L EARNING B INARY T REES VIA S PARSE R ELAXATION
Anonymous authors
Paper under double-blind review
A BSTRACT
One of the most classical problems in machine learning is how to learn binary trees that split data into useful partitions.
From classiﬁcation/regression via decision trees to hierarchical clustering, binary trees are useful because they (a) are often easy to visualize; (b) make computationally-efﬁcient predictions; and (c) allow for ﬂexible partitioning.
Because of this there has been extensive research on how to learn such trees that generally fall into one of three categories: 1.
greedy node-by-node optimization; 2.
probabilistic relaxations for differentiability; 3.
mixed-integer programs (MIP).
Each of these have downsides: greedy can myopically choose poor splits, probabilistic relaxations do not have principled ways to prune trees,
MIP methods can be slow on large problems and may not generalize.
In this work we derive a novel sparse relaxation for binary tree learning.
By deriving a new MIP and sparsely relaxing it, our approach is able to learn tree splits and tree pruning using argmin differentiation.
We demonstrate how our approach is easily visualizable and is competitive with current tree-based approaches in classiﬁcation/regression and hierarchical clustering.
I NTRODUCTION
Learning discrete structures from unstructured data is extremely useful for a wide variety of real-world problems (Gilmer et al., 2017; Kool et al., 2018;
Yang et al., 2018).
One of the most computationallyefﬁcient, easily-visualizable discrete structures that are able to represent complex functions are binary trees .
For this reason, there has been a massive research effort on how to learn such binary trees since the early days of machine learning (Breiman et al., 1984; ˙Irsoy et al., 2012; Bertsimas & Dunn, 2017; Popov et al., 2019).
Learning binary trees has historically been done in one of three ways.
The ﬁrst is via greedy optimization , which includes popular decision-tree methods such as classiﬁcation and regression trees (CART)
(Breiman et al., 1984) and ID3 trees (Quinlan, 1986), among many others.
These methods optimize a splitting criterion for each tree node, based on the data routed to it.
The second set of approaches are based on probabilistic relaxations .
The idea is to optimize all splitting parameters at once via gradient-based methods, by relaxing hard branching decisions into branching probabilities.
The third approach optimizes trees using mixed-integer programming (MIP).
This jointly optimizes all continuous and discrete parameters to ﬁnd globally-optimal trees.
Each of these approaches have clear shortcomings.
First, greedy optimization is clearly suboptimal: tree splitting criteria are even intentionally crafted to be different than the global tree loss, as the global loss does not encourage tree growth (Breiman et al., 1984).
Second, probabilistic relaxations: (a) are rarely sparse, so inputs probabilistically contribute to branches they would never visit if splits are mapped to hard decisions; (b) they do not have principled ways to prune trees, as the distribution over pruned trees is often intractable.
Third, MIP approaches, while optimal, are only computationally tractable on training datasets with thousands of inputs (Bertsimas & Dunn, 2017), and do not have well-understood out-of-sample generalization guarantees.
In this paper we present a new approach to binary tree learning based on sparse relaxation and argmin differentiation.
Our main insight is that by quadratically relaxing an MIP that learns the discrete parameters of the tree (input traversal and node pruning), we can differentiate through it to simultaneously learn the continuous parameters of splitting decisions.
This allows us to leverage the superior generalization capabilities of stochastic gradient optimization to learn splits, and gives a principled approach to learning tree pruning.
Further, we can derive customized algorithms to compute the forward and backward passes through this program that are much more efﬁcient than generic approaches (Amos & Kolter, 2017).
We demonstrate that (a) in classiﬁcation/regression our method, which learns a single tree and a classiﬁer on top of it, is competitive with greedy, probabilistic,
MIP-based tree methods, and even powerful ensemble methods; (b) in hierarchical clustering we match or improve upon the state-of-the-art.
R ELATED W ORK
The paradigm of binary tree learning has the goal of ﬁnding a tree that iteratively splits data into meaningful, informative subgroups, guided by some criterion.
Binary tree learning appears in a wide variety of problem settings across machine learning.
We brieﬂy review work in two learning settings where latent tree learning plays a key role: 1.
Classiﬁcation/Regression ; and 2.
