Weighted Mutual Learning with Diversity-Driven Model Compression
Anonymous Author(s)
AffiliationAddress email
Abstract
Online distillation attracts attention from the community as it simplifies the traditional two-stage knowledge distillation process into a single stage.
Online distillation collaboratively trains a group of peer models, which are treated as students,and all students gain extra knowledge from each other.
However, memory consumption and diversity among students are two key challenges to the scalabilityand quality of online distillation.
To address the two challenges, this paper presentsa framework called Weighted Mutual Learning with Diversity-Driven Model Compression ( WML ) for online distillation.
First, at the base of a hierarchical structurewhere students share different parts, we leverage the structured network pruning togenerate diversified students with different models sizes, thus also helping reducethe memory requirements.
Second, rather than taking the average of students, thispaper, for the first time, leverages a bi-level formulation to estimate the relativeimportance of students with a close-form, to further boost the effectiveness of thedistillation from each other.
Extensive experiments show the generalization of theproposed framework, which outperforms existing online distillation methods on avariety of deep neural networks.
More interesting, as a byproduct, WML producesa series of students with different model sizes in a single run, which also achievescompetitive results compared with existing channel pruning methods.
Introduction
Deep neural networks (DNNs) have achieved impressive success for a variety of application fields,including computer vision [27, 45], natural language processing [2], time-series analytics [51] andso on [6, 47, 52].
However, the performance of DNNs is heavily dependent on model parameters andcomputations, which hinders its application on intelligent edge systems [20].
To relieve this issue,various techniques have been proposed to design lightweight models, including network pruning[18], network quantization [7] and neural architecture search [42].
Knowledge distillation [25],as a complementary method to further improve the performance of the lightweight models, cantransfer the discriminative ability from a high-capacity yet cumbersome teacher model to a smalland compact student model by encouraging the student to mimic the behavior of the teacher.
Thevanilla knowledge distillation [25], as shown in Figure 1 (a), includes two stages: it first trains thecumbersome teacher model, whose soft logits that contain informative dark knowledge [25] are thentransferred to a compact student model.
As the teacher is fixed during the knowledge transferring, thestudent can only learn from the teacher once it is trained, and the vanilla knowledge distillation is alsocalled offline distillation [15].
To further simplify the distillation process and relieve the restrictionwhen the larger-capacity teacher model is not available, the online distillation framework has beenproposed [4, 63, 64], which simultaneously trains a group of student models (a.k.a. peers) with similarstructures.
As each student can gain extra knowledge from each other, it is also called deep mutuallearning [63], as shown in Figure 1 (b).
Although online distillation conducts the distillation witha one-phase training scheme without pretraining a teacher, it has high memory consumption when
ResBlock
ResBlock ResBlock
Logit Logit
ResNet ResNet
ResBlock ResBlock
ResBlock
Logit4 ResBlock
Logit
Logit Logit
Logit Logit
ResNet
ResNet (a): Vanilla Knowledge Distillation (b): Online Distillation (c): The Proposed
[Figure]
(WML)
[Figure]
jointly training several independent models.
In addition, it is supposed to yield more informativeknowledge when diversity presents among students, while the similar structures in online distillationmay hinder the students from learning more informative knowledge from peers [9, 16].
In order to simultaneously overcome the two aforementioned difficulties, memory consumption anddiversity among peers, this paper proposes a novel framework, called Weighted Mutual Learning with
Diversity-Driven Model Compression ( WML ) for online distillation, as present in Figure 1 (c).
Our
WML considers a hierarchical structure where each peer share different parts, so as reduce the memoryconsumption compared with online distillation.
In addition, we leverage the structured networkpruning to generate diversified peer models under different pruning ratios, which also further reducesthe memory consumption.
On the other hand, simply treating the peers with different capacities to beequally important might neglect the diversity of all peer models, and limit the effectiveness of onlinedistillation when learning from a group of peers with different capacities [9, 16].
In this paper, weformulate the weighted mutual learning based online distillation as a bilevel optimization problem,where the inner loop is to learn compact peers with the online distillation and the outer loop is tofind suitable weights to determine a better optimization direction for knowledge distillation froma group of peers.
The weights are optimized by the mirror descent [3, 5], and the hypergradient isanalyzed in a theoretical way with a close-form.
Our formulation can be seen as a dynamic weightingstrategy for online distillation, which adaptively distills knowledge from the peer models to a student.
A summary of our main contributions follows.
• First, this paper proposes a Weighted Mutual Learning with Diversity-Driven Model Com-
pression ( WML ) for online distillation, where the peer models share different parts in a
hierarchical structure and the structured network pruning is leveraged to further generate
diversified peers and reduce the memory consumption.
