My Grandmother mtDNA Haplogroup A2 Paternal Native American
Autor: ITZHAK AVRAHAM | Publicado: 2015-01-19T19:19:00-02:00



My Grandmother mtDNA Haplogroup A2 Paternal Native American




MY PATERNAL GRANDMOTHER ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS





mtDNA_A2_Alcina_Palmyra_de_jesus.jpg





MY GRANDMOTHER PATERNAL ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS







MY PATERNAN GRANDMOTHER ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS





MY PATERNAL GRANDMOTHER ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS





MY GRANDMOTHER PATERNAL ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS


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MY PATERNAL GRANDMOTHER ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS





MY GRANDMOTHER PATERNAL ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS


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MY PATERNAL GRANDMOTHER ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS





MY GRANDMOTHER PATERNAL ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS


My Grandmother mtDNA Haplogroup A2 Paternal Native American

&nbsp;mtDNA - Native American Maps




MY PATERNAL GRANDMOTHER ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS





MY PATERNAL GRANDMOTHER ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS


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MY PATERNAL GRANDMOTHER ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS





MY GRANDMOTHER PATERNAL ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS


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MY PATERNAL GRANDMOTHER ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS





MY GRANDMOTHER PATERNAL ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS


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MY PATERNAL GRANDMOTHER ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS





MY GRANDMOTHER PATERNAL ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS


Welcome toClan Aiyana




MY PATERNAL GRANDMOTHER ALCINA PALMYRA DE JESUS


In human genetics, Haplogroup A is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.A haplogroup is Believed to have Originated in Asia about 60.000 years before present. Its ancestral haplogroup was Haplogroup N.A haplogroup is found throughout modern Asia. Its A1 subgroup is found in northern and central Asia, while its subgroup A2 is found in Siberia and is one of five haplogroups Also found nospovos indigenous of the Americas, the others being B, C, D and X.The mummy "Juanita" from Peru, also called the "Ice Maiden", Has Been shown to belong to mitochondrial haplogroup A.In his famous book The Seven Daughters of Eve, Bryan Sykes named the originator of this mitochondrial haplogroup Aiyana.

North and South America are continents more recently colonized by modern humans. The migraçãomodelo the hypothesis That by the end of the last Ice Age (about 25.000 years ago) a small number of hunters and gatherers Followed the migration patterns of large animals from northern Asia to North America across the Bering Strait ice bridge. This expansion occurred Rapidly, and pushed to the warmer climates of Central and South America Due to adverse weather conditions and ice That covered most of North America, it is Likely That small scattered groups of Individuals Remained current Alaska, then moved south in the second wave , such as Climatic conditions Gradually improved.The first four letters of the alphabet are used to designate the four major Native American mtDNAhaplogrupos (A, B, C, and D), and later distinguished from Their Asian counterparts by the addition of a number (A2, B2, C1, D1) . These names refer to four founding lineages That are found in almost all North, Central and South American indigenous populations. A small number of rarer strains have recently Been Identified, but Their Contribution to the overall genetic modern Native American is Likely to Remain minimal. However, the European conquest squeezed native American population through a genetic bottleneck, Reducing Native Americans sets of genes in 1/3 to 1/25 of its size anterior.Esta dramatic change Significantly Reduced genetic variability, and changed forever Genomic groups of survivors. Attempts to reconstruct the genomic structures of most groups of the New World were met with various Difficulties Arising from Lack of this variability.Genetic analysis of Native American Populations That shows available haplogroup coalescence times range from 16.000 to 22.000 years ago, According to the hypothesis ice bridge.Native American Haplogroup affiliation and TestingAlthough an Increasing number of laboratories offering DNA tests are DNA tests for Native American Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA, it is important to note That these results are not currently Recognized as sufficient proof to become a registered Native American. Moreover, due to the fact That each of the four major mtDNA haplogroups found in different tribal groups in North America, Central and South America, the Native American DNA test will not Provide a specific tribal affiliation.Member famous Native American HaplogroupsThe Ice Maiden "Juanita" was Discovered on Mount Ampato's Peru, near Arequipa, Peru in 1995 by Johann Reinhard. "Juanita," who lived about 500 years ago, was sacrificed in a religious ceremony around the age of 14 years. Scientists have recovered the DNA of the Ice Maiden and determined That It belonged to the Native American haplogroup A2, and she was Closely related to the Panamanian Ngobe Indian tribe.ReferencesTorroni A, Schurr TG, et al. Asian Affinities and continental radiation of the four founding Native Americans. J. MtDNAs Human Genetics (1993)Torroni A, Chen YS, et al. mtDNA and Y chromosome polymorphisms in four indigenous people of southern México.Am. J. Human Genetics (1994).Bandelt HJ, C. Herrnstadt et al. Identification of Native American Founder mtDNAs Through the analysis of complete mitochondrial DNA sequences:. Some caveats Annals of Human Genetics (2003)Forster P, Harding R, Torroni A, and Bandelt HJ Origin and evolution of Native American variation mDNA:. The reavaliaçãoAm. J. Human Genetics (1996)Derenko MV, Grzybowski T, et al. Diversity of mitochondrial DNA lineages in South Siberia. Annals of Human Genetics (2003)Michael Crawford. The origins of Native Americans: Evidence from Anthropological Genetics, Cambridge University Press (1998)

