QueryPose: Sparse Multi-Person Pose Regression via Spatial-Aware Part-Level Query
Paper ID
Abstract
We propose a sparse end-to-end multi-person pose regression framework, termed
QueryPose, which can directly predict multi-person keypoint sequences from theinput image.
The existing end-to-end methods rely on dense representations topreserve the spatial detail and structure for precise keypoint localization.
However,the dense paradigm introduces complex and redundant post-processes during inference.
In our framework, each human instance is encoded by several learnablespatial-aware part-level queries associated with an instance-level query.
First, wepropose the Spatial Part Embedding Generation Module (SPEGM) that considersthe local spatial attention mechanism to generate several spatial-sensitive partembeddings, which contain spatial details and structural information for enhancingthe part-level queries.
Second, we introduce the Selective Iteration Module (SIM)to adaptively update the sparse part-level queries via the generated spatial-sensitivepart embeddings stage-by-stage.
Based on the two proposed modules, the part-levelqueries are able to fully encode the spatial details and structural information forprecise keypoint regression.
With the bipartite matching, QueryPose avoids thehand-designed post-processes.
Without bells and whistles, QueryPose surpasses allexisting dense end-to-end methods with 73.6 AP on MS COCO mini-val set and72.7 AP on CrowdPose test set.
Code will be released.
Introduction
Multi-person pose estimation (MPPE) aims to locate all person keypoints from the input image,which is a fundamental yet challenging task in computer vision.
With the prevalence of deep learningtechniques [1, 2, 3], MPPE has achieved remarkable progress and played an important role in manyother vision tasks, such as activity recognition [4, 5, 6, 7] and pose tracking [8, 9].
In general, the existing multi-person pose estimation solutions can be summarized as top-down andbottom-up paradigms.
The top-down strategy [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15] uses the human detector topredict person boxes and then leverages the single-person pose estimation model to localize thekeypoints on each cropped human image.
The two independent models lead to the non-end-to-endpipeline, or called two-stage pipeline.
Moreover, the human detector involves extra memory as wellas computational cost.
The bottom-up strategy [16, 17, 18, 19] uses the keypoint heatmap to locate allperson keypoints at first and then assigns them to individuals via heuristic grouping process, as shownin Figure 1(a).
Some researches attempt to leverage densely pixel-wise regression [20, 21, 22, 23, 24],as shown in Figure 1(b), which predicts the center heatmap and pixel-wise keypoint offset in parallel.
It can be regarded as a special case of the bottom-up paradigm.
Both of them can achieve end-to-endoptimization thus are more efficient than the two-stage pipeline.
However, in order to maintainthe local details and spatial information, ones leverage the dense representations (e.g., keypoint orcenter heatmap).
The dense manner requires the hand-crafted post-processes to suppress duplicatepredictions or perform keypoint grouping during inference.
The post-processes are non-differentiableand always involve many hand-designed parameters to tune.
In this paper, we aim to build a sparseend-to-end MPPE solution to eliminate the complex and redundant post-processes.
[Figure]
Recently, query-based paradigm [25, 26, 27, 28, 29] has attracted much attention due to its purelysparse and end-to-end differentiable training/inference pipeline.
The variants [29, 30, 28] are employed for several computer vision tasks and achieve promising performance.
The success inspiresus to construct a sparse end-to-end MPPE method via the learnable query.
Nevertheless, how toeffectively apply the query-based paradigm to the MPPE task is rarely explored.
Intuitively, keypointsare similar to the corner points of the bounding box, and the instance-level object query can be usedto regress
the keypoint coordinates.
However, we observe that it only achieves inferior performance.
We argue that the instance-level query loses the local details and destroys the spatial structure, whichare both critical for pose estimation task.
Towards the aforementioned issue, we introduce the learnable part-level queries to learn spatialaware features and further construct a sparse end-to-end multi-person pose regression framework,termed QueryPose.
First, we divide the human region into several local parts and present the Spatial
Part Embedding Generation Module (SPEGM), which uses the local spatial attention mechanismto generate the spatial-sensitive part embeddings for enhancing part-level queries.
