Reposição de conteúdos - 3. A questão étnico - cultural
Autor: Rafael Fernandes | Publicado: 2015-07-20T07:26:00-07:00

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Reposição de conteúdos - 3. A questão étnico-cultural



&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Com
base nas noções de zonas ou focos de tensão, estudaremos os principais
conflitos étnico-culturais e religiosos em andamento ou que tiveram intensa
repercussão mundial, principalmente nas últimas décadas. É um conteúdo
enfatizado pela mídia nacional e internacional, relacionado às questões
políticas mundiais e cujo envolvimento e compreensão são fundamentais.

&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; A
Geografia Política constitui-se num dos ramos mais fecundos da ciência
geográfica e não deve ser confundida com a Geopolítica, pois, em síntese, o
principal objetivo da primeira é analisar a dinâmica dos processos políticos no
espaço, enquanto a segunda relaciona-se mais diretamente com as questões
estratégicas e militares de determinado país. As zonas ou focos de tensão são
os principais elementos de análise da Geografia Política (de acordo com o geógrafo
francês Yves Lacoste) e podem ser definidos como espaços geográficos em que
ocorrem, de forma aguda, conflitos de interesse entre duas ou mais unidades
políticas – países – ou entre grupos humanos organizados nacional ou
internacionalmente.

&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Observem
o mapa “Principais conflitos, final do século XX” logo abaixo:










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Quando fazemos uma análise sobre
determinado foco de tensão, não devemos perder de vista, ao menos, cinco
cuidados fundamentais:

- identificação das partes
envolvidas no conflito;

- estudo da posição geográfica da
área, pois, não raras vezes, a localização estratégica de uma área constitui um
dos elementos-chave do foco;

- estudo das relações de poder
entre as partes envolvidas no conflito, tendo por base as noções de “centro” e
“periferia”, onde uma das partes (Estado ou grupo humano) possui maior poder
político, econômico, financeiro e militar, ou seja, condições socioeconômicas
dos “personagens” envolvidos no mesmo conflito;

- ter cuidado em relação aos
textos e às informações que são lidos, identificando a ideologia de quem fez a
análise ou descreveu os acontecimentos relacionados ao foco de tensão estudado
(por exemplo, as interpretações que são veiculadas pela mídia, pois existem
diversas versões sobre um mesmo foco de tensão, como as notícias sobre a Guerra
e ocupação anglo-americana contra o Iraque, em 2003: as notícias veiculadas
pela CNN, rede televisiva dos Estados Unidos eram contraditórias as notícias
veiculadas pela Al Jazira, rede de televisão árabe);

- identificação dos interesses e
das forças envolvidos, considerando que um foco pode ter uma ou várias causas
essenciais – diretas e indiretas.

&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; No
início da década de 1990, com a desmontagem da velha ordem mundial baseada na
bipolarização, chegou-se a pensar que o mundo entraria em um período de paz e
solidariedade entre os povos. Apenas nos seis primeiros anos, após a Guerra
Fria (1947-1989), as chamadas Forças de Paz da ONU (que dispõem de instruções
estritas para lançar fogo somente como último recurso) realizaram mais
operações militares em áreas do mundo onde ocorriam conflitos do que nos 40
anos anteriores. Em função dessa realidade e de outros aspectos, a nova ordem
mundial durante os anos 1990 também ficou conhecida como “(des)ordem mundial”.

&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Isso
ocorreu após o término da Guerra Fria e concomitantemente com o fim do
denominado conflito Leste-Oeste, período a partir do qual os conflitos, em sua
grande maioria, deixaram de ter a conotação ideológica (capitalismo x
socialismo) do passado, e passaram a ser influenciados, mais intensamente, por
questões separatistas, religiosas e étnicas. Vamos abordar alguns pontos
principais a respeito dos conflitos regionais e a questão das identidades
socioculturais (étnicas, tribais e religiosas) no espaço mundial e as principais
áreas de ocorrência dos conflitos no mundo. 








