Apostila de Quimica Inorgânica do Prof. Léo Marcos - Noções Fundamentais e Atomística
Autor: Blog do Prof. Leo Marcos | Publicado: 2011-04-04T06:24:00-07:00


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QUIMICA INORGÂNICA
Capítulo I – Noções Fundamentais
Química : é a ciência que estuda a matéria, suas transformações e a energia envolvida nestas transformações.Matéria : é tudo o que ocupa lugar no espaço e possui massa.Corpo : é qualquer porção limitada da matéria.Objeto : é um corpo fabricado com uma finalidade específica.
ATOMÍSTICA
Desde tempos imemoriais, o ser humano observa a Natureza procurando respostas para suas necessidades, tentando encontrar formas de utilização dos bens naturais em favor próprio.O ser humano primitivo, através de suas observações diárias da Natureza utilizou-se de um método de experimentação de imitação dos processos naturais ao qual chamaremos de Método Empírico. Não se baseia em ciência, ou seja, os experimentos não são completamente controlados produzindo fases que possam ser fielmente reproduzidas por qualquer um nas mesmas condições às anteriormente apresentadas e fixadas para a obtenção de um mesmo resultado constante e confiável e que por isso mesmo é denominado de Método Científico. Foi justamente com essas observações empíricas que o ser humano percebeu que poderia amolecer os alimentos com água, que poderia colocar as sementes organizadamente na terra e elas brotariam, que poderia manter predadores ao seu redor domesticando-os como os cães, poderiam fazer uso de ervas com finalidade curativa, poderiam desenvolver pigmentos a partir de sangue, terra,&nbsp; minerais e vegetais produzindo cores e matizes para pintura dos mais diversos objetos, incluindo seus próprios corpos, gerando assim uma cultura que variaria de grupo humano a grupo humano e que ocupasse cada região geograficamente determinada por esses grupos e que por sua vez determinaria a cultura desses povos.Os homens primitivos nos deixaram pinturas dentro de suas cavernas que em alguns casos chegam a ser intrigantes, não apenas pelas mensagens e desenhos deixados contando uma história de milênios de sua sobrevivência, caças, lutas e cotidiano assim como seus objetos em pedra, barro, cerâmica e ossos. Vamos nos ater principalmente aos corantes como exemplo. As pinturas rupestres lá estão, até os dias atuais, hoje protegidas pelos governos locais, mas desconcertantemente visíveis, intocadas e principalmente nítidas.No Egito, foram encontrados pequenos frascos lembrando potinhos contendo corantes que as mulheres egípcias de famílias mais abastadas mantinhan guardadas em gavetinhas de pequenos móveis em seus quartos. Mesopotâmia, Hititas, Gregos, Espartanos, Romanos, Sumérios, etc., etc., deram provas cabais de sua evolução de conhecimentos quanto ao uso não apenas de corantes, mas de técnicas que foram descobertas quanto à siderurgia ( uso do sangue dos escravos, nos quais eram cravadas as espadas em brasa feitas pelo ferreiro com a intenção de endurecê-las – ou seja o carbono do sangue transformava o ferro em aço), coloração de vestimentas, conservação ( salga,&nbsp; congelamento e secagem ) e produção de alimentos modificados a partir da Natureza ( vinho, qualhada, queijo, hidromel e pão ), comprovando que houve uma preocupação constante da humanidade quanto ao estudo, assimilação e prática, mesmo que a nível empírico para desenvolvimento e utilização de novas técnicas em todos os campos possíveis que garantissem mais conforto, praticidade e qualidade de vida.A preocupação com o conteúdo da matéria já vem de tempos muito longínquos, dos quais sequer qualquer um de nós atualmente, teria racionalidade suficiente para ensaiar uma explicação sobre fatos tão profundos.Pois foi em um momento como estes que dois filósofos da antiga Grécia, ao conversarem chegaram a conclusões fundamentais. Seus nomes eram Demócrito e Leucipo.
