No reason to change WHO guidelines on cleansing the umbilical cord
Authors: David Osrin, Tim Colbourn
Journal: The Lancet Global Health (2016)

20 years ago, neonatal survival was not on the global health agenda. In many low-income settings, infants died without recognition, causing untold grief. However, the past two decades have seen steady improvements in neonatal survival on a background of sustained advocacy, a culture of community-based trials, and improvements in quantity and quality of health care, health behaviour, and demand for services. Nevertheless, an annual 2·7 million newborn babies still do not survive their first month of life.1WHOGlobal Health Observatory (GHO) data.http://www.who.int/gho/child_health/mortality/neonatal/en/Date: 2015Google Scholar Focusing on one intervention to address this issue, two African trials in The Lancet Global Health2Semrau KEA Herlihy J Grogan C et al.Effectiveness of 4% chlorhexidine umbilical cord care on neonatal mortality in Southern Province, Zambia (ZamCAT): a cluster-randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30215-7Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar, 3Sazawal S Dhingra U Ali SM et al.Efficacy of chlorhexidine application to umbilical cord on neonatal mortality in Pemba, Tanzania: a community-based randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30223-6Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar tested umbilical cord cleansing with antiseptic solution. Supporting evidence to date has come from randomised controlled trials in south Asia, which suggested that cleansing with chlorhexidine solution could reduce both periumbilical inflammation (omphalitis) and neonatal mortality.4Soofi S Cousens S Imdad A Bhutto N Ali N Bhutta ZA Topical application of chlorhexidine to neonatal umbilical cords for prevention of omphalitis and neonatal mortality in a rural district of Pakistan: a community-based, cluster-randomised trial.Lancet. 2012; 379: 1029-1036Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (102) Google Scholar, 5Arifeen SE Mullany LC Shah R et al.The effect of cord cleansing with chlorhexidine on neonatal mortality in rural Bangladesh: a community-based, cluster-randomised trial.Lancet. 2012; 379: 1022-1028Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (129) Google Scholar, 6Mullany LC Darmstadt GL Khatry SK et al.Topical applications of chlorhexidine to the umbilical cord for prevention of omphalitis and neonatal mortality in southern Nepal: a community-based, cluster-randomised trial.Lancet. 2006; 367: 910-918Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (207) Google Scholar In a previous Comment7Osrin D Hill ZE Chlorhexidine cord cleansing to reduce neonatal mortality.Lancet. 2012; 379: 984-986Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (6) Google Scholar we suggested that the putative effects might diminish at scale, that it would be good for families to do the cord cleansing themselves, and that evidence from high-mortality populations in Africa would be helpful. In the interim, a meta-analysis8Imdad A Mullany LC Baqui AH et al.The effect of umbilical cord cleansing with chlorhexidine on omphalitis and neonatal mortality in community settings in developing countries: a meta-analysis.BMC Public Health. 2013; 13: S15Crossref PubMed Scopus (64) Google Scholar estimated the combined risk ratio (RR) for neonatal mortality at 0·77 (95% CI 0·63–0·94). Katherine Semrau and colleagues2Semrau KEA Herlihy J Grogan C et al.Effectiveness of 4% chlorhexidine umbilical cord care on neonatal mortality in Southern Province, Zambia (ZamCAT): a cluster-randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30215-7Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar did a cluster-randomised controlled trial in Southern Province, Zambia. Fieldworkers visited women antenatally within 24 h of delivery, and repeatedly during the newborns' first month of life. Families in the intervention group were given 4% chlorhexidine solution to apply 10 mL, using eyedropper bottles, once per day until cord separation, whereas families in the control group were encouraged to maintain dry cord care. Semrau and colleagues2Semrau KEA Herlihy J Grogan C et al.Effectiveness of 4% chlorhexidine umbilical cord care on neonatal mortality in Southern Province, Zambia (ZamCAT): a cluster-randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30215-7Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar reported no difference between allocation groups in the primary outcome of neonatal mortality rate (deaths [in the first 28 days post-partum] per 1000 livebirths; RR 1·12, 95% CI 0·88–1·44) or the secondary outcome of occurrence of omphalitis (diagnosed by erythema or purulent discharge; 0·73, 0·47–1·13). Sunil Sazawal and colleagues3Sazawal S Dhingra U Ali SM et al.Efficacy of chlorhexidine application to umbilical cord on neonatal mortality in Pemba, Tanzania: a community-based randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30223-6Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar did a community-based, individually-randomised controlled trial in Pemba Island, Tanzania. Maternal–child health workers visited on the day of delivery and days 1, 4, 10, and 28; showed families how to care for the cord; and gave them 4% chlorhexidine solution to apply once per day, using 10 mL dropper bottles, until cord separation. The trial3Sazawal S Dhingra U Ali SM et al.Efficacy of chlorhexidine application to umbilical cord on neonatal mortality in Pemba, Tanzania: a community-based randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30223-6Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar began with three comparison groups—dry cord care, chlorhexidine treatment group, or control group using a placebo solution—but the