I NTRACLASS CLUSTERING : AN IMPLICIT LEARNING ABILITY THAT REGULARIZES DNN S
A BSTRACT
Several works have shown that the regularization mechanisms underlying deep neural networks’ generalization performances are still poorly understood (Neyshabur et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2017).
In this paper, we hypothesize that deep neural networks are regularized through their ability to extract meaningful clusters among the samples of a class.
Since no explicit training mechanisms or supervision target such behaviour, this learning ability constitutes an implicit form of regularization .
To support our hypothesis, we design four different measures of intraclass clustering, based on the neuron- and layer-level representations of the training data.
We then show that these measures constitute accurate predictors of generalization performance across variations of a large set of hyperparameters (learning rate, batch size, optimizer, weight decay, dropout rate, data augmentation, network depth and width).
I NTRODUCTION
The generalization ability of deep neural networks remains largely unexplained.
In particular, the traditional view that explicit forms of regularization (e.g. dropout, L 2 -regularization, data augmentation) are the sole factors for generalization performance of state of the art neural networks has been experimentally invalidated (Neyshabur et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2017).
Today’s conventional wisdom rather conjectures the presence of implicit forms of regularization, emerging from the interactions between neural network architectures, optimization, and the inherent structure of the data itself (Arpit et al., 2017).
One structural component that seems to occur in most image classiﬁcation datasets is the presence of multiple clusters amongst the samples of a class (or intraclass clusters , cfr.
Figure 1).
The extraction of such structure in the context of supervised learning is not self-evident, as today’s standard training algorithms are designed to group samples from a class together, without any considerations for eventual intraclass clusters.
This paper hypothesizes that the identiﬁcation of intraclass clusters emerges during supervised training of deep neural networks, despite the absence of supervision or explicit training mechanisms targeting this behaviour.
Moreover, our study suggests that this phenomenon improves the generalization ability of deep neural networks, hence constituting an implicit form of regularization.
To verify our hypotheses, we deﬁne four measures of intraclass clustering and inspect the correlation between those measures and a network’s generalization performance.
These measures are designed to capture intraclass clustering from four different perspectives, deﬁned by the representation level (neuron vs. layer) and the amount of knowledge about the data’s inherent structure (datasets with or without hierarchical labels).
To evaluate these measures’ predictive power, we train more than 500 models, varying standard hyperparameters in a principled way in order to generate a wide range of generalization performances.
The measures are then evaluated qualitatively through visual inspection of their relationship with generalization and quantitatively through the granulated Kendall rank-correlation coefﬁcient introduced by Jiang et al.
Both evaluations reveal a tight connection between intraclass clustering measures and generalization ability, providing important evidence to support this work’s hypotheses.
M EASURING INTRACLASS CLUSTERING IN INTERNAL REPRESENTATIONS
A challenge of our work resides in measuring a model’s ability to differentiate intraclass clusters, without knowing which mechanisms underlie such ability.
In such context, the design of multiple complementary measures (i) offers different perspectives that will help better characterize intraclass clustering mechanisms and (ii) reduces the risk that their potential correlation with generalization is induced by other phenomena independent of intraclass clustering.
This section thus describes four measures of intraclass clustering, differing in terms of representation level (neuron vs. layer) and the amount of knowledge about the data’s inherent structure (datasets with or without hierarchical labels).
2. T ERMINOLOGY AND NOTATIONS
D denotes the training dataset.
Let I be the number of classes in the dataset D , we denote the set of samples from class i by C i with i ∈
I = { 1 , 2 , ..., I } .
In the case of hierarchical labels, C i denotes the samples from subclass i and S s ( i ) the samples from the superclass containing subclass i .
We denote by N = { 1 , 2 , ..., N } and L = { 1 , 2 , ..., L } the indexes of the N neurons and L layers of a network respectively.
Neurons are considered across all the layers of a network, not a speciﬁc layer.