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 <![endif]-->  Demócrito- (+ ou - 460-370 a.C) (em grego: Δημόκριτος, Dēmokritos, "escolhido do povo") nasceu em Abdera (Trácia). Foi discípulo e sucessor de Leucipo, desenvolveu sua teoria atomista e participou da escola iniciada por seu mestre em sua terra natal. De sua vida sabem-se poucas coisas seguras, mas fala-se que viajou muito, recebeu homenagens de seus concidadãos. É famosa a tradição que lhe atribui um riso constante, presente para qualquer coisa. É um dos primeiros materialistas. Teria deixado cerca de noventa obras. Para resolver o impasse surgido nas teorias de Heráclito e Parmênides, desenvolve a teoria de que tudo seria composto por partículas minúsculas indivisíveis e invisíveis a olho nu, inclusive a alma. De acordo com essa teoria, tudo o que existe é composto por elementos indivisíveis chamados átomos (do grego, "a", negação e "tomo", divisível. Átomo= indivisível) Os átomos da alma se desintegrariam no momento da morte. Portanto, não acredita na imortalidade da alma, embora gostasse de Pitágoras. Trabalhou muito, dizia que os trabalhos feitos de bom grado fazem mais leves as cargas dos impostos à contragosto. Na sua filosofia, o trabalho continuado torna-se mais leve por causa do átomo. Um trabalho bem feito e terminado dá mais satisfação que o descanso, e um trabalho em que não há retorno causa muito desprazer. O homem sensato dosa a avareza com o gasto, e suporta com brandura a pobreza. Quanto à forma, a emanação é igual às coisas. Os átomos são indivisíveis, pois se fossem divisíveis em partículas ainda menores. a natureza acabaria por se diluir. E como nada pode surgir do nada, são eternos. &nbsp;&nbsp; O movimento existe, pois o pensamento é movimento, e também os átomos se movem. Quando os átomos estão em equilíbrio são tão numerosos que não podem mais se mover, os mais leves são repelidos para o vazio exterior (portanto, o vazio existe) e os outros permanecem juntos, formando um conglomerado. Cada um desses conglomerados que se separam das massas dos corpos é um mundo, e existem infinitos mundos. Esta é uma visão nietzscheniana da teoria de Demócrito. A essência da alma está na sua natureza animadora, de movimento. A alma é feita de átomos sutis, que se movem, lisos e arredondados. O fogo faz parte da essência do homem. Se a respiração cessa, o fogo interior escapa, e ocorre a morte. O homem é infeliz porque não conhece a natureza. Temos de nos contentar com o mundo tal como ele é. Os átomos constituem a explicação última da natureza. Foi o mais lógico dos pré socráticos. Nietzsche o considera um poeta, Aristóteles admira sua universalidade. Sua doutrina seguiu adiante, e temos outros atomistas, como Epicuro. Viajou pelo Egito e pela Ásia e teve uma vida extremamente longa. Escreveu numa prosa arcaica, mas bem elaborada, elogiada por Cícero e Plutarco, sobre filosofia da natureza, matemática, ética e música. Restam-nos de suas obras somente curtos fragmentosiajou pelo Egito e pela Ásia e teve uma vida extremamente longa. Escreveu numa prosa arcaica mas bem elaborada, elogiada por Cícero e Plutarco, sobre filosofia da natureza, matemática, ética e música. Restam-nos de suas obras somente curtos fragmentosDesenvolveu a doutrina atomística de Leucipo e se opôs à escola de Heráclito e à de Parmênides . Na Grécia antiga, Protágoras de Abdera teria sido seu discípulo direto e, posteriormente, o principal filósofo influenciado por ele foi Epicuro. No renascimento muitas de suas idéias foram aceitas (por exemplo, Giordano Bruno), e tiveram um papel importante durante o iluminismo. Muitos consideram que Demócrito é "o pai da ciência moderna"Referências:http://www.google.com.br/#hl=pt-BR&amp;source=hp&amp;biw=&amp;bih=&amp;q=dem%C3%B3crito&amp;aq=0&amp;aqi=g10&amp;aql=&amp;oq=Dem%C3%B3cri&amp;fp=1
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 <![endif]-->  Leucipo, Físico e filósofo atomista grego, talvez nascido em Mileto, cidade destruída por Dario (494 a. C.), nascido entre 490 e 460 e falecido em 420 a.C, &nbsp;embora alguns creiam que possa ter sido Abdera ou Eléia, considerado o autor essencial da escola eleática, tradicionalmente considerado o mestre de Demócrito de Abdera e, talvez, o verdadeiro criador do atomismo. Praticamente nada é conhecido de sua vida, mas aparentemente realizou muitas viagens e adquiriu uma vasta cultura. Morou em Eléia, onde conheceu a doutrina eleática, e depois em Abdera, onde fundou uma escola que seria o marco da vida de Demócrito. Discípulo de Zenão e Melisso, que, juntamente com Demócrito de Abdera, defendiam o atomismo materialista e determinista. Este fato explica algumas semelhanças entre as doutrinas atomistas e as eleáticas. Segundo Aristóteles e Teofrasto, ele foi o verdadeiro criador dessa teoria e que depois foi desenvolvida e elaborada por Demócrito. Este sistema pregava a existência do mundo como um grande sistema cósmico. Esta teoria marcou o último estágio da ciência grega pré-aristotélica. A tradição lhe atribui a autoria de um único livro intitulado A grande ordem do mundo. Sobre a existência de um segundo livro, que teria se chamado Sobre o espírito, pode ter sido apenas um capítulo da obra anterior. Parece ter falecido em Abdera e segundo alguns biógrafos, do ponto de vista teórico, é possível traçar uma ascendência ao pensamento de Melisso de Samos e Zenão de Eléia.Talvez, o verdadeiro criador do atomismo (segundo a tese de Aristóteles), que relatava que uma matéria pode ser dividida até chegar a uma pequena partícula indivisível chamada átomo. A respeito, &nbsp;praticamente nada é conhecido, mas o lugar mais provável é nascido em Mileto na Ásia Menor; em seguida mudou-se para Abdera. Parece ter sido contemporâneo de Anaxágoras de Clazômenas e de Sócrates. Referências:http://www.google.com.br/#hl=pt-BR&amp;source=hp&amp;biw=&amp;bih=&amp;q=leucipo&amp;aq=f&amp;aqi=g10&amp;aql=&amp;oq=&amp;fp=1CAPÍTULO II – ATOMÍSTICAA evolução dos modelos atômicos400 a.C.A idéia de que a matéria é constituída por átomos, foi concebida pela primeira vez há cerca de 2411 anos pelos filósofos gregos Demócrito e Leucipo. Demócrito dizia que, se quebrarmos uma amostra de matéria em pedaços cada vez menores, chegaremos a um ponto em que não será mais possível dividi-la. Chegaremos ao átomo, ou seja, à partícula indivisível.
