C LUSTER & T UNE : E NHANCE BERT P ERFORMANCE IN T OPICAL T EXT C LASSIFICATION WHEN L ABELED D ATA IS S CARCE
Anonymous authors
Paper under double-blind review
A BSTRACT
In cases where labeled data is scarce, the common practice of ﬁne-tuning BERT for a target text classiﬁcation task is prone to producing poor performance.
In such scenarios, we suggest performing an unsupervised classiﬁcation task prior to ﬁnetuning on the target task.
Speciﬁcally, as such an intermediate task, we perform unsupervised clustering, training BERT on predicting the cluster labels.
We test this hypothesis on various data sets, and show that this additional classiﬁcation step can signiﬁcantly reduce the demand for labeled examples mainly for topical classiﬁcation tasks.
We further discuss under which conditions this task is helpful and why.
I NTRODUCTION
One of the most practical NLP use cases is the task of text classiﬁcation, where the goal is to automatically assign a new text instance into a subset of pre-speciﬁed categories.
Text classiﬁcation applications include topic detection, sentiment analysis, and spam ﬁltering, to name just a few examples.
The standard paradigm relies on supervised learning, where it is well known that the size and quality of the labeled data strongly impact the performance of the trained classiﬁer.
Hence, as with many other supervised learning tasks, developing a text classiﬁcation scheme in practice, typically requires to make the most out of a relatively small set of annotated examples.
The emergence of transformer-based pretrained language models such as BERT (Devlin et al., 2018) has reshaped the NLP landscape, leading to signiﬁcant advances in the performance of most NLP tasks, text classiﬁcation included (e.g., Nogueira & Cho, 2019; Ein-Dor et al., 2020).
These models typically rely on pretraining a transformer-based neural network on massive and heterogeneous corpora on a general Masked Language Modeling ( MLM ) task, i.e., predicting a word that is masked in the original text.
Later on, the obtained model is ﬁne-tuned to the actual task of interest, termed here the target task , using the labeled data available for this task.
Thus, pretrained models serve as general sentence encoders which can be adapted to a variety of tasks (Lacroix et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020a).
Our focus in this work is on a challenging yet common scenario, where the textual categories are not trivially separated; furthermore, the available labeled data is scarce.
There are many real-world cases in which data cannot be sent for massive labeling by the crowd (e.g., due to conﬁdentiality of the data, or the need for a very speciﬁc expertise) and the availability of experts is very limited.
In such setting, ﬁne-tuning a pretrained model is expected to yield far from optimal performance.
To overcome this, one may take a gradual approach composed of various steps.
One possibility is to further pretrain the model with the self-supervised MLM task over unlabeled data taken from the target task domain (Whang et al., 2019).
Alternatively, one can train the pretrained model using a supervised intermediate task which is different in nature from the target-task, and for which labeled data is more readily available (Pruksachatkun et al., 2020;
Wang et al., 2019a; Phang et al., 2018).
Each of these steps is expected to provide a better starting point – in terms of the model parameters – for the ﬁnal ﬁne-tuning step, performed over the scarce labeled data available for the target task, aiming to end up with improved performance.
Following these lines, here we propose a simple strategy, that exploits unsupervised text clustering as the intermediate task towards ﬁne-tuning a pretrained language model for text classiﬁcation.
Our
[Figure]
In general domain data, but not to its instances.
Those are available at the ﬁne-tuning work is inspired by the use of clustering to obtain labels for training deep networks in computer vision (Gidaris et al., 2018; Kolesnikov et al., 2019).
Speciﬁcally, we use an efﬁcient clustering technique, that relies on simple Bag Of Words (BOW) representations, to partition the unlabeled training data into relatively homogeneous clusters of text instances.
Next, we treat these clusters as labeled data for an intermediate text classiﬁcation task, and train BERT – with or without additional
MLM pretraining – with respect to this multi-class problem, prior to the ﬁnal ﬁne-tuning over the actual target-task labeled data.
Extensive experimental results demonstrate the practical value of this strategy on a variety of benchmark data, most prominently when the training data available for the target task is relatively small and the classiﬁcation task is of topical nature.
We further analyze the results to gain insights as to when this approach would be most valuable, and propose future directions to expand the present work.
I NTERMEDIATE T RAINING USING U NSUPERVISED C LUSTERING
A pre-trained transfer model, such as BERT, is typically developed in consecutive phases.
First, the model is pretrained over massive general corpora with the MLM task.