The methodology by which indexes are assigned to neurons or layers does not matter.
We further denote by mean j ∈J and median j ∈J the mean and median operations over the index j respectively.
Moreover, mean kj ∈J corresponds to the mean of the top- k highest values, over the index j .
We call pre-activations (and activations) the values preceding (respectively following) the application of the ReLU activation function (Nair & Hinton, 2010).
In our experiments, batch normalization (Ioffe & Szegedy, 2015) is applied before the ReLU, and pre-activation values are collected after batch normalization.
In convolutional layers, a neuron refers to an entire feature map.
The spatial dimensions of such a neuron’s (pre-)activations are reduced through a global max pooling operation before applying our measures.
2. MEASURES BASED ON LABEL HIERARCHIES
The ﬁrst two measures take advantage of datasets that include a hierarchy of labels.
For example,
CIFAR100 is organized into 20 superclasses (e.g. ﬂowers) each comprising 5 subclasses (e.g. orchids, poppies, roses, sunﬂowers, tulips).
We hypothesize that these hierarchical labels reﬂect an inherent structure of the data.
In particular, we expect the subclasses to approximately correspond to different clusters amongst the samples of a superclass.
Hence, measuring the extent by which a network differentiates subclasses when being trained on superclasses should reﬂect its ability to extract intraclass clusters during training.
2.2. N EURON - LEVEL SUBCLASS SELECTIVITY
The ﬁrst measure quantiﬁes how selective individual neurons are for a given subclass C i with respect to the other samples of the associated superclass S s ( i ) .
Here, strong selectivity means that the subclass C i can be reliably discriminated from the other samples of S s ( i ) based on the neuron’s preactivations 1 .
Let µ n,E and σ n,E be the mean and standard deviation of a neuron n ’s pre-activation values taken over the samples of set E .
The measure is deﬁned as follows:
[Equation]
Since we cannot expect all neurons of a network to be selective for a given subclass, we only consider the top- k most selective neurons.
The measure thus relies on k neurons to capture the overall network’s ability to differentiate each subclass.
We noticed slightly better results when using the median operation instead of the mean to aggregate over the subclasses.
We suspect this arises from the outlier behaviour of certain subclasses that we observe in Section 4.5.
2.2. L AYER - LEVEL S ILHOUETTE SCORE
The second measure quantiﬁes to what extent the samples of a subclass are close together relative to the other samples from the associated superclass in the space induced by a layer’s activations .
In other words, we measure to what degree different subclasses can be associated to different clusters in the intermediate representations of a network.
We quantify this by computing the pairwise cosine distances 2 on the samples of a superclass and applying the Silhouette score (Kaufman & Rousseeuw, 2009) to assess the clustered structure of the subclasses.
Let silhouette ( a l , S s ( i ) , C i ) be the mean silhouette score of subclass C
i based on the activations a l of superclass S s ( i ) in layer l , the measure is then deﬁned as:
[Equation]
2. M EASURES BASED ON VARIANCE
To establish the generality of our results, we also design two measures that can be applied in absence of hierarchical labels.
We hypothesize that the discrimination of intraclass clusters should be reﬂected by a high variance in the representations associated to a class.
If all the samples of a class are mapped to close-by points in the neuron- or layer-level representations, it is likely that the neuron/layer did not identify intraclass clusters.
2.3. V ARIANCE IN THE NEURON - LEVEL REPRESENTATIONS OF THE DATA
The ﬁrst variance measure is based on standard deviations of a neuron’s pre-activations.
If the standard deviation computed over the samples of a class is high compared to the standard deviation computed over the entire dataset, we infer that the neuron has learned features that differentiate samples belonging to this class.
The measure is deﬁned as:
[Equation]
A visual representation of the measure is provided in Figure 2.
2.3. V ARIANCE IN THE LAYER - LEVEL REPRESENTATIONS OF THE DATA
The fourth measure transfers the neuron-level variance approach to layers by computing the standard deviations over the pairwise cosine distances calculated in the space induced by the layer’s activations.