http://www.genetree.com/a_and_bClan Aiyana is one of 36 groups of mtDNA (or clans) Identified so far. From August 262003, Oxford Ancestors searchable database lists 39 games for Aiyana.According to Oxford Ancestors:Aiyana... the founder of one of the four major clans who colonized North America and South East Asia about 12.000 years ago. Descendants Aiyana Fought extreme cold and ice As They crossed the Bering land bridge That joined what is now Alaska and Siberia, to reach the Great Plains of North America. From there, They spread to reach all parts of the continent and, Within just a few thousand years, all of Central America and South America as well. However, Given the data currently available, it is not possible to determine precisely where Aiyana lived or even when.The descendants of four clans - Chochmingwu, Djigonasee, Aiyana and Ina - dominate the Native Americans. In addition, about 1% of Native Americans are found to belong to the clan of Xenia, Which had its origins on the borders of Europe and Asia. The clans Chochminwu, Djigonasee Aiyana and can be found in modern inhabitants of Siberia and Alaska, but this is not the case of Ina. Their descendants are found in Central and South America, but only the far north Vancouver Island in the northwestern Pacific coast. Interestingly, this is Also the same clan that is Closely Associated with the settlement of the Polynesian islands of Southeast Asia.The natives of the Far East [Asia] are predominantly descendants of Djigonasee, but there is Considerable representation of "Native Americans" and Aiyana Ina clans, clans and six more - Fufei, Yumi, Nene, Malaxshmi, Emiko and Gaia.According GeneTree: Cultural History of mtDNA haplogroup A: The origin of Their mtDNA haplotype goes back up to 25.000 years before present, and coincides with the initial peopling of the Americas. The peopling of the Americas occurred with the passage of nomadic Siberian hunters Northeast Asia to Alaska across the Bering Strait. Currently, mtDNA and Y chromosome evidence Suggests That Early migrants to the Americas Originated in Lake Baikal / northern Mongolia. These nomads were great hunters and extremely mobile Rapidly spreading colonized the New World from Alaska to the southern tip of Argentina, in just a few thousand years. The population density Increased and Became the rare big game, these hunters Began to Diversify Their diet and fill all available ecological niches. At the team of European contact, Native Americans lived lifestyles extremely varied, with some groups, such as in Mexico, the development of complex agricultural-based societies and other groups such as the Great Basin, remaining hunter-gatherers, living in small bands furniture .Posted by ANTONIO on 02/12/2012 12:21:00 PM FLORENTIN

Welcome toClan Aiyana

In human genetics, Haplogroup A is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.A haplogroup is believed to have originated in Asia about 60,000 years before present. Its ancestral haplogroup was Haplogroup N.A haplogroup is found throughout modern Asia. Its A1 subgroup is found in northern and central Asia, while its subgroup A2 is found in Siberia and is also one of five haplogroups found nospovos indigenous of the Americas, the others being B, C, D and X.The mummy "Juanita" from Peru, also called the "Ice Maiden", has been shown to belong to mitochondrial haplogroup A.In his famous book The Seven Daughters of Eve, Bryan Sykes named the originator of this mitochondrial haplogroup Aiyana.

North and South America are continents more recently colonized by modern humans. A migraçãomodelo the hypothesis that by the end of the last Ice Age (about 25,000 years ago) a small number of hunters and gatherers followed the migration patterns of large animals from northern Asia to North America across the ice bridge Bering Strait. This expansion occurred rapidly, and pushed to the warmer climates of Central and South America Due to adverse weather conditions and ice that covered most of North America, it is likely that small groups of individuals remained scattered current Alaska, then moved south in a second wave, such as climatic conditions gradually improved.The first four letters of the alphabet are used to designate the four major Native American mtDNAhaplogrupos (A, B, C, and D), and later Asian distinguished from their counterparts by the addition of a number (A2, B2, C1 , D1). These names refer to four founding lineages that are found in almost all North, Central and South American indigenous populations. A small number of rarer strains have recently been identified, but their contribution to the overall genetic modern Native American is likely to remain minimal. However, the European conquest squeezed native American population through a genetic bottleneck, reducing Native Americans sets of genes in 1/3 to 1/25 of its size anterior.Esta dramatic change significantly reduced genetic variability, and changed forever Genomic groups of survivors. Attempts to reconstruct the genomic structures of most groups of the New World were met with various difficulties arising from this lack of variability.Genetic analysis of Native American populations shows that coalescence available haplogroup times range from 16,000 to 22,000 years ago, according to the hypothesis ice bridge.Affiliation Native American Haplogroup and TestingAlthough an increasing number of laboratories offering DNA tests are DNA tests for Native American Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA, it is important to note that these results are not currently recognized as sufficient proof to become a registered Native American. Moreover, due to the fact that each of the four major mtDNA haplogroups found in different tribal groups in North America, Central and South America, a Native American DNA test will not provide a specific tribal affiliation.Member famous Native American HaplogroupsThe Ice Maiden "Juanita" was discovered on Peru's Mount Ampato, near Arequipa, Peru in 1995 by Johann Reinhard. "Juanita," who lived about 500 years ago, was sacrificed in a religious ceremony around the age of 14 years. Scientists have recovered the DNA of the Ice Maiden and determined that it belonged to the Native American haplogroup A2, and she was closely related to the Panamanian Ngobe Indian tribe.ReferencesTorroni A, Schurr TG, et al. Asian affinities and continental radiation of the four founding Native Americans. J. MtDNAs Human Genetics (1993)Torroni A, Chen YS, et al. mtDNA and Y chromosome polymorphisms in four indigenous people of southern México.Am. J. Human Genetics (1994).Bandelt HJ, Herrnstadt C., et al. Identification of Native American Founder mtDNAs Through the analysis of complete mitochondrial DNA sequences:. Some caveats Annals of Human Genetics (2003)Forster P, Harding R, Torroni A, and Bandelt HJ Origin and evolution of Native American variation mDNA:. A reavaliaçãoAm. J. Human Genetics (1996)Derenko MV, Grzybowski T, et al. Diversity of mitochondrial DNA lineages in South Siberia. Annals of Human Genetics (2003)Michael Crawford. The origins of Native Americans: Evidence from Anthropological Genetics, Cambridge University Press (1998)