Hierarchical clustering .
Due to the generality of our setup (tree learning with arbitrary split functions, pruning, and downstream objective), our approach can be used to learn trees in any of these settings.
Finally, we detail how parts of our algorithm are inspired by recent work in isotonic regression.
Classiﬁcation/Regression.
Decision trees for classiﬁcation and regression have a storied history, with early popular methods that include classiﬁcation and regression trees (CART; Breiman et al., 1984), ID3 (Quinlan, 1986), and C4.5 (Quinlan, 1993).
While powerful, these methods are greedy: they sequentially identify ‘best’ splits as those which optimize a split-speciﬁc score (often different from the global objective).
As such, learned trees are likely sub-optimal for the classiﬁcation/regression task at hand.
To address this, one approach is to probabilistically relax the discrete splitting decisions of the tree ( ˙ Irsoy et al., 2012;
Yang et al., 2018).
This allows the (relaxed) tree to be optimized w.r.t.
the overall objective using gradient-based techniques, with known generalization beneﬁts (Hardt et al., 2016; Hoffer et al., 2017).
Variations on this approach aim at learning tree ensembles termed ‘decision forests’ (Kontschieder et al., 2015; Lay et al., 2018; Popov et al., 2019).
The downside of the probabilistic relaxation approach is that there is no principled way to prune these trees as inputs pass through all nodes of the tree with some probability.
A recent line of work has explored mixed-integer program (MIP) formulations for learning decision trees.
Motivated by the billion factor speed-up in MIP in the last 25 years, Bertsimas & Dunn (2017) phrased the objective of CART as an MIP that could be solved exactly.
This resulted in a line of recent follow-up works (Günlük et al., 2018; Aghaei et al., 2019; Verwer & Zhang, 2019; Hu et al., 2019;
Aghaei et al., 2020;
Lin et al., 2020).
Even given this speed-up these methods are only practical on datasets with at most thousands of inputs (Bertsimas & Dunn, 2017).
Further, the out-of-sample generalizability of these approaches is not well-studied, unlike stochastic gradient descent learning.
Hierarchical clustering.
Compared to standard ﬂat clustering, hierarchical clustering provides a structured organization of unlabeled data in the form of a tree.
To learn such a clustering the vast majority of methods are greedy and work in one of two ways: 1.
Agglomerative : a ‘bottom-up’ approach that starts each input in its own cluster and iteratively merges clusters; and 2.
Divisive : a ‘top-down’ approach that starts with one cluster and recusively splits clusters (Zhang et al., 1997;
Widyantoro et al., 2002;
Krishnamurthy et al., 2012; Dasgupta, 2016; Kobren et al., 2017; Moseley & Wang, 2017).
These methods suffer from similar issues as do greedy approaches to tree learning for classiﬁcation/regression: they may be sub-optimal for optimizing the overall tree.
Further they are often computationally-expensive due to their sequential nature.
Inspired by approaches for classiﬁcation/regression, recent work has designed probabilistic relaxations for learning hierarchical clusterings via gradient-based methods (Monath et al., 2019).
Our work takes inspiration from both the MIP-based and gradient-based approaches.
Speciﬁcally, we frame learning the discrete tree parameters as an MIP, which we sparsely relax to allow continuous parameters to be optimized by argmin differentiation methods.
Argmin differentiation.
Solving an optimization problem as a differentiable module within a parent problem tackled with gradient-based optimization methods is known as argmin differentiation, a particular instance of bi-level optimization (Gould et al., 2016).
This situation arises in as diverse scenarios as hyperparameter optimization (Pedregosa, 2016), meta-learning (Rajeswaran et al., 2019), or structured prediction (Stoyanov et al., 2011; Domke, 2013; Niculae et al., 2018).
General algorithms for quadratic Amos & Kolter (2017) and disciplined convex programming (Section 7,
Amos, 2019; Agrawal et al., 2019a;b) have been given, as well as expressions for more speciﬁc cases like isotonic regression (Djolonga & Krause, 2017).
By taking advantage of the very speciﬁc structure of the decision tree induction problem, we obtain a direct, efﬁcient algorithm.
Isotonic regression.