350 a.C.Ainda na Grécia antiga, surgiu algum tempo depois, a teoria dos quatro elementos, que foi apoiada por Aristóteles. Graças a isso, o atomismo de Demócrito e Leucipo perdeu a força e permaneceu em descrédito durante muitos séculos.
Século XIXDaltonEm 1803, o inglês John Dalton revolucionou a química, estabelecendo os conceitos modernos para átomo e elemento químico. Constatou que a matéria é constituída por partículas muito pequenas e invisíveis, os átomos. Átomos do mesmo tipo têm propriedades e massas idênticas e a junção de átomos do mesmo tipo forma um elemento químico. As combinações de átomos formam as substâncias e , nessas combinações químicas, os átomos não são destruídos e nem modificados, o que se altera são as ligações entre eles. Esse modelo ficou conhecido como “Bola de Bilhar”.Para informações mais completas, consultar : http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Daltonhttp://allchemy.iq.usp.br/metabolizando/beta/01/jdalton.htm<!--[if gte mso 9]>           <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>     Normal   0         21         false   false   false      PT-BR   X-NONE   X-NONE                                                                                                     <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>  <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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 <![endif]-->  ThomsonAinda no século XIX, os cientistas começaram a conhecer melhor a eletricidade e foram descobertas as cargas elétricas positivas e negativas. Em 1897, o cientista Joseph Thomson, propôs uma teoria atômica para explicar os fenômenos elétricos. Ele dizia que os átomos eram formados por uma massa de cargas positivas e que dentro dessa massa ficavam alojadas, imersas, mergulhadas cargas elétricas negativas. Esse modelo ficou conhecido como modelo do “Pudim de Passas”.<!--[if gte mso 9]>           <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>     Normal   0         21         false   false   false      PT-BR   X-NONE   X-NONE                                                                                                     <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>  <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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 <![endif]-->  Sir Joseph John Thomson, também conhecido por J. J. Thomson, OM, PRS (Manchester, 18 de Dezembro de 1856 — Cambridge, 30 de Agosto de 1940) foi um físico britânico que descobriu o elétron.Estudou engenharia na Owens College e se mudou para Trinity College em Cambridge. Em 1884 se tornou professor de Física de Cavendish. Em 1890 se casou com Rose Elisabeth Paget, filha de Sir George Edward Paget. Ele teve um filho, George Paget Thomson e uma filha, Joan Paget Thomson. Seu filho se tornou um notável físico, recebendo o Prêmio Nobel por descobrir propriedades ondulatórias nos elétrons.Pela descoberta dos elétrons, J.J. Thomson recebeu o Nobel de Física em 1906. Foi nomeado cavaleiro em 1908. Em 1918 se tornou mestre da Trinity College em Cambridge, onde permaneceu até sua morte. Ele morreu em 1940 e foi enterrado em Westminster Abbey, perto de Isaac Newton.Thomson foi o vice-presidente da Associação Internacional de Ciências Esperanto (International Esperanto Science Association). Foi eleito membro da Royal Society em 12 de junho de 1884 e, depois, presidente de 1915 a 1920.As experiências de Thomson podem ser consideradas o início do entendimento da estrutura atômica. Suas experiências com o tubo de raios catódicos nos permitiu concluir irrefutavelmente a existência dos elétrons.Referências:http://www.google.com.br/#hl=pt-BR&amp;source=hp&amp;biw=&amp;bih=&amp;q=joseph+thomson&amp;aq=2&amp;aqi=g10&amp;aql=&amp;oq=Joseph+T&amp;fp=1
Século XXErnest RutherfordEm 1911, Ernest Rutherford realizou uma experiência que levou a um novo modelo de átomo. Ele bombardeou uma fina lâmina de ouro com partículas radioativas alfa. A experiência mostrou que a maioria das partículas atravessava a lâmina de ouro e só algumas eram refletidas ou desviadas, ”quicadas”. Rutherford concluiu que o átomo é formado por “imensos” espaços vazios que permitem a passagem das partículas alfa (α) e por uma região central onde se concentra a massa do átomo, capaz de refletir ou desviar essas partículas. Rutherford chamou essa região de núcleo. Nela se concentram as cargas elétricas positivas. Em torno do núcleo, existe uma região, chamada eletrosfera, onde ficam as cargas elétricas negativas e pode ser até cem mil vezes maior que o núcleo.<!--[if gte mso 9]>           <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>     Normal   0         21         false   false   false      PT-BR   X-NONE   X-NONE                                                                                                     <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>  <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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 <![endif]-->  Ernest Rutherford nasceu em Nelson, cidade portuária da ilha sul da Nova Zelândia, o quarto filho e segundo homem de uma família de sete filhos e cinco filhas. Seu pai, James Rutherford, um mecânico escocês, emigrou para a Nova Zelândia com toda a família em 1842. Sua mãe, nascida Martha Thompson, uma professora de inglês, com sua mãe viúva, também se mudou em 1855.Ernest recebeu a sua educação em escolas públicas. Aos 16 anos entrou em Nelson Collegiate School. Graduou-se em 1893 em