Second, weintroduce the Selective Iteration Module (SIM) to adaptively update the part-level queries via thegenerated spatial-sensitive part embeddings stage-by-stage.
The local details and structural featuresin the learnable part-level queries will be enhanced
, and the noise will be filtered.
Based on the
bipartite matching, we eliminate all hand-crafted post-processes and directly output the multi-person
keypoint coordinate sequences for the input image.
Without bells and whistles, our sparse framework
outperforms all dense end-to-end methods on MS COCO [31] and CrowdPose [32].
The main contributions can be summarized into three aspects as follows:
• We propose to leverage the sparse learnable spatial-aware part queries to encode local spatialfeatures.
Specifically, we present the Spatial Part Embedding Generation Module (SPEGM)to generate the spatial-sensitive part embeddings via the local spatial attention mechanism,which preserves the local spatial features for enhancing the part-level queries.
• We further introduce the Selective Iteration Module (SIM) to adaptively update the learnable
part-level queries by using the newly generated spatial-sensitive part embedding stage-by-
stage.
Accordingly, the encoded local details and spatial structure are strengthened, and the
distractive information is ignored.
• With two proposed modules and one-to-one bipartite matching, we construct a purely
sparse query-based MPPE framework, termed QueryPose, which removes the complex
post-processes and directly outputs the multi-person keypoint coordinates.
QueryPoseachieves state-of-the-art performance and significantly surpasses all existing end-to-endMPPE methods on both MS COCO and CrowdPose.
Related Work
In this section, we review three relevant parts to our method including top-down paradigm, bottom-upparadigm and query-based paradigm.
Top-down paradigm.
The top-down paradigm conducts single-person pose estimation on eachcropped human image.
Most top-down methods [13, 12, 10, 8] concentrate on learning the reliable [Figure]
PoseROIAlign
SpatialAttention ...
[Figure]
high-quality feature representations for predicting keypoint heatmap.
A few of researches [33, 34] tryto improve the post-process and some others [35, 36] attempt to exploit regression methods to bypassthe keypoint heatmap.
However, top-down methods consist of the independent human detector andsingle-person pose estimation model, leading to the non-end-to-end optimization pipeline.
Bottom-up paradigm.
The bottom-up paradigm [37, 18, 38, 16, 39] formulates this task as per-pixelkeypoint positioning and grouping process.
Moreover, densely pixel-wise regression [20, 21, 22, 23,24, 40, 41] can be considered a special case of the bottom-up paradigm.
One decomposes the MPPEinto pixel-wise center localization and keypoint offset regression.
However, both of them leveragethe dense representations, thus introducing the non-differentiable post-processes during inference.
Query-based paradigm.
The query-based paradigm [26, 27, 25, 28, 30, 29, 14] uses the learnableobject query and one-to-one label assignment to achieve the purely sparse pipeline, which is appliedto several vision tasks (e.g., object detection [26, 27, 25] and segmentation [28, 30, 29]).
However,rare research employs the query-based paradigm for MPPE in end-to-end manner.
PRTR [14] triviallyuses the keypoint query with multi-head self-attention to probe the image feature, while losing thespatial local structural information, resulting in inferior performance.
In our framework, we proposeto leverage several spatial-aware part-level queries to learn local details and spatial structures.
Method3.1 Overall Architecture
The overall framework is shown in Figure 2.
The network is divided into three parts, includingbackbone, box decoder and keypoint decoder.
The keypoint decoder consists of the proposed Spatial
Part Embedding Generation Module and Selective Information Module.
The box decoder andkeypoint decoder are repeated S times to build the cascade framework.
S is set to 6 by default,following previous methods [26, 27].
We only take stage s as example for illustration.
Backbone.
Given an input image I , we extract the multiple level features P 2 ∼ P 5 via the featurepyramid network built upon the backbone, where P l indicates the feature with 1 / 2 l resolution of inputand 256 channels.
We feed multi-level features P 2 ∼ P 5 to box decoder and only high-resolution P 2to keypoint decoder.
Box decoder.
The design follows Sparse R-CNN [27], we adopt a small set of learnable proposalboxes B ∈ R N × 4 as dynamic anchors to provide the prior information of object position.
Each proposal box corresponds to a learnable instance-level query.
