D UAL - MODE ASR: U NIFY AND I MPROVE S TREAMING ASR WITH F ULL - CONTEXT M ODELING Anonymous authors
Paper under double-blind review
A BSTRACT
Streaming automatic speech recognition (ASR) aims to emit each hypothesized word as quickly and accurately as possible, while full-context ASR waits for the completion of a full speech utterance before emitting completed hypotheses.
In this work, we propose a uniﬁed framework, Dual-mode ASR , to train a single end-to-end ASR model with shared weights for both streaming and full-context speech recognition.
We show that the latency and accuracy of streaming ASR signiﬁcantly beneﬁt from weight sharing and joint training of full-context ASR, especially with inplace knowledge distillation during the training.
The Dual-mode ASR framework can be applied to recent state-of-the-art convolution-based and transformer-based ASR networks.
We present extensive experiments with two state-of-the-art ASR networks, ContextNet and Conformer, on two datasets, a widely used public dataset LibriSpeech and a large-scale dataset MultiDomain.
Experiments and ablation studies demonstrate that Dual-mode ASR not only simpliﬁes the workﬂow of training and deploying streaming and full-context ASR models, but also signiﬁcantly improves both emission latency and recognition accuracy of streaming ASR.
With Dual-mode ASR, we achieve new state-of-the-art streaming ASR results on both LibriSpeech and MultiDomain in terms of accuracy and latency.
I NTRODUCTION
“Ok Google.
Hey Siri.
Hi Alexa.” have featured a massive boom of smart speakers in recent years, unveiling a trend towards ubiquitous and ambient Artiﬁcial Intelligence (AI) for better daily lives.
As the communication bridge between human and machine, low-latency streaming ASR ( a.k.a ., online ASR) is of central importance, whose goal is to emit each hypothesized word as quickly and accurately as possible on the ﬂy as they are spoken.
On the other hand, there are some scenarios where full-context ASR ( a.k.a ., ofﬂine ASR) is sufﬁcient, for example, ofﬂine video captioning on video-sharing platforms.
While low-latency streaming ASR is generally preferred in most of the speech recognition scenarios, it often has worse prediction accuracy as measured in Word Error Rate (WER), due to the lack of future context compared with full-context ASR.
Improving both WER and emission latency has been shown to be highly challenging (He et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020a; Sainath et al., 2020) in streaming ASR systems.
Since the acoustic, pronunciation, and language model (AM, PM, and LM) of a conventional ASR system have been evolved into a single end-to-end (E2E) all-neural network, modern streaming and full-context ASR models share most of the neural architectures and training recipes in common, such as, Mel-spectrogram inputs, data augmentations, neural network meta-architectures, training objectives, model regularization techniques and decoding methods.
The most signiﬁcant difference is that streaming ASR encoders are auto-regressive models , with the prediction of the current timestep conditioned on previous ones (no future context is permitted).
Speciﬁcally, let x and y be the input and output sequence, t as frame index, T as total length of frames. Streaming ASR encoders model the output y t as a function of input x 1: t while full-context ASR encoders model the output y t as a function of input x 1: T .
Streaming ASR encoders can be built with uni-directional LSTMs, causal convolution and left-context attention layers in streaming ASR encoders (Chiu & Raffel, 2018;
Fan et al., 2018; Han et al., 2020; Gulati et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2020; Moritz et al., 2020; Miao et al., 2020; Tsunoo et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020; Yeh et al., 2019).
Recurrent Neural Network
Transducers (RNN-T) (Graves, 2012) are commonly used as the decoder in both streaming and fullcontext models, which predicts the token of the current input frame based on all previous tokens
Figure
Albeit the similarities, streaming and full-context ASR models are usually developed, trained, and deployed separately.
In this work, we propose Dual-mode ASR , a framework to unify streaming and full-context speech recognition networks with shared weights.
Dual-mode ASR comes with many immediate beneﬁts, including reduced model download and storage on devices and simpliﬁed development and deployment workﬂows.
To accomplish this goal, we ﬁrst introduce Dual-mode
Encoders , which can run in both streaming mode and full-context mode. Dual-mode encoders are designed to reuse the same set of model weights for both modes with zero or near-zero parameters overhead. We propose the design principles of a dual-mode encoder and show examples on how to design dual-mode convolution, dual-mode pooling and dual-mode attention layers. We also investigate into different training algorithms for Dual-mode ASR, speciﬁcally, randomly sampled training and joint training.