Also called monotonic regression, isotonic regression (Barlow et al., 1972) constrains the regression function to be non-decreasing/non-increasing.
This is useful if one has prior knowledge of such monotonicity ( e.g. , the mean temperature of the climate is non-decreasing).
A classic algorithm is pooling-adjacent-violators (PAV), which optimizes the pooling of adjacent points that violate the monotonicity constraint (Barlow et al., 1972).
This initial algorithm has been generalized and incorporated into convex programming frameworks (see Mair et al.
(2009) for an excellent summary of the history of isotonic regression and its extensions).
Our work builds off of the generalized PAV (GPAV) algorithm of Yu & Xing (2016).
M ETHOD
Given inputs { x i } ni =1 , our goal is to learn a latent binary decision tree T with maximum depth D .
This tree sends each input x through branching nodes to a speciﬁc leaf node in the tree.
Speciﬁcally, all branching nodes T B ⊂ T split an input x by forcing it to go to its left child if s θ ( x ) < 0 , and right otherwise.
There are three key parts of the tree that need to be identiﬁed: 1.
The continuous parameters θ t ∈ R d that describe how s θ t splits inputs at every node t ; 2.
The discrete paths z made by each input x through the tree; 3.
The discrete choice a t of whether a node t should be active or pruned.
We describe how to learn each of these below.
3. T REE -T RAVERSAL & P RUNING P ROGRAMS
Imagine the splitting functions of the tree s θ t are ﬁxed.
Given this, the following integer linear program (ILP) describes how inputs x traverse the tree.
The solution z it ∈ { 0 , 1 } indicates if x i reaches node t ∈ T (for notational simplicity let z i ∈ { 0 , 1 } |T | be the vectorized indicator for x i ),
[Equation]
Here A L ( t ) is the set of ancestors of node t whose left child must be followed to get to t , and similarly for A R ( t ) .
The quantities q it (where q i ∈ R |T | is the tree-vectorized version of q it ) describe the ‘reward’ of sending x
i to node t .
This is based on how well the splitting functions leading to t are satisﬁed ( q it is positive if all splitting functions are satisﬁed and negative otherwise).
Notice that the solution is unique so long as s θ t ( x i ) (cid:54) =0 for all t ∈ T , i ∈ { 1 , . . . , n } ( i.e. , s θ t ( x i )
= means there is no preference to split x i left or right).
Further note that the integer constraint on z it can be relaxed to an interval constraint z it ∈ [0 , 1] without loss of generality .
This is because if s θ t ( x i ) (cid:54) =
then z t =
if and only if q t < 0 and z t = 1 when q t > 0 (and q t (cid:54) = 0 ).
While the above program works for any ﬁxed tree, we would like to be able to also learn the structure of the tree itself.
Let η t ∈ R be our preference for pruning/keeping node t (larger η t indicates node t should be kept).
To encourage this pruning preference while ensuring connectivity, we introduce an additional optimization variable a t ∈ { 0 , 1 } , indicating if node t ∈ T is active (if 1 ) or pruned (if 0 ).
We may now adapt eq. 1 into the following pruning-aware mixed integer program (MIP):
[Equation]
Here we have removed the ﬁrst three constraints in eq.
1 as they are a deterministic computation independent of z 1 , . .
, z n , a .
Further p ( t ) indicates the parent of node t .
The added constraint a t ≤ a p ( t ) ensures that child nodes t are pruned if parent nodes p ( t ) are pruned.
While the new constraint z it ≤ a t ensures that no point x i can reach node t if node t is pruned.
3. L EARNING T REE P ARAMETERS
A natural approach to learn splitting parameters θ t would be to do so in the MIP itself, as in the optimal tree literature.
However, this would severely restrict allowed splitting functions as even linear splitting functions can only practically run on at most thousands of training inputs (Bertsimas & Dunn, 2017).
Instead, we propose to learn s θ t via gradient descent.
To do so, we must be able to compute the gradients ∂ z ∂ η and ∂ z ∂ q .
However, the solutions of eq.
2 are discontinuous and piecewise-constant.
