W
HAT I
NFORMATION D OES
A R
ES N ET
C
OMPRESS ?
Anonymous authors
Paper under double-blind review
A BSTRACT
The information bottleneck principle (Shwartz-Ziv & Tishby, 2017) suggests that
SGD-based training of deep neural networks results in optimally compressed hidden layers, from an information theoretic perspective.
However, this claim was established on toy data.
The goal of the work we present here is to test whether the information bottleneck principle is applicable to a realistic setting using a larger and deeper convolutional architecture, a ResNet model.
We trained PixelCNN++ models as inverse representation decoders to measure the mutual information between hidden layers of a ResNet and input image data, when trained for (1) classiﬁcation and (2) autoencoding.
We ﬁnd that two stages of learning happen for both training regimes, and that compression does occur, even for an autoencoder.
Sampling images by conditioning on hidden layers’ activations offers an intuitive visualisation to understand what a ResNets learns to forget.
I NTRODUCTION
[Figure]
Deep neural networks are ubiquitous in machine learning and computer vision.
Unfortunately, the popularity of neural networks for applications is unmatched by an agreed upon and clear understanding of how exactly they work, and why they generalise well.
The ﬁeld of deep learning will advance with more comprehensive theory and empirical studies that better characterise neural networks.
Generalisation, in the context of learning, means the extraction of typical abstract properties of training data that can be successfully used for inference on unseen data.
Neural networks generalise well even when they are over-parameterised.
Zhang et al.
(2017) highlighted the need to rethink generalisation, because conventional wisdom is not readily applicable to neural networks.
A number of avenues for new generalisation bounds for neural networks (Bartlett et al., 2017; Golowich et al., 2017; Neyshabur et al., 2017) exemplify how inapplicable conventional methods for understanding model generalisation can be.
One approach to better understanding neural networks is the Information Bottleneck (IB, Section 2) interpretation of deep learning (Tishby et al., 2000; Tishby & Zaslavsky, 2015; Shwartz-Ziv &
Tishby, 2017).
The IB accredits deep learning success to compression in hidden layers via the noise of parameter updates in stochastic gradient descent (SGD).
Information compression results in optimal representations that discard task-irrelevant data while keeping task-relevant data .
The IB principle has since been actively debated (Saxe et al., 2018), partially motivating this work.
The novelty is that we apply information theoretic analyses to modern convolutional residual neural networks (ResNets, Section 5) trained on realistic images (Section 5.2).
These choices complicate analysis since information quantities are non-trivial to compute for high-dimensions.
Our solution is to deﬁne a lower bound on the mutual information (MI, Section 4) and to estimate it by training decoder models (Section 4.1).
The decoder model for the MI between images and hidden layers is a conditional PixelCNN++ and samples generated therefrom illustrate visually MI (Figure 1).
1. O UR C ONTRIBUTIONS
• An experimental framework for tracking the MI in a realistic setting.
Tracking both the forward and inverse MI in a ResNet using realistic images.
Earlier research tracked these quantities for constrained toy-problems or low-dimensional data.
Lifting these constraints requires deﬁning models to compute a lower bound on the MI.
• Analysis of PixelCNN++
samples conditioned on hidden layer activations to illustrate the type of information that ResNet classiﬁers learn to compress.
This is done via the visual demonstration of the sorts of invariances that a ResNet learns.
This paper compliments earlier work on the IB interpretation of deep learning, which is described in the next section.
The key difference is that we analyse a modern network trained on realistic images.
I NFORMATION B OTTLENECK I NTERPRETATION OF D EEP L EARNING
The IB interpretation of learning (Tishby & Zaslavsky, 2015; Shwartz-Ziv & Tishby, 2017) suggests that an optimal representation exists between input data, x , and target data, y , that captures all relevant components in x about y .
An optimal representation, h , should retain only the information relevant for the task described by y .