Let Σ l,E be the standard deviation of the pairwise cosine distances between the samples of set E in the space induced by layer l .
The measure is deﬁned as:
[Equation]
To compute this measure, we found it helpful to standardize the representations of different neurons.
More precisely, we normalize each neuron’s pre-activations to have zero mean and unit variance, then apply a bias and ReLU activation function such that 25% of the samples are activated 3 .
This makes the measure invariant to rescaling and translation of each neuron’s preactivations.
Intuitively, a high ratio means that the neuron relies on features that differentiate samples from C i although they belong to the same class.
Despite its simplicity, our results in Section 4 suggest a remarkably strong connection between c 3 and generalization performance.
This illustration of measure c 3 is based on a neuron from our experimental study, and the associated ratio is 2 . 47 .
E XPERIMENTAL SETUP
The purpose of our experimental endeavour is to assess the predictive power of the proposed intraclass clustering measures with respect to the generalization performance.
To this end, we reproduce the methodology introduced by Jiang et al.
First of all, this methodology puts emphasis on the scale of the experiments to improve the generality of the observations.
Second, it tries to go beyond standard measures of correlation, and puts extra care to detect causal relationships between the measures and generalization performance.
This is achieved through a systematic variation of multiple hyperparameters when building the set of models to be studied, combined with the application of principled correlation measures.
3. B UILDING A SET OF MODELS WITH VARYING HYPERPARAMETERS
Our experiments are conducted on three datasets and two network architectures.
The datasets are
CIFAR10, CIFAR100 and the coarse version of CIFAR100 with 20 superclasses (Krizhevsky &
Hinton, 2009).
The two network architectures are Wide ResNets
(He et al., 2016; Zagoruyko &
Komodakis, 2016) (applied on CIFAR100 datasets) and VGG variants (Simonyan & Zisserman, 2014) (applied on CIFAR10 dataset).
Both architectures use batch normalization layers (Ioffe &
Szegedy, 2015) since they greatly facilitate the training procedure.
In order to build a set of models with a wide range of generalization performances, we vary hyperparameters that are known to be critical.
Since varying multiple hyperparameters improves the identiﬁcation of causal relationships, we vary 8 different hyperparameters : learning rate, batch size, optimizer (SGD or Adam (Kingma & Ba, 2015)), weight decay, dropout rate (Srivastava et al., 2014), data augmentation, network depth and width.
In total, we elaborated a set of 192 hyperparameter conﬁgurations for each dataset-architecture pair 4 .
More information about the hyperparameter conﬁgurations, training procedures and the resulting model performances are provided in Appendix (A.1, A.2, A.3 and A.4).
It is worth noting that most models achieve close to 100% training accuracy.
Hence, models with poor test accuracy largely overﬁt.
3. E VALUATING THE MEASURES ’ PREDICTIVE POWER
Jiang et al.
(2020) provides multiple criteria to evaluate generalization measures.
We opted for the granulated Kendall coefﬁcient for its simplicity and intuitiveness.
This coefﬁcient compares two rankings of the models, respectively provided by (i) the generalization measure of interest and (ii) their actual generalization performance.
The Kendall coefﬁcient is computed across variations of each hyperparameter independently.
The average over all hyperparameters is then computed for the ﬁnal score.
The goal of this approach is to better capture causal relationships by not overvaluing measures that correlate with generalization only when speciﬁc hyperparameters are tuned.
We compare our intraclass clustering-based measures to sharpness-based measures.
The latter constituted the most promising measure family from the large-scale study presented in Jiang et al.
Among the many different sharpness measures, we leverage the magnitude-aware versions that measure sharpness through random and worst-case perturbations of the weights (denoted by 1 σ (cid:48) and 1 α (cid:48) , respectively, in Jiang et al.