To solve this, we relax the integer constraint on a to the interval [0 , 1] and add quadratic regularization/ 2 (cid:80)
i
[Equation]
z i
[Equation]
22 + 1 / 2 (cid:107) a (cid:107) 22 .
Rearranging and negating the objective yields
[Equation]
The regularization makes the objective strongly convex, so from convex duality it follows that T η is Lipschitz continuous (Zalinescu, 2002, Corollary 3.5.11). By Rademacher’s theorem (Borwein & Lewis, 2010, Theorem 9.1.2), T η is thus differentiable almost everywhere.
Generic methods such as OptNet (Amos & Kolter, 2017) could be used to compute the solution and the gradients. However, by using the tree structure of the constraints, we next derive an efﬁcient specialized algorithm.
The main insight, shown below, reframes pruned binary tree learning as isotonic optimization.
Proposition 1.
Let C = (cid:8) a ∈ R |T | : a t ≤ a p ( t ) for all t ∈ T \ { root } (cid:9) .
Consider
[Equation]
Deﬁne 2 [ z (cid:63) ] it = Proj [0 ,a (cid:63)t ] ( q it ) .
Then, T η ( q 1 , . . . , q n ) =
z (cid:63) 1 , . . .
, z (cid:63)n , a (cid:63) .
Proof.
The constraints and objective function of eq.
3 are separable, so we may push the minimization w.r.t.
z inside the objective, resulting in:
[Equation]
Each of the inner nested minimizations, min 0 ≤ z it ≤ a t 1 / 2 ( z it − q it ) 2 is a one-dimensional projection onto box constraints, with solution z (cid:63)it =
Proj
[0 ,a t ] ( q it ) .
We may use this result to eliminate z from the objective, noting that
[Equation]
the ﬁrst two conditions are constants w.r.t.
a t Thus, the objective functions eq.
(3) and eq.
(4) differ by a constant.
As their constraints are also the same, they have equivalent minimizers a (cid:63) .
Efﬁciently inducing trees as isotonic optimization.
From Proposition 1, notice that eq.
4 is an instance of tree-structured isotonic optimization: the objective decomposes over nodes , and the inequality constraints correspond to edges in a rooted tree:
[Equation]
where g t ( a t ) = 1 / 2 ( a t − [Equation] i : [Equation]
[Equation]
where ι [0 , 1] ( a t )
= ∞
if a t / ∈ [0 , 1] and 0 otherwise.
This problem can be solved by a generalized pool adjacent violators (PAV) algorithm:
Obtain a tentative solution by ignoring the constraints, then iteratively remove violating edges a t > a p ( t ) by pooling together the nodes at the end points.
At the optimum, the nodes are organized into a partition G ⊂ 2 T , such that if two nodes t, t (cid:48) are in the same group G ∈ G , then a t = a (cid:48) t := a G .
When the inequality constraints are the edges of a rooted tree, as is the case here, the PAV algorithm ﬁnds the optimal solution in at most |T | steps, where each involves updating the a G value for a newly-pooled group by solving a one-dimensional subproblem of the form (Yu & Xing, 2016)
[Equation]
resulting in Algorithm 1.
It remains to show how to solve eq. 8.
The next result, proved in
Appendix A.1, gives an exact and efﬁcient solution, with an algorithm that requires ﬁnding the nodes with highest q it ( i.e. , the nodes where x i is most highly encouraged to traverse).
Proposition 2.
The solution to the one-dimensional problem in eq.
(8) for any G is given by
[Equation]
a
[Equation]
k
[Equation]
S ( k ) =
{ j (1) , . . .
, j ( k ) } is the set of indices
j = ( i, t ) ∈ { 1 , . .
. , n
} × G into the k highest values of q , i.e., q j (1) ≥ q j (2) ≥ . .
≥ q j ( m ) , and k (cid:63) is the smallest k satisfying a ( k ) >
q j ( k +1) .
Figure 2 shows the speed of our specialized algorithm compared to a leading generic optimizer (details in Appendix A.2).
Backward pass and efﬁcient implementation details.
Algorithm 1 is a sequence of differentiable operations that can be implemented as is in automatic differentiation frameworks.
However, because of the prominent loops and indexing operations, we opt for a low-level implementation as a C++ extension.