Matemática e Ciências Físicas na Universidade da Nova Zelândia. Após ter concluído os estudos, ingressou no Trinity College, Cambridge, como um estudante na investigação do Laboratório Cavendish sob a coordenação de J. J. Thomson. Uma oportunidade surgiu quando o lugar de professor de Física na Universidade de McGill, em Montreal ficou vago. Em 1898 ele partiu para o Canadá, para assumir o posto. No mesmo ano, foi nomeado professor de Física da Universidade de McGill, em Montreal, e em 1907 na Universidade de Vitória, Manchester.Apesar de ser um físico, recebeu o Nobel de Química de 1908, por suas investigações sobre a desintegração dos elementos e a química das substâncias radioativas.De volta a Cambridge em 1919, Rutherford percebeu que a carga positiva de um átomo está concentrada no centro, num minúsculo e denso núcleo, introduzindo o conceito de núcleo atômico. Desenvolve, então, a moderna concepção do átomo como um núcleo em torno do qual elétrons giram em órbitas circulares. A liderança e o trabalho de Rutherford inspiraram duas gerações de cientistas. Baseado na concepção de Rutherford, o físico dinamarquês Niels Bohr idealizaria mais tarde um novo modelo atômico.Revela o fenômeno da radioatividade em pesquisas feitas em colaboração com o Frederick Soddy. Em 1902, ambos distinguem os raios alfa e beta e desenvolvem a teoria das desintegrações radioativas espontâneas.Dentre seus companheiros de estudos, está o Dr. Edward Viriatus, psicólogo e químico.Em 1919, realiza a primeira transmutação induzida, também conhecida como reação nuclear: converte um núcleo de azoto em oxigênio, por bombardeamento com partículas alfa. As suas experiências conduzem à descoberta dos meios de obtenção de energia nuclear. Tais fatos levaram a que Rutherford fosse considerado como o fundador da Física Nuclear.Rutherford dirigiu o Laboratório Cavendish desde 1919 até à sua morte.Foi presidente da Royal Society de 1925 a 1930.Ele recebeu a Order of Merit em 1925 e em 1931 foi condecorado Baron Rutherford de Nelson, Cambridge, um título que foi extinto depois da sua inesperada morte, enquanto aguardava uma cirurgia de hérnia umbilical. Após tornar-se um Lord, ele só poderia ser operado por um médico também nobre (uma exigência do protocolo britânico) e essa demora custou-lhe a vida.[4] Morre a 19 de Outubro de 1937,em Cambridge, e suas cinzas foram enterradas na Abadia de Westminster.Participou da 1ª, 2ª, 3ª, 4ª e 7ª Conferência de Solvay.Referências:http://www.google.com.br/#hl=pt-BR&amp;source=hp&amp;biw=1440&amp;bih=605&amp;q=ernest+rutherford&amp;aq=1s&amp;aqi=g1g-s1g2&amp;aql=&amp;oq=Ernst+Ru&amp;fp=e9c7c50aafdcfdaf
Em 1913, Niels Böhr, propôs a idéia de que as partículas negativas da eletrosfera giravam em torno do núcleo em órbitas definidas e que a eletrosfera era composta por camadas. Essa teoria explica por que os elementos emitem radiações em faixas de freqüência definidas. A partir de então, surgiu o conceito de camadas energéticas da eletrosfera. Depois do modelo de Rutherford – Böhr, vários outros cientistas deram sua contribuição para aperfeiçoar a teoria atômica, até chegarmos ao modelo atômico atual.Hoje, sabemos que os níveis da eletrosfera são formados por subníveis e que estes são formados por orbitais.<!--[if gte mso 9]>           <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>     Normal   0         21         false   false   false      PT-BR   X-NONE   X-NONE                                                                                                     <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>  <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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 <![endif]-->  Niels&nbsp; BohrNiels Henrick David Bohr (Copenhaga, 7 de Outubro de 1885 — Copenhaga, 18 de Novembro de 1962) foi um físico dinamarquês [1] cujos trabalhos contribuíram decisivamente para a compreensão da estrutura atômica e da física quântica.Licenciou-se na sua cidade natal em 1911 e trabalhou com Joseph John Thomson e Ernest Rutherford na Inglaterra.[1] Em 1913, aplicando a teoria da quantificação aos elétrons do modelo atômico de Rutherford, conseguiu interpretar algumas das propriedades das séries espectrais do hidrogênio e a estrutura do sistema periódico dos elementos. Formulou o princípio da correspondência e, em 1928, o da complementaridade. Estudou ainda o modelo nuclear da gota líquida, e antes da descoberta do plutónio, previu a propriedade da cisão, análoga à do U-235. Bohr recebeu o Nobel de Física em 1922.A sua teoria para a explicação do modelo atômico proposto por Rutherford em 1911, levando em conta a teoria quântica (formulada por Max Planck em 1900), não foi levada a sério. Depois, no decorrer e depois da década de 1920, vários físicos ajudaram a criar o modelo existente hoje. Entre estes físicos podemos citar Albert Einstein, Louis de Broglie, Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, entre outros.<!