The obtained model is referred to henceforth as BERT .
Second, BERT is ﬁnetuned in a supervised manner with the available labeled examples for the target task at hand.
This standard ﬂow is represented via Pathin Fig.
An additional phase can be added between these two, referred to next as intermediate training , or inter-training in short.
In this phase, the model is exposed to the corpus of the target task, or a corpus of the same domain, but still has no access to labeled examples for this task.
A common example for such an intermediate phase is to continue to intertrain BERT using the selfsupervised MLM task over the corpus or the domain of interest, sometimes referred to as further or adaptive pre-training (e.g., Gururangan et al., 2020).
This ﬂow is represented via Path-2 in Fig.
1, and the resulting model is denoted BERT IT:MLM , standing for Intermediate Task: MLM.
[Table]
A key motivation of this paper is to propose a new type of intermediate task, which is designed to be aligned with a text classiﬁcation target task, and is straightforward to use in practice.
The underlying intuition is that inter-training the model over a related text classiﬁcation task, would be more beneﬁcial compared to MLM inter-training, which focuses on different textual entities, namely predicting the identity of a single token.
Speciﬁcally, we suggest unsupervised clustering for generating pseudo-labels for inter-training.
These pseudo-labels can be viewed as weak labels, but importantly they are not tailored nor require a speciﬁc design per target task.
Instead, we suggest generating pseudo-labels in a way independent of the target task.
The respective ﬂow is represented via Path-3 in Fig.
In this ﬂow, we ﬁrst use unsupervised clustering to partition the training data into n c clusters.
Next, we use the obtained partition as ’labeled’ data in a text classiﬁcation task, where the classes are deﬁned via the n c clusters, and intertrain BERT over these data to predict the cluster label.
In line with MLM, inter-training includes a classiﬁer layer on top of BERT, which is discarded before the ﬁne-tuning stage.
The resulting inter-trained model is denoted BERT IT:CLUST .
Finally, Path-4 in Fig. 1 represents a sequential composition of Path-2 and Path-3.
Thus, in this ﬂow, we ﬁrst intertrain BERT with the MLM task.
Next, the obtained model is further intertrained to predict the n c clusters, as in Path-3.
The model resulting from this hybrid approach is denoted
BERT IT:MLM+CLUST .
Importantly, following Path-3 or Path-4 requires no additional labeled data, and involves an a-priori clustering of training instances that naturally gives rise to an alternative – or an additional – intertraining task.
As we show in the following sections, in spite of its simplicity, this strategy provides a signiﬁcant boost in classiﬁcation performance in the common scenario, where labeled data for the ﬁnal ﬁne-tuning is in short supply.
E XPERIMENTS 3. T ASKS AND D ATASETS
We consider 10 datasets that cover a variety of classiﬁcation tasks and domains.
Of these, 6 are topical datasets (including ISEAR which is somewhat borderline), and 4 are non-topical datasets.
A topical dataset splits sentences by a high level distinction related to what the sentence is about (e.g., sports vs. economics).
On the other hand, non-topical datasets look for ﬁner stylistic distinctions that may depend on the way the sentence is written or on ﬁne details rather than on the central meaning it discusses.
It may also separate almost identical sentences, for example, ”no” could distinguish between sentences with negative and positive sentiment.
The datasets are: Yahoo!
Answers (Zhang et al., 2015), which separates answers and questions to types; DBpedia (Zhang et al., 2015) which differentiates entity types by the beginning of their
Wikipedia articles; CFPB 2 , which classiﬁes consumer complaints into types; 20 newsgroups (Lang, 2 https://www.consumerfinance.gov/data-research/consumer-complaints/
1995), which includes short documents from 20 Usenet discussion groups; AG’s News (Zhang et al., 2015) which contains a classiﬁcation of news articles; ISEAR (Shao et al., 2015), which considers personal reports for emotion; SMS spam (Almeida et al., 2011), which identiﬁes spam messages; Polarity (Pang & Lee, 2005), which includes sentiment analysis on movie reviews; Subjectivity (Pang & Lee, 2004), which categorizes movie snippets as subjective or objective; and CoLA (Warstadt et al., 2018), which annotates sentences for grammatical acceptability;
Each dataset was split into train, dev, and test sets, keeping the original split, if exists, and otherwise applying a 70% / 10% / 20% split, respectively.
Since we are interested in limited labeled data settings, we used the dev sets only for optimizing the baseline algorithms, denoted by Path-1 and Pathin Fig.