The IB interpretation posits that the hidden layers in neural networks learn hidden layer conﬁgurations that maximally compress characteristics in the input data that are irrelevant to the target task.
In classiﬁcation, for example: the nature of the ground and/or background in an image of a horse may not matter and could be discarded, provided the horse remains (see Figure 1).
Mutual Information We interpret the activations of hidden layers as random variables so that we can compute and track the mutual information (MI) between these layers and data.
MI is deﬁned as:
[Equation]
which is the Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence between the joint distribution of two random variables and the product of their marginals.
Application to Deep Learning Shwartz-Ziv & Tishby (2017) applied the IB principle to deep learning.
By studying what they called the information plane – how I ( x ; h ) and I ( y ; h ) changed over time ( h is a hidden layer, x is input data, and y is the target) – they showed that neural networks have two learning phases:
Fitting , or empirical error minimisation, where the information shared between hidden representations and input data was maximised.
Compression , where the the information shared between hidden representation and input data was minimised but constrained to the classiﬁcation task at hand.
We refer the reader to Sections 2.1 to 2.3 in Shwartz-Ziv & Tishby (2017) for more detail on the information plane analysis.
Generalisation via compression was put forward as the reason deep learning is successful.
From the IB perspective, an advantage of depth is computational in that it shortens compression time.
R ELATED W ORKS
Applying the IB principle to deep learning goes some way to give a theoretical explanation of why neural networks generalise well.
However, empirical research to determine its true relevance and applicability is paramount – we contribute here by analysing a modern network using realistic data to see if the principle of compression for generalisation holds in this case.
On the IB interpretation of deep learning Saxe et al.
(2018) constructed several experiments to explore and refute the IB interpretation.
They demonstrated:
The choice of non-linearity with a binning methodology for MI computation may explain the compression behaviour.
Shwartz-Ziv & Tishby (2017) used a saturating non-linearity that, when paired with a binned MI computation, seems to confound whether compression occurs.
Saxe et al.
(2018) used the non-saturating ReLU and did not see compression.
Generalisation does not require compression.
A deep linear network toy example was constructed to show generalisation without compression.
Stochastic relaxation is not the mechanism of compression.
Neural networks with ReLU activations did not compress (according to the binned MI calculation) but still switched from high to low SNRs.
What we seek to show in this paper is that modern convolutional networks do evidence information compression during training.
We use the ReLU family of non-linearities and instead of binning to compute MI, we use decoding models.
Therefore, our experiments aim to contextualise further
the
IB principle and its applicability to deep learning theory.
Reversible Networks Jacobsen et al.
(2018) queried whether compression is necessary for generalisation by constructing an invertible convolutional neural network (CNN).
They posited that a reversible network is an example that refutes the IB principle because information is never discarded.
They also provided an accompanying counter explanation: where depth is responsible for progressively separating data (in the inter-class sense) and contracting data (in the intra-class sense).
Although intentionally reversible networks (Jacobsen et al., 2018) do not discard irrelevant components of the input space, we postulate that these instead progressively separate the irrelevant components from the relevant , allowing the ﬁnal classiﬁcation mapping to discard this information.
Inverting Supervised Representations Concurrent to the work in this paper, Nash et al.
(2018) trained conditional PixelCNN++ models to ‘invert’ representations learned by a CNN classiﬁer.
Using the MNIST (Lecun et al., 1998) and CIFAR-10 (Krizhevsky, 2009) image datasets, they showed how a PixelCNN++ can be used as a tool to analyse the invariances and behaviour of hidden layers.
The MI was tracked using a PixelCNN++ model, as here.
However, the model tested was much smaller than the ResNet we inspect here; we test both classiﬁcation and autoencoding, whereas that work only considered classiﬁcation; we provide a ﬁner granularity of assessment, including at model initialisation; and the conditionally generated samples we provide illustrate greater variation owing to the deeper ResNet.
In the next section we present and discuss a lower bound on the MI.