--[if gte mso 9]>           <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>     Normal   0         21         false   false   false      PT-BR   X-NONE   X-NONE                                                                                                     <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>  <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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 <![endif]-->  Quando ainda era estudante, um anúncio, da Academia de Ciências de Copenhague, de um prêmio para quem resolvesse um determinado problema científico levou-o a realizar uma investigação teórica e experimental sobre a tensão da superfície provocada pela oscilação de jactos fluídos. Este trabalho, levado a cabo no laboratório do seu pai, ganhou o prêmio ( a medalha de ouro ) e foi publicado em “Transactions of the Royal Society”, em 1908.Bohr continuou as suas investigações e a sua tese de doutoramento incidiu sobre as propriedades dos metais com a ajuda da teoria dos electrons que ainda hoje é um clássico no campo da física. Nesta pesquisa Bohr confrontou-se com as implicações da teoria quântica de Planck. No Outono de 1911, Bohr mudou-se para Cambridge, onde trabalhou no Laboratório Cavendish sob a orientação de J. J. Thomson.Na Primavera de 1912, Niels Bohr passou a trabalhar no Laboratório do Professor Rutherford, em Manchester.Neste laboratório, Bohr realizou um trabalho sobre a absorção de raios alpha, que foi publicado na “Philosophical Magazine”, em 1913.Entretanto, Bohr passou a dedicar-se ao estudo da estrutura do átomo, baseando-se na descoberta do núcleo atómico, realizada por Ernest Rutherford.<!--[if gte mso 9]>           <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>     Normal   0         21         false   false   false      PT-BR   X-NONE   X-NONE                                                                                                     <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>  <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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 <![endif]-->  No mesmo ano, Bohr casou com Margrethe Norlund, com quem viria a ter seis filhos. Quando regressou à Dinamarca em 1913, Bohr procurou estender ao modelo atômico proposto por Rutherford os conceitos quânticos de Planck.Bohr acreditava que, utilizando a teoria quântica de Planck, seria possível criar um novo modelo atômico, capaz de explicar a forma como os eletróns absorvem e emitem energia radiante. Esses fenômenos eram particularmente visíveis na análise dos espectros luminosos produzidos pelos diferentes elementos. Ao contrário do produzido pela luz solar, esses espectros apresentam linhas de luz com localizações específicas, separadas por áreas escuras. Nenhuma teoria conseguira até então explicar a causa dessa distribuição.Em 1913, Bohr , estudando o átomo de hidrogênio, conseguiu formular um novo modelo atômico. Bohr concluiu que o eletrón do átomo não emitia radiações enquanto permanecesse na mesma órbita, emitindo-as apenas quando se desloca de um nível de maior energia (órbita mais distante do núcleo, onde a sua - do elétron - energia cinética tende a diminuir enquanto que sua energia potencial tende a aumentar; mas, sua energia total aumenta) para outro de menor energia (órbita menos distante, onde sua energia cinemática tende a aumentar e sua energia potencial tende a diminuir; mas, sua energia total diminui).A teoria quântica permitiu-lhe formular essa concepção de modo mais preciso: as órbitas não se localizariam a quaisquer distâncias do núcleo, pelo contrário, apenas algumas órbitas seriam possíveis, cada uma delas correspondendo a um nível bem definido de energia do eletrón. A transição de uma órbita para a outra seria feita por saltos pois, ao absorver energia, o eletrón saltaria para uma órbita mais externa(conceito quantum) e, ao emiti-la, passaria para outra mais interna (conceito fóton). Cada uma dessas emissões aparece no espectro como uma linha luminosa bem localizada.<!--[if gte mso 9]>           <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>     Normal   0         21         false   false   false      PT-BR   X-NONE   X-NONE                                                                                                     <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>  <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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 <![endif]-->  A teoria de Bohr, que foi sucessivamente enriquecida, representou um passo decisivo no conhecimento do átomo. Assim, a teoria de Bohr permitiu a elaboração da mecânica quântica partindo de uma sólida base experimental.A publicação da teoria sobre a constituição do átomo teve uma enorme repercussão no mundo científico. Com apenas 28 anos de idade, Bohr era um físico famoso com uma brilhante carreira. De 1914 a 1916 foi professor de Física Teórica na Universidade de Victoria, em Manchester. Mais tarde, voltou para Copenhaga, onde foi nomeado director do Instituto de Física Teórica em 1920. Em 1922, a sua contribuição foi internacionalmente reconhecida quando recebeu o Nobel de Física. No mesmo ano, Bohr escreveu o livro “The Theory of Spectra and Atomic Constitution”, cuja segunda edição foi publicada em 1924.Com o objetivo de comparar os resultados obtidos por meio da mecânica quântica com os resultados que, com o mesmo sistema, se obteriam na mecânica clássica, Bohr enunciou o princípio da correspondência. Segundo este princípio, a mecânica clássica representa o limite da mecânica quântica quando esta trata de fenômenos do mundo macroscópico. Bohr estudou ainda a interpretação da estrutura dos átomos complexos, a natureza das radiações X e as variações progressivas das propriedades químicas dos elementos. Bohr dedicou-se também ao estudo do núcleo atómico. O modelo de núcleo em forma de “gota de água” revelou-se muito favorável para a interpretação do fenómeno da fissão do urânio, que abriu caminho para a utilização da energia nuclear. Bohr descobriu que durante a fissão de um átomo de urânio desprendia-se uma enorme quantidade de energia e reparou então que se tratava de uma nova fonte energética de elevadíssimas potencialidades. Bohr, com a finalidade de aproveitar essa energia, foi até Princeton, na Filadélfia, onde se encontrou com Einstein e Fermi para discutir com estes o problema.