http://www.genetree.com/a_and_bClan Aiyana is one of 36 groups of mtDNA (or clans) identified so far. From August 262003, Oxford Ancestors searchable database lists 39 games for Aiyana.According to Oxford Ancestors:Aiyana... the founder of one of the four major clans who colonized North America and South East Asia about 12,000 years ago. Descendants Aiyana fought extreme cold and ice as they crossed the Bering land bridge that joined what is now Alaska and Siberia, to reach the Great Plains of North America. From there, they spread to reach all parts of the continent and, within just a few thousand years, all of Central America and South America as well. However, given the data currently available, it is not possible to determine precisely where Aiyana lived or even when.The descendants of four clans - Chochmingwu, Djigonasee, Aiyana and Ina - dominate the Native Americans. In addition, about 1% of Native Americans are found to belong to the clan of Xenia, which had its origins on the borders of Europe and Asia. The clans Chochminwu, Djigonasee and Aiyana can be found in modern inhabitants of Siberia and Alaska, but this is not the case of Ina. Their descendants are found in Central and South America, but only as far north as Vancouver Island in northwestern Pacific coast. Interestingly, this is also the same clan that is closely associated with the settlement of the Polynesian islands of Southeast Asia.The natives of the Far East [Asia] are predominantly descendants of Djigonasee, but there is considerable representation of "Native Americans" and Aiyana Ina clans, clans and six more - Fufei, Yumi, Nene, Malaxshmi, Emiko and Gaia.According GeneTree: Cultural History of mtDNA haplogroup A: The origin of their mtDNA haplotype goes back up to 25,000 years before present, and coincides with the initial peopling of the Americas. The peopling of the Americas occurred with the passage of nomadic Siberian hunters Northeast Asia to Alaska across the Bering Strait. Currently, mtDNA and Y chromosome evidence suggests that early migrants to the Americas originated in Lake Baikal / northern Mongolia. These nomads were great hunters extremely mobile and rapidly colonized the New World spreading from Alaska to the southern tip of Argentina, in just a few thousand years. As population density increased and became the rare big game, these hunters began to diversify their diet and fill all available ecological niches. At the time of European contact, Native Americans lived lifestyles extremely varied, with some groups, such as in Mexico, the development of complex agricultural-based societies and other groups such as the Great Basin, remaining hunter-gatherers, living in small bands

Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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For a non-technical introduction to genetics in general, see&nbsp;Introduction to genetics.






An&nbsp;autosomal&nbsp;genetic tree showing some neighbour-joining relationships within Amerindian peoples




Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas&nbsp;primarily focus on&nbsp;Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups&nbsp;andHuman mitochondrial DNA haplogroups.[1]&nbsp;Autosomal&nbsp;"atDNA" markers are also used, but differ from mtDNA or Y-DNA in that they overlap significantly.[2]&nbsp;The genetic pattern indicates&nbsp;Indigenous Amerindians&nbsp;experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the&nbsp;initial peopling of the Americas, and secondly with&nbsp;European colonization of the Americas.[3][4]&nbsp;The former is the determinant factor for the number of&nbsp;gene&nbsp;lineages,&nbsp;zygosity&nbsp;mutations and founding&nbsp;haplotypes&nbsp;present in today's&nbsp;Indigenous Amerindian populations.[3]

Human settlement of the&nbsp;New World&nbsp;occurred in stages from the&nbsp;Bering sea coast line, with an initial layover on&nbsp;Beringia&nbsp;for the small&nbsp;founding population.[5][6][7]&nbsp;The&nbsp;micro-satellite&nbsp;diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to&nbsp;South Americaindicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.[8]&nbsp;The&nbsp;Na-Dené,Inuit&nbsp;and&nbsp;Indigenous Alaskan&nbsp;populations exhibit&nbsp;haplogroup Q (Y-DNA); however, they are distinct from other indigenous Amerindians with various mtDNA and atDNA mutations.[9][10][11]&nbsp;This suggests that the peoples who first settled the northern extremes of&nbsp;North America&nbsp;and&nbsp;Greenland&nbsp;derived from later migrant populations than those who penetrated further south in the Americas.[12][13]&nbsp;Linguists&nbsp;and&nbsp;biologists&nbsp;have reached a similar conclusion based on analysis of&nbsp;Amerindian language groups&nbsp;and&nbsp;ABO blood group system&nbsp;distributions.[14][15][16]

