MIMT: M ASKED I MAGE M ODELING T RANSFORMER FOR V IDEO C OMPRESSION
Anonymous authors
Paper under double-blind review
A BSTRACT
Deep learning video compression outperforms its hand-craft counterparts with enhanced flexibility and capacity.
One key component of the learned video codec is the autoregressive entropy model conditioned on spatial and temporal priors.
Operating autoregressive on raster scanning order naively treats the context as unidirectional.
This is neither efficient nor optimal considering that conditional information probably locates at the end of the sequence.
We thus introduce an entropy model based on a masked image modeling transformer (MIMT) to learn the spatial-temporal dependencies.
Video frames are first encoded into sequences of tokens and then processed with the transformer encoder as priors.
The transformer decoder learns the probability mass functions (PMFs) conditioned on the priors and masked inputs, and then it is capable of selecting optimal decoding orders without a fixed direction.
During training, MIMT aims to predict the PMFs of randomly masked tokens by attending to tokens in all directions.
This allows
MIMT to capture the temporal dependencies from encoded priors and the spatial dependencies from the unmasked tokens, i.e., decoded tokens.
At inference time, the model begins with generating PMFs of all masked tokens in parallel and then decodes the frame iteratively from the previously-selected decoded tokens (i.e., with high confidence).
In addition, we improve the overall performance with more techniques, e.g., manifold conditional priors accumulating a long range of information, shifted window attention to reduce complexity.
Extensive experiments demonstrate the proposed MIMT framework equipped with the new transformer entropy model achieves state-of-the-art performance on HEVC, UVG, and MCLJCV datasets, generally outperforming the VVC in terms of PSNR and SSIM.
I NTRODUCTION
Videos continue to grow exponentially as demand for various video applications increases on social media platforms and mobile devices.
Traditional video compression codecs, such as HEVC and VVC, are still moving toward more efficient, hardware-friendly, and versatile.
However, their framework still followed a hybrid coding framework that remained unchanged decades ago: spatialtemporal prediction coding plus transformation-based residual coding.
Neural video compression surged to outperform handcraft codecs by optimizing the rate-distortion loss in an end-to-end manner.
One line of earlier work replaces traditional coding modules, including motion estimation, optical-flow-based warping, and residual coding modules with neural networks.
Recently, residual coding has been proved to be suboptimal compared with context coding.
Moreover, a pixel in frame x t is related to all pixels in the previously decoded frames x <t and pixels already decoded at x t .
Due to the huge space, it is impossible for traditional video codecs to explore the correlation between all rules using handcrafted rules explicitly.
Using the entropy model to exploit the spatial-temporal dependencies from the current and past decoded frames can vastly reduce data redundancies.
The transformer is rising for computer vision tasks, including low-level image analysis.
Inspired by the language-translation model, VCT (Mentzer et al., 2022) for the first time uses a transformer as the conditional entropy model to predict the probability mass function (PMF) from the previous frames.
VCT uses the estimated probability to losslessly compress the quantized latent feature map ˆ y t without direct warping or residual coding modules.
The better transformer bits
For VCT, the transformer decoder is an autoregressive model which regards video frames naively as sequences of tokens and decodes the current frame y t sequentially in a raster scanning order (i.e., token-by-token).
We find this strategy neither optimal nor efficient, and thus, we propose a masked image modeling transformer (MIMT) using bidirectional attention.
During training, MIMT aims to optimize a proxy task similar to the mask prediction in BERT (Devlin et al., 2018) and BEIT (Bao et al., 2021) to predict the PMFs of masked tokens.
At inference, MIMT adopts a novel nonsequential autoregressive decoding method to predict the image in a few steps.
Each step keeps the most confident (smallest entropy) token for the next iteration.
Our contributions are summarized as follows: (1) We design an entropy model based on a bidirectional transformer MIMT to compress the spatial-temporal redundancy in video frames.
MIMT is trained on masked image modeling tasks.
It can capture temporal information from past frames and spatial information from the decoded tokens at inference time.
(2) More techniques are introduced to make our video compression model versatile.