• Second, we formulate the weighted mutual learning based online distillation as a bilevel
optimization problem, and the hypergradient of optimizing the weights is derived with aclose-form.
The dynamic weighting strategy enables the online distillation to adaptively
determine the importance of each peer in distilling knowledge from a group of peers.
• Third, extensive experiments on several neural networks and three datasets verify the
effectiveness of the proposed framework, which significantly outperforms existing online
distillation and self-distillation methods.
More interesting, as a byproduct, WML can get
a series of pruned student models with different model sizes in a single run, which also
achieves competitive results when compared with existing channel pruning methods.
Related work2.1 Knowledge Distillation
Knowledge Distillation (KD) is the concept [25] that distills knowledge from a larger teacher modelto help the training of a smaller student model, by steering the student’s logits towards teacher’slogits, as shown in Figure 1 (a).
FitNet [43] further extends the feature maps as the learning targetinstead of logits, as shown in Figure 4 (a).
Rather than only learning from a single teacher, manyrecent studies [9, 16] investigate learning from a group of teachers, where the outputs of teachers areusually averaged to guide the student training, while how to effectively integrate different types ofknowledge from multiple teachers is less investigated [9, 16].
The traditional knowledge distillation isalso called offline distillation since the teacher models are first trained before distillation.
Differently,online distillation simultaneously trains a group of student models that can gain extra knowledgefrom each other without a pretrained teacher model, so it is also called the teacher-absent knowledgedistillation.
Deep mutual learning (DML) [63], in Figure 1 (b), is the first proposed online setting forknowledge distillation, which trains multiple peer models in a collaborative way that each model canbe seen as a teacher during others’ training process.
KDCL [16] further ensembles the output of allstudents as the teacher knowledge in the online distillation setting since the ensemble is supposed toyield better generalization ability than a single model [1].
To further reduce the training requirements,several recent works [64] enforce all students to share the same early blocks while equipped withindividual auxiliary head branches, shown in Figure 4 (b).
Although this paradigm can relieve theheavy memory consumption in online distillation, it suffers from the drawback of diversity as allpeers share the same backbone and with a similar structure.
Differently, Song and Chai [46] proposeda hierarchical structure so that the peers can share different parts in the early blocks, as show in4 (d).
Self-distillation is another recently-proposed distillation paradigm, which can be regardedas a special case of online distillation [15, 54, 59], shown in 4 (c).
Specifically, [59] leverages theknowledge from the deeper layers to guide the training for the shallow sections in the backbone.
Inthis paper, we consider a hierarchical structure [46] that each peer shares different parts and gainsweighted knowledge from other peers instead of the average ensemble.
Different from self-distillationthat reduces the “depth” to get peers, this paper leverage the channel pruning to “slim” models toget diversified peers.
More descriptions of the difference between the proposed framework and theexisting distillation frameworks are also described in Appendix B.
2.2 Network Pruning
Network pruning is an effective way to compress overparameterized neural networks by removingparameters with minimal performance degradation [55].
Based on the granularity, network pruningcan be divided into two types: unstructured and structured pruning, where the former individuallyremoves parameters in a network while the latter removes entire filters, channels, or even layers [39].
Although the unstructured pruning can mask most parameters in a network without performancedrop [12], it requires specific hardware or software to accelerate the sparse network’s inferencetime [10, 19].
Differently, structured pruning preserves the structural regularity and can acceleratenetwork on commodity hardware platforms [22, 32].
In this paper, we consider structured pruning forgeneric applications.
Next, the network pruning can happen after training vs. before training (a.k.a.at initialization) [48].
Most conventional pruning methods identify the redundant weights that areremoved with least degrading the performance of the trained model.
In contrast, recent works showthat the randomly initialized neural network can be pruned without incurring any training [30], where
SNIP [29], GraSP [49], and SynFlow [48] are three well-known metrics for the unstructured pruningat initialization.
[39] further extends these metrics for structured pruning through summing scores ofall parameters θ in a filter to determine its importance.
In this paper, we extend SNIP to determinethe pruning ratio for each layer at initialization as [39] demonstrates it is the most effective amongthe three to determine the filter importance for channel pruning at initialization.
Methodology
This section describes our Weighted Mutual Learning with Diversity-Driven Model Compression( WML ) framework for online distillation, which consists of three main parts: the overall structureand the optimization for learning a group of peer models, the pruning approach to get a series ofpeers with different model sizes, and a bi-level formulation based weighted mutual learning.