The dev sets were not used in the algorithmic ﬂows denoted by Path-3 and Path-4 in that ﬁgure.
Since MLM inter-training is computationally demanding, for DBpedia, AG’s News, Yahoo!
Answers and CFPB, which are relatively large datasets, we limit the sizes of the train/dev/test sets to 15 K/ 3 K/ 3 K instances respectively, by randomly sampling from each set 3 .
Links to all datasets are provided in Appendix § A.
3. E XPERIMENTAL S ETUP
In our main set of experiments we compare the performance of ﬁne-tuning BERT-based models over a target task, for different settings of intermediate training.
We consider four BERT-based settings, as described in Section 2 and in Figure 1.
Two baselines – (i) BERT, where no intermediate training is applied, and (ii) BERT IT:MLM , where MLM is used as the inter-training task; and two settings that rely on clustering – (1) BERT IT:CLUST , where predicting cluster labels is used for inter-training, and (2) BERT IT:MLM+CLUST , which combines the two intermediate tasks.
In addition, we include several non-BERT baseline settings which rely on simpler models.
Training samples: For each setting, the ﬁnal model training for the target task (ﬁne-tuning, in the case of BERT-based models) is performed, per dataset, for training budgets varying between 64 and 1024 labeled examples.
For each data size x , the experiment is repeated 5 times; each repetition representing a different sampling of x labeled examples from the train set.
Sampling of training examples is matched between all settings.
That is, for a given dataset and train size the ﬁnal training run for all settings is done with respect to the same 5 samples of labeled examples 4 .
Results per repetition appear in Fig.
4 of Appendix § B.
Inter-training: Intermediate training, when done, was performed over the full train set for each dataset (ignoring instances’ labels).
We studied two implementations for the clustering task: kmeans (Lloyd, 1982) and sequential Information Bottleneck (sIB) which is known to obtain better results in practice (Slonim et al., 2002) and in theory (Slonim et al., 2013).
Based on initial experiments, and previous insights from works in the computer vision domain (Yan et al., 2020) we opted for a relatively large number of clusters, and rather than optimizing the number of clusters per dataset, set it to 50 for all cases.
The k-means baseline was run over GloVe (Pennington et al., 2014) representations following word stemming.
We used a publicly available implementation of sIB 6 with its default conﬁguration (i.e., 10 restarts and a maximum of 15 iterations for each single run).
For the clustering, we used Bag of Words (BOW) representations on a stemmed text with the default vocabulary size (which is deﬁned as the 10k most frequent words in the dataset).
Our results indicate that inter-training with respect to sIB clusters consistently led to better results in the ﬁnal performance on the target task, compared to inter-training with respect the clusters obtained with k-means.
Hence, in the main paper we present results using the sIB implementation only, while results including k-means are discussed in Appendix §
C. We also considered inter-training only on
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Note that the run time of the clustering algorithms is negligible, and only takes a few seconds.
The run time of the ﬁne-tuning step of the inter-training task takes ﬁve and a half minutes for the largest train set (15k instances) on a Tesla V100-PCIE-16GB GPU.
BERT hyper-parameters:
The starting point of the various inter-training settings is the
BERT BASE model (110M parameters).
BERT inter-training and ﬁne-tuning runs were all performed using the Adam optimizer (Kingma & Ba, 2015) with a standard setting consisting of a learning rate of 3 × 10 − 5 , batch size 64 , and maximal sequence length 128 .
The number of training epochs varies by setting.
For the baselines of BERT and BERT IT:MLM , ﬁnetuning was performed over 15 epochs, selecting the best epoch based on accuracy over the dev set.
Since in a practical limited annotations budget setting one cannot assume that a labeled dev set is available, in our BERT IT:CLUST and BERT IT:MLM+CLUST settings we did not use a dev set, and ﬁnetuning was arbitrarily set to be over 10 epochs.
For inter-training over the clustering results we used a single epoch for two reasons.
First, loosely speaking, additional training over the clusters may drift the model too far towards learning the partition into clusters, which is an auxiliary task in our context, and not the real target task.
Second, from the perspective of a practitioner, single epoch training is preferred since it is the least demanding in terms of run time.
For MLM inter-training we used 30 epochs with a replication rate of 5 .
We note that using fewer epochs yielded similar results.
As this may be of interest for other researchers, we provide the results in Appendix § D.