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Contents

&nbsp;[hide]&nbsp;


1&nbsp;Background
2&nbsp;Y-DNA
2.1&nbsp;Haplogroup Q
2.2&nbsp;Haplogroup R1
2.3&nbsp;Haplogroup C-P39


3&nbsp;mtDNA
4&nbsp;AtDNA
5&nbsp;Overlaps between DNA types
6&nbsp;Old world genetic admixture
7&nbsp;Blood groups
8&nbsp;Genealogical testing
9&nbsp;See also
10&nbsp;References
11&nbsp;Further reading
12&nbsp;External links



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Background[edit]

Further information:&nbsp;Timeline of human evolution&nbsp;and&nbsp;Recent African origin of modern humans






A&nbsp;single-nucleotide polymorphism&nbsp;(SNP) is a change to a single nucleotide in a DNA sequence.




The Y chromosome is passed down directly from father to son; all male humans (Y chromosomes) today trace back to a single prehistoric father termed "Y chromosomal Adam" originating in Africa.[17]&nbsp;The Y chromosome spans about 60 million base pairs (the building blocks ofDNA) and represents about 2 percent of the total DNA in all&nbsp;human cells.[18]&nbsp;The original "Y chromosomal Adam"-DNA sequencing has mutated rarely over the 20,000 generations, but each time a new mutation occurs, there is a new branch in a haplogroup, resulting in a newsubclade&nbsp;(single-nucleotide polymorphism&nbsp;(SNP)).[19]

MtDNA mutations are also passed down relatively unchanged from generation to generation, so all humans share the same mtDNA-types. The logical extension of this is that all humans ultimately trace back to one woman, who is commonly referred to as&nbsp;Mitochondrial Eve.[20][21]Both females and males inherit their&nbsp;Mitochondrial DNA&nbsp;(mtDNA) only from their mother.[22]&nbsp;This line of biological inheritance, therefore, stops with each male.[23]&nbsp;Consequently, Y-DNA is more commonly used by the general public for&nbsp;tracing genetic heritage&nbsp;of a direct male line.[23][24][25]

An&nbsp;autosome&nbsp;(atDNA) is a chromosome that is not a&nbsp;sex chromosome&nbsp;– that is to say, there are an equal number of copies of the chromosome in males and females.[2]&nbsp;Autosomal DNA testing is generally used to determine the "genetic percentages" of a person's ancestry from particular continents/regions or to identify the countries and "tribes" of origin on an overall basis.&nbsp;Genetic admixture&nbsp;tests arrive at these percentages by examining (SNP), which are locations on the DNA where one nucleotide has "mutated" or "switched" to a differentnucleotide.[2]&nbsp;One way to examine the support for particular colonization routes within the American landmass is to determine if a closer relationship between&nbsp;zygosity&nbsp;and geography is observed when “effective” geographic distances are computed along these routes, rather than along shortest-distance paths.[26]

Y-DNA[edit]

For more details on individual Amerindian groups by Y-DNA, see&nbsp;Y-DNA haplogroups in Indigenous peoples of the Americas.


The&nbsp;Y chromosome consortium&nbsp;has established a system of defining&nbsp;Y-DNA haplogroups by letters A through to T, with further subdivisions using numbers and lower case letters.[27]

Haplogroup Q[edit]

For more details on this topic, see&nbsp;Haplogroup Q-M242 (Y-DNA).






Spread of Haplogroup Q in Indigenous populations.




Q-M242&nbsp;(mutational name) is the defining (SNP) of&nbsp;Haplogroup Q (Y-DNA)&nbsp;(phylogenetic name). Within the Q clade, there are 14 haplogroups marked by 17 SNPs.2009[28][29]&nbsp;In&nbsp;Eurasia&nbsp;haplogroup Q is found among indigenousSiberian populations, such as the modern&nbsp;Chukchi&nbsp;and&nbsp;Koryak&nbsp;peoples. In particular, two groups exhibit large concentrations of the Q-M242 mutation, the&nbsp;Ket&nbsp;(93.8%) and the&nbsp;Selkup&nbsp;(66.4%) peoples.[30]&nbsp;The Ket are thought to be the only survivors of&nbsp;ancient wanderers&nbsp;living in Siberia.[5]&nbsp;Their population size is very small; there are fewer than 1,500 Ket in&nbsp;Russia.2002[5]&nbsp;The Selkup have a slightly larger population size than the Ket, with approximately 4,250 individuals.[31]

Starting the&nbsp;Paleo-Indians period, a&nbsp;migration to the Americas&nbsp;across the&nbsp;Bering Strait&nbsp;(Beringia) by a small population carrying the Q-M242 mutation took place.[32]&nbsp;A member of this initial population underwent a mutation, which defines its descendant population, known by the&nbsp;Q-M3&nbsp;(SNP) mutation.[33]&nbsp;These descendants migrated all over the Americas.[28]