We also include the application of these measures with perturbations applied on kernels only (i.e. not on biases and batch normalization weights) with batch normalization layers in batch statistics mode (i.e. not in inference mode).
We observed that these alternate versions often provided better estimations of generalization performance.
We denote these measures by 1 σ (cid:48)(cid:48) and 1 α (cid:48)(cid:48) .
R ESULTS
This section starts with a thorough evaluation of the relationship between the four proposed measures and the generalization performance, using the setup described in 3.
Then, it presents a series of experiments to better characterize intraclass clustering, the phenomenon we expect to be captured by the measures.
These experiments include (i) an analysis of the measures’ evolution across layers and training iterations, (ii) a study of the neuron-level measures’ sensitivity to k in the mean over top- k operation, as well as (iii) visualizations of subclass extraction in individual neurons.
4. E VALUATING THE MEASURES ’ RELATIONSHIPS WITH GENERALIZATION
We compute all four measures on the models trained on the CIFAR100 superclasses, and the two variance-based measures on the models trained on standard CIFAR100 and CIFAR10.
We set k = 30 for the neuron-level measures, meaning that 30 neurons per subclass (for c 1 ) or class (for c 3 ) are used to capture intraclass clustering.
For the layer-level measures, we set k = 5 for residual networks and k = 1 for VGG networks.
We start our assessment of the measures’ predictive power by visualizing their relationship with generalization performance in Figure 3.
We observe a clear trend across datasets, network architectures and measures, suggesting a tight connection between intraclass clustering and generalization.
To further support the conclusions of our visualizations, we evaluate the measures’ predictive power through the granulated Kendall coefﬁcient (cfr.
Section 3.2).
Tables 1, 2 and 3 present the granulated Kendall rank-correlation coefﬁcients associated with intraclass clustering and sharpness-based measures, for the three dataset-architecture pairs (Tables 2 and 3 are in Appendix A.5).
The Kendall coefﬁcients further conﬁrm the observations in Figure 3 by revealing strong correlations between intraclass clustering measures and generalization performance across all hyperparameters .
In terms of overall score, intraclass clustering measures surpass the sharpness-based measures variants by a large margin across all dataset-architecture pairs.
On some speciﬁc hyperparameters, sharpness-based measures outperform intraclass clustering measures.
In particular, 1 α (cid:48) performs remarkably well when the batch size parameter is varied, which is coherent with previous work (Keskar et al., 2017).
4. I NFLUENCE OF k ON THE K ENDALL COEFFICIENTS OF NEURON - LEVEL MEASURES
In our evaluation of the measures in Section 4.1, the k parameter, which controls the number of highest values considered in the mean over top- k operations, was ﬁxed quite arbitrarily.
Figureshows how the Kendall coefﬁcient of c 1 and c 3 changes with this parameter.
We observe a relatively low sensitivity of the measures’ predictive power with respect to k .
In particular, in the case of
[Table]
Resnets trained on CIFAR100 the Kendall coefﬁcient associated with c 3 seems to stay above 0 .
7 for any k in the range [1 , 900] .
The optimal k value changes with the considered dataset and architecture.
We leave the study of this dependency as a future work.
Observing the inﬂuence of k also confers insights about the phenomenon captured by the measures.
Figure 4 reveals that very small k values work remarkably well.
Using a single neuron per subclass ( k = 1 in Equation 1) confers a Kendall coefﬁcient of 0 .
69 to c 1 .
Using a single neuron per class confers a Kendall coefﬁcient of 0 .
78 to c 3 in the case of VGGs trained on CIFAR10.
These results suggest that individual neurons play a crucial role in the extraction of intraclass clusters during training.
The fact that the Kendall coefﬁcients monotonically decrease after some k value suggests that the extraction of a given intraclass cluster takes place in a sub part of the network, indicating some form of specialization.