We employ manifold priors, including the recurrent latent prior, to accumulate an extended range of decoded frames.
To further reduce
MIMT complexity, we introduce alternating transformer layers with non-overlapping shifted window attention.
The proposed MIMT achieves state-of-the-art compression results with all these improvements.
It generally outperforms the last H.266 (VTM) in terms of PSNR and SSIM.
The bitrate saving over H.266 (VTM) is 29.6% on the UVG dataset in terms of PSNR.
R ELATED W ORK
Video Compression.
Lu et al.
(2019) developed the DVC model with all modules in the traditional hybrid video codec replaced by the network.
DVC-Pro is proposed with a more advanced entropy model and deeper network (Lu et al., 2020).
Agustsson et al.
(2020) extended optical-flow-based estimation to a 3D transformation by adding a scale dimension.
Hu et al.
(2020) considered ratedistortion optimization when encoding motion vectors.
In Lin et al.
(2020), a single reference frame is extended to multiple reference frames.
Yang et al.
(2020) proposed a residual encoder and decoder based on RNN to exploit accumulated temporal information.
Deviated from the residual coding, DCVC (Li et al., 2021) employed contextual coding to compensate for the shortness of the residual coding scheme.
Mentzer et al.
(2022) proposed simplifying the ”hand-craft” video compression network of explicit motion estimation, warp, and residual coding with a transformer-based temporal model.
Contemporary work from Li et al.
(2022) uses multiple modules, e.g., learnable quantization and parallel entropy model, to improve significantly the compression performance, which surpasses the latest VVC codec.
AlphaVC (Shi et al., 2022) introduced several techniques, e.g., conditional I-frame and pixel-to-feature motion prediction, to effectively improve the rate-distortion performance.
Masked Image Modeling.
Masked language modeling, first proposed in BERT (Devlin et al., 2018), has revolutionized the field of natural language processing, significantly when scaling to large datasets and huge models (Brown et al., 2020).
The success in NLP has also been replicated in vision tasks by masking patches of pixels (He et al., 2022) or masking tokens generated by a pretrained dVAE (Bao et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2022).
Recently, these works have also been extended to other domains to learn good representations for action recognition (Tong et al., 2022; Feichtenhofer et al., 2022), video prediction (Gupta et al., 2022), and image generation (Chang et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2022).
M ETHOD
As shown in Fig.
1, we encode a sequence of (RGB) video frames { x t } T t =1 into latent tokens { y t } Tt =1 , using a CNN-based image encoder.
Next, we get a temporal sequence { ˆ y t − 1 , . . .
, ˆ y 1 } from the decoded frames buffer.
We use decoded sequence to compress y t with the transformer entropy model for non-sequential autoregressive.
At the receiver side, we recover ˆ y t and reconstruct frames { ˆ x t } Tt =1 with a CNN-based image decoder by feeding with the quantized latent tokens { ˆ y t } T t =1 .
[Figure]
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P RELIMINARY
Given the true PMF p ( y t ) and the estimated PMF q ( y t )
[Figure]
we use arithmetic coding (AC)
(Langdon, 1984) to transmit { y t } Tt =1 with expected bit-rate of H ( p, q ) which is expressed as the cross entropy:
H ( p
[Equation]
with c as the conditional information of y t , e.g., hyper-prior, spatial autoregressive context.
The expected bit-rate can be reduced if y t has higher certainty.
We can encode more frequently occurring values with fewer bits, and hence improve the efficiency.
For this purpose, video coding exploits temporal relationship from previous frames { y t − 1 , . . .
, y 1 } to reduce the estimated bit-rate:
[Equation]
Our main idea is to parameterize q ( y t | y t − 1 , . . .
, y 1 , c ) as a conditional distribution using a MIMT to minimize the cross-entropy H ( p, q ) .
3. CNN- BASED I MAGE E NCODER /D ECODER
Video is transformed with a CNN-based image encoder to reduce dimensionality.
Each frame x t ∈ R H
× W × 3 is represented as a grid of tokens y t ∈ R h × w × d C .