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Oriente Médio: a questão palestina

Palestina
é o nome dado, desde a Antigüidade, à região localizada ao sul do Líbano e a
nordeste da Península do Sinai, entre o Mar Mediterrâneo e o vale do Rio
Jordão. Para entender, é como se fosse um bairro, uma região sem identificação
no mapa mundi, por não ser um país. A Palestina foi conquistada pelos hebreus
ou israelitas (mais tarde também conhecidos como judeus) por volta de 1200
a.C., depois que aquele povo se retirou do Egito, onde vivera por alguns
séculos. Mas as sucessivas dominações estrangeiras deram início a um
progressivo processo de diáspora (dispersão) da população judaica, embora sua
grande maioria ainda permanecesse na Palestina. Nas duas rebeliões dos judeus
contra o domínio romano (em 66-70 e 133-135 d.C.), o resultado foi desastroso:
o Templo de Jerusalém foi arrasado, do qual restou apenas o Muro das
Lamentações e os judeus foram proibidos de viver em Jerusalém, intensificando a
diáspora dos judeus. A partir de então, os israelitas espalharam-se. Em 638, a
região foi conquistada pelos árabes, no contexto da expansão do islamismo, e
passou a fazer parte do mundo árabe, embora sua situação política oscilasse ao
sabor das constantes lutas entre governos muçulmanos rivais. Finalmente, de
1517 a 1918, a Palestina foi incorporada ao imenso Império Turco. Os turcos,
embora muçulmanos, não pertencem à etnia árabe. Em 1896, o escritor austríaco,
de origem judaica, Theodor Herzl fundou o Movimento Sionista, que pregava a
criação de um Estado judeu na antiga pátria dos hebreus. Esse projeto, aprovado
em um congresso israelita reunido em Genebra, teve ampla ressonância junto à
comunidade judaica internacional e foi apoiado, sobretudo, pelo governo
britânico (apoio oficializado em 1917, em plena Primeira Guerra Mundial, pela
Declaração Balfour). No início do século XX, já existiam, na região, pequenas
comunidades israelitas vivendo em meio à população predominantemente árabe. A
partir de então, novos núcleos começaram a ser instalados, geralmente mediante
compra de terras aos árabes palestinos. Durante a Primeira Guerra Mundial, a
Turquia lutou ao lado da Alemanha e, derrotada, viu-se privada de todas as suas
possessões no mundo árabe. A Palestina passou então a ser administrada pela
Grã-Bretanha, mediante mandato concedido pela Liga das Nações. Depois de 1918,
a imigração de judeus para a Palestina ganhou impulso, o que começou a gerar
inquietação no seio da população árabe. A crescente hostilidade desta última
levou os colonos judeus a criar uma organização paramilitar (a Haganah),
voltada para a autodefesa e mais tarde, para operações de ataque contra os
árabes. Apesar do conteúdo da Declaração Balfour, favorável à criação de um
Estado judeu, a Grã-Bretanha tentou frear o movimento imigratório para não
contrariar os Estados muçulmanos do Oriente Médio, com quem mantinha
proveitosas relações econômicas; mas viu-se confrontada pela pressão mundial da
coletividade israelita e, dentro da própria Palestina, pela ação de
organizações terroristas. Após a Segunda Guerra Mundial, o fluxo de imigrantes
judeus foi grande. Em 1947, a Assembléia Geral da ONU decidiu dividir a
Palestina em dois Estados independentes: um judeu e outro palestino. Mas tanto
os palestinos como os Estados árabes vizinhos recusaram-se a acatar a partilha
proposta pela ONU. Em 14 de maio de 1948, foi proclamado o Estado de Israel,
que se viu imediatamente atacado pelo Egito, Arábia Saudita, Jordânia, Iraque,
Síria e Líbano (1ª Guerra Árabe-Israelense). Os árabes foram derrotados e
Israel passou a controlar 75% do território palestino. A partir daí, iniciou-se
o êxodo dos palestinos para os países vizinhos. Atualmente, esses refugiados
somam cerca de 3 milhões. Os 25% restantes da Palestina, correspondentes à
Faixa de Gaza e à Cisjordânia, ficaram sob ocupação respectivamente do Egito e
da Jordânia. A Cisjordânia incluía a parte oriental de Jerusalém, onde fica a
Cidade Velha, de grande importância histórica e religiosa.