4. E VOLUTION OF THE MEASURES ACROSS LAYERS
We pursue our experimental endeavour with an analysis of the proposed measures’ evolution across layers.
For each dataset-architecture pair, we select 64 models which have the same depth hyperparameter value.
We then compute the four measures on a layer-level basis (we use the top-5 neurons of each layer for the neuron-level measures) and average the resulting values over the 64 models.
Figure 5 depicts how the average value of each measure evolves across layers for Resnets trained on
CIFAR100 superclasses.
The results associated with the two other dataset-architecture pairs are in
Appendix A.5, Figures 9 and 10.
We observe two interesting trends.
First, all four measures tend to increase with layer depth.
This suggests that intraclass clustering also occurs in the deepest representations of neural networks, and not merely in the ﬁrst layers, which are commonly assumed to capture generic or class-independent features.
Second, the variance based measures ( c 3 and c 4 ) decrease drastically in the penultimate layer.
We suspect this reﬂects the grouping of samples of a class in tight clusters in preparation for the ﬁnal classiﬁcation layer (such behaviour has been studied in Kamnitsas et al.
; M ¨ uller et al.
The measures c 1 and c 2 are robust to this phenomenon as they rely on relative distances inside a single class, irrespectively of the representations of the rest of the dataset.
layers.
The overall increase of the measures with layer depth suggests that intraclass clustering occurs even in the deepest representations of neural networks.
4. E VOLUTION OF THE MEASURES OVER THE COURSE OF TRAINING
In this section, we provide a small step towards the understanding of the dynamics of the phenomenon captured by the measures.
We visualize in Figure 6 the evolution of the measures over the course of training of three Resnet models.
The ﬁrst interesting observation comes from the comparison of models with high and low generalization performances.
It appears that their differences in terms of intraclass clustering measures arise essentially during the early phase of training .
The second observation is that signiﬁcant increases in intraclass clustering measures systematically coincide with signiﬁcant increases of the training accuracy (in the few ﬁrst epochs and around epoch 150 , where the learning rate is reduced).
This suggests that supervised training could act as a necessary driver for intraclass clustering ability, despite not explicitly targeting such behaviour.
4. V ISUALIZATION OF SUBCLASS EXTRACTION IN INDIVIDUAL NEURONS
We have seen in Section 4.2 that the measure c 1 reaches a Kendall coefﬁcient of 0 .
69 when considering a single neuron per subclass ( k = 1 in Eq. 1).
Visualizing the training dynamics in this speciﬁc neuron should enable us to directly observe the phenomenon captured by c 1 .
We study a Resnet model trained on CIFAR100 superclasses with high generalization performance ( 82 . 31% test accuracy).
For each of the 100 subclasses, we compute the selectivity value and the index of the most selective neuron based on the part of Eq.
1 to which the median operation is applied.
We then rank the subclasses by their selectivity value, and display the training dynamics of the neurons associated to the subclasses with maximum and median selectivity values in Figure 7.
The evolution of the neurons’ preactivation distributions along training reveals that the ’Rocket’ subclass, which has the highest selectivity value, is progressively distinguished from its corresponding superclass during training.
The neuron behaves like it was trained to identify this speciﬁc subclass although no supervision or explicit training mechanisms were implemented to target this behaviour.
The same phenomenon occurs to a lesser extent with the ’Ray’ subclass, which has the median selectivity value.
We observed that very few subclasses reached selectivity values as high as the ’Rocket’ subclass (the distribution of selectivity values is provided in Figure 11 in Appendix A.5).
We suspect that the occurrence of such outliers explain why the median operation outperformed the mean in the deﬁnition of c 1 and c 2 .
) for ’Rocket’ and ’Ray’ subclasses.
The neurons behave like they were trained to identify these speciﬁc subclasses although no supervision or explicit training mechanisms were implemented to target this behaviour.
4. D ISCUSSION
Our results show that all four measures (i) strongly correlate with generalization, (ii) tend to increase with layer depth and (iii) change mostly in the early phase of training.