Concretely, we utilize the 7 × 7 RoIAlignoperation to extract features ROI box according to the learnable boxes B .
The extract features areone-to-one correspondence with learnable instance-level queries Q I ∈ R N × d .
After exploring theself-attention across Q I by multi-head self-attention (MHSA) layer, we aggregate the extractedfeature ROI box into instance-level query via the dynamic channel MLP ( DyMLP channel in Eq. 1),and feed the enhanced instance-level query into regression head ( Head box in Eq. 1) to predict theoffset for refining the input proposal box.
The above process is summarized as follows:
[Equation]
Keypoint decoder.
After the above process, the instance-level query Q I has encoded the informationof the human instance, thus can be used to regress the keypoints.
However, it only obtains unsatisfactory performance.
We argue that the keypoint localization requires more inherent spatial structureand local details than box regression, while Q I loses both spatial structure and local details.
In the light of this, we present to utilize several learnable spatial-aware part-level queries Q P to encodethe human pose with spatial structure and local details maintained.
Q P = { Q P n | Q P n ∈ R M × d p } Nn =1 ,where n refers to n -th instance and M is the number of part-level query for each instance.
First, byusing the refined boxes, we perform the 14 × 14 RoIAlign operation only on high-resolution feature P 2to extract the more detailed features ROI pose , which are more suitable for pose estimation.
Second,the proposed Spatial Part Embedding Generation Module (SPEGM) is applied for producing thespatial-sensitive part embeddings E
[Equation]
| E P n ∈ R M × d p } Nn =1 via the local spatial attentionmechanism.
Each spatial-sensitive part embedding focuses on the specific local part.
Thus thelocal spatial details and structural information can be preserved.
Third, we utilize the Selective
Iteration Module (SIM) to adaptively update the learnable spatial-aware part-level queries via thespatial-sensitive part embeddings generated in the current stage.
Consequently, the local details andspatial structure information of part-level queries are enhanced, and the noise is filtered.
Then, thespatial-aware part queries are sent into the multi-head self-attention (denoted as MHSA) layer toexplore the spatial relationships across the different local parts.
Accordingly, the global structure ofeach person instance is also encoded into the part-level queries.
Finally, we leverage the non-sharedlinear layers (denoted as Linear in Eq. 2) to regress the keypoint coordinates respectively.
Thecomputing procedure of keypoint decoder can be formulated as follows:
[Equation]
As shown in Figure 3(b), the instance-level query Q I is iterated across the box decoder and keypointdecoder serially, and the part-level queries Q p are iterated across keypoint decoder.
The box decoderof next stage adopts the predicted box of current stage as proposal box.
The keypoint coordinates arepredicted independently for each stage.
3.2 Spatial Part Embedding Generation Module
Considering that the instance-level query Q I loses the local details and spatial structure informationcompared with dense representations, we propose the Spatial Part Embedding Generation Moduleto generate the spatial-sensitive part embeddings E p , which are able to maintain more spatial localfeatures conducive to keypoint localization.
The spatial-sensitive part embeddings E p are used toenhance the learnable spatial-aware part-level queries.
Given the single ROI feature ROI pose ∈ R d × H × W as example
, We firstly use the stacked 3 × 3convolutional layer and a deconvolutional layer to recover the higher resolution representation
ROI pose ∈ R d × 2 H × 2 W .
Afterward, we take the spatial attention into consideration on the extracted
ROI features ROI pose .
In particular, we utilize a 3 × 3 convolutional layer to squeeze the featuresalong the channel dimension and produce the M -channels attention map A ∈ R M × 2 H × 2 W .
Eachchannel corresponds to a spatial attention map for specific local parts, M refers to the number of localparts.
We flatten the attention map A along the spatial dimension and normalize the sum of attentionweight to 1.0 via the softmax function.
Then, by manipulating the spatial attention maps of thespecific local parts, we assemble the spatial feature to generate M spatial-sensitive part embeddings.
The process is formulated as: E P =
Linear ( A ⊗
ROI Tpose ) ∈ R M × d p , where ⊗ indicates dot [Figure] product.
The spatial-sensitive part embeddings focus on the different local parts, as shown in Figure5.