<!--[if gte mso 9]>           <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>     Normal   0         21         false   false   false      PT-BR   X-NONE   X-NONE                                                                                                     <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>  <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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 <![endif]-->  Em 1933, juntamente com seu aluno Wheeler, Bohr aprofundou a teoria da fissão, evidenciando o papel fundamental do urânio 235. Estes estudos permitiram prever também a existência de um novo elemento, descoberto pouco depois: o plutônio. Em 1934, publicou o livro “Atomic Theory and the Description of Nature”, que foi reeditado em 1961. Em janeiro de 1937, Bohr participou na Quinta Conferência de Física Teórica, em Washington, na qual defendeu a interpretação de L. Meitner e Otto R. Frisch, também do Instituto de Copenhaga, para a fissão do urânio. Segundo esta interpretação, um núcleo atômico de massa instável era como uma gota de água que se rompe.Três semanas depois, os fundamentos da teoria da "gota de água" foram publicados na revista "Physical Review". A esta publicação seguiram-se muitas outras, todas relacionadas com o núcleo atómico e a disposição e características dos elétrons que giram em torno dele. Um ano depois de se ter refugiado em Inglaterra, devido à ocupação nazista da Dinamarca, Bohr mudou-se para os Estados Unidos, onde ocupou o cargo de consultor do laboratório de energia atômica de Los Alamos. Neste laboratório, alguns cientistas iniciavam a construção da bomba atômica.<!--[if gte mso 9]>           <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>     Normal   0         21         false   false   false      PT-BR   X-NONE   X-NONE                                                                                                     <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>  <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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 <![endif]-->  Bohr, compreendendo a gravidade da situação e o perigo que essa bomba poderia representar para a humanidade, dirigiu-se a Churchill e Roosevelt, num apelo à sua responsabilidade de chefes de Estado, tentando evitar a construção da bomba atômica.Mas a tentativa de Bohr foi em vão. Em julho de 1945 a primeira bomba atômica experimental explodiu em Alamogordo. Em Agosto desse mesmo ano, uma bomba atômica destruiu a cidade de Hiroshima. Três dias depois, uma segunda bomba foi lançada em Nagasáqui.Em 1945, finda a II Guerra Mundial, Bohr regressou à Dinamarca, onde foi eleito presidente da Academia de Ciências. Bohr continuou a apoiar as vantagens da colaboração científica entre as nações e para isso foi promotor de congressos científicos organizados periodicamente na Europa e nos Estados Unidos.Em 1950, Bohr escreveu a “Carta Aberta” às Nações Unidas em defesa da preservação da paz, por ele considerada como condição indispensável para a liberdade de pensamento e de pesquisa.Em 1957, Niels Bohr recebeu o Prêmio Átomos para a Paz. Ao mesmo tempo, o Instituto de Física Teórica, por ele dirigido desde 1920, afirmou-se como um dos principais centros intelectuais da Europa.Bohr morreu a 18 de Novembro de 1962, vítima de uma trombose, aos 77 anos de idade.Participou da 5ª, 6ª, 7ª e 8ª Conferência de Solvay.Referências:http://www.google.com.br/#hl=pt-BR&amp;q=Niels+B%C3%B6hr&amp;aq=f&amp;aqi=g1&amp;aql=&amp;oq=Niels+B%C3%B6hr&amp;fp=e9c7c50aafdcfdaf
HeisenbergEm 1926, Werner Heisenberg enunciou o Princípio da Incerteza, segundo o qual, “é impossível determinar simultaneamente ( ao mesmo tempo ) a posição e a velocidade de um elétron no átomo”. A partir desse princípio, não tem sentido falar em posição do elétron no átomo, mas sim em uma região de máxima probabilidade onde, ele possa estar, denominado orbital. Essa região é determinada por uma função de onda que foi deduzida ( calculada ) por Erwin Schrödinger, em 1927.<!--[if gte mso 9]>           <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>     Normal   0         21         false   false   false      PT-BR   X-NONE   X-NONE                                                                                                     <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>  <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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 <![endif]-->  Werner Karl Heisenberg (Würzburg, 5 de Dezembro de 1901 — Munique, 1 de Fevereiro de 1976) foi um físico alemão.Foi laureado com o Nobel de Física e um dos fundadores da Mecânica Quântica.Doutorou-se pela Universidade de Munique, em 1923 aos 22 anos, e foi o chefe do programa de energia nuclear da Alemanha durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, apesar da natureza do seu trabalho nesta função ter vindo a ser fortemente debatida, pois Heisenberg lutou toda a sua vida para que a Energia Nuclear não fosse utilizada com fins bélicos.Em 1924      Heisenberg tornou-se assistente de Max Born no centro universitário de Göttingen,      transferiu-se para Copenhague, onde trabalhou com Niels Bohr.