We show that joint training signiﬁcantly outperforms randomly sampled training in terms of model quality and training stability.
Moreover, motivated by Inplace Knowledge Distillation (Yu & Huang, 2019b) in which a large model is used to supervise a small model, we propose to distill knowledge from the full-context mode (teacher) into the streaming mode (student) on the ﬂy during the training within the same Dual-mode ASR model, by encouraging consistency of the predicted token probabilities.
We demonstrate that the emission latency and prediction accuracy of streaming ASR signiﬁcantly beneﬁt from weight sharing and joint training of its full-context mode, especially with inplace knowledge distillation during the training.
We present extensive experiments with two state-of-theart ASR networks, convolution-based ContextNet (Han et al., 2020) and conv-transformer hybrid Conformer (Gulati et al., 2020), on two datasets, a widely used public dataset LibriSpeech (Panay- otov et al., 2015) (970 hours of English reading speech) and a large-scale dataset MultiDomain (Narayanan et al., 2018) (413,000 hours speech of a mixture across multiple domains including Voice Search, Farﬁeld Speech, YouTube and Meetings).
For each proposed technique, we also present ablation study and analysis to demonstrate and understand the effectiveness.
With Dual-mode ASR, we achieve new state-of-the-art streaming ASR results on both LibriSpeech and MultiDomain in terms of accuracy and latency.
R ELATED W ORK
Streaming ASR Networks.
There has been a growing interest in building streaming ASR systems based on E2E Recurrent Neural Network Transducers (RNN-T) (Graves, 2012).
Compared with sequence-to-sequence models (Chorowski et al., 2014; 2015; Chorowski & Jaitly, 2016; Bahdanau et al., 2016; Chan et al., 2016), RNN-T models are naturally streamable and have shown great potentials for low-latency streaming ASR (Chang et al., 2019;
He et al., 2019; Tsunoo et al., 2019; Sainath et al., 2019; Shen et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020a;b; Sainath et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2020; Moritz et al., 2020; Narayanan et al., 2020).
In this work, we mainly focus on RNN-T based models.
He et al.
speciﬁcally studied how to optimize the RNN-T streaming ASR model for mobile devices, and proposed a bag of techniques including using layer normalization and large batch size to stabilize training; using word-piece targets (Wu et al., 2016); using a time-reduction layer to speed up training and inference; quantizing network parameters to reduce memory footprint and speed up computation; applying shallow-fusion to bias towards user-speciﬁc context.
To support streaming modeling in E2E ASR models, various efforts have also been made by modifying attention-based models such as monotonic attention (Raffel et al., 2017; Chiu & Raffel, 2017; Fan et al., 2018;
Arivazhagan et al., 2019), GMM attention (Graves, 2013; Chiu et al., 2019), triggered attention (TA) (Moritz et al., 2019), Scout Network (Wang et al., 2020), and approaches that segment encoder output into non-overlapping chunks (Jaitly et al., 2016; Tsunoo et al., 2020).
Tsunoo et al.
also applied knowledge distillation from the non-streaming model to the streaming model, but their streaming and non-streaming models do not share weights and are trained separately.
To improve the latency of RNN-T streaming models, Li et al.
investigated additional early and late penalties on Endpointer prediction (Chang et al., 2019) to reduce the emission latency, and employed the minimum word error rate (MWER) training (Prabhavalkar et al., 2018) to remedy accuracy degradation.
Sainath et al.
further proposed to improve quality by using two-pass models (Sainath et al., 2019), i.e ., a second-pass LAS-based rescore model on top of the hypotheses from ﬁrst-pass RNN-T streaming output.
More recently, Li et al.
proposed parallel rescoring by replacing
LSTMs with Transformers (Vaswani et al., 2017) in rescoring models.
Chang et al.
further proposed
Prefetching to reduce system latency by submitting partial recognition results for subsequent processing such as obtaining assistant server responses or second-pass rescoring before the recognition result is ﬁnalized.
Unlike these approaches, our work explores the uniﬁcation of streaming and fullcontext ASR networks, thus can be generally applied as an add-on technique without requiring extra runtime support during inference.
Weight Sharing for Multi-tasking.
Sharing model weights of a deep neural network for multiple tasks has been widely explored in the literature to reduce overall model sizes.
In the broadest sense, tasks can refer to different objectives or same objective but different settings, ranging from natural language processing and speech recognition to computer vision and reinforcement learning.