The image encoder downsamples the raw image spatially and increases the channel dimension, yielding ( h, w, d C ) dimensional tokens where ( h, w ) are 16 × smaller than ( H, W ) .
We reconstruct image ˆ x t with a decoder D ( ˆ y t ) .
One straightforward way is to train E, D using standard neural image compression.
But this independent transformation without any temporal hints would lay heavy burdens on the conditional coding transformer, considering that the previously decoded frame ˆ x t − 1 loses rich information as it only contain 3 channels.
Thus, it is also not optimal to learn temporal contexts merely from ˆ x t − 1 .
Following the contextual encoder-decoder (Sheng et al., 2021; Li et al., 2022), we also build the image encoder E and decoder D using motion v t with little bit-stream overhead:
[Equation]
where v t is estimated from optical flow network f mv ( x t , x t − 1 ) , and f context ( ˆ y t − 1 , ˆ v t )) generates multi-scale warped feature map aligned in the t -frame space.
3. M ASKED I MAGE M ODELING T RANSFORMER E NTROPY M ODEL
Compressing the current frame y t can be formulated as a sequential autoregressive.
Let y t = (cid:2)
y it (cid:3) N i =1 denote the latent tokens obtained by feeding the image x t to the encoder, where N is the length of the flattened token matrix.
Given already transmitted tokens y <i t , the transformer learns to
Swin Transformer Decoder
Convolution Parameter Network
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positionembedding latent embedding
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Recurrent
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predict the probability distribution of next index, i.e., q ( y it ) .
This allows us to directly minimize:
[Equation]
As illustrated in Fig.
3, sequential autoregressive model can only make predictions based on the observed pixels (left upper part of the target pixel) due to the inductive bias caused by the strict adherence to the unidirectional scanning order.
The fixed scanning order may achieve suboptimal performance.
For example, if the informative condition is located at the end of the autoregressive sequence, it is difficult for the model to take full advantage of such relevant information.
We propose a bi-directional non-sequential transformer entropy model.
The training task of the transformer is masked image modeling.
The strategy is mask-then-predict which is straightforward: during training, we randomly mask some proportion of image tokens and feed the corrupted sequence to the transformer.
Fig.
2 shows the overview of our transformer entropy model.
M =
[ m i ]
Ni =1 is the corresponding mask.
We randomly sample a subset ( 0% ∼ 100% ) of tokens and replace them with a special learnable [ M ] token.
The token y it is replaced with [ M ] if m i
= 1 , otherwise, if m i = 0 , y it will be left intact.
Denote y M t as the masked sequence by applying M to y t .
The optimization objective is to minimize the cross entropy of the predicted PMFs and the true distribution, i.e., the expected bit rate:
[Equation]
We aim to fully exploit the temporal correlations from video frames { y t − 1 , . . .
, y 1 } .
In concrete, we feed manifold inputs to the MIM transformer and let the model learn complementary information from the rich temporal/spatial inputs which have different characteristics.
Side information s t is decoded from ˆ z t which is a hierarchical spatial estimation of y t ; ˆ y t − 1 is most correlated latent with y t in the past; r t − 1 is from a recurrent network with convolution layers and ConvLSTM cells.
Due to the recurrent structure, r t − 1 is generated based on all previous latents { ˆ y t − 2 , . . .
, ˆ y 1 } .
After transformer encoding, we feed the rich encoded priors into a multi-layer bidirectional transformer to predict the PMFs of the masked tokens, where the cross-entropy between the ground-truth distribution and the predicted distribution is
[Equation]
Notice the key difference to autoregressive modeling: the conditional dependency in MIMT is bidirectional that allows PMF prediction to utilize richer contexts in the current frame.
For decoding,
PMFs of tokens are iteratively predicted with the MIM transformer following a decoded ratio scheduler at each step as shown below.
decoded to be decoded not decoded 1 2 3 4 516 … unidirectional context 1 2 3 4 516 … bi-directional context …
𝑠 =
𝑠
=𝑠 =𝑠
=𝑠 =𝑠
= 2 1 2 35 6 7 8 9 10 1113 14 151 2 3 4 5 6 79 10 11 12 13 14 15flatten flatten
3. I TERATIVE D ECODING S CHEDULER
Algorithm 1: MIMT Iterative Decoding
Input: ˆ y t − 1 , r t − 1 , γ ( i ) , n , Bs ; // Bs is the bitstream.
n is step.