M UTUAL I NFORMATION L OWER B OUND C OMPUTATION
Earlier work applied various binning strategies to toy data.
Binning is not applicable to the modern networks we study here because images as input have many more dimensions than toy datasets.
We derive a lower bound, similar to Alemi et al.
(2017), on the MI between two random vectors as follows:
[Equation]
where x is the input image data, h is a hidden representation (the activations of a hidden layer), p D is the true data distribution, and q is an auxiliary distribution introduced for the lower bound.
We need not estimate C =
E p D ( x ) [log p D ( x )] , since the entropy of the data is constant.
The lower bound follows since the KL-divergence is positive.
We can replace x with y for the analogous quantity w.r.t.
the target data.
With sufﬁciently large data (of size N) we can estimate:
[Equation]
where x ( i ) and h ( i ) are images and the activations of a hidden layer, respectively.
The task now becomes deﬁning the decoder models q ( x | h ) and q ( y | h ) to estimate the MI.
4. D ECODER M ODELS
MI is difﬁcult to compute unless the problem and representations are heavily constrained or designed to make it possible.
We do not enforce such constraints, but instead deﬁne decoder models that can estimate a lower bound on the MI.
Forward direction: computing I ( y ; h )
The decoder model for q ( y | h ) is constructed as a classiﬁer model that takes as input a hidden layer’s activations.
To simplify matters, we deﬁne this decoder model to be identical to the encoder architecture under scrutiny (Section 5).
To compute the MI between any chosen hidden representation, h j (where j deﬁnes the layer index), we freeze all weights prior to this layer, reinitialise the weights thereafter, and train these remaining weights as before (Section 5.1).
Inverse direction: computing I ( x ; h )
The input images – x ∈ R M × M × 3 , where M = 32 is the image width/height – are high-dimensional.
This makes estimating I ( x ; h ) more complicated than I ( y ; h ) .
To do so, we use a PixelCNN++ model (Salimans et al., 2017): a state-of-the-art autoregressive explicit density estimator that allows access to the model log-likelihood (a critical advantage over implicit density estimators).
See Appendix B for more details.
A note on the quality of the lower bound The tightness of the lower bound is directly inﬂuenced by the quality of the model used to estimate it.
We take a pragmatic stance on what sort of error to expect: using a PixelCNN++ to decode I ( x ; h ) essentially estimates the level of usable information, in as much as it can recover the input images.
A similar argument can be made for the forward direction, but there is no direct way of measuring the tightness of the bound.
Even though empirical research such as this could beneﬁt from an ablation study, for instance, we leave that to future work.
E XPERIMENTAL P ROCEDURE
The architecture used to encode hidden layers was taken directly from the original ResNet (He et al., 2016) classiﬁer architecture for CIFAR-10.
This is either trained for classiﬁcation or autoencoding.
Further, this architecture is not-altered when using it to do forward decoding (Section 4.1).
We deﬁne four hidden layers for which we track the MI: h 1 , h 2 , h 3 , and h 4 .
We sample from these (Equation 3) as the activations: at the end of the three hyper-layers of the ResNet ( h 1 , h 2 , and h 3 ); and h 4 after a 4 × 4 average pooling of h 3 (see Figure 6 in Appendix A).
h 4 is the penultimate layer and is therefore expected to be most compressed .
None of these layers have skip connections over them.
Regarding the autoencoder’s decoder, this is created by simply inverting the architecture using upsampling.
The autoencoder’s bottleneck is h 4 .
The hyper-parameters for the PixelCNN++ decoder models were set according to the original paper.
Regarding conditioning on h : this is accomplished by either up- or down-sampling h to ﬁt all necessary layers (Appendix B.1 expands on this).
5. T RAINING
Both the classiﬁer and autoencoder weights were optimised using SGD with a learning rate of 0 .and
cosine annealing to zero over 200 epochs, a momentum factor of 0 .
9 and a L2 weight decay factor of 0 . 0005 .