Non-BERT baselines: As additional baselines, the same training samples were also used to train multinomial Naive Bayes (NB) and linear Support Vector Machine (SVM) classiﬁers, using either
Bag of Words (BOW) or GloVe (Pennington et al., 2014) representations.
For GloVe, a text is represented as the average GloVe embeddings of its tokens.
This yielded four additional baseline settings: NB BOW , NB GloVe , SVM BOW and SVM GloVe .
R ESULTS
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Figure 2 depicts the classiﬁcation accuracy for the different experimental settings in each of the datasets, for varying labeling budgets.
The SVM GloVe baseline outperformed the other baseline settings, therefore, we only include it in this ﬁgure; Full results for all NB and SVM settings can be found in Appendix § E.
Evidently, in all topical datasets,
BERT IT:CLUST and BERT IT:MLM+CLUST clearly outperform BERT and BERT IT:MLM in the small labeled data regime, where the gain is most prominent for the smallest labeled data examined – when only 64 labeled examples are available – and gradually diminishes as more labeled samples are added.
In the remaining 4 non-topical datasets the clustering intertraining does not appear to confer a similar beneﬁt.
Nevertheless, even in these datasets,
BERT IT:CLUST results are typically comparable to the baseline algorithms.
Table 2 depicts the results from Figure 2, focusing on the practical use case of a minimal budget of 64 samples for ﬁne-tuning.
As is evident,
BERT IT:CLUST confers a signiﬁcant beneﬁt in accuracy ( 62% accuracy gain, 25% error reduction on average), when considering the topical datasets.
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Table 3 includes statistical signiﬁcance analysis.
We perform paired t-tests to compare BERT IT:CLUST with BERT and BERT IT:MLM , pooling together all datasets and repetitions for a given labeling budget.
For a budget up to 192 examples, BERT IT:CLUST signiﬁcantly outperforms both BERT and
BERT IT:MLM , expressing the robustness of the proposed approach.
BERT IT:CLUST also outperforms the non-BERT baselines.
For a few topical datasets, SVM GloVe is on par with or slightly superior to BERT IT:CLUST for the smallest train budget.
Overall, when considering the entire range of ﬁne-tuning sample sizes, its results are inferior to our approach and it often performs quite poorly.
The different behavior between the topical datasets versus the non-topical datasets highlights that the
BERT IT:CLUST conﬁguration we considered seems most valuable for topical tasks.
Speciﬁcally, we note that both clustering algorithms we examined rely on BOW representations and correspondingly are better suited for topical data in ﬁnding a partition that reasonably approximates the true hidden partition of the data, according to the class labels.
Therefore, we try using the BERT [CLS] token representation as a non-BOW representation.
While it seems somewhat better than BOW on the non-topical Polarity dataset, it is not consistently better on the other non-topical datasets, and it is mostly worse on the topical datasets (see Appendix § C).
Future work should examine ways to make
BERT IT:CLUST better suited for non-topical datasets, possibly by capturing stylistic distinctions.
The performance gains of BERT IT:CLUST over BERT IT:MLM suggest that the potential beneﬁts of
BERT IT:CLUST do not consist merely of adapting the model to the characteristics of the target class corpus; rather, it appears that inter-training on top of the clustering results carries additional beneﬁt.
A natural explanation is that the pseudo-labels obtained via the clustering partition are informative with regards to target task labels.
To quantify this intuition, in Figure 3 we depict the Normalized
Mutual Information (NMI) between cluster labels and the target task labels, calculated over the entire training set, versus the gain of using BERT IT:CLUST – reﬂected as the reduction in classiﬁcation error rate between BERT and BERT IT:CLUST – at the extreme case of 64 ﬁne-tuning samples.
Evidently, in datasets where the NMI is around 0 , BERT IT:CLUST does not confer a clear beneﬁt; conversely, where the NMI is relatively high, the performance gains are pronounced as well.
Finally, since the partition obtained via unsupervised clustering is often informative for the target class labels, we examine whether it can be utilized directly, as opposed to as pseudo-labels for BERT inter-training.
To that end, we applied a simple heuristic.
Given a labeling budget, we divide it across all clusters, and use the budget per cluster to reveal the labels of a random sample of examples in that cluster, and then identify each cluster with the most dominant label found in it.
Next, given a new test example, we assign it with the label associated with its nearest cluster.
In Appendix § B and Figure 4 we provide full details, and share the performance of this simple baseline.
While such a rudimentary classiﬁer can be surprisingly effective, especially where the NMI is high and the labeling budget is low, it is generally not on par with BERT IT:CLUST performance.