Haplogroup Q-M3 (Y-DNA)&nbsp;is defined by the presence of the rs3894 (M3) (SNP).[3][5][34]&nbsp;The Q-M3 mutation is roughly 15,000 years old as that is when the initial migration of Paleo-Indians into the Americas occurred.[7][35]&nbsp;Q-M3 is the predominant haplotype in the Americas, at a rate of 83% in South American populations,[36]&nbsp;50% in the Na-Dené populations, and in North American Eskimo-Aleut populations at about 46%.[30]&nbsp;With minimal back-migration of Q-M3 in Eurasia, the mutation likely evolved in east-Beringia, or more specifically the&nbsp;Seward Peninsula&nbsp;or&nbsp;western Alaskan interior. The Beringia land mass began submerging, cutting off land routes.[6][30][37]

Since the discovery of Q-M3, several&nbsp;subclades&nbsp;of M3-bearing populations have been discovered. An example is in&nbsp;South America, where some populations have a high prevalence of (SNP) M19 which defines subclade&nbsp;Q-M19.[36]&nbsp;M19 has been detected in (59%) of Amazonian&nbsp;Ticuna&nbsp;men and in (10%) of&nbsp;Wayuu&nbsp;men.[36]&nbsp;Subclade M19 appears to be unique to&nbsp;South American Indigenous peoples, arising 5,000 to 10,000 years ago.[36]&nbsp;This suggests that population isolation and perhaps even the establishment of tribal groups began soon after migration into the South American areas.[5][38]&nbsp;Other American subclades include&nbsp;Q-L54,&nbsp;Q-Z780,&nbsp;Q-MEH2,&nbsp;Q-SA01, and&nbsp;Q-M346&nbsp;lineages. In Canada, two other lineages have been found. These are&nbsp;Q-P89.1&nbsp;and&nbsp;Q-NWT01.

Haplogroup R1[edit]

For more details on this topic, see&nbsp;Haplogroup R1 (Y-DNA).






Spread of Haplogroup R in Indigenous populations.




Haplogroup R1 (Y-DNA)&nbsp;(specially&nbsp;R1b) is the second most predominant Y haplotype found among indigenous Amerindians after Q (Y-DNA).[39]&nbsp;The distribution of R1 is believed to be associated with the re-settlement of Eurasia following the&nbsp;last glacial maximum. One theory put forth is that it entered the Americas with the initial founding population.[40]&nbsp;A second theory is that it was introduced during European colonization.[39]&nbsp;R1 is very common throughout all of Eurasia except&nbsp;East Asia&nbsp;and&nbsp;Southeast Asia.&nbsp;R1 (M173)&nbsp;is found predominantly in North American groups like the&nbsp;Ojibwe&nbsp;(79%),&nbsp;Chipewyan&nbsp;(62%),&nbsp;Seminole&nbsp;(50%),&nbsp;Cherokee&nbsp;(47%),&nbsp;Dogrib&nbsp;(40%) andPapago&nbsp;(38%).[39]

Haplogroup C-P39[edit]

For more details on this topic, see&nbsp;Haplogroup C-M217 (Y-DNA).






Spread of Haplogroup C-M217 in Indigenous populations.




Haplogroup C-M217 is mainly found in indigenous Siberians,&nbsp;Mongolians&nbsp;and&nbsp;Oceanic populations. Haplogroup C-M217 is the most widespread and frequently occurring branch of the greater&nbsp;(Y-DNA) haplogroup C-M130. Haplogroup C-M217 descendant&nbsp;C-P39&nbsp;is commonly found in today's&nbsp;Na-Dené speakers, with the highest frequency found among the&nbsp;Athabaskans&nbsp;at 42%.[32]&nbsp;This distinct and isolated branch&nbsp;C-P39&nbsp;includes almost all the Haplogroup C-M217 Y-chromosomes found among all indigenous peoples of the Americas.[41]&nbsp;The Na-Dené groups are also unusual among indigenous peoples of the Americas in having a relatively high frequency of Q-M242 (25%).[30]

Some researcher feel that this may indicate that the Na-Dené migration occurred from the&nbsp;Russian Far East&nbsp;after the initial Paleo-Indian colonization, but prior to modern&nbsp;Inuit,&nbsp;Inupiat&nbsp;and&nbsp;Yupik&nbsp;expansions.[9][10][42]

mtDNA[edit]

For more details on mtDNA in general, see&nbsp;Mitochondrial DNA.

Mitochondrial Eve&nbsp;is defined as the woman who was the matrilineal&nbsp;most recent common ancestor&nbsp;for&nbsp;all living&nbsp;humans. Mitochondrial Eve is estimated to have lived between 140,000 and 200,000 years ago,[43][44]&nbsp;Mitochondrial Eve is the most recent common&nbsp;matrilineal&nbsp;ancestor, not the&nbsp;most recent common ancestor.[45][46]






Schematic illustration of maternal (mtDNA) gene-flow in and out of Beringia, from 25,000 years ago to present.