We used the leaky ReLU non-linearity.
Cross-entropy loss was used for the classiﬁer, while mean-squared-error (MSE) loss was used for the autoencoder.
Our implementation was written in PyTorch (Paszke et al., 2017).
For clarity, Algorithm 1 in Appendix C gives a breakdown of the experimental procedure we followed.
5. D ATA : CINIC-
The analysis in this paper requires computing MI using decoder models, presenting a challenge in that this is a data-hungry process.
We need: (1) enough data to train the models under scrutiny; (2) enough data to train the decoder models; and (3) enough data for the actual MI estimate (Equation 3).
Moreover, the above requirements need separate data drawn from the same distribution to avoid data contamination and overﬁtting, particularly for PixelCNN++.
Hence, we require a three-way split:
Encoding , for training the autoencoder and classifer; 2.
Decoding , for training the models under which MI is computed; and 3.
Evaluation , to provide unbiased held-out estimates of I ( x ; h ) and I ( y ; h ) .
Since CIFAR-10 (Krizhevsky, 2009) is too small and Imagenet (Deng et al., 2009) is too difﬁcult, we used a recently compiled dataset called CINIC-10: CINIC-10 is Not Imagenet or CIFAR-10 (Darlow et al., 2018).
It was compiled by combining (downsampled) images from the Imagenet database with
CIFAR-10.
It consists of 270,000 images split into 3 equal subsets, which we use as the encoding, decoding, and evaluation sets.
In the next section we discuss observations from tracking MI.
O BSERVATIONS : IB P RINCIPLE FOR A R ES N ET
Shwartz-Ziv & Tishby (2017) made a number of claims regarding deep learning.
We make observations in this section and connect them to the IB interpretation.
In Section 6.1 we show and discuss a series of ﬁgures that shows that both ﬁtting and compression occur in a ResNet.
In Section 6.
we illustrate the quality of information kept and discarded by analysis of conditionally generated images from the PixelCNN++ model.
6. MI T RACKING
Figure 2 gives the information curves expressed in the same fashion as in earlier work (Shwartz-Ziv & Tishby, 2017; Saxe et al., 2018); Figure 3 tracks the MI for classiﬁer and autoencoder training.
Appendix E gives some training curves for the PixelCNN++ decoding models to show their convergence behaviour and clarify the associated computational burden of this work.
Classiﬁcation For classiﬁcation
I ( y ; h j ) always increases and greater changes in MI can be seen for later layers.
The convergence point (200 epochs) is the point at which I ( y ; h 1 )
≈ I
( y ; h 2 ) ≈
I ( y ; h 3 ) , where I ( y ; h j ) is maximised in all layers subject to model constraints.
The convergence of all layers to a similar information content shows that neural networks are good at passing target
[Figure]
I ( y ;
[Figure]
j )
[Figure]
information forward .
The lighter crosses in Figure 3 (a) are from linear probes (Alain & Bengio, 2016) to show that all layers become more linearly separable while maximising I ( y ; h j ) .
A ﬁtting stage is clear for all measured layers, where I ( h ; y ) ﬁrst increased.
This stage was not as short as initially suggested (Shwartz-Ziv & Tishby, 2017) as it took between 5 and 10 epochs.
This indicates that the initial ﬁtting phase of learning may have a larger inﬂuence on the solution the network ﬁnds.
The initial representation learning can be seen as learning a good representation that enables compression.
For convolutional ResNets, this process is non-trivial.
We observed compression of information in hidden layers for classiﬁcation , shown in Figure 3 (c) by the fact that the MI between input and hidden activations decreases .
These observations do not necessarily contradict the ﬁndings of Saxe et al.
, but it does serve to show that compression does indeed occur in this setting.
h 4 begins compressing ﬁrst but also compresses the least ( 67 nats ).
The layer immediately preceding the average pooling – h 3 – begins compressing between 5 andepochs and compresses almost twice as much ( 120 nats ).