Output: ˆ x t ; // reconstructed image /* Initialization */
Decode ˆ v t from Bs using arithmetic decoder ; Decode ˆ z t from Bs using arithmetic decoder ;
Get s t by pass ˆ z t to hyper-prior decoder; i ← 0 , M ← 1 ; /* iterative decoding */ while i ≤ n do ( ˆ µ t , ˆ σ t ) ← MIMT( y M t , r t − 1 , s t , ˆ y t − 1 ) ; i ← i + 1 ;
Select
⌊ γ ( i ) N − γ
( i − 1) N ⌉ tokens by (7);
Decode the selected tokens from Bs with ( ˆ µ t , ˆ σ t ) ;
Replace the masked token [ M ] in y M t with the decoded tokens ; r t ← R ( r t − 1 , h t − 1 ) ; // recurrent net ˆ y t ← y M t ; // M =ˆ x t ← D
( ˆ y t | f context ( ˆ y t − 1 , ˆ v t )) ;
At receiver side, we first decode the optical flow ˆ v t and the hyper-prior ˆ z t before decoding the latent ˆ y t .
Since we do not make any assumptions about the distribution of ˆ v t and ˆ z t , a nonparametric, fully factorized entropy model is used for decoding (Ball´e et al., 2018).
With the pre-trained MIMT, we can decode the current frame y t in one step assuming all tokens in y ¯M t are [ M ] token.
But the PMFs obtained from all [ M ] tokens are not optimal estimations because the spatial context information in the current frame is totally ignored.
Thus it would introduce a great bit-rate cost for arithmetic coding.
Instead, we decompose the onestep decoding into several iterations in Fig.
Let γ ( i ) =
sin( i · π 2 ) , where i ∈ (cid:8) 0 , 1 n , . . .
, n − 1 n , 1 (cid:9) , be a decoded ratio scheduler that determines the number of tokens to be recovered at each step. n = 8 by default.
The scheduler is monotonically increasing and γ (0) → 0 , γ (1) → 1 .
At i = 0 , we start with all tokens in y M t are [ M ] .
Only the most certain ⌊ γ (1) · N ⌉ tokens with the smallest entropy are kept for the next iteration.
The entropy of a token is accumulated along the channel:
[Equation]
(7) where d C is dimension of tokens; c i,jt ( · ) is the cumulative function of Gaussian distribution
N (cid:16)
µ i,j t , σ i,j t 2 (cid:17) .
We iteratively replenish y M t with the decoded tokens until all tokens being decoded.
The scheduler is consistent with the intuition that video decoding follows a flow of information from coarse to fine.
In the beginning, the model decodes the “sketch” of the image with small entropy.
The “sketch” is easy to predict from frame redundancies.
Gradually, with more decoded context, the model takes small steps to tweak the details considering the slow slop of sine around 1.
L N
S W - M S
A
L N M L P
L N
S W - M
CA
L N M L P L N
S W - M S
A 𝑲,𝑽 𝑸
Transformer encoder
Transformer decoder
L N
W - M S A
L N M L P
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L N M L P L N
W - M S A 𝑲,𝑽 𝑸 windowed attention shifted windowed attention
3. I MPLEMENTATION D ETAILS
Shifted window attention.
The global self-attention of the transformer is computationally unaffordable for video compression with long sequences.
We use shifted window attention Liu et al.
(2021) in both transformer encoder and decoder to alleviate this problem, as visualized in Fig.
The transformer encoder makes use of an interchange of shifted windows and thus, the computational cost is greatly reduced since self-attention is considered within local windows.
In contrast to
SW-MSA which uses the same input as the key , query and value , SW-MCA uses the encoded priors of { s t , ˆ y t − 1 , r t − 1 } as the key and value , while using y M t as the query .