Thus the local details and structural information are sufficiently preserved compared with only asingle instance-level query.
3.3 Selective Iteration Module
For enabling the learnable part-level queries Q P to learn the spatial-aware features, we proposethe Spatial Part Embedding Generation Module (SPEGM) to generate several spatial-sensitive partembeddings E p .
However, we consider that due to the inaccurate bounding boxes and inconsistentoptimization goals in the early stage, the spatial-sensitive part embeddings contain disturbanceinformation.
Motivated by this, we present the Selective Iteration Module to adaptively update andrefine the part-level queries Q P via the spatial-sensitive part embeddings E p .
First, we directly sum the learnable part-level queries Q s − 1 P ∈ R M
×
d p output from previous stageand the spatial-sensitive part embeddings E sP ∈ R M × d p generated in current stage.
Second, weutilize a Multi-Layer Perceptron together with sigmoid operation to output two weight vectors W s E Pand W s − 1 Q P , which serve as two gates to control the contributions of the E sP and Q s − 1 P .
Finally, Weleverage the weighted summation to fuse the E sP and Q s − 1 P via W s E P and W s − 1 Q P .
The above processis formulated as:
[Equation]
By using the Selective Iteration Module, the informative local details and spatial structure in part-levelqueries Q P will be refined, and the noise will be ignored.
3.4 Training and Testing Details
Training.
In our framework, we leverage the instance-level query Q I to conduct the binary classification and bounding box regression, then use several spatial-aware part-level queries Q p toregress corresponding keypoints.
The ground truth of each human instance contains the class label,box corners and keypoints coordinates, which are denoted as C , {( x box 1 , y box 1 ), ( x box 2 , y box 2 )}, and{ ( x kpk , y kpk ) }
Kk =1 respectively.
Following previous methods [26, 27], we adopt bipartite matchingto perform one-to-one label assignment.
The set-based loss function for instance-wise query isformulated as: L Q I = λ cls ∗ L cls + λ L 1 ∗ L L 1 + λ giou ∗ L giou , where L cls refers to focal loss toperform binary classfication, L L 1 and L giou denote the L1 loss and generalized IoU loss between thepredicted box and the corresponding label.
the loss weight λ cls , λ L 1 , λ giou are set to 2.0, 5.0 and 2.0respectively.
For keypoint regression, we leverage normalizing flow to capture the latent keypoint distribution
P θ,ϕ ( x | ROI pose ) , and model the keypoint regression loss from the perspective of maximum likelihood estimation following RLE [36].
The density distribution P θ,ϕ ( x | ROI pose ) reflects the probability of the keypoint annotation at the position x in ROI pose , where θ and ϕ are the trainableparameters of our regression network and flow model respectively.
For easier optimization, the flowmodel F ϕ is used to map the simple distribution to deformed one P ϕ ( ¯x ) .
Our regression networkoutputs two values ˆ µ and ˆ σ for shifting and rescaling the distribution P ϕ ( ¯x ) , which is formulated asx = ¯x ∗ ˆ σ + ˆ µ .
The process enables the network to learn how the output deviates from annotations.
The different spatial-aware part queries are sent into the non-shared fully-connected layers to regressˆ µ ∈ R K × 2 and ˆ σ ∈ R K × 2 , where ˆ µ is the corresponding prediction of µ g = { ( x kpk , y kpk ) }
Kk =1 .
Basedon the matched pairs, the set-based keypoint regression loss for the spatial-aware part-level queries isformulated as:
[Equation]
It is noteworthy that µ g is normalized by the height and width of the predicted bounding box andshifted to (-0.5, 0.5) for stabilizing the training process.
The keypoint out of the predicted boundingbox will be masked.
The total loss of our framework can be written as: L total =
L Q I + L Q P .
Testing.
ˆ σ can be regarded as the uncertainty score of keypoint localization, thus we define the finalpose score as 1 K (cid:80)
Kk
=1 (1 − ˆ σ k ) ∗ ¯ C , where ¯ C is the predicted instance score.
During inference, ourmethod eliminates hand-crafted post-procedures (e.g., keypoint NMS, center NMS and grouping)and only need to select the pose candidates with high pose score.