control group was dropped in the second phase of the study. Sazawal and colleagues3Sazawal S Dhingra U Ali SM et al.Efficacy of chlorhexidine application to umbilical cord on neonatal mortality in Pemba, Tanzania: a community-based randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30223-6Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar reported no difference between allocation groups in neonatal mortality rates (RR 0·90, 95% CI 0·74–1·09), but babies in the chlorhexidine group had a lower risk of omphalitis than those in the dry cord care group (0·65, 0·61–0·70). Design and randomisation methods differed between the two studies, but follow-up was exceptionally successful: almost 100% of babies at 28 days in Zambia2Semrau KEA Herlihy J Grogan C et al.Effectiveness of 4% chlorhexidine umbilical cord care on neonatal mortality in Southern Province, Zambia (ZamCAT): a cluster-randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30215-7Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar and 97% in Tanzania.3Sazawal S Dhingra U Ali SM et al.Efficacy of chlorhexidine application to umbilical cord on neonatal mortality in Pemba, Tanzania: a community-based randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30223-6Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar On a spectrum of efficacy, the trials were pitched toward real-world conditions. The interventions were delivered by project staff, but mothers were encouraged to apply the treatment themselves. Whether or not they did so—and it seems likely that they did (98% compliance was reported in the Zambia study2Semrau KEA Herlihy J Grogan C et al.Effectiveness of 4% chlorhexidine umbilical cord care on neonatal mortality in Southern Province, Zambia (ZamCAT): a cluster-randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30215-7Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar)—it was an intention-to-treat approach. Two important issues affect our interpretation of these findings. First, many women chose institutional delivery (53% of deliveries were at hospitals in Sazawal and colleagues' trial, and 64% in Semrau and colleagues' trial2Semrau KEA Herlihy J Grogan C et al.Effectiveness of 4% chlorhexidine umbilical cord care on neonatal mortality in Southern Province, Zambia (ZamCAT): a cluster-randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30215-7Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar). The latest WHO guidelines9WHOWHO recommendations on postnatal care of the mother and newborn: 2013. World Health Organization, Geneva2014Google Scholar recommend application of chlorhexidine to the umbilical cord stump for the first week after birth, for infants born at home in environments with high neonatal mortality rates (>30 deaths per 1000 livebirths). Dry cord care is recommended after institutional births or home births in settings with lower neonatal mortality rates.9WHOWHO recommendations on postnatal care of the mother and newborn: 2013. World Health Organization, Geneva2014Google Scholar Chlorhexidine might be considered as a replacement for harmful applications to the cord stump,9WHOWHO recommendations on postnatal care of the mother and newborn: 2013. World Health Organization, Geneva2014Google Scholar but Cochrane reviews, a meta-analysis,8Imdad A Mullany LC Baqui AH et al.The effect of umbilical cord cleansing with chlorhexidine on omphalitis and neonatal mortality in community settings in developing countries: a meta-analysis.BMC Public Health. 2013; 13: S15Crossref PubMed Scopus (64) Google Scholar and these two new trials2Semrau KEA Herlihy J Grogan C et al.Effectiveness of 4% chlorhexidine umbilical cord care on neonatal mortality in Southern Province, Zambia (ZamCAT): a cluster-randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30215-7Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar, 3Sazawal S Dhingra U Ali SM et al.Efficacy of chlorhexidine application to umbilical cord on neonatal mortality in Pemba, Tanzania: a community-based randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30223-6Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar have not supported an effect after hospital births.10Imdad A Bautista RMM Senen KAA Uy MEV Mantaring JB, III Bhutta ZA Umbilical cord antiseptics for preventing sepsis and death among newborns.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013; 5 (CD008635)Google Scholar, 11Sinha A Sazawal S Pradhan A Ramji S Opiyo N Chlorhexidine skin or cord care for prevention of mortality and infections in neonates.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015; 3 (CD007835)PubMed Google Scholar Second, the neonatal mortality rates were lower than expected. The sample size for the Zambian study2Semrau KEA Herlihy J Grogan C et al.Effectiveness of 4% chlorhexidine umbilical cord care on neonatal mortality in Southern Province, Zambia (ZamCAT): a cluster-randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30215-7Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar was developed on the assumption that the neonatal mortality rate in the control group would be 29·0 deaths per 1000 livebirths. However, the observed rate was 14·4 deaths per 1000 livebirths. The Tanzanian study3Sazawal S Dhingra U Ali SM et al.Efficacy of chlorhexidine application to umbilical cord on neonatal mortality in Pemba, Tanzania: a community-based randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30223-6Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar assumed a control group neonatal mortality rate of 31 deaths per 1000 livebirths. The observed neonatal mortality rate was 11·7 deaths per 1000 livebirths. Both trials increased their sample sizes during implementation, yet confidence intervals around estimates of effects on neonatal mortality rates were nevertheless