Optimization loss.
Rate-distortion loss is optimized throughout the training process:
[Equation]
t − ˆ x t ) (cid:124) (cid:123)(cid:122) (cid:125) distortion , (8) where d ( · ) represents the mean square error or MS-SSIM; λ is a hyperparameter used to control the rate-distortion trade-off.
We train four models with different λ values { 256 , 512 , 1024 , 2048 } .
By default, we train models with MSE loss.
When using the MS-SSIM metric, the model is fine-tuned with the MS-SSIM loss.
More training details are described in the Appendix.
E XPERIMENTS
Dataset.
We use Vimeo-90k (Xue et al., 2019) for training.
The videos are randomly cropped into 256 × 256 patches.
The test videos include HEVC Class B, UVG (Mercat et al., 2020), and
MCL-JCV (Wang et al., 2016) datasets.
All three datasets have a resolution of 1920 × 1080 .
Baselines.
We compare MIMT with widely acknowledged baselines, e.g., x265 , HM , VTM codecs.
x265 is implemented with the commercial FFmpeg, whereas HM and VTM are standard versions that can achieve much better performance but are extremely slow.
We further obtains reported results from the following learned codecs: DVCPro (Lu et al., 2020), FVC (Hu et al., 2021), DCVC (Li et al., 2021), C2F (Hu et al., 2022), VCT (Mentzer et al., 2022), and DMC (Li et al., 2022).
Metric.
The common PSNR and MS-SSIM are evaluated for all models(Wang et al., 2004) in RGB.
we set the GoP size as 32 for all datasets and use learned model (Cheng et al., 2020) for I frame compression.
We center crop 1080p image into 1790 × 1024 to make it divisible by 256.
R ESULTS 5. R ATE -D ISTORTION P ERFORMANCE
In Fig.
5, we plot the rate-distortion of our method and the baseline methods introduced in Section [Figure] [Table]
of PSNR and SSIM.
DMC is the best-performed competing method with a hybrid spatial-temporal entropy model.
For MIMT, higher quality can be obtained with less bit rate cost under the same quality.
This verifies the effectiveness of our entropy model in exploiting the temporal redundancies among video frames as well as spatial correlations among intra-frame tokens.
As shown in Table 1 and
[Table]
we make quantitative metric with BD-rate Bjontegaard (2001) computed from PSNR-BPP and SSIM-BPP, respectively.
The best traditional codec VTM is used as the anchor.
From Table
[Table]
we can find that DMC Li et al.
(2022) is the only baseline method that surpasses VTM with 9.9% bite-rate saving.
Our MIMT improves this performance further and it achieves an average of 22.7% bitrate saving over VTM on all datasets.
From the perspective of SSIM, the improvement of MIMT is even larger, which is 56.3% bit rate saving over VTM.
We notice that C2F and DMC also outperform VTM in terms of MS-SSIM. 5. A BLATION S TUDIES
We conduct a series of ablation studies to demonstrate the effectiveness of different components.
Entropy coding.
The MIMT uses a dynamic strategy to determine the encoding/decoding order for auto-regressive.
Other strategies would be a raster scan order autoregressive entropy model like
VCT (Mentzer et al., 2022), or a parallel-friendly checkerboard entropy model (He et al., 2021). For fair comparisons, both auto-regressive and checkerboard models use the same transformer encoderdecoder network, but they train and predict differently. For the auto-regressive model, we train the transformer with a self-attention mask to ensure causality similar to Vaswani et al. and then we predict each token one by one in raster scan order.
We make two variants of auto-regressive:
[Table] [Table]
{+the full variant means operating on all 
+}
× 16 tokens, and the block variant means splitting the tokens into 4 × 4 non-overlapping blocks similar to VCT.
No windowed attention mask is applied for autoregressive ( block ).
As for the checkerboard, we predict the first half tokens with all input tokens masked, and then use the decoded tokens to predict the rest.
In Table 3, we calculate the BD-rate increase after ablations.
In the first row, the MIMT entropy performs better than the full auto-regressive with +6 .