In speech recognition, Kannan et al. employed a single ASR network for multilingual ASR, and showed accuracy improvements over monolingual ASR systems.
Wu et al.
proposed dynamic sparsity neural networks (DSNN) for speech recognition on mobile devices with resource constraints.
A single trained DSNN (Wu et al., 2020) can transform into multiple networks of different sparsities for adaptive inference in real-time.
Chang et al. trained a single RNN-T model with LSTMs (Hochreiter & Schmidhuber, 1997) for Joint Endpointing ( i.e ., predicting both recognition tokens and the end of an utterance transcription) in streaming ASR systems. Moreover, Watanabe et al. proposed a hybrid
CTC and attention architecture for ASR based on multi-objective learning to eliminate the use of linguistic resources.
Another related research work in Computer Vision is Slimmable Neural Networks (Yu et al., 2018;
Yu & Huang, 2019a;b; Yu et al., 2020).
Yu et al. proposed an approach to train a single neural network running at different widths, permitting instant and adaptive accuracy efﬁciency trade-offs at runtime.
We also adapt the training rules introduced in slimmable networks, that is, using independent normalization layers for different sub-networks (tasks) as conditional parameters and using the prediction of teacher network to supervise student network as inplace distillation during the training.
Unlike slimmable networks in which a large model is used to supervise a small model, we propose to distill the knowledge from full-context mode (teacher) into streaming mode (student) on the ﬂy within the same Dual-mode ASR model.
Knowledge Distillation. Hinton et al. explored a simple method to “transfer” knowledge from a teacher neural network to a student neural network by enforcing their predictions to be close measured by KL-divergence, (cid:96) 1 or (cid:96) 2 distance. It is shown that such distillation method is effective to compress neural networks (Yu & Huang, 2019b), accelerate training (Chen et al., 2015), improve robustness (Carlini & Wagner, 2017; Papernot et al., 2016), estimate model uncertainty (Blundell et al., 2015) and transfer learned domain to other domains (Tzeng et al., 2015).
D UAL - MODE ASR
Most neural sequence transduction networks for ASR have an encoder-decoder structure (Graves, 2012;
Sainath et al., 2020;
He et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020a), as shown in Figure 1.
Without loss of generality, here we discuss how to design Dual-mode ASR networks under the most commonly used RNN-T model (Graves, 2012).
In RNN-T models, we ﬁrst extract mel-spectrogram feature from input speech waveform.
The Mel-spectrogram feature is then fed into a neural-net encoder, which usually consists of feed-forward layers, RNN/LSTM layers, convolution layers, attention layers, pooling (time-reduction) layers, and residual or dense connections.
In neural-net encoders, streaming ASR model requires all components to be auto-regressive, whereas full-context ASR model has no such requirement.
The ASR decoder then predicts the token of current frame based on the output from the encoder and previous predicted tokens (inference) or target tokens (training with teacher forcing (Williams & Zipser, 1989)).
The decoder is commonly an auto-regressive model in both streaming and full-context ASR models, thus is fully shared in Dual-mode ASR.
The prediction from decoder is ﬁnally used either in decoding algorithm during inference ( e.g ., beam search) or learning algorithm during training ( e.g ., RNN-T loss).
As discussed above and shown in Figure 1, it becomes clear that the major difference between streaming and full-context ASR models is in the neural-net encoder .
In the following, we will ﬁrst discuss the design principles of dual-mode encoder to support both streaming and full-context ASR.
We provide examples including dual-mode convolution, dual-mode average pooling, and dual-mode attention layers, which are widely used in the state-of-the-art ASR networks ContextNet (Han et al., 2020) and Conformer (Gulati et al., 2020).
We will then discuss the training algorithm of Dual-mode
ASR networks including joint training and inplace knowledge distillation.
3. D UAL - MODE E NCODER
Unifying streaming and full-context ASR models requires two design principles of Dual-mode Encoder :
Each layer in a dual-mode encoder should be either dual-mode or streaming ( a.k.a ., causal). Since
streaming encoder has to be auto-regressive which prohibits any future context, any full-context ( a.k.a ., non-causal) layer violates this constraint.
The design of a dual-mode layer should not introduce signiﬁcant amount of additional parameters, compared with its streaming model.
We aim at supporting full-context ASR on top of the streaming model with near-zero parameters overhead.