3.1 Overview Structure and Loss Function
Figure 1 (c) depicts the overall structure of the proposed WML framework, where we take ResNet-32,which is divided into three sections in terms of depth, as an example for easy understanding.
Differentfrom the most commonly-used auxiliary heads [64] that all peer models share the same part, weconsider a hierarchical structure [46] where each peer model shares different parts.
The framework issimilar to the binary tree, where the branches at the same levels are copies of each other, and eachpath is considered as a peer model.
In addition, we further prune each block in WML with differentratios to further enhance the diversity among peer models and also reduce the memory consumption.
Different from the vanilla knowledge distillation, which requires a much larger pretrained model asthe teacher, the online distillation directly learns from each other or the ensembles of students [1].
Inthis paper, we consider the linear combination of knowledge from all peer models, and the weight ofeach peer model is determined by a bi-level formulation which will be discussed in Sec.
This paper focuses on the multi-class classification problems, and X = { x n } Nn =1 is the trainingimages with N samples, Y = {
y n } Nn =1 is the corresponding labels.
The output logit for i-th peermodel is represented as z i , and its corresponding cross entropy loss is L CE which is computed withthe
z i and labels Y .
The overall loss to train the whole framework containing M peers is defined as:
[Equation]
where ω i indicates the importance of the i-th peer model and α is the hyperparameter to balance thesupervision from labels and teachers.
(cid:80)
Mj
=1 ω j KL
( z i , z j ) is the weighted knowledge from peers,which is one of the main differences between our WML and DML [63] in loss function, where DMLconsiders each peer equally important in distillation.
Another alternative distillation strategy is tocalculate the KL divergence between each student with the ensemble of all students [16], while [63]found it is not as competitive as directly learning from multiple teachers.
3.2 Diversifying Peer Models with Channel Pruning
Although the hierarchical structure can proportionally reduce the memory consumption as peersshare different blocks to reduce complexity, it still has higher computational cost than traditionalknowledge distillation.
To further reduce the memory requirements, we introduce the channelpruning, the most commonly-used paradigm in structured pruning, to our framework, which alsoencourage the diversity among homogenized peers.
The training-free network pruning has shownits superiority in finding competitive subnetwork with extreme efficiency [29, 48, 49], and [39]has demonstrates SNIP [29] is informative to determine the filter importance for channel pruning.
To be more specific, the relative importance of each filter f based on SNIP can be calculated as:
I f
[Equation]
(cid:12)(cid:12)(cid:12)
[Equation]
L (
[Equation]
i )
∂θ i ⊙ θ i (cid:12)(cid:12)(cid:12) , where (cid:12)(cid:12)(cid:12) ∂
L ( θ i )
∂θ i ⊙ θ i (cid:12)(cid:12)(cid:12) is the SNIP score of parameter θ i .
This value gives an expectation of the impact on loss when the filter is pruned, and filters with smaller
SNIP scores tend to produce weak impact to the loss as compared to the other filters in that layer[39].
In this paper, we further propose a relative importance I l to determine the importance of eachlayer at initialization, which is defined as:
[Equation]
where N l is the number of parameters in layer l .
Given a pruning ratio P of a model, the number ofpruned parameters of each layer is then obtained by p l = P × N × ˜ I
l , where ˜ I l is a normalizationof 1 I l and N is the total number of parameters in the model, and the number of preserved filter iscalculated accordingly which aims to preserve more filters in a more important layer.
In the practicalimplementation, we set a upper bound of the pruned ratio for each layer to avoid layer collapse [49].
In this way, given different P to peers, we can get a series of peer models with different structures.
3.3 Weighted Distillation with Bi-level Formulation
The proposed framework contains M peer models whose outputs can be also combined to generatea powerful ensemble.
However, the generalization capacity of the peer model is different from the model size.
Intuitively, we would expect to raise the importance of model
i with the highest capacityin distillation, i.e., enlarging ω i when peer model i contains most parameters [4, 9].
In this paper, weconsider a dynamic weighting method to determine the importance of each peer, and the weightedmutual learning for online distillation can be formulated as a bilevel optimization problem:
[Equation]
where z ∗ i is obtained by training the whole framework θ with loss function in Eq.(1).
The innerloop is to optimize the whole network θ with the loss defined in Eq.(1), and the outer loop is toadjust the importance ω to make the weighted ensemble match the ground truth so that it reflects theimportance of each peer more precisely.
We define the loss function of inner loop optimization as
L 1 and outer loop as L 2 for simplicity.
Since z ∗ i is the local optimizer in the inner loop, Eq.(3) is acomplicated nested optimization problem [36, 41, 62].