Since the q values are constant w.r.t.
a , we only need to sort them once as preprocessing.
For the backward pass, rather than relying on automatic differentiation, we make two remarks about the form of a .
Firstly, its elements are organized in groups, i.e. , a t = a (cid:48) t
= a G for { t, t (cid:48) } ⊂ G .
Secondly, the value a G inside each group depends only on the optimal support set S (cid:63)G := S ( k (cid:63) ) as deﬁned for each subproblem by Proposition 2.
Therefore, in the forward pass, we must store only the node-to-group mappings and the sets S (cid:63) G .
Then, if G is the group of node t , ∂a
(cid:63)t ∂η t (cid:48)
= (cid:40) 1 | G |
+ k (cid:63) , 0 < a (cid:63)t < 1 and t (cid:48) ∈ G, 0 , otherwise.
∂a (cid:63)t ∂q it (cid:48) =
(cid:40) 1 | G | + k (cid:63) , 0 < a (cid:63)t < 1 , and ( i, t (cid:48) )
∈ S (cid:63)G , 0 , otherwise.
As T η is differentiable almost everywhere, these expressions yield the unique Jacobian at all but a measure-zero set of points, where they yield one of the Clarke generalized Jacobians (Clarke, 1990).
We then rely on automatic differentiation to propagate gradients from q to the split parameters θ ; since q is deﬁned elementwise via min functions, the gradient propagates through the minimizing path, by Danskin’s theorem (Proposition B.25, Bertsekas, 1999; Danskin, 1966).
3. T HE O VERALL O BJECTIVE
We are now able to describe the overall optimization procedure that simultaneously learns tree parameters (a) input traversals z 1 , . .
, z n ; (b) tree pruning a ; and (c) split parameters θ t .
Given this tree, we will additionally learn a function f φ ( z , x ) to minimize an arbitrary loss (cid:96) ( · ) as follows,
[Equation]
where z 1 , . . .
, z [Equation] [Equation]
[Equation]
In practice, we perform mini-batch updates for efﬁcient training; the procedure is sketched in
Algorithm 2. Recall T η ( · ) is the solution to the tree program (eq. 3), so we may update the parameters η and θ by back-propagation.
Here we deﬁne q θ ( x i ) :
= q i to make explicit the dependence of q i on θ .
The regularization (cid:107) · (cid:107) Ω can be any norm (in practice we ﬁnd Ω = ∞ to perform the best.) The overall model is represented in Figure 1.
E XPERIMENTS
[Figure]
In this section we showcase our method on both: (a) Classiﬁcation/Regression for tabular data, where tree-based models have been demonstrated to have superior performance over MLPs (Popov et al., 2019); and (b) Hierarchical clustering on unsupervised data.
Our experiments demonstrate that our method leads to predictors that are competitive with state-of-the-art tree-based approaches.
Further we visualize the trees learned by our method, and how sparsity is easily adjusted by tuning the regularization parameter λ .
Architecture details.
We use a linear function or a multi-layer perceptron ( L fully-connected layers with Elu activation (Clevert et al., 2015) and dropout) for f φ ( · ) and choose between linear or linear followed by Elu splitting functions s θ ( · ) (we limit the search for simplicity, there are no restrictions except differentiability).
4. S UPERVISED L EARNING ON T ABULAR D ATASETS
Our ﬁrst set of experiments is on supervised learning with heterogeneous tabular datasets, where we consider both regression and binary classiﬁcation tasks.
We minimize the Mean Squared Error (MSE) on regression datasets and the Binary Cross-Entropy (BCE) on classiﬁcation datasets.
We compare our results with tree-based architectures, which either train a single or an ensemble of decision trees.
Namely, we compare to the greedy classiﬁcation and regression trees (CART) (Breiman et al., 1984) and to the optimal decision tree learner with local search (Optree-LS; Dunn, 2018).
We also consider two baselines with probabilistic routing: deep neural decision trees (DNDT; Yang et al., 2018) and [Table] [Table] deep neural decision forests (Kontschieder et al., 2015) conﬁgured to use an ensemble size of(NDF-1).