We show examples below by applying the above two design principles to ContextNet (Han et al., 2020) and Conformer (Gulati et al., 2020), in which the encoders are composed of pointwise operators (feed-forward net, residual connections, activation layers, striding, dropout, etc .), convolution, average pooling, self-attention and normalization layers.
Pointwise operators are naturally dual-mode layers.
Neural network layers that connect input and output neurons within each timestep (no across-connections among different timesteps) are often referred as pointwise operators (Chollet, 2017), including feed-forward layers ( a.k.a ., fullyconnected layers or 1 × 1 convolution layers), activation layers ( e.g ., ReLU, Swish (Ramachandran et al., 2017)), residual and dense connections (He et al., 2016; Huang et al., 2017), striding layers, dropout layers (Srivastava et al., 2014) and element-wise multiplications.
As there is no information propagation through time, pointwise operators are naturally dual-mode layers and can be directly used in Dual-mode ASR encoders.
Dual-mode Convolution.
Convolution layers, however, convolve feature across its neighbor timesteps within a ﬁxed window ( e.g ., kernel size is 3, 5, or larger), and has been widely used in sequence modeling (Gehring et al., 2017; Han et al., 2020; Gulati et al., 2020).
In conv-based streaming ASR models, causal convolution layers (Oord et al., 2016) are used where the convolution window is biased to the left (self-included).
As shown in Figure 2 on the left, to support both streaming and full-context modes with shared weights, we ﬁrst construct a normal symmetric convolution of kernel size k which will be applied in full-context mode.
Then we mimic the causal convolution of kernel size ( k + 1) / 2 by constructing a Boolean mask and multiplying with the fullcontext convolution kernel before applying the actual convolution of streaming mode in Dual-mode
ASR encoders.
The design of dual-mode convolution introduces ( k − 1) / 2 additional parameters to support fullcontext convolution ( k ) compared with streaming convolution ( ( k +1) / 2 ).
However, we note that in convolution-based models, these temporal-wise convolution layers only take a tiny amount of total model size and most of the weights are on 1 × 1 convolution layers which are fully shared pointwise operators.
For example, in ContextNet (Han et al., 2020), temporal-wise convolution has less than 1% of total model size, thus parameters overhead is negligible.
Dual-mode Average Pooling.
Squeeze-and-excitation (Hu et al., 2018) (SE) modules are used in
ContextNet to enhance the global context encoding.
Each SE module is a sequential stack of average pooling (through time) layer, feed-forward layer, activation layer, another feed-forward layer and elementwise multiplication.
To support both modes, dual-mode average pooling layer is used as shown in Figure 2 on the right.
Dual-mode average pooling layer is parameter-free thus does not introduce additional model parameters.
It also trains in parallel in streaming mode, easily implemented with “cumsum” function in both TensorFlow and PyTorch. Dual-mode Self-attention.
Self-attention ( a.k.a .
intra-attention) is an attention mechanism weighting different positions of a single sequence in order to compute a representation of the same sequence.
It is heavily used in Conformer (Gulati et al., 2020)
ASR networks.
The attention layer itself is parameter-free (projection layers before attention are fully shared), and is composed of matrix multiplication of the key and the query, followed by softmax over keys, before another matrix multiplication with the value.
As shown in Figure 3, in dual-mode attention layer, the softmax is performed on the left context only in streaming mode (rectangle with solid line), compared with the full-context mode (rectangle with dash line).
We ﬁnd this simple form of dual-mode self-attention works well in practice.
# Requires: data_loader; context manager with support of mode switching by network.mode(); dual_mode_network with support of running both modes under context manager; for x, y in data_loader: # Load a minibatch of speech input x and text label y. with dual_mode_network.mode(’fullcontext’):
# Switch context to ’fullcontext’ mode.
# Compute full-context prediction given speech input x and text label y. fullcontext_pred = dual_mode_network.forward_encoder_decoder(x, y)
# Compute RNN-T loss of full-context mode.
fullcontext_loss = rnnt_loss(fullcontext_pred, y) with dual_mode_network.mode(’streaming’):
# Switch context to ’streaming’ mode.
# Compute streaming prediction given speech input x and text label y. streaming_pred = dual_mode_network.forward_encoder_decoder(x, y)
# Compute RNN-T loss of streaming mode.
streaming_loss = rnnt_loss(streaming_pred, y)
# Add inplace knowledge distillation loss (full-context prediction as teacher).
distill_loss = inplace_distill_loss(streaming_pred, stop_gradient(fullcontext_pred))
# Compute total loss as a sum of full-context, streaming and distillation losses.
loss =
fullcontext_loss + streaming_loss + distill_loss loss.backward() # Update weights. Dual-mode Normalization.