Taken together, our analyses suggest that in topical datasets, where labeled data is scarce, the pseudolabels generated via simple text clustering techniques can be leveraged by BERT for inter-training, to provide a better starting point of the model towards its ﬁnal ﬁne-tuning for the target task.
R ELATED W ORK
In our work, we transfer the pretrained BERT (Devlin et al., 2018) model to a new domain with little data.
There is a whole ﬁeld studying how to transfer models across domains, namely, transfer learning.
It suggests methods such as pivoting (Ziser & Reichart, 2018), weak supervision (Shnarch et al., 2018), and adversarial transfer (Cao et al., 2018).
In Computer Vision, pretrained models are often learnt by image clustering tasks (Caron et al., 2018).
In Natural Language Processing, however, clustering was mainly used for non-transfer scenarios.
Ball (2019) relies on pretrained embeddings to cluster labeled and unlabeled data.
Then, they ﬁll the missing labels to augment the training data of any classiﬁer.
Clustering itself was improved by combining small amounts of data (Torres & Vaca, 2019; Wang et al., 2016).
Pretrained models improved state-of-the-art in many tasks (Nogueira & Cho, 2019; Ein-Dor et al., 2020) and they are especially needed and useful in low resource and limited labeled data settings (Lacroix et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020a; Chau et al., 2020).
There are many suggestions to improve such models, including larger models (Raffel et al., 2019), changes in the pretraining tasks and architecture (Yang et al., 2019), augmenting pretraining (Geva et al., 2020) or improving the transfer itself (Valipour et al., 2019;
Wang et al., 2019b; Sun et al., 2019;
Xu et al., 2020).
Two ﬁndings on pretraining support our hypothesis on the intermediate task, namely, classiﬁcation surpass MLM.
Some pretraining tasks are better than others (Lan et al., 2020; Raffel et al., 2019) and supervised classiﬁcation as additional pre-training improves performance (Lv et al., 2020;
Wang et al., 2019a;
Pruksachatkun et al., 2020).
All these works aim to improve the performance upon transfer, making it more suitable for any new domain.
In contrast, we focus on the improvement given the domain.
With a transferred model, one can further improve performance with domain-speciﬁc information.
For example, utilizing metadata (Melamud et al., 2019), training on weakly-supervised data (Raisi & Huang, 2018) or multitasking on related tasks concurrently (Liu et al., 2019a).
Given no domainspeciﬁc information, it was suggested to further pretrain on unlabeled data from the domain (Whang et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2019;
Sung et al., 2019; Rietzler et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2020; Gururangan et al., 2020).
This, however, is sometimes unhelpful or even hurts results (Pan, 2019).
We replicate this ﬁnding for cases in which labeled data is scarce (see Section § 4).
Transferring a model and retraining with paucity of labels is often termed few shot learning.
Few shot learning is used for many language related tasks such as named entity recognition (Wang et al., 2020b), relation classiﬁcation (Hui et al., 2020) and parsing (Schuster et al., 2019).
There have also been suggestions other than ﬁne-tuning the model.
Koch (2015) suggests to rank the similarity between examples with Siamese networks.
Vinyals et al.
(2016) rely on memory and attention to ﬁnd neighboring examples and Snell et al.
(2017) search for prototypes to compare to.
Ravi &
Larochelle (2017) don’t deﬁne in advance how to compare the examples.
Instead, they meta-learn how to train the few shot learner.
These works addressed the image classiﬁcation domain, but they supply general methods which are used, improved and adapted on language domains (Geng et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2018).
In conclusion, separate successful practices foreshadow our ﬁndings: Clustering drives pre-training on images; supervised classiﬁcation aids pre-training; and training on unlabeled domain examples is helpful with MLM.
D ISCUSSION
We presented a simple approach to improve BERT-based models for topical text classiﬁcation.
Speciﬁcally, we show that inter-training BERT over pseudo-labels generated via unsupervised sIB clustering results in a model that represents a better starting point for the ﬁnal ﬁne-tuning over the target task at hand.
Thus, our analysis suggests that BERT can leverage these pseudo-labels, namely that there exists a beneﬁcial interplay between the proposed inter-training and the ﬁne-tuning stage.
Our results show that this approach yields a consistent signiﬁcant boost in BERT accuracy over topical data when labeled data is scarce.
We opted here for a practically oriented approach, which we do not claim to be optimal.