As for the ensemble baselines, we compare to NODE (Popov et al., 2019), the state-ofthe-art method for training a forest of differentiable oblivious decision trees on tabular data, and to XGBoost (Chen & Guestrin, 2016), a scalable tree boosting method.
We carry out the experiments on the following datasets.
Regression: Year (Bertin-Mahieux et al., 2011), Temporal regression task constructed from the Million Song Dataset; Microsoft (Qin & Liu, 2013), Regression approach to the MSLR-Web10k Query–URL relevance prediction for learning to rank; Yahoo (Chapelle & Chang, 2011), Regression approach to the C14 learning-to-rank challenge.
Binary classiﬁcation: Click ,
Link click prediction based on the KDD Cup 2012 dataset, encoded and subsampled following Popov et al.
; Higgs (Baldi et al., 2014), prediction of Higgs boson–producing events.
For all tasks, we follow the preprocessing and task setup from (Popov et al., 2019).
All datasets come with training/test splits.
We make use of 20% of the training set as validation set for selecting the best model over the epochs and for tuning the hyperparameters.
We tune the hyperparameters for all methods but for Optree, as its long training time makes hyper-parameter tuning unfeasible.
Details are provided in the appendices.
Finally, we optimize eq.
(10) and all neural network methods (DNDT,
NDF, and NODE) using the Quasi-Hyperbolic Adam (Ma & Yarats, 2018) stochastic gradient descent method, with default parameters and batch size equal to 512 .
Table 1 reports the obtained results.
Unsurprisingly, ensemble methods outperfom single-tree ones on all datasets, although at the cost of being harder to visualize/interpret.
Our method has the advantage of (a) generalizing to any task; (b) outperforming all single-tree methods; (c) approaching the performance of ensemble-based methods. Further we show in Table 2 the sizes of all models.
Apart from CART our model is consistently smaller than both optimal tree and differentiable tree methods. Further comparison with optimal tree baselines. We run a set of experiments on small binary classiﬁcation datasets to compare our method with optimal tree methods.
Speciﬁcally we compare against two versions of Optree: one that solves the MIP exactly (Optree-MIP) (Bertsimas & Dunn, 2017), and another that solves it with local search Optree-LS (Dunn, 2018). We also compare with the state-of-the-art optimal tree method of Lin et al. , called GOSDT.
We consider the following binary classiﬁcation datasets: Mushrooms (Schlimmer, 1987): prediction between edible and poisonous mushrooms, with 8124 instances and 22 features; Compas 5 : recidivism prediction over a two-year period, with 12381 instances and 22 features. We apply a stratiﬁed split on both datasets to obtain 60% - 20% - 20% training-validation-test sets, convert categorical features to ordinal, and z-score them. For our method, we apply the Quasi-Hyperbolic Adam optimization algorithm, with batch size equal to 512 . Further details about the experimental setup are available in the appendices.
[Table] [Table]
[Figure]
Table 3 reports the performance of all methods across 4 runs.
Both OPTREE variants do not ﬁnish in under 10 hours.
On Mushrooms our method runs 3 times faster than GOSDT at the expense of higher error.
On COMPAS we run 13 times faster and achieve equivalent error as GOSDT.
We believe the slow scaling of GOSDT is due to the fact that it binarizes features, working with 118 and 590 ﬁnal binary attributes on Mushrooms and Compas respectively.
4. S ELF -S UPERVISED H IERARCHICAL C LUSTERING
To show the versatility of our method, we carry out a second set of experiments on hierarchical clustering tasks.
Inspired by the recent success of self-supervised learning approaches (Lan et al., 2019; He et al., 2020), we learn a tree for hierarchical clustering in a self-supervised way.
Speciﬁcally, we regress a subset of input features from the remaining features, minimizing the MSE.
This allows us to use eq.
(10) to learn a hierarchy (tree).
To evaluate the quality of the learned trees, we compute its dendrogram purity (DP; Monath et al., 2019).
DP measures the ability of the learned tree to separate points from different classes, and corresponds to the expected purity of the least common ancestors of points of the same class.
We experiment on the following datasets: Glass (Dua & Graff, 2017): glass identiﬁcation for forensics, and Covtype (Blackard & Dean, 1999; Dua & Graff, 2017): cartographic variables for forest cover type identiﬁcation.