These similarities suggest that the four measures capture one unique phenomenon.
Since all measures quantify to what extent a neural network differentiates samples from the same class, the captured phenomenon presumably consists in the identiﬁcation of intraclass clusters by neural networks.
This hypothesis is further supported by the neuron-level visualizations provided in Section 4.5.
Overall, our results thus provide empirical evidence for this works hypotheses, i.e. that intraclass clustering emerges during standard neural network training and constitutes an implicit form of regularization.
The mechanisms that induce intraclass clustering in deep neural networks remain undisclosed, leaving a lot of room for future work.
In particular, Section 4.2 reveals that understanding the local nature of intraclass clustering could lead to better estimation of the optimal k parameter and increase the measures’ predictive power.
Additionally, the neuron-level visualizations in Figuresand 7 suggest that quantifying the bimodal shape of a neuron’s preactivations for each class might provide an alternative measure of intraclass clustering that doesn’t require hierarchical labels.
R ELATED WORK
This work follows the line of inquiry initiated by Neyshabur et al.
; Zhang et al.
and tries to unveil the phenomena underlying the generalization ability of deep neural networks.
We follow an empirical approach based on the design of measures that correlate with generalization performance.
This approach has been extensively used in recent years, leading to measures such as sharpness of minima (Keskar et al., 2017), sensitivity (Novak et al., 2018), reliance on single directions (Morcos et al., 2018) and stiffness (Fort et al., 2019).
To our knowledge, we are the ﬁrst work to empirically study the relationship between intraclass clustering measures and generalization.
Many observations made in our paper are coherent with previous work.
In the context of transfer learning, Huh et al.
(2016) shows that representations that discriminate ImageNet classes naturally emerge when training on their corresponding superclasses, suggesting the occurrence of intraclass clustering.
Sections 4.2 and 4.5 suggest a key role for individual neurons in the extraction of intraclass clusters.
This is coherent with the large body of work that studied the emergence of interpretable features in the hidden neurons (or feature maps) of deep nets (Zeiler & Fergus, 2014;
Simonyan et al., 2014;
Yosinski et al., 2015; Zhou et al., 2015;
Bau et al., 2017).
In Section 4.4, we notice that intraclass clustering occurs mostly in the early phase of training.
Previous works have also highlighted the criticality of this phase of training with respect to regularization (Golatkar et al., 2019), optimization trajectories (Jastrzebski et al., 2020; Fort et al., 2020), Hessian eigenspectra (Gur-Ari et al., 2018), training data perturbations (Achille et al., 2019) and weight rewinding (Frankle et al., 2020a;b).
Morcos et al.
(2018); Leavitt & Morcos (2020) have shown that class-selective neurons are not necessary and might be detrimental for performance.
This is coherent with our observation that neurons that differentiate samples from the same class improve performance.
C ONCLUSION
Our work starts from the observation that classes of samples from standard image classiﬁcation datasets are usually structured into multiple clusters.
Since learning structure in the data is commonly associated to generalization, we ask if state-of-the-art neural network extract such clusters.
While no supervision or training mechanisms are explicitly programmed into deep neural networks for targeting this behaviour, it is possible that this learning ability implicitly emerges during training.
Such a hypothesis is especially compelling as recent work on generalization conjectured the emergence of implicit forms of regularization during deep neural network training.
Our work provides four different attempts at quantifying intraclass clustering.
We then conduct a large-scale experimental study to characterize intraclass clustering and its potential relationship with generalization performance.
Overall, the results suggest a crucial role for intraclass clustering in the regularization of deep neural networks.
We hope our work will stimulate further investigations of intraclass clustering and ultimately lead to a better understanding of the generalization properties of deep neural networks. A CKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks to the reviewers for suggesting several experiments that were added during the rebuttal phase and increased the quality of this paper.