In this paper, we consider a common one-stepunroll learning paradigm [36, 41] that θ ∗ =
θ − γ ∇ θ L 1 with learning rate γ , and the gradient for theouter loop (which is also called as hypergradient) can be formulated as:
[Equation]
However, it is still impractical to calculate the second-order information for a large neural network,e.g., ∂ 2 L 1 ∂ω∂θ .
The finite-difference approximation is usually leveraged to roughly approximate this term[36], while it only considers the first two terms with the Taylor expansion.
In the following theorem,we show that we can exactly calculate ∂ 2 L 1 ∂ω∂θ without approximation in our framework.
Theorem 1 With one-step unroll learning paradigm, the gradeint for ω i in Eq.
(3) is formulated as:
[Equation]
where L a = (1 − α )
L CE ( z i , Y ) + α (cid:80) Mj
=1 KL ( z j , z i ) .
Proof: Based on the definition of L 1 in Eq.(1), we have
[Equation]
Accordingly, ∂ 2 L 1 ∂ω∂θ can be calculate with autograd of L a on θ , and Theorem 1 is then proved.
□
Theorem 1 shows that the second-order term ∂ 2 L 1 ∂ω∂θ can be analyzed in a closed-form without Taylorexpansion approximation when L 1 is with a specific structure.
Now that we can simply get the
[Table] [Table]
gradient to update model parameters θ
and the weights for peers ω with autograd .
Since ω is aprobability simplex that (cid:80) Mi
=1 ω i = 1 , we use the mirror descent to update ω [3, 5].
Algorithm 1outlines
our weighted mutual learning for online distillation.
To be more specific, we first run severalsteps of SGD based on the loss function in Eq.(1) to update model parameters θ with a fixed ω .
Thenwe calculate the gradient of ω i based on Eq.5, and run one step of mirror descent to update ω i that:
[Equation]
where η is the step size, and ω ki is the model importance for i-th peer in k-th step.
We repeat this loopuntil the stopping criterion meets.
Experiments
We perform a series of experiments to evaluate the effectiveness of our framework on seven convolutional neural networks with three image classification datasets.
We first compare our frameworkwith two self-distillation baselines, SD [59]and SCAN [60], and the deeply supervised net (DSN)[28], since they share similar structures as our WML.
Specifically, SD and SCAN add early-exitblocks to the shallow blocks to get peer models, where SCAN contains additional attention modules.
DSN shares a similar structure as SD while without knowledge distillation.
After that, we compared
WML with existing knowledge distillation and online distillation baselines.
More interesting, as abyproduct, we also compared the pruned models produced by our framework with channel pruningbaselines.
A series of ablation studies on dynamic weighting strategy and pruning are also discussed.
4.1 Comparison with Self-Distillation
For fair comparisons in this experiment, we consider 4 peer models in our WML, and also prune peermodels into similar model size as classifiers in self-distillation (SD) [59], where Model1-3 are underdifferent pruning ratios to match Classifier1-3 in self-distillation [59], and Model4 and Classifier4are the same as the baseline network.
More experiments with other pruning ratios for WML can befound in Sec.4.4 and Appendix D. We adapt our framework with several ResNets [21] and also the
MobileNetV2 [44], where results are present in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively.
There are two interesting pieces of evidence showing the advantage of the proposed WML on
CIFAR100.
Firstly , we can observe that WML leads to significant accuracy boosts, where our peer
Model4 outperforms baseline networks with an increment of 2.29% to 3.56% on CIFAR100 for thethree networks.
In addition, our peer models beat the most classifiers in the three self-distillation
[Table]
baselines under similar model sizes, verifying the superiority of the proposed framework over selfdistillation.
Although SCAN achieves better results in Model1 and Model2 for ResNet18, we shouldnotice that SCAN adds additional attention modules over SD, which has more parameters than
SD and our WML.
When the peer model is small, the additional attention module that containsrelatively numerous parameters plays a more important role to improve the performance, while whoseadvantage decreases with the peer models become larger.
Secondly , compared with self-distillationbaselines, which usually encounter significant performance drops in the shallower classifiers, ourpeer models can maintain similar performance with moderate network pruning, especially on thelarge networks.
Taking the Model2 on ResNet50 as an example, whose model size is only 50% asthe baseline, our WML obtains 79.69% accuracy, while SD only achieved 74.21% accuracy.
SCANadded additional attention modules to further improve self-distillation performance, achieving 78.34%accuracy while still worse than our WML.