For Glass , we regress features ‘Refractive Index’ and ‘Sodium,’ and for Covtype the horizontal and vertical ‘Distance To Hydrology.’
We split the datasets into training/validation/test sets, with sizes 60%/20%/20%.
Here we only consider linear f φ .
As before, we optimize Problemusing the Quasi-Hyperbolic Adam algorithm, with batch size equal to 512 for Covtype and 8 for
Glass , and tune the hyper-parameters using the validation set.
As baselines, we consider: BIRCH (Zhang et al., 1996) and Hierarchical KMeans (HKMeans), the standard methods for performing clustering on large datasets; and the recently proposed gradientbased Hyperbolic Hierarchical Clustering (gHHC) (Monath et al., 2019) designed to construct trees in hyperbolic space.
Table 4 reports the dendrogram purity scores for all methods.
Our method matches or outperforms all methods, even though not speciﬁcally tailored to hierarchical clustering.
Tree Pruning
The hyper-parameter λ in eq.
10 controls how aggressively the tree is pruned, hence the amount of tree splits that are actually used to make decisions.
This is a fundamental feature of our framework as it allows to smoothly trim the portions of the tree that are not necessary for the
[Figure]
[Figure] [Figure]
downstream task, resulting in lower computing and memory demands at inference.
In Figure 3, we study the effects of pruning on the tree learned on Glass with a depth ﬁxed to D =3 .
We report how inputs are distributed over the learned tree for different values of λ .
We notice that the number of empty nodes, i.e. , nodes that are not traversed by any data point, increases together with λ up to a certain value in order not to signiﬁcantly deteriorate results (as measured by dendrogram purity).
Class Routing In order to gain insights on the latent structure learned by our method, we study how points are routed through the tree, depending on their class.
The Glass dataset is particularly interesting to analyze as its classes come with an intrinsic hierarchy, e.g. , with superclasses Window and NonWindow .
Figure 4 reports the class routes for four classes.
As the trees are constructed without supervision, we do not expect the structure to exactly reﬂect the class partition and hierarchy.
Still, we observe that points from the same class or super-class to traverse the tree in a similar way.
Indeed, trees for class Build 4(a) and class Vehicle 4(b), which both belong to Window super-class, share similar paths, unlike the classes Containers 4(c) and Headlamps 4(d).
D ISCUSSION
In this work we have presented a new optimization approach to learn trees for a variety of machine learning tasks.
Our method works by sparsely relaxing a MIP for tree traversal and pruning, to enable simultaneous optimization of these parameters, alongside splitting parameters and downstream functions via argmin differentiation.
Our approach nears or improves upon recent work in both supervised learning and hierarchical clustering.
We believe there are many exciting avenues for future work.
One particularly interesting direction would be to unify recent advances in tight relaxations of nearest neighbor classiﬁers with this approach to learn efﬁcient neighbor querying structures such as ball trees.
Another idea is to adapt this method to learn instance-speciﬁc trees such as parse-trees
A A PPENDIX A. P ROOF OF P ROPOSITION
Let G ⊂ T be a subset of (pooled) node indices.
We seek to solve
[Equation]
Note that the ﬁnal summation implicitly depends on the unknown a .
But, regardless of the value of a , if q it ≤ q i (cid:48) t (cid:48) and q it is included in the sum, then q i (cid:48) t (cid:48) must also be included by transitivity.
We may therefore characterize the solution a (cid:63) via the number of active inequality constraints k (cid:63) =
(cid:12)(cid:12) { ( i, t ) : a (cid:63) ≤ q i,t } (cid:12)(cid:12) .
We do not know a (cid:63) , but it is trivial to ﬁnd by testing all possible values of k .
For each k , we may ﬁnd the set S ( k ) deﬁned in the proposition.
For a given k , the candidate objective is
[Equation]
and the corresponding a ( k ) minimizing it can be found by setting the gradient to zero: J (cid:48) k ( a ) = (cid:88)
[Equation] ∈ G ( [Equation] + (cid:88)
[Equation]
⇐⇒
[Equation]
| G | + k .