substantial. To address the issue of underpowering, the research groups combined their estimates in a random-effects meta-analysis, resulting in a relative risk estimate of 0·99 (95% CI 0·80–1·23) for neonatal mortality by day 28. The three major drivers of newborn mortality are infection, preterm birth, and presumed intrapartum-related compromise. The implicit assumption is that antiseptic cleansing will prevent microbial invasion and reduce deaths from infection. However, as neonatal mortality rates decrease, the proportion of deaths explained by infection reduces in relation to the other two causes. What this means is that the yield in terms of reduction in all-cause mortality as a result of cord antisepsis is likely to be lower in settings with low neonatal mortality rates. To test our assumption, we used the published findings of the five trials2Semrau KEA Herlihy J Grogan C et al.Effectiveness of 4% chlorhexidine umbilical cord care on neonatal mortality in Southern Province, Zambia (ZamCAT): a cluster-randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30215-7Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar, 3Sazawal S Dhingra U Ali SM et al.Efficacy of chlorhexidine application to umbilical cord on neonatal mortality in Pemba, Tanzania: a community-based randomised controlled trial.Lancet Glob Health. 2016; (published online Sept 29.)http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30223-6Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar, 4Soofi S Cousens S Imdad A Bhutto N Ali N Bhutta ZA Topical application of chlorhexidine to neonatal umbilical cords for prevention of omphalitis and neonatal mortality in a rural district of Pakistan: a community-based, cluster-randomised trial.Lancet. 2012; 379: 1029-1036Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (102) Google Scholar, 5Arifeen SE Mullany LC Shah R et al.The effect of cord cleansing with chlorhexidine on neonatal mortality in rural Bangladesh: a community-based, cluster-randomised trial.Lancet. 2012; 379: 1022-1028Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (129) Google Scholar, 6Mullany LC Darmstadt GL Khatry SK et al.Topical applications of chlorhexidine to the umbilical cord for prevention of omphalitis and neonatal mortality in southern Nepal: a community-based, cluster-randomised trial.Lancet. 2006; 367: 910-918Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (207) Google Scholar as a basis for conservative meta-regression. The figure shows the reduction in mortality associated with varying proportions of home delivery and neonatal mortality rates. Although not significant, the impression is that higher neonatal mortality rates (p=0·109) and a higher proportion of home deliveries (p=0·138) were associated with larger effects of cord cleansing on neonatal mortality rates. Along with the individual trial findings, the figure is consonant with the current WHO guidelines9WHOWHO recommendations on postnatal care of the mother and newborn: 2013. World Health Organization, Geneva2014Google Scholar for cord care, to which we recommend no change. Cord cleanliness is part of the suite of hard-won improvements that accompany the increases in survival being seen worldwide. In settings in which neonatal mortality rates remain high, we recommend the kinds of programme that have been associated with reductions in all-cause mortality. These include improvements in institutional quality of care and efforts to improve community-based practices, both central to the 2014 Every Newborn Action Plan.12WHOEvery newborn: an action plan to end preventable deaths. World Health Organization, Geneva2014Google Scholar DO does not work with but has been a co-author of six publications in the past 5 years with Prof Robert Black, a named author of the paper from Tanzania. The publications were produced by large working groups and DO and TC both either contributed data from their research programmes or were members of a distributed expert group. Efficacy of chlorhexidine application to umbilical cord on neonatal mortality in Pemba, Tanzania: a community-based randomised controlled trialOur findings do not support the use of chlorhexidine for reduction of neonatal mortality in this east African setting, which might not justify a change in the WHO policy. To inform global policy, a detailed meta-analysis and pooled analysis needs to be undertaken using data from both African and Asian settings. Full-Text PDF Open AccessEffectiveness of 4% chlorhexidine umbilical cord care on neonatal mortality in Southern Province, Zambia (ZamCAT): a cluster-randomised controlled trialDespite substantial reductions previously reported in south Asia, chlorhexidine cord applications did not significantly reduce neonatal mortality rates in Zambia. Chlorhexidine cord applications do not seem to provide clear benefits for newborn babies in settings with predominantly facility-based deliveries and lower (<30 deaths per 1000 livebirths) neonatal mortality rates. Full-Text PDF Open AccessChlorhexidine and newborn omphalitis and mortality – Authors' replyStephen Hodgins says that cord application of chlorhexidine protects infants against omphalitis equally after birth at home or in hospital, and that we were incorrect to say that it was not effective for infants born in hospital. Full-Text PDF Open AccessChlorhexidine and newborn omphalitis and mortalityDavid Osrin and Tim Colbourn (November, 2016)1 uphold a recommendation to restrict use of chlorhexidine to "infants born at home in environments with high neonatal mortality rates" and assert that "Cochrane reviews, a meta-analysis, and these two new trials have not supported an effect after hospital births". We do not think it is clear how one could come to such a conclusion from the evidence in the cited papers. Full-Text PDF Open Access