Moreover, following Yu et al.
(2018), we also ﬁnd the normalization statistics like means and variances are different in streaming and full-context modes.
Thus, for normalization layers including BatchNorm (Ioffe & Szegedy, 2015) and LayerNorm (Ba et al., 2016) in Dual-mode ContextNet and Dual-mode Conformer, we instantiate two separate norm layers dedicated to streaming and full-context mode respectively.
3. T RAINING D UAL - MODE ASR N ETWORKS
The training algorithm of Dual-mode ASR networks is outlined in Algorithm 1. In this section, we discuss two important training techniques: joint training and inplace knowledge distillation. Joint Training. To train Dual-mode ASR networks, given a batch of data in each training iteration, we can either randomly sample one from two modes to train, or train both modes and aggregate their losses.
In the former approach, referred as randomly sampled training , we can control the importance of streaming and full-context modes by setting different sampling probabilities during training.
In the latter approach, referred as joint training , importance can also be controlled by assigning different loss weights to balance streaming and full-context modes.
Empirically we ﬁnd joint training leads to better model qualities overall thus is adopted in all of our experiments.
We will show an ablation study comparing randomly sampled training and joint training.
In all of our experiments, we treat streaming and full-context mode to be equally important by assigning equal importance during training.
Inplace Knowledge Distillation.
Additionally we propose to distill knowledge from the full-context mode (teacher) into the streaming mode (student) on the ﬂy within the same Dual-mode ASR model, by encouraging consistency of the predicted token probabilities.
Since in each iteration we always compute predictions of both modes, the teacher prediction comes for free (no additional computation or memory cost), as shown in Algorithm 1.
We use the efﬁcient knowledge distillation introduced by
Panchapagesan et al., which is based on the KL-divergence between full-context and streaming over the probability of three parts: P label , P blank and 1 − P label − P blank .
We note that the prediction of full-context mode (teacher) usually has lower latency (since it has no incentive to delay its output), thus we can control the target emission latency of streaming mode (student) by shifting the prediction of full-context mode, before applying distillation loss.
We do a small-scale hyper-parameter sweep from -2 to 2 frames to shift for ContextNet and Conformer in our experiments.
E XPERIMENTS 4. M AIN R ESULT
Measuring Latency.
Latency measurement is itself challenging for streaming ASR systems.
Motivated by Prefetching (Chang et al., 2020) technique, we measure latency as the difference of two timestamps: 1) when the last token is emitted in the ﬁnalized recognition result; 2) the end of the speech when a user ﬁnishes speaking.
We ﬁnd this is especially descriptive of user experience in real-world ASR applications like Voice Search.
ASR models that capture stronger contexts can emit the full hypothesis even before they are spoken, leading to a negative latency .
Moreover, instead of naively averaging latency over all utterances, we report both median and 90th percentile of all utterances in test set, denoted as Latency@50 and Latency@90 , to better characterize latency by excluding outlier utterances.
To evaluate the model quality, we report WER only for full-context models and both WER and latency for streaming models (full-context latency is meaningless).
Datasets.
We conduct our experiments on two datasets: a public widely used dataset LibriSpeech (Panayotov et al., 2015) (1,000 hours of English reading speech) and a large-scale dataset MultiDomain (413,000 hours speech, 287 million utterances of a mixture across multiple domains including Voice Search, YouTube, and Meetings).
Table 1 summarizes the information and statistics of two datasets.
For LibriSpeech, we report our evaluation results on TestClean and TestOther (noisy) sets and compare with other published baselines.
For MultiDomain, we report our evaluation results on Voice Search test set and compare with our reproduced baselines.
For fair comparisons, on each dataset we train and report our models and baselines with the same settings (number of training iterations, hyper-parameters, optimizer, regularization, etc .). We note that these hyper-parameters are inherited from previous work Han et al. Gulati et al. and not speciﬁcally tuned for our dual-mode models.
[Table]
ASR Networks.
We use two recent state-of-the-art ASR networks to demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed methods, ContextNet (Han et al., 2020) and Conformer (Gulati et al., 2020).
The encoder of ContextNet is based on depthwise-separable convolution (Chollet, 2017) and squeezeand-excitation modules (Hu et al., 2018).