When studying&nbsp;human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups, the results indicated until recently that Indigenous Amerindian haplogroups, including&nbsp;haplogroup X, are part of a single founding east Asian population. It also indicates that the distribution of mtDNA haplogroups and the levels of sequence divergence among&nbsp;linguistically similar groups&nbsp;were the result of multiple preceding migrations from&nbsp;Bering Straits&nbsp;populations.[22][47]&nbsp;All Indigenous Amerindian mtDNA can be traced back to five haplogroups,&nbsp;A,&nbsp;B,&nbsp;C,D&nbsp;and&nbsp;X.[48]&nbsp;More specifically, indigenous Amerindian mtDNA belongs to sub-haplogroups that are unique to the Americas and not found in Asia or Europe: A2, B2, C1, D1, and X2a (with minor groups C4c, D2, D3, and D4h3).[47]&nbsp;This suggests that 95% of Indigenous Amerindian mtDNA is descended from a minimal genetic founding female population, comprising sub-haplogroups A2, B2, C1b, C1c, C1d, and D1.[48]&nbsp;The remaining 5% is composed of the X2a, D2, D3, C4, and D4h3 sub-haplogroups.[47][48]

X is one of the five mtDNA haplogroups found in Indigenous Amerindian peoples. Unlike the four main American mtDNA haplogroups (A, B, C and D), X is not at all strongly associated with east Asia.[5]&nbsp;Haplogroup X genetic sequences diverged about 20,000 to 30,000 years ago to give two sub-groups, X1 and X2. X2's subclade X2a occurs only at a frequency of about 3% for the total current indigenous population of the Americas.[5]&nbsp;However, X2a is a major mtDNA subclade in North America; among theAlgonquian peoples, it comprises up to 25% of mtDNA types.[49][50]&nbsp;It is also present in lower percentages to the west and south of this area — among the&nbsp;Sioux&nbsp;(15%), the&nbsp;Nuu-chah-nulth&nbsp;(11%–13%), the&nbsp;Navajo&nbsp;(7%), and the&nbsp;Yakama&nbsp;(5%).[51]&nbsp;Haplogroup X is more strongly present in the&nbsp;Near East, the&nbsp;Caucasus, and&nbsp;Mediterranean Europe.[51]&nbsp;The predominant theory for sub-haplogroup X2a's appearance in North America is migration along with A, B, C, and D mtDNA groups, from a source in the&nbsp;Altai Mountains&nbsp;of central Asia.[52][53][54][55]

Sequencing of the mitochondrial genome from&nbsp;Paleo-Eskimo&nbsp;remains (3,500 years old) are distinct from modern Amerindians, falling within sub-haplogroup D2a1, a group observed among today's&nbsp;Aleutian Islanders, the&nbsp;Aleut&nbsp;and&nbsp;Siberian Yupikpopulations.[56]&nbsp;This suggests that the colonizers of the far north, and subsequently Greenland, originated from later coastal populations.[56]&nbsp;Then a genetic exchange in the northern extremes introduced by the&nbsp;Thule people&nbsp;(proto-Inuit) approximately 800–1,000 years ago began.[11][57]&nbsp;These final Pre-Columbian migrants introduced haplogroups A2a and A2b to the existing Paleo-Eskimo populations of Canada and Greenland, culminating in the modern&nbsp;Inuit.[11][57]

A 2013 study in&nbsp;Nature&nbsp;reported that DNA found in the 24,000-year-old remains of a young boy from the&nbsp;archaeological Mal'ta-Buret' culture&nbsp;suggest that up to one-third of the indigenous Americans may have ancestry that can be traced back to&nbsp;western Eurasians, who may have "had a more north-easterly distribution 24,000 years ago than commonly thought"[58]&nbsp;"We estimate that 14 to 38 percent of Native American ancestry may originate through gene flow from this ancient population," the authors wrote. Professor Kelly Graf said,


"Our findings are significant at two levels. First, it shows that&nbsp;Upper Paleolithic Siberians&nbsp;came from a cosmopolitan population of&nbsp;early modern humans that spread out of Africa&nbsp;to Europe and Central and South Asia. Second, Paleoindian skeletons like&nbsp;Buhl Woman&nbsp;with phenotypic traits atypical of modern-day indigenous Americans can be explained as having a direct historical connection to Upper Paleolithic Siberia."


A route through Beringia is seen as more likely than the&nbsp;Solutrean hypothesis.[59]&nbsp;An abstract in a 2012 issue of the "American Journal of Physical Anthropology" states that "The similarities in ages and geographical distributions for C4c and the previously analyzed X2a lineage provide support to the scenario of a dual origin for Paleo-Indians. Taking into account that C4c is deeply rooted in the Asian portion of the mtDNA phylogeny and is indubitably of Asian origin, the finding that C4c and X2a are characterized by parallel genetic histories definitively dismisses the controversial hypothesis of an Atlantic glacial entry route into North America."[60]

&nbsp;

AtDNA[edit]

For more details on autosomal DNA in general, see&nbsp;Human genetic variation.






genetic groups according to&nbsp;DNA Tribes


&nbsp;&nbsp;1.&nbsp;Arctic

&nbsp;&nbsp;2.&nbsp;Salishan

&nbsp;&nbsp;3.&nbsp;Athabaskan

&nbsp;&nbsp;4. North Amerindian

&nbsp;&nbsp;5.&nbsp;Ojibwa

&nbsp;&nbsp;6.&nbsp;Mexica

&nbsp;&nbsp;7.&nbsp;Maya

&nbsp;&nbsp;8.&nbsp;Central American

&nbsp;&nbsp;9.&nbsp;Andean

&nbsp;&nbsp;10.&nbsp;Amazonian

&nbsp;&nbsp;11.&nbsp;Gran Chaco

&nbsp;&nbsp;12.&nbsp;Patagonian
&nbsp;





