign. Using a specially designed application on Facebook, individuals would receive a coupon for a free whopper in return for removing ten connections from their Facebook account. These connections would receive a message explaining why they had been removed and encouraging them to download the app themselves. The campaign only ran for 10 days but >20 000 coupons were generated and 233 096 people were reached 51Kaplan A.M. Haenlein M. Two hearts in three-quarter time: how to waltz the social media/viral marketing dance.Bus. Horiz. 2011; 54: 253-263Crossref Scopus (240) Google Scholar.Environmental education is often targeted to children. One reason for this is the assumption that children will pass information to their adult relatives and influence them. Lessons are often designed to induce such further communication, for example by asking students to complete worksheets together with their parents 88Duvall J. Zint M. A review of research on the effectiveness of environmental education in promoting intergenerational learning.J. Environ. Educ. 2007; [Online] 38: 37-41Google Scholar, 89Damerell P. et al.Child-orientated environmental education influences adult knowledge and household behaviour.Environ. Res. Lett. 2013; 8015016Crossref Scopus (125) Google Scholar. Open table in a new tab Much research is devoted to improving the effectiveness of conservation interventions [8Nilsson D. et al.Community motivations to engage in conservation behavior to conserve the Sumatran orangutan.Conserv. Biol. 2016; 30: 816-826Crossref PubMed Scopus (13) Google Scholar], and researchers increasingly look to the behavioural and social sciences for insight [9Reddy S.M.W. et al.Advancing conservation by understanding and influencing human behavior.Conserv. Lett. 2016; (Published online May 10, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12252)Google Scholar], such as in the field of conservation marketing [10Wright A.J. et al.Competitive outreach in the 21st century: why we need conservation marketing.Ocean Coast. Manag. 2015; 115: 41-48Crossref Scopus (110) Google Scholar]. However, the role of information flows in promoting conservation behavioural change is poorly understood (Table 1). This understanding can help to improve the effectiveness of interventions [11Barnes M.L. et al.Social networks and environmental outcomes.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2016; 113: 6466-6471Crossref PubMed Scopus (139) Google Scholar], and applications have been developed in other behaviour-change settings, most notably public health and social marketing [12McKenzie-Mohr D. Schultz P.W. Choosing effective behavior change tools.Soc. Mark. Q. 2014; 20: 35-46Crossref Scopus (144) Google Scholar]. Nevertheless, conservation problems differ in important ways from those tackled in these fields, with implications for intervention design. Firstly, many conservation problems require collective action and ask individuals to contribute to public goods [13Ostrom E. Governing the Commons: the Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge University Press, 1990Crossref Google Scholar], while health behaviours often focus on individual benefits and behavioural changes [14Nisbet E.K.L. Gick M.L. Can health psychology help the planet? Applying theory and models of health behaviour to environmental actions.Can. Psychol./Psychol. Can. 2008; 49: 296-303Crossref Scopus (72) Google Scholar]. Secondly, much conservation occurs in the biodiversity rich tropics in developing countries, in contexts of weak institutions, where behavioural interventions form part of broader governance, incentive, or deterrence interventions [15Berkes F. Community-based conservation in a globalized world.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2007; 104: 15188-15193Crossref PubMed Scopus (647) Google Scholar]. Finally, conservation interventions often target low-prevalence, or sensitive behaviours [16Travers H. et al.Understanding complex drivers of wildlife crime to design effective conservation interventions.Conserv. Biol. 2019; (Published online April 10, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13330)Crossref PubMed Scopus (47) Google Scholar]. In this review, we draw on insights from other fields to clarify key concepts in the study of information flows, while paying attention to the particularities of conservation. We examine how messages reach their targets and how interpersonal communication and social structures determine patterns of behavioural adoption [17Rogers E.M. Diffusion of Innovations.3rd edn. Simon and Schuster, 2003Google Scholar]. We discuss the tools used to study these structures, most notably social network analysis (SNA; Box 1), and the insights these methods have generated. Finally, we discuss how strategies from other behaviour-change disciplines could be used to design more effective interventions in conservation.Box 1Methods for Studying Information FlowsECCO AnalysisECCO analysis is used to understand how messages flow through informal channels. Conservation researchers could use this method to test assumptions about information flow when piloting interventions; to investigate the types of ties through which a message flows; to map a social network; or validate whether a mapped network predicts the route taken by a message. Initially, a relevant message is identified and disseminated in a controlled manner. A series of follow-up questionnaire surveys is then administered, assessing which individuals have received the message and asking them from whom they received the message [49Zwijze-Koning K.H. Auditing information structures in organizations: a review of data collection techniques for network analysis.Organ. Res. Methods. 