4% bitrate savings.
The time-cost of autoregressive ( full ) decoding is prohibitive for practical usage.
As an alternative, auto-regressive ( block ) partitions the tokens into sub-blocks and decodes them in parallel. Although it can speed up greatly, it builds on the assumption that all blocks are independent, which is not necessarily true as concluded by VCT (Mentzer et al., 2022). In this way, the performance of autoregressive ( block ) degrades obviously with +19 . 5% bitrate increase.
The parallel checkerboard entropy model is slightly better but still has a +17 .
3% increase.
This is intuitively reasonable because the checkerboard model could be considered a simplified case of MIMT with fixed encoding/decoding order.
We follow the good practice to use a flow-based transformation coding (Sheng et al., 2021; Li et al., 2021; 2022).
In the last row of Table 3, we conduct an ablation study on the image encoder by removing the temporal context. The results show the contextual encoder provides significant bitrate savings of +16 . 9% over the non-contextual encoder with independent image compression. Decoding scheduler .
The masked scheduler is a non-trivial design for encoding/decoding. The default scheduler is a sine function. We further explore two alternatives, i.e., linear , and exponential functions. The sine is concave, whereas the exponential is convex.
A sine scheduler is in line with such intuitions: due to the temporal redundancy, the current frame has high similarities with previous frames.
In the beginning, we can take a large step with high certainty. In the last few steps, we have to cope with pixels of large entropy where we should take small steps to make more precise estimations.
We adjust the number of steps from 6 to 12.
As shown in Fig. 6, the results demonstrate that the sine performs consistently better than the others. The linear function provides decent results but is inferior to the sine .
The exponential performs poorly. We provided further visualization in the Appendix, Section C. Increasing the number of steps can improve the performance, but for steps larger than 8, the gains are marginal and it will introduce computational overhead for training and inference.
Manifold inputs. MIMT takes three different kinds of inputs: side information s t from hyper prior, temporal prior from the last decoded frame ˆ y t − 1 , and temporal recurrent prior r t − 1 . We
[Table] [Table] for entropy modeling. As shown in Table 4, hyperprior s t providing hierarchical information brings the most significant BD-rate improvements of +15 .
ˆ y t − 1 is the most temporally correlated frame in the past and it achieves +13 .
2% gains. By accumulating a long range of temporal information, the recurrent prior r t − 1 can effectively compensate for the overall performance with +11 . 1% BD-rate.
5. D ECODING E FFICIENCY
Table 5 compares the model complexity in the number of parameters, MACs (multiply-accumulate operations), encoding time, and decoding time with learned codecs.
The test video frames are 1080p and we use the publicly available source code of DVC, SSF, DCVC, and DMC.
We deploy all models on a server with an NVIDIA P40 GPU.
The time consumption includes bit-stream writing and reading with arithmetic coding.
Note that all models are not optimized for coding efficiency.
In Table 5, we find that the decoding speed of DVC is moderate even without a sequential/recurrent network.
DCVC is high of high complexity for encoding/decoding because it employs a sequential autoregressive context model.
DMC splits the latents along the channel-wise and spatial-wise directions to accelerate the autoregressive.
The proposed MIMT equipped with shifted window attention and non-sequential decoding strategy is comparable with DMC, in terms of model complexity and encoding and decoding time.
For the other three variants of MIMT, the number of parameters is the same but they are trained differently, thus leading to varying MACs requirements.
Not surprisingly, the parallel-friendly checkerboard is the most efficient consuming only 798 ms for decoding.
The full autoregressive model is prohibitive slow at decoding, and the block auto-regressive reduces the time-cost remarkably to 969 ms by partitioning the latent into small blocks for parallel decoding.
C ONCLUSIONS
In this work, we propose a masked image modeling transformer for deep video compression.
Following the proxy task in pretrained language/image model, the transformer is trained to fully exploit the temporal correlation among frames and spatial tokens in a few autoregressive steps.
The MIMT differs from the conventional autoregressive (raster scanning order) in two ways: more flexible bidirectional attention and more efficient parallel decoding.