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&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;  




&nbsp;&nbsp; Europa:



&nbsp; ETA 




&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Os
bascos possuem uma cultura e língua própria, ocupando uma região ao norte da
Espanha e uma parte sul do território francês, na vertente leste dos Pirineus
(cadeia montanhosa na Europa), virada para o Golfo de Biscaia, região
denominada Euskal Herria (País Basco). Fundada em 1959, a organização ETA
(Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna, que significa, na língua basca, “Pátria Basca e
Liberdade”) luta pela autodeterminação e independência do País Basco e de
Navarra, por meio de ações armadas e terrorismo, nas quais os principais alvos
são membros da guarda civil e do governo espanhol. A ETA reivindica, em
território espanhol, a região chamada Hegoalde ou País Basco do Sul, que é
constituído por Álava, Biscaia, Guipúscoa e Navarra e no território francês, a
região chamada Iparralde ou País Basco do Norte, que é constituído por Labour,
Baixa Navarra e Soule. A ETA sobreviveu na clandestinidade durante a ditadura
de Francisco Franco (1939-1975) e contou com o apoio da população e
internacional, por ser considerada uma organização anti-regime, mas foi
enfraquecendo devido ao processo de democratização em 1977. O seu lema é Bietan
jarrai, que significa “seguir nas duas”, ou seja, na luta política e
militar.









IRA

Em
1900, foi fundado o Partido Nacionalista (Sinn Fein, que significa “Nós
Mesmos”), na região sul da ilha irlandesa, com o propósito de reivindicar a
autonomia perdida para os ingleses e protestantes. No início dos 1970,
originou-se uma facção militar, o IRA – Exército Republicano Irlandês, a partir
do Sinn Fein. O IRA é um grupo paramilitar
católico e reintegralista, que pretendia a separação da Irlanda do Norte do
Reino Unido e reanexação à República da Irlanda, praticando operações de guerrilha
contra alvos ingleses e protestantes, até 28 de julho de 2005, quando aumentou
o cerco contra o terrorismo nos Estados Ocidentais (lado esquerdo do mapa
mundi) a partir do início do século XXI, aumentando as pressões políticas para
que o IRA abandonasse em definitivo suas táticas violentas. A principal razão pela qual o IRA lutava era a
igualdade religiosa, visto que 75% da população norte-irlandesa era protestante
e o pouco que restava, católica, o que fazia com que houvesse desigualdade e
preconceito entre as religiões. Como os protestantes eram maioria, decidiam
candidaturas políticas e plebiscitos, entre outros, impedindo que a vontade
católica se manifestasse.







&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Conflitos no Cáucaso (o caso da
Chechênia)

&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Dentre
os conflitos étnicos ou de nacionalidades no interior dos países da CEI
(Comunidade dos Estados Independentes, antiga URSS), o caso dos movimentos
separatistas da Tchetcheno-Inguchétia merece destaque. Trata-se de uma das
ex-repúblicas que compunham a extinta URSS (1991). A Tchetcheno-Inguchétia
reunia dois povos que lhe davam o nome, composta de população muçulmana. Era
uma república autônoma antes da desintegração da União Soviética. Ninguém opôs
maior resistência à conquista do Cáucaso pelos russos do que os tchetchenos,
numa luta de oposição que remonta a 1818, mas cujo aprofundamento ocorreu em
1991, na ocasião da conturbada implosão da União Soviética. Posteriormente à
desagregação desse país em 1991, os líderes políticos da Chechênia não
aceitaram assinar o Tratado de Adesão à Federação Russa e proclamaram sua
independência. Como o governo de Moscou não reconheceu essa iniciativa, a
partir de 1994 passou a enviar tropas militares à Chechênia, acirrando os
conflitos nessa antiga república soviética. Alguns dos interesses russos na
região da Chechênia são a expansão de seu território e controle sobre as ricas
áreas petrolíferas encontradas na região. Apesar de Moscou ter anunciado o fim
das operações militares em 2000, os atentados contra as forças militares russas
instaladas na Chechênia não cessaram.