The above results demonstrate that reducing the widthis a better way to get more competitive peers than the self-distillation paradigm using the shallowmodels.
The comparison results on ImageNet in Table 2 again verify the advantage of the proposedframework, where our WML also outperforms the self-distillation baseline under different modelsizes on the ImageNet dataset.
As shown in the last column of Table 1, which is the ensemble of thefour peer models, our WML outperforms the three baselines by large margins.
This superiority comesfrom two aspects.
One is that our weighted mutual learning can boost all peers’ performance, thusenhancing the ensemble.
The other is that our optimized weights can capture the peers’ importancemore precisely, where more ablation studies can be found in the Appendix D.
4.2 Comparison with Online Distillation
Table 3 compares the proposed WML with several online distillation methods, including RKD[40],
CTSL-MKT[40], DML [63], ONE [64], and self-distillation (SD) [59] on CIFAR10, CIFAR100,and ImageNet.
In these online distillation methods, we consider four peer models as our WML forfair comparisons, and all reported results for baselines can also be found in [61].
We can see thatknowledge distillation and online distillation both outperform the directly trained baseline modelwith a large margin, showing the effectiveness of knowledge distillation.
More interesting, differentfrom traditional knowledge distillation which requires a powerful and large teacher model, onlinedistillation methods can learn more meaningful information from peer models and gain performanceimprovements without a teacher.
These comparison results again verified the effectiveness of theproposed framework, which outperforms most online distillation methods on different datasetsand neural networks.
More comparison with traditional knowledge distillation methods and selfdistillation methods can be found in the Appendix E.
4.3 Comparison with Channel Pruning
In our WML, we leverage channel pruning to generate peer models with different pruning ratiosat initialization.
As a byproduct, we can get a series of pruned models with different FLOPs aspeer models.
In this subsection, we compared the performance of the pruned models generated byour WML with existing channel pruning methods.
For fair comparisons, we conduct experimentswith ResNet32 and ResNet56 on CIFAR10, and MobileNetV2 on ImageNet, which are the commonsetting to compare with existing works [61].
One clear advantage of WML over existing channelpruning methods is that we can get a series of pruned models with different FLOPs in a single run.
Table 7 and 5 compared our pruned peer models with existing baselines on CIFAR10 and ImageNet.
We make the peer models toward { 30% , 40% , 50% } pruning ratios on FLOPs for ResNet32 and
ResNet56 on CIFAR10, and { 30% , 50% , 70% } for MobileNetV2 on ImageNet.
As shown in Table 7, there are two interesting findings.
First , WML obtains higher accuracy thanall channel pruning competitors on CIFAR10 after pruning similar FLOPs.
For example, the model
[Table] [Table]
with 40% pruned FLOPs by WML only has a 0.40% accuracy drop for ResNet32 and even 0.20%performance increase for ResNet56, which both outperform the competitors on CIFAR10.
Second ,our pruned models with moderate pruning achieve better performance than the baseline model whilewith much fewer FLOPs.
This benefit comes from the online distillation as we find the SNIP baselinein [39], which adopts the same pruning method as us while without knowledge distillation, obtainsworse results than those elaborately designed pruning methods.
However, combined with onlinedistillation, our pruned model can achieve better performance than elaborately pruned models.
Astraightforward direction for future work is to apply those competitive pruning methods into ourframework for further performance improvements.
Table 5 presents the comparison results of our pruned peer models on ImageNet, which also achievescompetitive results compared with other SOTA channel pruning methods under different FLOPsconstraints.
For example, when the FLOPs are reduced by about 30%, WML30 only has 0.08% Top1accuracy drop, which is better than MetaPruning’s 0.60%, AMC’s 1.00%, and DMCP’s 0.10% at thesimilar pruning ratio.
A similar advantage can also be found when pruning 50% and 70% FLOPs.
4.4 Ablation Studies
In this section, we first conduct ablation studies to investigate whether the dynamic weighting strategyand peer pruning help improve the performance of online distillation.
Figure 2 only reports the resultson ResNet50, and more experiments on other networks can be found in Appendix D.
Then, we showincreasing the number of peers gradually enhance the performance of the proposed framework.
Figure 2 (a) presents how the performance of Model4 and ensemble change with different pruninglevels.
As shown, when slightly pruning peers (only prune less than 10% parameters for Model1-3),
[Figure] [Figure]
WML can get better results than the unpruned framework in terms of both Model4 and ensembleperformance.
An underline reason is that slightly pruning rarely decreases the performance ofpeer models, while the diversity it brings can further enhance the distillation.