Experiments and Analysis
In this section, we briefly illustrate the dataset, evaluation metric as well as implementation details insubsection 4.1.
Next, we delve into the proposed modules and conduct the comprehensive ablationexperiments to verify the effectiveness in subsection 4.2.
Finally, we compare QueryPose with theprevious methods on both MS COCO and CrowdPose in subsection 4.3.
4.1 Experimental Setup
Dataset.
MS COCO [31] is a large-scale 2D human pose benchmark, which is split into train2017,mini-val, test-dev2017 sets.
We train our model on COCO train2017 set with 57k images, conductthe evaluation on the mini-val set with 5k images and test-dev2017 set with 20K images respectively.
CrowdPose [32] contains 20,000 images with 80,000 annotated human instances.
The train, validationand test set are partitioned in proportional to 5:1:4.
Evaluation Metric.
We leverage average precision and average recall based on different Object
Keypoint Similarity (OKS) [31] thresholds to evaluate performance.
For COCO dataset, AP M and
AP L indicate AP over medium and large-sized instances respectively.
For CrowdPose, AP E , AP M ,
AP H refer to AP scores over easy, medium and hard instances according to dataset annotations.
[Table]
Implementation Details.
During training,we use random horizontal flip and randomcrop with probability 0.5 to augment thetraining samples.
The input images are randomly resized, and the short side is randomly sampled from 480 to 800 pixels withthe aspect ratio kept.
The number of thesparse instance-level query is set to 100.
The model is trained by using AdamW [42]optimizer with a mini-batch size of 16 (2per GPU) on eight Tesla A100 GPUs.
Theinitial learning rate is linearly scaled to 2.5e5 and dropped 10 × after 220k, 260k iterations, and terminated at 280k iterations (2 ×training schedule).
The learning rate of theflow model is 10 × of the regression model.
All codes are implemented based on Detectron2 [43].
During inference, we keep the aspect ratio and resize the short side of the images to 800 pixels.
4.2 Ablation Study
We conduct the ablative studies on MS COCO mini-val set to explore the contributions of the proposedcomponents and delve into the superiority of its design.
All experiments adopt ResNet-50-FPN and1 × training scheme.
We first define the baseline as employing the stacked 3 × 3 conv-relu + globalaverage pooling on ROI pose to directly regress keypoint coordinates.
[Table] [Table] [Table] [Table]
[Table] [Table]
[Table] [Table]
[Table]
Analysis of the part-level query.
As shown in Table 1, to verify the superiority of the part-levelquery over the instance-level query, We leverage four different interaction methods with imagefeature ROI pose : (1) MHSA refers to multi-head self-attention layer.
(2) DyMLP channel indicatesthe dynamic MLP acting on the channel dimension, where the weight of MLP is generated by thecorresponding query.
(3) DyMLP spatial refers to the dynamic MLP acting on the spatial dimension.
pipeline of the instance-level query.
[Figure]
Figure 3(
[Figure]
[Figure]
(4) Spatial Attn.
denotes using global spatial attention togenerate the instance embedding to enhance the instancelevel query.
We observe that part-level query can consistently achieve the notable improvements than instance-levelquery in case of utilizing the different ways to interact withthe image features ROI pose .
This phenomenon proves thatpart-level query is able to preserve more details of localarea than instance-level query.
Analysis of Spatial Part Embedding Generation Module.
To study the superiority of the Spatial
Part Embedding Generation Module (SPEGM), we compare the performance with different interactionmethods in Table 1.
Notably, using the SPEGM to generate spatial-sensitive part embeddings forboosting the learnable part-level queries achieves the superior performance (63.8 AP) than the otherinteraction ways.
Furthermore, SPEGM improves the baseline by 4.6 AP as reported in Table 2(b).
We suggest that the local spatial attention is able to provide the spatial prior information and focus onthe informative local regions, as shown in Figure 5.
Furthermore, compared with dynamic MLP withover 10M parameters, SPEGM is more effective and efficient with only 1.1M parameters.
Analysis of Selective Iteration Module.
Selective Iteration Module (SIM) is presented to
[Figure]
adaptively update the learnable aware part queries output from the previous stage.