Finally, the earliest layer we tracked – h– compressed from approximately 10 epochs and to a greater degree than other layers ( 267 nats ).
Next, we turn our attention to autoencoding since earlier work has focused solely on classiﬁcation.
Autoencoding We observed compression in hidden layers for autoencoding.
Moreover, classrelevant information in the bottleneck layer is also compressed (exempliﬁed by I ( y ; h 3 ) ).
This is because for autoencoding target is class-indifferent.
This may explain why simple autoencoding often does not perform well as a pretraining regime for classiﬁcation without explicit target-based ﬁne-tuning (Erhan et al., 2009).
Compression during autoencoding is surprising since the target is identical to the input: there is no target-irrelevant information.
An explanation could be that the autoencoder learns a representation that is easier for decoding , even at the cost of reducing the MI at the bottleneck layer.
6. C ONDITIONALLY G ENERATED P IXEL CNN++ S AMPLES
In this section we show and discuss conditionally generated samples to illustrate the type of information kept and discarded by a ResNet classiﬁer.
Conditional PixelCNN++ Samples were processed for the classiﬁer set-up only, since the samples for the autoencoder were almost entirely indistinguishable from the input.
Samples are given in Figures 4 and 5, conditioned on h 3 and h 4 , respectively.
Samples conditioned on h 2 are given in Appendix D. Inspecting these samples for classiﬁer training gives an intuitive perspective of what quality of information is compressed by the ResNet, in order to classify well.
The capacity of h 4 is 16 × smaller than h 3 and the samples evidence this.
These results serve two purposes: (1) they conﬁrm claims of the IB principle regarding irrelevant infor-
[Figure]
[Figure]
I ( x ; h j ) l o w e r b o und
[Figure]
I ( x ; h j ) l o w e r b o und h 2 , ∆ c = 732 nats h 3 , ∆ c = 72 nats h 4 , ∆ c = 64 nats ’ E p D ( x , h 2 ) [log q ( x | h 2 )] ’ E p D
( x , h 3 ) [log q ( x | h 3 )] ’ E p D
( x , h 4 ) [log q ( x | h 4 )]
[Figure]
mation compression; and (2) they give insight into what image invariances a ResNet learns, which could motivate future work in designing models that target these properties.
[Figure]
The original images processed for h 3 are shown in (a).
Ten epochs is close to the peak of the ﬁtting stage, while 200 epochs is the end of learning.
Unnecessary features (e.g., background colour) are preserved at 10 epochs, and the sample diversity is greater at 200 epochs.
I ( h 3 ; x ) is lower atepochs compared to no learning (Figure 3), but the quality of preserved information is better.
What the network keeps and discards Consider that the network compresses information in h 3 such that at its ﬁnal state there is less information than at initialisation – Figure 3 (c).
When inspecting the samples of Figure 4 (b) and (f), we see that even though the information content is higher at network initialisation, the sampled images look like poor renditions of their classes.
The network learns to keep the useful information .
In contrast to this observation we note that not all irrelevant information is discarded .
The trees behind the truck in the ﬁnal row of Figure 5 (f) illustrate this.
At initialisation the network weights are random.
Even with this random network, information is forward propagated to h 4 enough to generate the samples in Figure 5 (b).
Even though these samples share characteristics (such as background colours) with the input, they are not readily recognisable and the shape of the class-relevant components is often lost.
Colour speciﬁc invariances Foreground and background colour partial-invariance is illustrated in both h 3 and h 4 at the end of training.
Consider the car and truck samples to see how the foreground colour of these vehicles is not kept by the layers.
The horse samples show background colour variation.
The samples in the deer and truck classes in Figure 5 (f) are still clearly within class but deviate signiﬁcantly from the input image (a).
The samples conditioned on h 3 later in training, shown in Figure 4 (e) and (f), are more varied than earlier in training.