Em 1925      desenvolveu a Mecânica      matricial, o que constituiu o primeiro desenvolvimento da Mecânica Quântica.
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 <![endif]-->  Em 1927      passou a ensinar física na Universidade      de Leipzig, onde enunciou o Princípio da Incerteza ou Princípio de Heisenberg,      segundo o qual é impossível medir simultaneamente e com precisão absoluta      a posição e a velocidade      de uma partícula, isto é, a determinação conjunta do momento      e posição de uma partícula, necessariamente, contém erros não menores que      a constante de      Planck. Esses erros são desprezíveis em âmbito macroscópico,      porém se tornam importantes para o estudo de partículas atômicas; as duas      grandezas podem ser determinadas exatamente de forma separada, quanto mais      exata for uma delas, mais incerta se torna a outra.
Em 1932,      Heisenberg recebeu o Nobel de Física      pela "criação da mecânica      quântica, cuja aplicação possibilitou, entre outras, a descoberta das formas      alotrópicas do hidrogênio".
De 1942 a 1945, dirigiu o Instituto Max Planck, Berlim. Durante a Segunda Guerra      Mundial trabalhou com Otto      Hahn, um dos descobridores da fissão nuclear,      no projeto de um reator      nuclear. Sendo o lider do programa de construção de bomba atômica dos alemães, o que motivou      inclusive Niels Bohr      a pôr fim na amizade entre eles.
Heisenberg organizou e dirigiu o Instituto de Física e Astrofísica de Göttingen.Em 1958, o      Instituto de Física e Astrofísica foi mudado para Munique, onde o cientista se concentrou      na pesquisa sobre a teoria das partículas elementares, fez descobertas      sobre a estrutura do núcleo atômico, da hidrodinâmica      das turbulências, dos raios cósmicos e do ferromagnetismo.
Participou da 5ª, 6ª e 7ª Conferência de Solvay.
Referências:http://www.google.com.br/#hl=pt-BR&amp;source=hp&amp;biw=&amp;bih=&amp;q=Werner+Heisenberg+&amp;btnG=Pesquisa+Google&amp;aq=f&amp;aqi=&amp;aql=&amp;oq=&amp;fp=1
SchrödingerErwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger (Viena-Erdberg, 12 de Agosto de 1887 — Viena, 4 de Janeiro de 1961) foi um físico teórico austríaco famoso por suas contribuições à Mecânica Quântica, especialmente a Equação de Schrödinger, pela qual recebeu o Nobel de Física em 1933. Propôs o experimento mental conhecido como o Gato de Schrödinger.Participou da 4ª, 5ª, 7ª e 8ª Conferência de Solvay.<!--[if gte mso 9]>           <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>     Normal   0         21         false   false   false      PT-BR   X-NONE   X-NONE                                                                                                     <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>  <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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 <![endif]-->  Schrödinger nasceu em 1887 em Viena, Áustria, filho de Rudolf Schrödinger (produtor de mortalhas e botânico) e Georgine Emilia Brenda (filha de Alexander Bauer, professor de Química na Universidade de Tecnologia de Viena).Sua mãe era metade austríaca e metade inglesa. O lado inglês de sua família veio de Leamington Spa. Schrödinger aprendeu inglês e alemão quase ao mesmo tempo, devido ao fato de que ambos eram falados na sua família. Seu pai era católico e sua mãe, luterana.Em 1898, frequentou o Ginásio Akademisches em Viena. Entre 1906 e 1910 Schrödinger estudou em Viena, aluno de Franz Serafin Exner (1849 - 1926) e Friedrich Hasenöhrl (1874 - 1915). Também realizou trabalhos experimentais com Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Kohlrausch.[2] Em 1911, Schrödinger tornou-se assistente de Exner. Em uma idade precoce, foi fortemente influenciado por Schopenhauer.[3] Como resultado de sua leitura extensiva das obras de Schopenhauer, tornou-se profundamente interessado por toda a sua vida na teoria da cor, filosofia,[4] percepção e religião oriental, principalmente a hindu Vedanta.Em 1914, Erwin Schrödinger obteve a habilitação (venia legendi, equivalente ao doutorado). Entre 1914 e 1918 participou dos trabalhos da guerra como um funcionário comissionado na artilharia em fortalezas austríacas (Gorizia, Duino, Sistiana, Prosecco, Viena). Em 6 de abril de 1920, casou-se com Annemarie Bertel. No mesmo ano, tornou-se assistente de Max Wien, em Jena, e em setembro de 1920 alcançou a posição da Ausserordentlicher Professor, aproximadamente o equivalente a professor adjunto, em Stuttgart. Em 1921, tornou-se Ordentlicher Professor, ou seja, professor titular, na Universidade de Breslau (atual Wrocław, Polônia).Em 1921, transferiu-se para a Universidade de Zurique. Em janeiro de 1926, Schrödinger publicou no Annalen der Physik o trabalho "Quantisierung als Eigenwertproblem" (Quantização como um Problema de Autovalor) em mecânica de ondas e que hoje é conhecido como a equação de Schrödinger. Neste trabalho ele deu uma "derivação" da equação de onda para sistemas independentes de tempo, e mostrou que fornecia autovalores de energia corretos para o átomo hidrogenoide. Este trabalho tem sido universalmente considerado como uma das conquistas mais importantes do século XX, criando uma revolução na mecânica quântica, e na verdade em toda a física e a química. Um segundo documento foi apresentado apenas quatro semanas depois e que resolveu o oscilador harmônico quântico, o rotor rígido e a molécula diatômica, e dá uma nova derivação da equação de Schrödinger. Um terceiro documento em maio mostrou a equivalência da sua abordagem à de Heisenberg e deu o tratamento do efeito Stark. Um quarto trabalho de sua série mais marcante mostrou como tratar os problemas nos quais o sistema muda com o tempo, como nos problemas de dispersão. Estes trabalhos foram os principais de sua carreira e foram imediatamente reconhecidos como tendo grande importância pela comunidade cientifica.