Rather, the success of this approach suggests various directions for future work.
In particular, several theoretical questions arise, such as what determines the success of the approach in a given dataset; understand the potential synergistic effect of using BOW-based clustering for inter-training BERT representations; could more suitable partitions be acquired by exploiting additional embedding space and/or more clustering techniques; co-training (Blum & Mitchell, 1998) methods, and more.
On the practical side, while in this work we focused on inter-training over 50 clusters for a single epoch, more work is needed to determine how to tune such hyper-parameters.
In addition, one may consider using the labeled data available for ﬁne-tuning as anchors for the intermediate clustering step, which we have not explored here.
Another point to consider is the nature of the inter-training task.
Here, we examined a multi-class setup where BERT is trained to predict one out of n c cluster labels.
Alternatively, one may consider a binary inter-training task, where BERT is trained to determine whether two samples are drawn from the same cluster or not.
Finally, the focus of the present work was on improving BERT performance for text classiﬁcation.
In principle, inter-training BERT over clustering results may be valuable for additional downstream target tasks, that are similar in spirit to standard text classiﬁcation.
Examples include recent work on
Key-Point Analysis (Bar-Haim et al., 2020) and the task of Textual Entailment (Dagan et al., 2013)
The potential value of our approach in these and other cases is left for future work.
A D ATASETS
In this paper we used 10 datasets.
Table 1 provides details about their split into train, dev, and test sets.
For each set its size and the prior of the target class is presented.
Links for downloading the datasets:
Polarity: http://www.cs.cornell.edu/people/pabo/movie-review-data/ .
Subjectivity:
http://www cs cornell edu/people/pabo/ movie-review data/
CFPB
: https://www.consumerfinance.gov/data-research/ consumer-complaints/ .
20 newsgroups: http://qwone.
com/
˜jason
20Newsgroups/
We used the version provided by scikit: https://scikit-learn.org/0.15/ datasets/twenty_newsgroups.html .
AG’s News, DBpedia and Yahoo! answers: We used the version from: https://pathmind.
com/wiki/open-datasets (look for the link Text Classiﬁcation Datasets ).
SMS spam
: http://www.dt.fee.unicamp.br/˜tiago/smsspamcollection/
ISEAR
: https://www.unige.ch/cisa/research/materials-and-online-research/
research-
material/
CoLA:
https://nyu-mll.github.io/CoLA/
B S IB- BASED CLASSIFIER
As described in section 4, we experimented with building a rudimentary classiﬁer that utilizes only the sIB clustering results and the labeling budget.
We estimate the most common label for each cluster by labeling some of its instances, using a given labeling budget.
The budget is distributed among the clusters relative to their size, while ensuring that at least one instance from each of the 50 clusters is labeled.
Then, each cluster is assigned the majority label from its labeled instances.
Test examples are classiﬁed according to the label associated with the nearest cluster.
Results for this setting are depicted in Fig.
Comparing these results to the BERT-based approaches reveals that clustering alone is not sufﬁcient.
C E XAMINING ADDITIONAL CLUSTERING TECHNIQUES
In addition to sIB over BOW (denoted BERT IT:CLUST ), we evaluated three more conﬁgurations for the clustering intermediate task; K-means over GloVe representation, K-means over BERT CLS, and Hartigan’s K-means (Slonim et al., 2013) over GloVe.
For BERT CLS, for each input text we take the representation of the [CLS] token from the last hidden layer of the BERT BASE model.
Results are shown in Fig.
When comparing to sIB, on eight out of ten occasions sIB over BOW outperforms the other clustering conﬁgurations.
In initial trials, sIB was also showing better results as a clustering method, which was the reason we used it rather than K-means as our main intermediate tasks.
Because of the change in quality, there is not enough evidence to say whether sIB is better as a pretraining task due to clusters that are more related to the target task or due to some characteristics of the clusters themselves.
Such different characteristics may arise, for example, from the ways clusters are chosen.
K-means relies on Geometric notions such as distance to cluster while sIB on information theoretic notions.
D T HE EFFECT OF THE NUMBER OF MLM EPOCHS
We tested several options for the number of epochs of intertraining using MLM.
The results in Fig.
6 don’t show a clear choice, although all cases are not consistently improving over the baseline.
We thus chose 30 epochs, as MLM scores seemed somewhat more favourable.
E N ON -BERT BASELINES
The results of the NB BoW , NB GloVe , SVM BoW and SVM GloVe baselines are shown in Figure 7.