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África:



&nbsp;Ruanda

&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Embora
em conflito desde a formação do país, o ponto alto do conflito entre as duas
principais etnias do país, a tutsi e hutu, eclodiu em 1994, com a morte do
presidente hutu Juvenal Habyariman, num acidente de avião provocado por um
míssil. Em represália, as tropas da etnia hutu (85% da população do país)
passaram a massacrar a minoria tutsi (14%) e os hutus de oposição. A Frente
Patriótica Ruandesa (FPR), formada por extremistas tutsis exilados em Uganda,
iniciou uma ofensiva que resultou no massacre de 800 mil hutus e na tomada do
poder três meses depois. O saldo total da guerra foi de 1 milhão de mortos e
2,2 milhões de refugiados hutus nos países vizinhos (ex- Zaire, Uganda, Burundi
e Tanzânia), de acordo com dados da ONU.










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&nbsp;Angola

&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Essa
longa guerra civil, nesse país, tem dois protagonistas envolvidos. De um lado,
o MPLA (Movimento pela Libertação de Angola), no poder, e a UNITA (União
Nacional pela Independência Total de Angola). Nos anos 1994-1995, um acordo de
paz interrompeu o conflito e a ONU enviou tropas de paz. Mas em virtude do
descontentamento diante do acordo, por parte da UNITA, esta se recusou a
devolver áreas sob seu controle e integrar um governo de coalizão (acordo)
nacional, o que conduziu ao reinício do conflito em 1999.








&nbsp;



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Ásia:

&nbsp;Caxemira

&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; A
Índia e o Paquistão são nações criadas a partir da desagregação do Império
Britânico das Índias, em 1947. Durante a Guerra Fria, o Paquistão inclinou-se a
favor dos EUA, enquanto a Índia buscou auxílio da ex-URSS, o que explica, em
parte, o fato de ambos disporem, atualmente, de armas atômicas. Essas armas
representam um perigo, diante de um conflito antigo entre os dois países, que
se arrasta por mais de cinqüenta anos: a questão da Caxemira. A Caxemira é uma
província do norte da Índia cujo território é composto por 90% montanhas e que
faz fronteira com a China e com o Paquistão, com cerca de 220 mil km2. A região, compartilhada pela
Índia (cerca de 100 mil km2),
Paquistão (cerca de 80 mil km2)
e China (cerca de 40 mil km2),
tem sido alvo de disputas territoriais entre esses três países desde o final da
década de 1940. A origem do conflito remonta à partilha da Índia britânica, que
deu origem, em 1947, a dois países: o Paquistão, com maioria da população
muçulmana, e a Índia, majoritariamente hindu. O marajá de Caxemira (Hari Singh)
solicitou o apoio de tropas indianas para se defender da invasão das tribos
Pathans e em retribuição, assinou o Instrumento de Acesso à União Indiana,
concordando que a região se tornasse no estado indiano de Jammu e Caxemira. A
partir de então, o Paquistão reivindica a realização de um plebiscito em razão
de 2/3 da população, de 7 milhões de habitantes, ser composta de muçulmanos. Os
indianos, por sua vez, não aceitaram realizar um plebiscito, muito embora
tenham cedido um terço do território ao Paquistão (Azad Kashmir).
Conseqüentemente, ao lado do surgimento de uma guerrilha, ocorreram vários
atentados terroristas contra a presença indiana no restante da Caxemira, como
parte de ações voltadas para sua integração futura ao Paquistão. A disputa
entre muçulmanos e hindus levou os dois países a duas outras guerras (1965 e
1971), sendo ainda hoje a principal razão para a corrida armamentista nuclear.




&nbsp;




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