&nbsp;<!--[if gte mso 9]>           <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>     Normal   0         21         false   false   false      PT-BR   X-NONE   X-NONE                                                                                                     <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]>  <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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 <![endif]-->  Em 1932, o cientista James Chadwick, descobriu o nêutron. Os pesquisadores continuavam pesquisando e descobrindo no átomo novas partículas subatômicas.James Chadwick (Cheshire, 20 de Outubro de 1891 — Cambridge, 24 de Julho de 1974) foi um físico britânico, colaborador de Ernest Rutherford.Seu principal contributo para a ciência foi a prova da existência do nêutron. Por esta descoberta, foi-lhe atribuído o Nobel de Física em 1935.Chadwick tornou-se professor de Física na universidade de Liverpool em 1935 e, durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, integrou o Projeto Manhattan nos Estados Unidos, desenvolvendo as bombas atômicas lançadas sobre Hiroshima e Nagasaki.Ingressou na Manchester University em 1908 para estudar Física e aí colaborou com Ernest Rutherford no estudo da emissão de raios gama. Em 1913, foi para Universidade Técnica de Berlim, onde trabalhou com o físico alemão Hans Geiger, inventor do contador de radiação com o mesmo nome. Após a guerra, regressou ao Reino Unido e tornou-se professor do Gonville and Caius College, onde retomou as suas investigações no campo da campo da radioactividade. No Laboratório Cavendish, em Cambridge, colaborou com Rutherford (que tinha observado experimentalmente a primeira reacção nuclear em 1919) e com ele produziu a desintegração artificial de diversos elementos, utilizando o bombardeamento com partículas alfa.A principal contribuição de James Chadwick para o desenvolvimento da física ocorreu em 1932, data em que descobriu a partícula do núcleo atômico, que passou a ser conhecida por nêutron, devido ao fato de não ter carga elétrica. Pela sua descoberta, divulgada à comunidade científica na obra "Possible Existence of Neutron", obteve em 1935 o Nobel de Física.Foi também professor de física em Liverpool (1935-1948) e diretor do Gonville and Caius College (1948-1958), na segunda guerra mundial esteve ligado ao projecto da bomba atômica, tendo sido conselheiro científico de Robert Oppenheimer, o diretor do Projeto Manhattan (projeto que levou à construção da bomba atómica) no Laboratório de Los Alamos, EUA.As suas descobertas foram aceitas unanimemente na comunidade física da época e garantiram-lhe a atribuição de diversos prémios, honras e condecorações, entre os quais o Nobel de Física em 1935. Foi membro da Royal Society, Académie Royale de Belgique, Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Pontificia Academia Scientiarum, do Franklin Institute; da American Philosophical Society e da American Physical Society. Como reconhecimento da importância dos seus trabalhos, foi-lhe atribuído o grau de Doutor Honoris Causa nas Universidades de Dublin, Leeds, Oxford, Birmingham, Montreal (McGill), Liverpool e Edinburgh.Referências:http://www.google.com.br/#hl=pt-BR&amp;source=hp&amp;biw=&amp;bih=&amp;q=James+Chadwick&amp;btnG=Pesquisa+Google&amp;aq=f&amp;aqi=&amp;aql=&amp;oq=&amp;fp=1
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   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>      <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>      <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>   <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
   UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>         <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> 
 /* Style Definitions */
 table.MsoNormalTable
 {mso-style-name:"Tabela normal";
 mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
 mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
 mso-style-noshow:yes;
 mso-style-priority:99;
 mso-style-qformat:yes;
 mso-style-parent:"";
 mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
 mso-para-margin-top:0cm;
 mso-para-margin-right:0cm;
 mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt;
 mso-para-margin-left:0cm;
 line-height:115%;
 mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
 font-size:11.0pt;
 font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif";
 mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;
 mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
 mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
 mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast;
 mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;
 mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;}
 <![endif]-->