Genetic diversity and population structure in the American landmass is also done using&nbsp;autosomal&nbsp;(atDNA) micro-satellite markersgenotyped; sampled from North, Central, and South America and analyzed against similar data available from other&nbsp;indigenous populations&nbsp;worldwide.[26][61]&nbsp;The Amerindian populations show a lower&nbsp;genetic diversity&nbsp;than populations from other continental regions.[61]&nbsp;Observed is a decreasing genetic diversity as geographic distance from the Bering Strait occurs, as well as a decreasing genetic similarity to Siberian populations from Alaska (the genetic entry point).[26][61]

Also observed is evidence of a higher level of diversity and lower level of population structure in western South America compared to eastern South America.[26][61]&nbsp;There is a relative lack of differentiation between&nbsp;Mesoamerican&nbsp;and&nbsp;Andean&nbsp;populations, a scenario that implies that coastal routes were easier for migrating peoples (more genetic contributors) to traverse in comparison with inland routes.[26]

The over-all pattern that is emerging suggests that the Americas were colonized by a small number of individuals (effective size of about 70), which grew by a factor of 10 over 800 – 1000 years.[5][62]&nbsp;The data also shows that there have been genetic exchanges between Asia, the Arctic, and Greenland since the initial peopling of the Americas.[62][63]

In 2014, the autosomal DNA of a 12,500+-year-old infant from Montana was sequenced.[64]&nbsp;The DNA was taken from a skeleton referred to as Anzick-1, found in close association with several Clovis artifacts. Comparisons showed strong affinities with DNA from Siberian sites, and virtually ruled out any close affinity with European sources (the so-called "Solutrean hypothesis"). The DNA also showed strong affinities with all existing Native American populations, which indicated that all of them derive from an ancient population that lived in or near Siberia, the Upper Palaeolithic&nbsp;Mal'ta&nbsp;population.[65]

Overlaps between DNA types[edit]

Further information:&nbsp;Population genetics&nbsp;and&nbsp;Y-DNA haplogroups in Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Populations that have a specific combination of autosome, Y and MT-haplogroup mutations can generally be found with regional variations. Autosomes, Y mutations and mt mutations do not necessarily occur at a similar time and there are differential rates of sexual selection between the two sex chromosomes.[66]&nbsp;This combined with&nbsp;population bottlenecks, the&nbsp;founder effect,&nbsp;mitochondrial mutations&nbsp;and&nbsp;genetic drift&nbsp;will alter the genetic composition of isolated populations, resulting in very distinguishable mutation patterns.[67]&nbsp;(i.e.&nbsp;Taínos,[68]&nbsp;Fuegians,[69]&nbsp;Inuit,[70]&nbsp;Yupik[71]&nbsp;and&nbsp;Algonquian[5])

The rough overlaps between Y-DNA and mtDNA between the Americas,&nbsp;Circumpolar north, and Siberian indigenous populations are:

Y-DNA haplogroup(s) -mtDNA haplogroup(s) -Geographical area(s)
Q-M242,&nbsp;R1,&nbsp;C-M217A,&nbsp;X,&nbsp;Y,&nbsp;C,&nbsp;D(M&nbsp;types), (N&nbsp;types)Russian far east,&nbsp;Americas,&nbsp;Arctic


Old world genetic admixture[edit]

For more details on genetic admixture in the Americas, see&nbsp;Miscegenation § Genetic studies of racial admixture.

See also:&nbsp;Multiracial American






"Las castas"&nbsp;- Painting containing complete set of 16casta&nbsp;combinations. An 18th century socio-racial classification system used in the Spanish American colonies.




Interracial marriage&nbsp;and interracial&nbsp;sex&nbsp;and, more generally, the process of&nbsp;racial admixture, has its origins in prehistory. Racial mixing became widespread during European&nbsp;colonialism&nbsp;in the&nbsp;Age of Discovery.[72]&nbsp;Genetic exchange between two populations reduces the&nbsp;genetic distancebetween the populations and is measurable in&nbsp;DNA&nbsp;patterns.[66]&nbsp;During the Age of Discovery, beginning in the late 1400s, European explorers sailed the oceans, eventually reaching all the major continents.[73]&nbsp;During this time Europeans contacted many populations, some of which had been relatively isolated for&nbsp;millennia.[74]&nbsp;The genetic demographic composition of the Eastern Hemisphere has not changed significantly since the age of discovery. However, genetic demographics in the Western Hemisphere were radically altered by events following the voyages ofChristopher Columbus.[74]&nbsp;The&nbsp;European colonization of the Americas&nbsp;brought contact between peoples of Europe,&nbsp;Africa&nbsp;and Asia and the Amerindian populations. As a result, the Americas today have significant and complex&nbsp;multiracial&nbsp;populations.[74]&nbsp;Many individuals who self-identify as one race exhibit genetic evidence of a&nbsp;multiracial ancestry.[75]