Thanks to Amirafshar Moshtaghpour, Anne-Sophie Collin, Antoine Vanderschueren, Victor Joos de ter Beerst, Tahani Madmad, Pierre Carbonnelle, Vincent Francois, Gilles Peiffer for proofreading and helpful feedback.
Thanks to the Reddit r/machinelearning community for keeping us up to date with our fast-moving ﬁeld.
Simon and Christophe are Research Fellows of the Fonds de la Recherche Scientique FNRS which provided funding for this work.
A APPENDIX A. H YPERPARAMETER CONFIGURATIONS
We deﬁne here the hyperparameter conﬁgurations used to build our set of models (cfr.
Section 3.1).
A total of 8 hyperparameters are tuned: learning rate, batch size, optimizer, weight decay, dropout rate, data augmentation, network depth and width.
A straightforward way to generate conﬁgurations is to specify values for each hyperparameter independently and then generate all possible combinations.
However, given the amount of hyperparameters, this quickly leads to unrealistic amounts of models to be trained.
To deal with this, we decided to remove co-variations of hyperparameters whose inﬂuence on training and generalization is suspected to be related.
More precisely, we use weight decay only in combination with the highest learning rate value, as recent works demonstrated a relation between weight decay and learning rate (van Laarhoven, 2017; Zhang et al., 2019).
We also don’t combine dropout and data augmentation, as the effect of dropout is drastically reduced when data augmentation is used.
Finally, we do not jointly increase width and depth, to avoid very large models that would slow down our experiments.
The resulting hyperparameter values are as follows:
(Learning rate, Weight decay) : { (0 . 01 , 0 . ) , (0 . 32 , 0 . ) , (0 . 1 , 0 . ) , (0 . 1 , 4 · 10 − 5 ) } 2.
Batch size : { 100 , 300 } 3.
Optimizer : { SGD, Adam } 4.
(Dropout rate, Data augm.)
: { (0 ., true ) , (0 ., false ) , (0 . 2 , false ) , (0 . 4 , false ) } 5.
(Width factor, Depth factor) : { ( × 1 ., × 1 . ) , ( × 1 . 5 , × 1 . ) , ( × 1 ., × 1 . 5)) }
We generate all possible combinations of these hyperparameter values (or pairs of values), leading to 192 conﬁgurations.
Since dropout rates of 0 . 4 lead to poor training performance on VGG variants, only 144 conﬁgurations are used in these cases.
A. F URTHER INFORMATION ON THE HYPERPARAMETERS
It has been shown that different optimizers may require different learning rates for optimal performance (Wilson et al., 2017).
In our experiments, we divide the learning rate by 100 when using
Adam to improve its performance (the same approach is used in Jiang et al.
When using
SGD we apply a momentum of 0 .
We use the following data augmentations: horizontal and vertical shifts of up to 4 pixels, and horizontal ﬂips.
We ﬁll the resulting image through reﬂection.
This data augmentation procedure is widely used for the CIFAR datasets.
We use two types of network architectures: VGG and Wide ResNets.
We build these architectures using four stages, separated by 3 pooling layers.
This enabled a wider range of generalization performances, as the standard three stage versions of these architectures tend to be less capable of overﬁtting.
Width factors of × 1 .
and × 1 .
5 correspond to widths of 32 and 48 respectively in the layers of the ﬁrst stage.
The width of layers is doubled after every pooling layer.
Depth factors of × 1 .
and × 1 .
5 correspond to 9 and 13 layers for VGG variants, and 18 and 26 layers for Wide
ResNet variants.
A. F URTHER INFORMATION ON THE TRAINING PROCEDURE
We train models for 250 epochs, and reduce the learning rate by a factor 0 .
2 at epochs 150 , 230 , 240 .
Training stops prematurely if the training loss gets smaller than 10 − 4 .
[Figure]
A. S UPPLEMENTARY RESULTS
[Table] [Table]