Class irrelevant information – such as the colours of backgrounds (grass, sky, water, etc.) or the speciﬁc colour of cars or trucks – is not kept, resulting in more varied samples that nonetheless resemble the input images.
An unconditional PixelCNN++ was also trained for comparison (see Appendix F for loss curves and unconditionally generated samples).
[Figure]
original images processed for h 3 are shown in (a).
D ISCUSSION AND C ONCLUSION
The ResNet architecture enables very deep CNNs.
We show that learning representations using a ResNet results in information compression in hidden layers.
We set out in this research to test some of the claims by Shwartz-Ziv & Tishby (2017) regarding the information bottleneck principle applied to deep learning.
By deﬁning a lower bound on the MI and ‘decoder’ models to compute the MI during classiﬁer and autoencoder training regimes, we explored the notion of compression for generalisation in the context of realistic images and a modern architecture choice.
For both classiﬁcation and autoencoding we observed two stages of learning, characterised by: (1) an initial and relatively short-lived increase and (2) a longer decrease in MI between hidden layers and input training data.
Although we cannot conﬁrm the mechanism responsible for compression ( stochastic relaxation , for example), we gave an intuitive glimpse into what quality/type of information is kept and discarded as ResNets learn.
PixelCNN++ models were used to estimate the MI between hidden layers (of the models under scrutiny) and input data; images were generated conditioned on hidden layers to illustrate the ﬁtting and compression of data in a visual and intuitive fashion.
The experimental procedure we developed for this research enables visualising class invariances throughout training.
In particular, we see that when a ResNet is maximally (subject to model constraints) compressing information in its hidden layers, the class-irrelevant features of the input images are discarded: conditionally generated samples vary more while retaining information relevant to classiﬁcation.
This result has been shown in theory and for toy examples, but never illustrated to the degree that we do here
A A RCHITECTURE
The encoder architecture used in this research is shown in Figure 6.
B P IXEL CNN++ DECODER MODEL
The original PixelCNN formulation (van den Oord et al., 2016) is autoregressive in the sense that it models an image by decomposing the joint distribution as a product of conditionals: [Equation]
where each x m is a pixel in the image and h is included for completeness.
PixelCNN estimates each colour channel of each pixel using a 255-way softmax function, while the PixelCNN++ improvement does this by estimating a colour-space deﬁned by a K -way (with K = 10 in the original usage) discretized mixture of logistic sigmoids:
[Equation]
/ 3x3 conv; stride 1; 16 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 16 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 16 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 16 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 32 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 32 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 32 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 64 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 64 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 64 ﬁlters 4x4 average pooling 3x3 conv; stride 1; 16 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 16 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 16 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 2; 32 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 32 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 32 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 2; 64 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 64 ﬁlters 3x3 conv; stride 1; 64 ﬁlters x : 32x32x h 2 :
16x16x h 1 : 32x32x h 3 : 8x8x h 4 :
CLASSIFY
AUTOENCODER DECODE / where π m k is the k th logistic sigmoid mixture coefﬁcient for pixel i , µ m k and s m k are the corresponding mean and scale of the sigmoid, σ ( · ) .
The discretization is accomplished by binning the network’s output within ± 0 .
The colour channels are coupled by a simple factorisation into three components (red, green, and blue).
First, the red channel is predicted using Equation 5.
Next, the green channel is predicted in the same way, but the means of the mixture components, µ m , are allowed to depend on the value of the red pixel.
The blue channel depends on both red and green channels in this way.
Salimans et al.
(2017) argued that assuming a latent continuous colour intensity and modelling it with a simple continuous distribution (Equation 5) results in more condensed gradient propagation, and a memory efﬁcient predictive distribution for x .
Other improvements included down-sampling to capture non-local dependencies and additional skip connections to speed up training.
B. C ONDITIONING
The conditioning variable is added to each gated convolution residual block, of which there are six per each of the ﬁve hyper-layers in PixelCNN++.