2005; 8: 429-453Crossref Scopus (42) Google Scholar].SNASNA is a powerful tool that is widely used in the social sciences to study the structures of social groups. A vast multidisciplinary literature has contributed to the development, application, and interpretation of SNA data [75Knoke D. Yang S. Social Network Analysis. SAGE Publications, 2011Google Scholar]. Here, we give an overview of the basic principles of SNA.SNA generates a sociogram (see Figure 1 in main text), depicting individuals as nodes and their interactions as ties. The interactions represented are usually of a single type, can be directional or non-directional (i.e., going both ways), and usually have some measurement of tie strength associated. For example, an intervention aiming to promote new agricultural techniques may ask farmers to nominate individuals they go to for advice [76Isaac M.E. et al.Transfer of knowledge on agroforestry management practices: the structure of farmer advice networks.Ecol. Soc. 2007; 1232Crossref Scopus (129) Google Scholar]. Advice seeking is a directional interaction, and tie strength could be measured in the frequency of interaction, or perceived value of the advice received.SNA data can be collected using several methods. Most common is the name-generator questionnaire, which is suitable when the relationships can be reported on by the actors involved in them; such as most communicative interactions. Respondents list the names of people with whom they interact, and provide other information such as interaction frequency. This method is simple and reliable, but effort-intensive as a large proportion of the community must be questioned to obtain an accurate representation of the network. Furthermore, responses may be subject to recall or social desirability bias [75Knoke D. Yang S. Social Network Analysis. SAGE Publications, 2011Google Scholar]. ECCO Analysis ECCO analysis is used to understand how messages flow through informal channels. Conservation researchers could use this method to test assumptions about information flow when piloting interventions; to investigate the types of ties through which a message flows; to map a social network; or validate whether a mapped network predicts the route taken by a message. Initially, a relevant message is identified and disseminated in a controlled manner. A series of follow-up questionnaire surveys is then administered, assessing which individuals have received the message and asking them from whom they received the message [49Zwijze-Koning K.H. Auditing information structures in organizations: a review of data collection techniques for network analysis.Organ. Res. Methods. 2005; 8: 429-453Crossref Scopus (42) Google Scholar]. SNA SNA is a powerful tool that is widely used in the social sciences to study the structures of social groups. A vast multidisciplinary literature has contributed to the development, application, and interpretation of SNA data [75Knoke D. Yang S. Social Network Analysis. SAGE Publications, 2011Google Scholar]. Here, we give an overview of the basic principles of SNA. SNA generates a sociogram (see Figure 1 in main text), depicting individuals as nodes and their interactions as ties. The interactions represented are usually of a single type, can be directional or non-directional (i.e., going both ways), and usually have some measurement of tie strength associated. For example, an intervention aiming to promote new agricultural techniques may ask farmers to nominate individuals they go to for advice [76Isaac M.E. et al.Transfer of knowledge on agroforestry management practices: the structure of farmer advice networks.Ecol. Soc. 2007; 1232Crossref Scopus (129) Google Scholar]. Advice seeking is a directional interaction, and tie strength could be measured in the frequency of interaction, or perceived value of the advice received. SNA data can be collected using several methods. Most common is the name-generator questionnaire, which is suitable when the relationships can be reported on by the actors involved in them; such as most communicative interactions. Respondents list the names of people with whom they interact, and provide other information such as interaction frequency. This method is simple and reliable, but effort-intensive as a large proportion of the community must be questioned to obtain an accurate representation of the network. Furthermore, responses may be subject to recall or social desirability bias [75Knoke D. Yang S. Social Network Analysis. SAGE Publications, 2011Google Scholar]. The fundamental process of information transfer is that a message is communicated from conservationists to behaviour-change targets. Communicating information is not a magic bullet with predictable effects on the receiver, but a complex social process where messages may reach their intended target by indirect routes and their meanings are produced within the context of social relationships [18Littlejohn S.W. Foss K.A. Theories of Human Communication.10th edn. Waveland Press, 2011Google Scholar]. Understanding these processes is important to enhance the probability of desired targets receiving and acting on a message in the desired way. Communication occurs through channels that differ in what they can convey, who they can reach, and how they are likely to affect behaviour [19Bryants J. Heath R.L. Human Communication Theory and Research.2nd edn. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000Google Scholar]. Mass communications through channels such as TV, radio, and print, can potentially reach large audiences with a uniform message. Such messages can be agenda setting but are transient [20Wakefield M.A. et al.Use of mass media campaigns to change health behaviour.Lancet. 2010; 376: 1261-1271Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1368) Google Scholar], although print media such as billboards can remain salient for longer. The internet and social media also enable large audiences to be reached, but with personalised messages [21Bennett W.L. Manheim J.B. The one-step flow of communication.Ann. Am. Acad. Pol. Soc. Sci. 2006; 608: 213-232Crossref Scopus (149) Google Scholar]. Where access to technology is low, speaking with people directly may be the only possibility. Interpersonal communication between peers is likely to comprise a significant volume of information flow in all interventions. Messages disseminated through mass media typically reach much of their audience indirectly through multiple steps, following interpretation and propagation by influential individuals [21Bennett W.L. Manheim J.B. The one-step flow of communication.Ann. Am. Acad. Pol. Soc. Sci. 2006; 608: 213-232Crossref Scopus (149) Google Scholar]. As a result, messages will usually have reach and influence beyond just those people directly targeted, and these multistep flows are intentionally embedded into the design of some conservation interventions (Table 2).Table 2Examples of Information Transfer and Targeting Strategies in Common Conservation Behaviour Change InterventionsBehaviour-change strategyInformation transferredExample targeting strategyRefsRule enforcementRisks and costs of punishmentOffenders learn this information when caught and pass it on to their network90Keane A. et al.The sleeping policeman: understanding issues of enforcement and compliance in conservation.Anim. Conserv. 2008; 11: 75-82Crossref Scopus (246) Google ScholarEnvironmental educationThe importance and cultural value of natureEducation sessions are held at local schools and children pass information to their parents91Monroe M. Two avenues for encouraging conservations behaviors.Hum. Ecol. Rev. 2003; 10: 113-125Google ScholarPayments for ecosystem servicesPayment structure and conditionsCommunities are invited to a meeting where this is explained directly69Clements T. et al.Payments for biodiversity conservation in the context of weak institutions: comparison of three programs from Cambodia.Ecol. Econ. 2010; 69: 1283-1291Crossref Scopus (198) Google ScholarAlternative livelihoodsNew livelihood optionsTraining workshops are held to teach local farmers alternative livelihoods92Wright J.H. et al.Reframing the concept of alternative livelihoods.Conserv. Biol. 2016; 30: 7-13Crossref PubMed Scopus (102) Google Scholar Open table in a new tab When information flows through multiple steps, the identities and relationships of communicators will influence how they understand and respond to a message. This social influence is composed of multiple factors, such as the perceived credibility of the information source [22Pornpitakpan C. The persuasiveness of source credibility: a critical review of five decades evidence.J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 2004; 34: 243-281Crossref Scopus (1110) Google Scholar]; the relationship between source and receiver [23Faraji-Rad A. et al.On the persuasiveness of similar others: the role of mentalizing and the feeling of certainty.J. Consum. Res. 2015; 42: 458-471Crossref Google Scholar]; their positions in larger power structures [24Smith P.K. Magee J.C. The interpersonal nature of power and status.Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 2015; 3: 152-156Crossref Scopus (23) Google Scholar]; and perceptions of relevant social norms [25McDonald R.I. Crandall C.S. Social norms and social influence.Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 2015; 3: 147-151Crossref Scopus (126) Google Scholar]. Social influence can make the difference between a message that is rejected and ignored, and a message that changes behaviour [7Green K.M. et al.A meta-analysis of social marketing campaigns to improve global conservation outcomes.Soc. Mark. Q. 2019; 25: 69-87Crossref Scopus (44) Google Scholar]. Social influence is important because often only a few low-threshold individuals adopt an attitude or behaviour directly after receiving a message, while most targets require social reinforcement and influence from others before they adopt. These complex contagions occur for several reasons, depending on the social context and nature of the behavioural change [26Centola D. How Behaviour Spreads: The Science of Complex Contagions. Princeton University Press, 2018Google Scholar]. Firstly, as the outcomes of behavioural change are uncertain, individuals may wait to see how it benefits others (i.e., credibility) before adopting [17Rogers E.M. Diffusion of Innovations.3rd edn. Simon and Schuster, 2003Google Scholar]. Secondly, social norms play an important role in human decision making [