Since | S ( k ) |
= k and each increase in k adds a non-zero term to the objective, we must have
J 1 (cid:0) a (1) (cid:1) ≤ J 1 (cid:0) a (2) (cid:1) ≤ J 2 (cid:0) a (2) (cid:1) ≤ . .
, so we must take k to be as small as possible, while also ensuring the condition |{ ( i, t ) : a ( k ) ≤ q it }| =
k , or, equivalently, that a ( k ) >
q j ([ k +1]) .
The box constraints may be integrated at this point via clipping, yielding a (cid:63) =
Proj [0 , 1] (cid:0) a ( k (cid:63) ) (cid:1) .
A. B ENCHMARKING SOLVER TIMES
We study the running time of Algorithm 1 depending on the number of data points n and the chosen tree depth D .
We compare its solving time with the time needed by the popular convex optimization framework Cvxpy (Diamond & Boyd, 2016; Agrawal et al., 2018) to solve Problem 3 with OSQP solver (Stellato et al., 2020) 6 . As Cvxpy is based on solvers implemented in Objective C and C we implement our approach in C++ for a fair comparison.
We report the solving times in Figure 5, where we vary one parameter n or D at a time and ﬁx the other.
The algorithm that we speciﬁcally designed to solve Problem (3) is indeed several magnitude faster than the considered generic solver.
A. H YPER - PARAMETER TUNING DETAILS
We tune the hyper-parameters of all methods with Optuna Bayesian optimizer (Akiba et al., 2019), ﬁxing the number of trials to 100 .
For all back-propagation-base methods, we ﬁx the learning rate for solving eq.
(10) to 0 .
001 and use a scheduler reducing this parameter of a factor of 10 every 2 epochs where the validation loss has not improved.
Experiments on tabular datasets The other hyper-parameters for these experiments are chosen as follows: [Figure] [Figure] [Figure]
t i [Figure] • Ours : we tune D in { 2 , . . .
, 6 } , λ in [1 e- 3 , 1 e+ 3] with log-uniform draws, the number of layers of the MLP L in { 2 , . . , 5 } and its dropout probability uniformly in [0 , 0 . 5] , and the choice of activation for the splitting functions as linear or Elu; • Optree-LS : we ﬁx the tree depth D = 6 ; • CART : we tune D in { 2 , . . .
, 10 } , feature rate uniformly in [0 . 5 , 1] , minimal impurity decrease in [0 , 1] , α log-uniformly in [1 e- 16 , 1 e+ 2] and splitter chosen between best or random; • Node and XGBoost : all results are reported from Popov et al.
(2019), where they used the same experimental set-up; • DNDT : we tune the softmax temperature uniformly between [0 , 1] and the number of feature cuts in { 1 , 2 } ; • NDF : we tune D in { 2 , . . .
, 6 } and ﬁx the feature rate to 1 .
Experiments on small datasets We chose the hyper-parameters as follows:
• Ours : we tune D in { 2 , . . .
, 6 } , λ in [1 e- 3 , 1 e+ 3] with log-uniform draws, and make use of a linear predictor and of linear splitting functions without activation; • Optree-MIP/Optree-LS : we ﬁx the tree depth to D = 6 ; • GOSDT : we tune the regularization parameter λ in [1 e- 3 , 1 e+ 3] with log-uniform draws, and set accuracy as the objective function.
Experiments on hierarchical clustering For this set of experiments, we make us of a linear predictor and of linear splitting functions without activation.
The other hyper-parameters of our method are chosen as follows: we tune D in { 2 , . .
, 6 } , λ in [1 e- 3 , 1 e+ 3] with log-uniform draws.
The results of the baselines are reported from Monath et al.
A. A DDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS
In Figures 6(a) and 6(b) we report the average test Error Rates as a function of the training time for each single-tree method on the binary classiﬁcation datasets of Section 4.1.
Notice that our method provides the best trade-off between time complexity and accuracy.
It also achieves Error
Rates comparable on Click and signiﬁcantly better on Higgs w.r.t.
NDF-1 while being several times faster.
This speed-up is principally due to a smaller number of model’s parameters (see Table 2).
[Figure]