Visualization and qualitative metric on standard datasets demonstrate our method outperforms VTM in terms of both PSNR and SSIM.
Our work provides new insights into the use or extension of the transformer in video compression.
B R ECURRENT P RIOR
Exploiting inter-frame redundancy has always been a critical consideration for video compression.
Generally, a deep learning model can use two consecutive frames { y t , y t − 1 } (Lu et al., 2019; Li et al., 2021), three consecutive frames { y t , y t − 1 , y t − 2 } (Mentzer et al., 2022), four consecutive frames { y t , y t − 1 , y t − 2 , y t − 3 } (Hu et al., 2021), or all previous frames using recurrent network (Ma et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2020).
We use a one-step ConvLSTM to aggregate all previous frames before y t − 1 .
From Table 3, it can be discovered that recurrent prior r t − 1 bring 11 .
1% bitrate savings.
One alternative to simplify the recurrent prior is to remove the ConvLSTM and use ˆ y t − 2 instead. An ablation study is conducted in Table 8. The second row shows that ˆ y t − 2 help to save significant bitrate.
But there are still 3 . 9% bitrate saving improvements. This result implies that ˆ y t − 1 , ˆ y t −contains most temporal context we need to compress y t , but there is still room for improvement if we exploit a longer range of frames.
This observation is consistent with the conclusion from FVC (Hu et al., 2021) and RLVC (Yang et al., 2020).
C V ISUALIZATION OF D ECODING
In Fig.7, we visualize the intermediate results of the iterative decoding process.
At the k -th step, the transformer entropy model predicts the PMFs of undecoded tokens, and we directly fill the nondecoded tokens with the predicted mean µ t of PMFs.
The quality of the intermediate image can intuitively reflect the entropy prediction ability of the MIMT model.
[Figure]
In the first column, zero tokens of y t are decoded, i.e., 0 bpp for y t .
The bit cost on v t and z t is 0.006 and 0.007, respectively. MIMT can predict a coarse estimation of the x t from encoded priors ˆ y t − 1 , ˆ z t , r t − 1 . Although the image is blurred without details, we can be aware of the rough background, the main instances of image, etc. The follow-up images show that as we decode more tokens, the model gets more context, and the current frame is refined progressively.
We can find that the model decodes images following an easy-to-hard process.
Considering the high temporal redundancy of frame sequences, a large portion of pixels, mostly background, is easy to predict. The model starts from the tokens with the smallest entropy (e.g., sky and ground) to get context information. In the beginning, we can take large steps because these tokens consume a little bitrate. Gradually, when it ”knows” more about the image, it refines the large-entropy tokens (e.g., the fast-moving billboard and horseshoe) which are hard to predict.
We should take a small step to make more accurate estimations.
This is analogous to the behaviors of a painter who starts with a sketch and then progressively refines it by filling in or tweaking the details. This dynamic autoregressive strategy differs from the raster scanning order might encounter a hard-to-easy dilemma and result in more bit-stream consumption. D D ECODING E FFECIENCY We obtain the opensource code of DVC 1 , SSF 2 , DCVC 3 , and DMC 4 for decoding efficiency comparison.
E F ULL - SIZED R ATE -D ISTORTION P LOTS
In the following, we show full-size versions of Fig.
5 for better readability.
https://github.com/GuoLusjtu/DVC
https://github.com/InterDigitalInc/CompressAIhttps://github.com/microsoft/DCVC/tree/main/NeurIPS2021https://github.com/microsoft/DCVC/tree/main/ACMMM
[Figure] [Figure]
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[Figure]
UVG dataset
MIMT*
DMC
VTM
HM
DCVC x
DVCPro
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[Figure] [Figure]
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[Figure]
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MIMT*
DMC
VTM
HM
DCVC x
DVCPro
C2F
FVC
VCT
[Figure]
SS
[Figure]
MCL-JCV dataset
MIMT*
DMC
VTM
HM
DCVC x
DVCPro
C2F
FVC
VCT
[Figure]
HEVC
[Figure]
dataset
[Figure]
x
DVCPro
C2F
[Figure]