The gated convolution residual block structure was shown empirically to improve results.
The activations of a gated residual block are split into two equal parts and one half is processed through a sigmoid function to produce a mask of values in the range [0 , 1] .
This is element-wise multiplied with the other half of the activations as the ‘gate’.
As for the conditioning variable, it is conventionally a one-hot encoded class label vector that is added to the activations of each gated residual block.
Considering the layers chosen for scrutiny in this work (Figure 6), most of the conditioning variables are three-dimensional: two spatial dimensions and a channel dimension.
Additionally, we must account for the down-sampling used in
PixelCNN++.
Therefore, there are four possible transformations of h before it can be integrated into the PixelCNN++ model:
The conditioning variable is larger (regarding spatial width and height) than the activations to which it needs to be added.
The conditioning variable is down-sampled using a strided convolution of two and (if necessary) average pooling with a kernel size of two.
The ﬁlter width is matched in this same convolution.
The conditioning variable is smaller than the activations.
A sub-pixel shufﬂe convolution (Shi et al., 2016a;b) is used for up-sampling.
The sub-pixel shufﬂe is an alternative to deconvolution or nearest neighbour up-sampling that allows the model to learn the correct up-sampling without unnecessary padding.
A non-strided convolution with a kernel of one matches the ﬁlter width.
The conditioning variable is the same size as the activations.
A non-strided convolution with a kernel of one matches the ﬁlter width.
The conditioning variable is, instead, a vector – h 4 in Figure 6.
The dot product of these and the appropriately sized weight matrix are taken to match the activations.
If, for example, h = h 2 is a (16 × 16) × 32 (two-dimensional with 32 ﬁlters, the second hyper-layer in Figure 6) hidden representation, the ﬁrst three aforementioned transformations would be in effect because the conﬁguration of PixelCNN++ (Salimans et al., 2017) means that there are activations with spatial resolutions of (32 × 32) , (16 × 16) , and (8 × 8) , to which the conditioning variable must be added.
C S UMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH D M ORE S AMPLES
Figure 7 shows conditional samples generated by conditioning PixelCNN++ models on h 2 (see
Figure 6), respectively.
h 2 showed the most compression (Figure 3) but the quality of information that was compressed clearly did not inﬂuence the structure of the samples.
Instead, global hue and
Algorithm
1: procedure T RACK MI( model = classifier ) 2: for epoch from 1 to 200 do 3: modelParameters ← train( model, D encoding ) 4: if require MI query then 5: for h j in h all do 6: freeze( model , layer =
h j ) 7: train( decoderForward, D decoding ) (cid:46) partially frozen classifer 8: train( decoderInverse, D decoding ) (cid:46) PixelCNN++ 9:
MI forward h j ,epoch ← estimateMI( decoderForward, D evaluation ) 10:
MI inverse h j ,
epoch ← estimateMI( decoderInverse, D evaluation ) colour variations were inﬂuenced at this layer.
This comparison is important because it evidences that merely measuring the MI alone does not give an encompassing perspective of what type and quality of information is compressed in a CNN.
[Figure]
E
[Equation]
Figures 8 and 9 exemplify the convergence regime for the PixelCNN++ decoding models.
Even after 250 epochs of training convergence was yet to be reached.
On a single Titan 1080ti GPU each of these training runs took approximately 15 days
[Figure]
Each set of curves shows the decoding run for one data point in Figure 3.
These models were stopped at decoding owing to time and computation constraints
[Figure]
Each set of curves shows the decoding run for one data point in Figure 3.
These models were stopped at 250 epochs of decoding owing to time and computation constraints
[Figure]
F U NCONDITIONAL P IXEL CNN++
Figure 10 shows the training curves for an unconditional PixelCNN++ trained on the encoder dataset of CINIC-10.
Samples generated are shown in Figure 11, giving context and scale to the type of samples generated in this work.
[Figure]
N
LL
[Figure]