In depthwise-separable convolution of Dual-mode ContextNet, the weights of 1 × 1 convolutions are fully shared between streaming and full-context mode, whereas for temporal-wise convolution we follow the design of Dual-mode Convolution proposed in Section 3.1.
Note that in ContextNet, temporal-wise convolutions only take less than 1% of the model size thus the parameters overhead of full-context mode is negligible compared with steaming mode.
In squeeze-and-excitation modules, we use dual-mode average pooling layers (Section 3.1) to support both streaming and full-context mode without additional parameters.
Conformer (Gulati et al., 2020) combines convolution and transformer to model both local and global dependencies of speech sequences in a parameter-efﬁcient way.
In Dual-mode Conformer, we replace all convolution and transformer layers with their dual-mode correspondents (Section 3.1).
Moreover, for normalization layers including BatchNorm (Ioffe & Szegedy, 2015) and LayerNorm (Ba et al., 2016) in Dual-mode ContextNet and Dual-mode Conformer, we instantiate two separate norm layers for streaming and full-context mode respectively.
Training Details and Results.
We train our models exactly following our baselines ContextNet (Han et al., 2020) and Conformer (Gulati et al., 2020), using Adam optimizer (Kingma & Ba, 2014), SpecAugment (Park et al., 2019) and a transformer learning rate schedule (Vaswani et al., 2017) with warm-up (Goyal et al., 2017).
Our main results are summarized in Table 2 and Table 3.
We also add a streaming ContextNet Look-ahead baseline (6 frames, 10ms per frame, totally 60ms look-ahead latency) in Table 3 by padding additional frames at the end of the input utterances.
As shown in the tables, the streaming mode in Dual-mode ASR models has signiﬁcantly better latency and similar or higher WER results, surpassing other baselines including conventional models, LSTM-based transducers (Sainath et al., 2020), transformer-transducers (Zhang et al., 2020) and some others. [Table]
[Table]
A BLATION S TUDY
In this section
[Table]
we perform various ablation studies to support and understand the effectiveness of each technique in Dual-mode ASR.
We train Dual-mode ContextNet on LibriSpeech training set with exactly same settings and report WER, Latency@50 and Latency@90 on TestOther set of streaming mode.
We speciﬁcally study three techniques and their combinations including weight sharing , joint training and inplace knowledge distillation during the training.
During the training we distill knowledge from full-context mode (teacher) into streaming mode (student) on the ﬂy within the same dual-mode model.
Inplace distillation during the training comes for free as shown in training Algorithm 1.
But what if we simply share weights and jointly train them without distillation?
As shown in the second row of Table 4, the model without inplace distillation during the training has worse results compared to the baseline.
Given a batch of data for each training iteration, we train both modes and aggregate their losses.
We also show results of randomly sampled training in the third row of Table 4, which leads to even worse performance.
Note that with randomly sampled training, we cannot apply inplace distillation easily either because in each training iteration there is only one prediction from either streaming mode or full-context mode.
Weight sharing reduces the model size which is one of the major motivation of Dual-mode ASR.
However, what if we simply train two individual models and use knowledge distillation with fullcontext model as the teacher?
As shown in the last row of Table [Table] the results are better than other ablation but still worse than the Dual-mode ASR baseline.
It might indicate that weight sharing itself encourages learning better deep representation for streaming ASR.
Weight sharing has been shown empirically to improve Multilingual ASR (Kannan et al., 2019),
Model Pruning (Wu et al., 2020), Endpointing (Hochreiter & Schmidhuber, 1997) and some Computer Vision problems (Yu et al., 2018) and this intriguing property need to be studied in more details as a future work
[Table]
[Table]
Further
[Table]
we visualize the emission lattices of dual-mode ASR models trained with and without inplace knowledge distillation.
We randomly sampled two audio sequences on LibriSpeech TestOther set and plotted their emission lattices of streaming mode in Figure 4. X-axis represents the speech input frames while Y-axis represents the text output labels (tokens). Figure 4 shows that with knowledge distillation from full-context mode in Dual-mode ASR, streaming mode emits faster and has much less latency, which is very critical for product datasets like MultiDomain presented in our work.  C ONCLUSION
In this work, we have proposed a uniﬁed framework, Dual-mode ASR , to unify and improve streaming ASR by joint full-context modeling.
We hope our exploration will inspire streaming models in other ﬁelds such as simultaneous machine translation and video processing.