However, when thepruning ratio is too high (the last data point in the Figure 2 (a) prunes more than 70% parametersfor Model1-3),we can see a clear performance drop since the pruning damages the performance of
Model1-3 seriously, which also further affects the distillation for Model4.
Figure 2 (b) presents howthe dynamic weighting strategy works in our WML, where the pruning ratio is set as Sec.4.1.
Asshown, the first data point in Figure 2 (b) indicates that we follow deep mutual learning [63] thatremove the ω in Eq.(1), and the remaining points are with different η to update ω .
We can see aclear performance boost from unweighted distillation to weighted distillation, which verifies theeffectiveness of our dynamic weighting strategy, which is also robust to the step size η .
In Figure 2(c), we prune Model 1-3 with 75%, 55%, and 20% parameters to match with Classifier 1-3 in [59],and the four lines in Figure 2 (c) track the change of weights ω for each peer model.
As shown, theweight of Model4 and Model4 consistently increase since they contains much more parameters andwith better generalization ability.
In contrast, the weights for the other two models both decrease, and
Model1 with the least parameters descents the fastest.
This phenomenon also verifies our weightingstrategy can adaptively adjust the importance of peers in distillation.
The main experiments show good results of the proposed framework with four peers.
We also verifythe superiority of WML with different number of peers in Figure 3.
For M = 2 , we leave one peerunpruned and the other is pruned with 50%, and for M = 4 , 8 , we leave one peer unpruned and theremained peer models are pruned gradually from 30% to 70%.
As show in Figure 3, WML scale wellwith more peers although gain decrease with the number of peers increase.
The phenomenon verifiesthat more knowledge from peers can further enhance the performance of the students.
Conclusion and Future Work
This paper proposes a new framework for online distillation, called Weighted Mutual Learning with
Diversity-Driven Model Compression ( WML ), which introduces the structured network pruningto obtain diversified peer models, and a bi-level formulation is further leveraged to estimate therelative importance of peers in forming a powerful teacher during the online distillation.
The WMLinnovatively combines network pruning and online distillation to enhance performance and compressmodels simultaneously.
Extensive experimental results have verified the proposed framework, whichleads to consistent accuracy improvements on various neural networks and datasets under differentmodel sizes.
This paper considers a simple and efficient training-free channel pruning method to getthe peer models while which is not as competitive as recent training-based channel pruning methods.
Combining more advanced channel pruning methods with online distillation for further performanceand efficiency boost and extending WML to feature distillation or other applications, e.g., objectdetection, natural language processing, and architecture search, are among directions for future work.
A Implementation Details
[Figure]
In this paper, we conducted a series of experiments on several image classification tasks to evaluate the 501 effectiveness of our framework.
There are three types of networks, including ResNet18, ResNet50, and
ResNet101 on CIFAR10, CIFAR100, and ImageNet to compare with self-distillation methods and knowledge 503 distillation baselines; ResNet32 and ResNet56 on CIFAR10 to compare with network pruning baselines; andalso the MobileNetV2 on ImageNet dataset to compare with self-distillation baseline and also network pruning 505 baselines.
CIFAR10 contains 50K training images and 10K test images with 10 classes and CIFAR100 is similarwith CIFAR100 with only has 100 classes.
ImageNet contains over 1.2 million training images and 50K test 507 images with 1000 classes.
We follow the typical data augmentation of these three datasets, where only randomresized cropping and horizontal flipping are applied on CIFAR10 and CIFAR100 to get 32 × 32 images.
In 509 contrast, on ImageNet, we also use the typical random resized crop and horizontal flipping, and the brightness,contrast, saturation data augmentation, to get 224 × 224 images.
In the CIFAR experiments, the number of initial filters is set as 64 for ResNet18, ResNet50, and ResNet101, 512 while 16 for ResNet32 and ResNet56.
The SGD optimizer is selected with a momentum of 0.9 and a weightdecay of 0.0005.
The batch size is set at 128 and the model is trained with 200 epochs.
For the MobileNet on 514 ImageNet, the model is also trained by SGD with 90 epochs with 256 batch size.
Following [59], we set α 0.1during the knowledge distillation in all experiments.
The default step size η to update ω is also set as 0.1.
In our WML, we need to specify the pruning ratio to get peer models, where we default pruned peer models to 517 be of similar size as Classifiers in self-distillation [59] for fair comparison in the main experiments.
For example,the Classifier1-4 contain { 32 . 2% , 53 . 5% , 76 . 9% , 100% } parameters as the baseline ResNet50, so we set thepruning ratio as P = { 0 . 7 , 0 .
5 , 0 . 3 , 0 } in our WML in the main experiments to get four peer models.