We conduct the controlledexperiments to investigate the superiority of the proposed SIM compared withthe other two iteration methods, including summation and concatenation.
Asreported in Table 2(a), the Selective Iteration Module achieves 64.9 AP and improves the non-iteration structure by 1.
AP.
Moreover, SIM outperforms the summation and concatenation by 0.7 and 0.
AP, respectively.
We consider that the Selective Iteration Module can adaptivelyboost the informative spatial details andfilter the noise.
Analysis of the dimension for the part-level query.
The part-level queries are used to encode thelocal spatial detail and structure.
Based on the overall network, we explore the dimension of the [Figure] [Table] spatial-aware part query.
As reported in Table 2(c), we observed that setting the dimension to 128 issufficient, and the larger dimension can not bring additional gains.
Analysis of the part division scheme.
As shown in Figure 4 and Table 2(d), we probe four differentpart division schemes to design an efficient and effective partition strategy.
The scheme (c) achievesthe optimal performance.
Compared with the scheme (a) and (b), the part-level query in scheme (c)is capable of obtaining local structural information of adjacent keypoints.
Moreover, each part inscheme (c) is rigid without articulated structure, while the part in scheme (d) is deformable, thusobtaining a slightly worse result.
Iteration pipeline of the instance-level query.
As shown in Figure 3 and Table 3, we explore the twodifferent iteration pipeline of the instance-level query Q I .
We observe that the instance-level queryiterated across box decoder and keypoint decoder serially can improve 1.6 AP box and 0.8 AP kps thanonly iterated across box decoder.
4.3 Results
COCO Mini-val set.
Table 4 reports the results of end-to-end methods on COCO mini-val set.
Compared with dense end-to-end methods, QueryPose with ResNet-50 outperforms Mask R-CNN [Table] QueryPose-W 72. QueryPose-SwinL 72.
[44] with ResNet-101 by 2.6 AP.
By only using HRNet-W32, we achieve 72.4 AP and markedlyoutperform all dense counterparts with larger backbone.
QueryPose with HRNet-W48 obtains 73.6 APand significantly surpasses the previous most competitive HrHRNet-W48 ( Flip )
[16], SWAHR-W48( Flip ) [39], CenterGroup-W48[45] by 3.8 AP, 2.8 AP, 4.5 AP respectively.
Furthermore, QueryPoseoutperforms the regression-based AdaptivePose-W48 [20] and DEKR-W48( Flip ) [24] by 3.6 AP and2.6 AP.
QueryPose obtains 7.4 AP improvements over the existing sparse end-to-end method PRTR[14].
Finally, we use the transformer-based backbone Swin-Large [46] and also achieve 73.3 AP,which proves that our method is compatible for various network architecture.
QueryPose eliminatesthe time-consuming post-processes
and achieves the faster inference speed compared with the abovestate-of-the-art dense competitors.
COCO test-dev2017 set.
As shown in Table 5, we achieve 72.3 AP with HRNet-W48 and 72.2 APwith Swin-Large without flip and multi-scale testing.
QueryPose exceeds all end-to-end methods andnarrows the gap with two-stage methods.
The results verify the superior keypoint positioning abilityof QueryPose in single-forward pass.
CrowdPose test set.
We further evaluate the QueryPose on CrowdPose.
The model is trained on thetrain and val set, then evaluated on test set as previous methods [16, 39, 24].
QueryPose achieves 72.
AP with HRNet-W48 and 72.7 AP with Swin-large on CrowdPose test set.
The results outperform allexisting MPPE methods.
We list the comparisons in Appendix due to the page limitation.
Conclusion
In this paper, we present a sparse end-to-end multi-person pose regression framework termed as
QueryPose.
With two proposed modules, i.e., Spatial Part Embedding Generation Module and
Selective Iteration Module, QueryPose is capable of utilizing the sparse spatial-aware part-levelqueries to capture the local spatial features instead of previous dense representations and achievingthe better performance than most dense MPPE methods.
Our method proves the potential of thesparse regression method for the multi-person pose estimation task.
We believe that our core insightis able to benefit some other methods and inspire future research.
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