The European conquest of&nbsp;Latin America&nbsp;beginning in the late 15th century, was initially executed by male soldiers and sailors from the&nbsp;Iberian Peninsula&nbsp;(Spain&nbsp;and&nbsp;Portugal).[76]&nbsp;The new soldier-settlers fathered children with Amerindian women and later with&nbsp;African slaves.[77]&nbsp;Thesemixed-race&nbsp;children were generally identified by the&nbsp;Spanish colonist&nbsp;and&nbsp;Portuguese colonist&nbsp;as&nbsp;"Castas".[78]&nbsp;The subsequent&nbsp;North American fur trade&nbsp;during the 16th century brought many more European men, from&nbsp;France,&nbsp;Ireland, and&nbsp;Great Britain, who took North Amerindian women as wives.[79]&nbsp;Their children became known as&nbsp;"Métis"&nbsp;or&nbsp;"Bois-Brûlés"&nbsp;by the&nbsp;French colonists&nbsp;and&nbsp;"mixed-bloods",&nbsp;"half-breeds"&nbsp;or&nbsp;"country-born"&nbsp;by the&nbsp;English colonists&nbsp;and&nbsp;Scottish colonists.[80]&nbsp;From the second half of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, new waves of immigrants from northern, eastern and southern Europe went to the Americas and consequently altered the&nbsp;demographics.[81]&nbsp;Following&nbsp;World War II&nbsp;and subsequent worldwide migrations, the current&nbsp;American populations' genetic admixture can be traced to all corners of the world.[5][82]

Blood groups[edit]






Frequency of O group in indigenous populations. Note the predominance of this group in Indigenous Americans.




Further information:&nbsp;ABO blood group system

Prior to the 1952 confirmation of DNA as the hereditary material by&nbsp;Alfred Hershey&nbsp;and&nbsp;Martha Chase, scientists usedblood proteins&nbsp;to study human genetic variation.[83][84]&nbsp;The&nbsp;ABO blood group system&nbsp;is widely credited to have been discovered by the Austrian&nbsp;Karl Landsteiner, who found three different blood types in 1900.[85]&nbsp;Blood groups are inherited from both parents. The ABO blood type is controlled by a single&nbsp;gene&nbsp;(the&nbsp;ABO gene) with three&nbsp;alleles:&nbsp;i,IA, and&nbsp;IB.[86]

Research by&nbsp;Ludwik and Hanka Herschfeld&nbsp;during&nbsp;World War I&nbsp;found that the frequencies of&nbsp;blood groups&nbsp;A,B and O differed greatly from region to region.[84]&nbsp;The "O" blood type (usually resulting from the absence of both A and B alleles) is very common around the world, with a rate of 63% in all human populations.[87]&nbsp;Type "O" is the primary blood type among the indigenous populations of the Americas, in-particular within Central and South America populations, with a frequency of nearly 100%.[87]&nbsp;In indigenous North American populations the frequency of type "A" ranges from 16% to 82%.[87]&nbsp;This suggests again that the initial Amerindians evolved from an isolated population with a minimal number of individuals.[88][89]
Distribution of ABO blood typesin various modern Indigenous Amerindian populationsTest results as of 2008[90]
PEOPLE GROUPO (%)A (%)B (%)AB (%)

Blackfoot&nbsp;(N. Am. Indian)178201
Bororo&nbsp;(Brazil)100000
Eskimos&nbsp;(Alaska)3844135
Inuit&nbsp;(Eastern Canada &amp; Greenland)5436238
Hawaiians376121
Indigenous North Americans (as a whole&nbsp;Native Nations/First Nations)791641
Maya&nbsp;(modern)98111
Navajo732700
Peru100000


&nbsp;

Genealogical testing[edit]

Main article:&nbsp;Genealogical DNA test

A genealogical DNA test examines the&nbsp;nucleotides&nbsp;at specific locations on a person's&nbsp;DNA&nbsp;for&nbsp;genetic genealogy&nbsp;purposes.[91]&nbsp;The test results are not meant to have any medical value; they are intended only to give genealogical information. Genealogical DNA tests generally involve comparing the results of living individuals to historic populations.[91]&nbsp;The general procedure for taking a genealogical DNA test involves taking a painless cheek-scraping (also known as a buccal swab) at home and mailing the sample to a genetic genealogy laboratory for testing. Genetic testing results showing specific sub-Haplogroups of&nbsp;Q,&nbsp;R1&nbsp;and&nbsp;C3b&nbsp;implies that the individuals ancestry is, in whole or in-part, indigenous to the Americas.[92]&nbsp;If one's mtDNA belonged to specific sub-Haplogroups of,&nbsp;A,&nbsp;B,&nbsp;C,&nbsp;D&nbsp;or&nbsp;X2a, the implication would be that the individual's ancestry is, in whole or part, indigenous to the Americas.[93]

See also[edit]


Archaeology of the Americas
Archaeogenetics
Ancient DNA
Clovis Culture
Early human migrations
Haplogroups of historical and famous figures
Race and genetics
Y-chromosome haplogroups by populations


Archaeogenetics of the Near East
Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia
Genetic history of Africa
Genetic history of Europe
Genetic history of Italy
Genetic history of North Africa
Genetic history of the British Isles
Genetic history of the Iberian Peninsula



Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal
Molecular Anthropology portal
Evolutionary biology portal
Indigenous peoples of North America portal
Aboriginal peoples in Canada portal







.

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Postado por&nbsp;ANTONIO FLORENTINO&nbsp;às&nbsp;12/02/2012 12:21:00 PM