In ourchannel pruning, we leverage SNIP at initialization to get the relative importance of each layer in Eq.(2), and thenumber of to be pruned parameters in each layer is calculated as p l = P × N × ˜ I l , where ˜ I l is a normalization 522 of
I l and N is the total number of parameters in the model.
However, when the pruning ratio is too high,e.g., when P is larger than 0.8, the supposed pruned parameter p l may be larger than N l (the total number of 524 parameters in this layer), which will result in layer collapse [49].
In our practical implementation, we set anupper-bounded ratio P up =0.9 that only maximal 90% parameters in a layer can be pruned.
B Ablation Study on the Structure
The Figure 1 and Figure 4 summarized existing popular paradigm of knowledge distillation.
Sec. 2 has detailed 528 described the difference between the proposed framework and the existing works.
Apart from the self-distillation,the peers in On-the-fly Native Ensemble (ONE) [64] and collaborative learning (CL) [46] also partially share 530 blocks.
In this paper, each head in ONE contains the last block and fully-connected layer in the ResNet, and CLshare the same hierarchy structure as our WML.
From the structure perspective, the main difference between 532 ONE and our WML is that the backbone of ONE is the same for all peers, which means that it is impossible to
[Table]
[Figure]
prune peers under different ratios.
Although collaborative learning also considers the same hierarchy structure as 534 us, its peers are with the same structure, while WML introduces channel pruning to diversify the structures ofpeers.
From the optimization perspective, the primary difference between our WML with all existing frameworks 536 is that we propose a novel weighted mutual learning strategy in which each peer dynamically learns from theremaining peers, while the average ensemble is the most popular paradigm to get the knowledge source during the 538 distillation for existing works.
Figure 4 (a) presents another paradigm in distillation, feature distillation, whichextends the intermediate feature map as the learning target instead of logits, so as steer the student’s intermediate 540 feature map towards the teacher rather than only the output logits.
Recent work on feature distillation [61]verified the superiority of this learning paradigm.
In this paper, we focus on knowledge distillation and leave 542 feature distillation to our future work.
This section conducts experiments to show the superiority of our hierarchy structure with pruning to diversify 544 the peers.
In this section, we consider four peers and replace the weighted mutual learning with the averageensemble for distillation, as denoted by WML-P, where all peers are under { 0 . 3 , 0 . 2 , 0 . 1 , 0 } pruning ratio.
Different from CL, which is additionally equipped with a backpropagation rescaling, we empirically found that 547 it could only bring ignorable improvements to our hierarchy structure with pruning.
In this way, we dismiss thisoperator in WML-P. Table 6 presents the reproduced comparison between WML-P and two online distillation 549 competitors, ONE and CL, under the same experimental settings.
As shown, we can find that WML-P and
CL both outperform ONE.
One potential reason is that the frameworks of WML-P and CL both contain more 551 parameters than ONE, which further enhance the discriminative ability of the online distillation framework.
More interesting, we found that our WML-P, which is also the pruned version of CL with fewer parameters, can 553 achieve slightly better results, especially in larger networks, e.g., ResNet101.
One potential reason is that thoselarger networks can maintain their discriminative ability under slight pruning.
In contrast, the diversity that the 555 pruning brings can further enhance the ensemble performance so as to improve the distillation.
C Discussion on the Generalization of Weighted Ensemble
One of the key contributions of this paper is that we proposed weighted mutual learning, which adaptively 558 distills knowledge from the peer models to a student by assigning different weights to different peers underdifferent capacities.
To further verify the effectiveness and generalization of the proposed weighted mutual 560 learning, we conduct a series of experiments to compare WML-P and WML-S, where WML-P only leveragesthe pruning to diversify the peers without the weighted mutual learning.
For fair comparison, in this section,
[Figure] [Figure]
we only slightly prune the neural networks, e
[Figure]
g. with { 0 . 3 ,
[Figure]
1 , 0 } pruning ratio for four peers in WML-Pand WML-S (the pruning ratio here is smaller than the pruning ration in the maintext), and Table 6 presents 564 the comparison results.
Compared with results in Table 1, which pruned much more parameter, we can findthat WML-S can obtain higher accuracy in Table 6, especially for small networks, e.g. ResNet18.
A similar 566 finding can be found in the next section on the ablation study on pruning ratio.
As shown in Table 6, WML-Sgains performance improvements over WML-P for all peers in ResNet18 from 0.35% to 1.49%, and increase the 568 ensemble performance by 2.96%.
Similar results can also be found in larger neural networks, e.g., ResNet50 and
ResNet101.
However, we can see a decrease in the performance gains when network becomes larger, which 570 shares a similar trend as the number of heads.
A similar finding can be found in the analysis of η .
In the following, we further investigate whether the learned weights capture the importance of each peer by 572 comparing the optimization trajectory of average-ensemble and weighted-ensemble.
In this experiment, weconsider a similar experimental setting to our main experiments, so making the peers with the identical model 574 sizes as the self-distillation.
As shown in Figure 5, we can find that leveraging the learned weight can furtherenhance the performance of the ensemble by tuning the importance of each peer.
This advantage is more obvious 576 in the small ResNet18.
The above phenomenons imply that tuning the weights is another option to improve thediscriminative ability of the ensemble, especially when each peer model is not powerful enough.
D More Ablation Study on Peer Pruning and Dynamic Weighting Strategy
This section gives the complementary results of the ablation study on the dynamic weighting strategy and 580 peer pruning.
Figure 2 in the Sec.4.4 only reports the results on ResNet50, and we release more results of
ResNet18 and ResNet101 in Figure 6 and 7.
Interesting, we can find a controversial phenomenon in ResNet18 582 and ResNet101 on the pruning ratio, as shown in Figure 6 (a) and Figure 7 (a), where we can see a sharp dropon performance with the higher pruning ratio in ResNet18 while ResNet101 can maintain or even improve 584 the performance with the pruning.
The potential reason is that the ResNet101 is much larger than Resnet18,and it also contains much more redundant parameters that pruning 30% parameters will not deteriorate its 586 discriminative ability.
On the contrary, pruning 30% parameters clearly affect the discriminative ability of
ResNet18 so as deteriorate the performance.
In addition, for a larger neural network, our WML is more robust to 588 the η , as shown in Figure 6 (b) and Figure 7 (b).
In Figure 6 (c) and Figure 7 (c), we also prune Model 1-4 with different pruning ratio, e.g., { 0 . 7 , 0 . 45 , 0 .
25 , 0 }for ResNet18 and { 0 . 9 , 0 . 75 , 0 .
1 , 0 } for ResNet101, and the four lines in each figure track the change of weights 591 ω for each peer model in ResNet18 and ResNet101, respectively.
As shown, the weights of Model4 and Model3consistently increase since they contain much more parameters and with better generalization ability in ResNet18 593 and ResNet101.
In contrast, the weights for the other two models both decrease.
Results in ResNet18 are verysimilar to ResNet50, while ResNet101 presents a bit different results.
We can find that Model3 gets the highest 595 weight in ResNet101, while Model4 gets the highest weight for both ResNet18 and ResNet50, which contains
[Table] [Table]
the most parameters.
This interesting phenomenon also suggests that moderate pruning of an overparameterized 597 model could hardly affect its performance [Table] but further improve its discriminative ability.
In addition
[Table]
we also investigate the effects of channel pruning methods.
In Table 7, we consider another two 599 training-free network pruning methods, SynFlow [48] and GraSP [49], for the channel pruning in our WML,called as WML_SynFlow and WML_GraSP, respectively.
The two pruning approaches are similar with SNIP,with only replace the parameter score for θ i in to ∂
R SF ∂θ i ⊙ θ
i and − ( H ∂ L ∂θ i ) ⊙ θ
i , where H is Hessian matrixand R SF is obtained by setting the input as the all-ones vector 1 and applying an element-wise absolute on 603 all network parameters θ .
Similarly, we also set a upper bound of the pruned ratio for each layer to avoidlayer collapse as WML_SNIP.
Table 7 compares the three different training-free pruning approaches in channel 605 pruning for our WML, where we set the pruning ratio as about 40%.
As shown, we find that WML_SynFlowachieves similar results as our WML_SNIP for both ResNet32 and ResNet56.
In contrast, GraSP obtains much 607 worse results, showing that an appropriate channel pruning method is also important to enhance the performanceof our WML.
E More Comparison with Knowledge Distillation
In this subsection, we compare our WML with several recent knowledge distillation methods, including 611 FitNet[43], AT[58], and LS-GDFD[11], and more recent self-distillation approaches, including FRSKD[26],
CS-KD[57], TESKD [33],DDGSD[53], BAKE[13], and MUSE[14].
We conduct comparison experiments on 613 CIFAR100 with ResNet18 and ResNet34, respectively.
We report the results from the cited papers and [33].
We can see that our proposed WML outperforms these knowledge distillation methods, especially those recent 615 self-distillation approaches with large margins, again verifying the effectiveness of our weighted mutual learningparadigm.